RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

A. Functions

1. Exchange of gases in the body

- collects gaseous waste material (CO2) for excretion

- supplies O2 needed for cellular respiration

2. Air Filtration

3. Regulates blood pH

4. Olfaction

5. Production of Sound

6. Excretion

B. Functional Anatomy

1. Nose

- the external organ of the respiratory system that allows entry & exit of gases

a) External Nares / Nostrils

- two openings of the nose where gas enters & exits

b) Nasal Cavity

- the interior structure of the nose

- where air is filtered, moistened & warmed before going into the lungs

c) Nasal Septum

- separates the nasal cavity at midline

d) Mucosal Lining

- made up of mucus glands that mucuos to moisture & trap foreign objects

- made up of ciliated cells that creates a slow current that causes infected mucuos to be delivered to the pharynx

i. Olfactory Cells

- lines the mucosa of the superior parts of the nasal cavity just below the ethmoid bone

- for sense of smell

ii. Respiratory Mucosa

- lines the rest of the nasal cavity

- rich with networks of thin-walled veins that warms the air that enters the nasal cavity

 Epistasis - nose-bleeding
 e) Conchae

- projections / lobes of the nasal cavity

- increase surface area of the nasal cavity

- increase air turbulence

- also lined with mucosa to trap foreign debris (dust, microbes, etc.)

i. Superior Concha

ii. Middle Concha

iii. Inferior Concha

f) Palate

- separate the nasal cavity from the oral cavity

i. Hard Palate - located anteriorly; supported by a bone

ii. Soft Palate - unsupported posterior part of the palate

 Cleft Palate (Hare lip) - a condition wherein the bones forming the palate did not fuse medially

g) Paranasal Sinuses

- cavities in the bones surrounding the nasal cavity

- lightens the skull

- serves as resonable chamber for speech

- also produces mucus

i. Frontal Sinus

ii. Sphenoid Sinus

 Rhinitis - inflammation of the nasal cavity

 Sinusitis - inflammation of the sinuses

 Sinus headache - when the sinuses are blocked & the air inside them is absorbed, this creates a vacuum force that cause
the headache

2. Pharynx (Throat)

- a muscular passageway about 13 cm (5 in) that resembles a funnel

- common passageway for both food & air

a) Divisions of Pharynx

i. Nasopharynx
 ii. Oropharynx

iii. Laryngopharynx

 Air from Nose

Nasal Cavity --> Nasopharynx --> Oropharynx --> Laryngopharynx --> Lungs

 Food from mouth

Oral Cavity --> Oropharynx --> Laryngopharynx --> Esophagus

b) Tonsils

- clusters of lingual tissue that serves as the bodies of line of defense against pathogens in the oral & nasal cavity

i. Pharyngeal Tonsils (Adenoids) - located in the nasopharynx

ii. Palatine Tonsils - located at the oropharynx

iii. Lingual Tonsils- at the base of the tongue

 Tonsilitis - inflammation of the tonsils

 Tonsilectomy - surgical removal of the tonsils

3. Larynx (Voicebox)

a) Functions

- air passageway

- production of sound

- connects the laryngopharynx to the trachea

b) Location

- midline of the neck

- inferior to the pharynx

- posterior to the esophagus

- on the level of the 4th - 6th cervical vertebrae

c) Parts of the Larynx

i. Thyroid Cartilage

- “Adam’s Apple”

- supports & protects the vocal cords

- helps in the production of sounds

 ii. Cricoid Cartilage

- ring-like cartilage

- where muscles, other cartilages & ligaments that plays important role in the generation of speech are attached

