FACULTAD DE INGENIERÍA

Unidad 1
Energía y la Primera ley de la
termodinámica

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 Chapter 1
Getting Started:
Introductory Concepts and Definitions

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 Introducción y conceptos fundamentales

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Defining Systems
►System: whatever we want to study.
►Surroundings: everything external to the system.
►Boundary: distinguishes system from its
surroundings.

Boundary

System Surroundings
Closed System
►A system that always contains the
same matter.
►No transfer of mass across its
boundary can occur.
►Isolated system: special type of
closed system that does not interact
in any way with its surroundings.
Control Volume
►A given region of space through which mass flows.
►Mass may cross the boundary of a control volume.
Macroscopic and Microscopic Views
►Systems can be described from the macroscopic and microscopic points of
view.
►The microscopic approach aims to characterize by statistical means the
average behavior of the particles making up a system and use this information
to describe the overall behavior of the system.
►The macroscopic approach describes system behavior in terms of the gross
effects of the particles making up the system – specifically, effects that can be
measured by instruments such a pressure gages and thermometers.
►Engineering thermodynamics predominately uses the macroscopic
approach.
Property
►A macroscopic characteristic of a system to which a
numerical value can be assigned at a given time
without knowledge of the previous behavior of the
system.
►For the system shown, examples include:
►Mass
►Volume
►Energy Gas
►Pressure
►Temperature
State
►The condition of a system as described by its properties.
►Example: The state of the system shown is described by p, V,
T,….
►The state often can be specified by providing the values of a
subset of its properties. All other properties can be determined
in terms of these few.

State: p, V, T, …

Gas
Process
►A transformation from one state to another.
►When any of the properties of a system changes, the state
changes, and the system is said to have undergone a process.
►Example: Since V2 > V1, at least one property value
changed, and the gas has undergone a process from State 1 to
State 2.

State 1: p1, V1, T1, … State 2: p2, V2, T2, …

Gas Gas
 Extensive Property
►Depends on the size or extent of a system.
►Examples: mass, volume, energy.
►Its value for an overall system is the sum of its values for the
parts into which the system is divided.

►Its value may vary with time but not position.

Intensive Property
►Independent of the size or extent of a system.
►Examples: pressure, temperature.
►Its value is not additive as for extensive properties.
►May vary from place to place within the system at any
moment – function of both position and time.
Equilibrium
►When a system is isolated, it does not interact with its
surroundings; however, its state can change as a consequence of
spontaneous events occurring internally as its intensive
properties such as temperature and pressure tend toward
uniform values. When all such changes cease, the system is at an
equilibrium state.
►Equilibrium states and processes from one equilibrium state to
another equilibrium state play important roles in thermodynamic
analysis.
Units
►A unit is any specified amount of a quantity by
comparison with which any other quantity of the same
kind is measured (e.g., meter, kilometers, feet, and miles
are all units of length).
►Two systems of units:
►SI (Système International d’Unités)
►English Engineering units.
 Units

In these unit systems, mass, length, and time are base units and force
has a unit derived from them using,
F = ma (Eq. 1.1)
SI: 1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2) = 1 kg∙m/s2 (Eq. 1.2)
English:
1 lbf = (1 lb)(32.1740 ft/s2) = 32.1740 lb∙ft/s2 (Eq. 1.5)
Density (r) and Specific Volume (v)
►From a macroscopic perspective, description of matter
is simplified by considering it to be distributed
continuously throughout a region.
►When substances are treated as continua, it is possible
to speak of their intensive thermodynamic properties “at a
point.”
►At any instant the density (r ) at a point is defined as

m
r  lim   (Eq. 1.6)
V V '  V 

where V ' is the smallest volume for which a definite value of the
ratio exists.
Density (r) and Specific Volume (v)
►Density is mass per unit volume.
►Density is an intensive property that may vary
from point to point.
►SI units are (kg/m3).
►English units are (lb/ft3).
Density (r) and Specific Volume (v)
►Specific volume is the reciprocal of density: v =
1/r .
►Specific volume is volume per unit mass.
►Specific volume is an intensive property that may
vary from point to point.
►SI units are (m3/kg).
►English units are (ft3/lb).
Specific volume is usually preferred for thermodynamic
analysis when working with gases that typically have small
density values.
Pressure (p)
►Consider a small area A passing through a point in a fluid at
rest.
►The fluid on one side of the area exerts a compressive force
that is normal to the area, Fnormal. An equal but oppositely
directed force is exerted on the area by the fluid on the other
side.
►The pressure (p) at the specified point is defined as the limit