iii. Epiglottis

- a leaf-shaped elastic tissue that covers the opening of the larynx

- closes during swallowing

iv. Vocal Cords

- folds in the mucus membrane of the larynx that vibrates with expelled air

- the vibration causes sounds to be produced

v. Glottis

- slit-like passageway, between the vocal folds

4. Trachea (Windpipe)

- 10 -12 cm (~4 inches) in length

- air passageway that delivers air to the bronchi

- supported by C-shaped cartilages

* Carina

5. Primary Bronchi

- 1st branching from the trachea

- One (1) bronchi for each lung

6. Lungs - a sac like organ that functions for gas exchange & partial storage of gases

a) Pleural Membrane - protects the lungs from mechanical damage

i. Pulmonary / Visceral Pleura - lines the surface of the lungs

ii. Parietal Pleura - lines the surface of the thoracic cavity

iii. Pleural Fluid - lubricates the space in between the 2 pleural membrane

b) Bronchi

i. Secondary Bronchi - 1 for each of the lobes of the lungs

 ii. Tertiary Bronchi

c) Bronchioles - smaller branches of the bronchi

i. Terminal Bronchioles - where the alveoli are attached

d) Alveolar Sac - aggregates of the alveoli at the tip of the terminal bronchiole

e) Alveoli - site of gas exchange

*Tracheostomy - an operation to cut a hole in the trachea to ensure the airway is unblocked

C. Physiology of Respiration

* Respiration - to supply oxygen & dispose carbon dioxide

a) Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing)

- air moves into & out of the lungs to continously change & refreshed air in the alveoli

b) External Respiration

- gas exchange between alveoli & blood

c) Respiratory Gas Transport

- air (gases) are transported from the lungs to the different parts of the body

d) Internal Respiration

- gas exchange between blood & cells of body tissues

D. Mechanism of Breathing

a) Inspiration

- inhalation

- intake / uptake of gases

- inspiratory muscles contract causing the thoracic cavity to expand

i. Diaphragm

- a dome-shaped muscle between the abdominal & thoracic cavity

- during inspiration, it contracts, moves downward & flatten

ii. Intercostal Muscles

- muscles in between th ribs

- contracts, lifts the ribs & thrusts the sternum forward

 * Intrapulmonary Volume

- lung volume

- ↑IPV, ↓IPP,

IPP < Atmospheric Pressure

Therefore, air moves in

b) Expiration

- exhalation

- movement of air outside the body

- depends on natural elasticity of the lungs rather than muscle contraction

- muscles relax causing thoracic cavity to return to its normal size

* ↓IPV, ↑IPP

IPP > Atmospheric Pressure

Therefore, Air moves out

Except:

a. Asthma - spasm of bronchioles

b. Pneumonia - lung inflammation

c. Chronin Bronchitis - excessive mucus production

d. Emphysema - enlargement of bronchioles & alveoli

E. Non-respiratory Air Movements

a) Coughing d) Laughing

b) Sneezing e) Hiccup

c) Crying

F. Respiratory Volumes & Capacities

a) Tidal Volume (TV)

- normal respiratory volume (500 mL)

i. Deadspace Volume - never reaches alveoli

ii. Functional Volume - reaches alveoli

b) Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

- volume of air that can be forcibly inspired (2,100 - 3,200 mL)

c) Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

- volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled (1,200 mL)

 d) Reserve Volume (RV)

- remaining volume of air in the lungs after forceful exhalation (1,200 mL)

- important to keep the alveoli always open or inflated

e) Vital Capacity (VC) or Vital Lung Capacity (VLC)

- the total volume of exchangeable air (4,800 mL)

- TV + IRV + ERV

f) Total Lung Capacity

- VC + RV (6,000 mL)

G. Respiratory Sounds

a) Bronchial Sounds

- produced as air rushes through the large air passageways (trachea & bronchi)

b) Vesicular Sounds

- occurs as air fill, the alveoli

c) Abnormal Respiratory Sounds

- could be due to respiratory diseases, mucus &/ pus production / formation

i. Rales - a rasping sound

ii. Wheezing - a whistling sound

H. Control of Respiration

a) Neural Regulation

 ↑ CO2, ↓ O2 (stimuli)

 Breathing Control Centers are activated (Medulla & Pons)

 Signals Respiratory Muscles to contract

* Phrenic Nerve - signals diaphragm to contract

* Intercostal Nerve - signals intercostal muscles to contract

 Inhalation occurs

 Alveoli stratch as they are filled w/ air

 Stretch receptor detect over inflation of alveoli & bronchioles

 Medulla & pons are signalled by the stretch receptors to end inspiration

 Exhalation / Expiration
 b) Factors affecting Respiration

i. Physical Factors

- ↑ body temperature, exercise, lauging, crying, speech, singing

ii. Volition (Conscious Control)

- breathing can be controlled if it will not interfere w/ homeostasis

iii. Emotional Factors

- anger, fear, excitement

iv. Chemical Factors

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)- general term for respiratory diseases

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - gag reflex

Digestion (breakdown)
2. Pharynx
- mechanical (physical)
- passageway of the food from the mouth to the
- chemical
esophagus

a) Oropharynx
Absorption (uptake)
b) Laryngopharynx

I. Functional Anatomy c) Tonsils

A. Alimentary Canal / Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT) - first line of defense against microbes from food

1. Mouth - mass of lymphoide tissue

- ingestion  Tonsils lymphocytes > Thymus (in thoracic cavity) >

heart & lung
- tasting (gustation)
 Inflammation
- mechanical digestion
 Cancer cells > lymphatic > faster spreding of cancer
- speech cells

a) Lips  Bolus - masticated food

> keep the food inside the mouth
b) Cheeks  Chyme - bolus + digestive juices

c) Tongue
3. Esophagus
- mixing the propulsion
- for deglutition (swallow)
-gustation
- for peristalsis, involuntary muscular contractions that
i. Papillae
propels food downwards, less than 1 second
- contains the tastebuds

ii. Frenulum  Heart Burn - digestive disorder

- attaches the tongue to the base of the oral - backflow of gastric juices
cavity
- esophagus (not for acids)
d) Uvulva
 - cardiac sphincter are forced to open 6. Large Intestine (colon)

- hyperacidicty of the stomach - absorption of fluids used during the process of

digestion

4. Stomach
a) Cecum
- temporary storage of chyme
- receives undigested food from ileum
- partial digestion of food (proteins)
* Appendix

a) Cardioesophageal sphincter (Cardiac Sphincter) b) Ascending colon

* Lower Esophageal Sphincter c) Descending Colon

- prevents the backflow of food from the d) Transverse colon

stomach to the esophagus
e) Sigmoid Colon

f) Rectum

- temporary storage of feces before excretion

g) Anus

i. Inner anal sphincter

b) Cardia
- involuntary
c) Fundus major divisions of the stomach
ii. Outer Anal Sphincter
d) Pylorus
- voluntary
e) Pyloric Sphincter

- prevents backflow of food from the duodenum II. Accessory Organs

back to the pulorus
1. Teeth (dentition) - mastication

a) Molar - grinding
5. Small Intestines
b) Canine - tearing
- digestion (final)
c) Incisor - cutting
- absortion of nutrients

2. Salivary Gland
a) Duodenum
- saliva (salivary amylase) production
- receives secretions from the bile & pancreas through
the common bile duct - lubrication
- where final digestion takes place - partial digestion of starch
b) Jejunum a) Parotid Gland
- absorption of nutrients b) Submaxillary / Submandibular
- longest region of small intestine c) Sublingual
c) Ileum 3. Liver - bile production w/c emulsify fats
- absorbs the remaining nutrients not absorbed by 4. Gallbladder - storage of bile
jejunum
5. Pancreas
 Ileoceccal Value
- production of pancreatic enzymes
- prevents backflow of undigested food materials from
cecum back to the ileum
MAJOR ENZYMES of the D.S.

1. Salivary Amylase - Carbs

2. Repsin (stomach) - proteins

3. Lipase - lipids

4. Trypsin & Chymotrypsin - proteins

5. Bile - emulsification of fats

II. PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION

1. Ingestion

2. Propulsion

3. Breakdown of Food

- occur mechanically & chemical

4. Absorption

5. Excretion