F 
p  lim  normal  (Eq. 1.10)
A A '  A 

where A' is the area at the “point” in the same limiting sense as used in the
definition of density.
Pressure Units
►SI unit of pressure is the pascal:
1 pascal = 1 N/m2
►Multiples of the pascal are frequently used:
►1 kPa = 103 N/m2
►1 bar = 105 N/m2
►1 MPa = 106 N/m2
►English units for pressure are:
►pounds force per square foot, lbf/ft2
►pounds force per square inch, lbf/in.2
Absolute Pressure
►Absolute pressure: Pressure with respect to the zero
pressure of a complete vacuum.
►Absolute pressure must be used in thermodynamic
relations.
►Pressure-measuring devices often indicate the
difference between the absolute pressure of a system and the
absolute pressure of the atmosphere outside the measuring
device.
Gage and Vacuum Pressure
►When system pressure is greater than
atmospheric pressure, the term gage pressure is
used.
p(gage) = p(absolute) – patm(absolute)
(Eq. 1.14)

►When atmospheric pressure is greater than

system pressure, the term vacuum pressure is
used.
p(vacuum) = patm(absolute) – p(absolute)
(Eq. 1.15)
Temperature (T)
►If two blocks (one warmer than the other) are brought into
contact and isolated from their surroundings, they would
interact thermally with changes in observable properties.
►When all changes in observable properties cease, the two
blocks are in thermal equilibrium.
►Temperature is a physical property that determines whether
the two objects are in thermal equilibrium.
Thermometers
►Any object with at least one measurable property that
changes as its temperature changes can be used as a
thermometer.
►Such a property is called a thermometric property.
►The substance that exhibits changes in the thermometric
property is known as a thermometric substance.
 Thermometers
►Example: Liquid-in-glass thermometer
►Consists of glass capillary tube connected to a bulb filled with liquid
and sealed at the other end. Space above liquid is occupied by vapor of
liquid or an inert gas.
►As temperature increases, liquid expands in volume and rises in the
capillary. The length (L) of the liquid in the capillary depends on the
temperature.
►The liquid is the thermometric substance.
►L is the thermometric property.
►Other types of thermometers:
►Thermocouples
►Thermistors
►Radiation thermometers and optical pyrometers
 Temperature Scales
►Kelvin scale: An absolute thermodynamic temperature scale whose
unit of temperature is the kelvin (K); an SI base unit for temperature.
►Rankine scale: An absolute thermodynamic temperature scale with
absolute zero that coincides with the absolute zero of the Kelvin scale; an
English base unit for temperature.

T(oR) = 1.8T(K) (Eq. 1.16)

►Celsius scale (oC):
T(oC) = T(K) – 273.15 (Eq. 1.17)
►Fahrenheit scale (oF):
T(oF) = T(oR) – 459.67 (Eq. 1.18)
Design
 Engineering design is a decision-making process that draws
principles from engineering and fields
 Fundamental elements include establishment of objectives,
synthesis, analysis, construction, testing, and
evaluation.
 Designs are typically subject to constraints including
economics, safety, and environmental impact.
Problem-Solving Methodology
►Known: Read the problem, think about it, and identify what
is known.
►Find: State what is to be determined.
►Schematic and Given Data: Draw a sketch of system and
label with all relevant information/data.
►Engineering Model: List all simplifying assumptions and
idealizations made.
►Analysis: Reduce appropriate governing equations and
relationships to forms that will produce the desired results.
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