Lecture 2: Sensor characteristics

g Transducers, sensors and measurements

g Calibration, interfering and modifying inputs
g Static sensor characteristics
g Dynamic sensor characteristics

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Transducers: sensors and actuators
g Transducer
n A device that converts a signal from one physical form to a
corresponding signal having a different physical form
g Physical form: mechanical, thermal, magnetic, electric, optical, chemical…
n Transducers are ENERGY CONVERTERS or MODIFIERS
g Sensor
n A device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus
g This is a broader concept that includes the extension of our perception
capabilities to acquire information about physical quantities
g Transducers: sensors and actuators
n Sensor: an input transducer (i.e., a microphone)
n Actuator: an output transducer (i.e., a loudspeaker)
Input Output
signal signal
Sensor Processor Actuator
(measurand) (measurand)
Input Output
transducer transducer

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Measurements
g A simple instrument model
Physical
measurement Signal
variable variable Display Measurement
Measurand Sensor
X S M

PHYSICAL
PROCESS

n A observable variable X is obtained from the measurand

g X is related to the measurand in some KNOWN way (i.e., measuring mass)
n The sensor generates a signal variable that can be manipulated:
g Processed, transmitted or displayed
n In the example above the signal is passed to a display, where a
measurement can be taken
g Measurement
n The process of comparing an unknown quantity with a standard of the
same quantity (measuring length) or standards of two or more related
quantities (measuring velocity)
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Calibration
g The relationship between the physical measurement variable
(X) and the signal variable (S)
n A sensor or instrument is calibrated by applying a number of KNOWN
physical inputs and recording the response of the system

Signal output (Y)

Physical input (X)

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Additional inputs
g Interfering inputs (Y)
n Those that the sensor to respond as the linear superposition with the
measurand variable X
g Linear superposition assumption: S(aX+bY)=aS(X)+bS(Y)
Modifying
input Z

Physical variable X Signal

variable
Measurand Interfering input Y
Sensor
S

Signal output (Y)

Z=Z1

g Modifying inputs (Z)

Z=Z2

n Those that change the behavior of the

sensor and, hence, the calibration curve
g Temperature is a typical modifying input
Physical input (X)

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Sensor characteristics [PAW91, Web99]
g Static characteristics
n The properties of the system after all transient effects have settled to
their final or steady state
g Accuracy
g Discrimination
g Precision
g Errors
g Drift
g Sensitivity
g Linearity
g Hystheresis (backslash)
g Dynamic characteristics
n The properties of the system transient response to an input
g Zero order systems
g First order systems
g Second order systems

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Accuracy, discrimination and precision
g Accuracy is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give
RESULTS close to the TRUE VALUE of the measured quantity
n Accuracy is related to the bias of a set of measurements
n (IN)Accuracy is measured by the absolute and relative errors
ABSOLUTE ERROR = RESULT - TRUE VALUE
ABSOLUTE ERROR
RELATIVE ERROR =
TRUE VALUE

g More on errors in a later slide

g Discrimination is the minimal change of the input necessary to
produce a detectable change at the output
n Discrimination is also known as RESOLUTION
n When the increment is from zero, it is called THRESHOLD

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Precision
g The capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same
reading when repetitively measuring the same quantity under
the same prescribed conditions
n Precision implies agreement between successive readings, NOT
closeness to the true value
g Precision is related to the variance of a set of measurements
n Precision is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy
g Two terms closely related to precision
n Repeatability
g The precision of a set of measurements taken over a short time interval
n Reproducibility
g The precision of a set of measurements BUT
n taken over a long time interval or
n Performed by different operators or
n with different instruments or
n in different laboratories

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Example
g Shooting darts
n Discrimination
g The size of the hole produced by a dart
n Which shooter is more accurate?
n Which shooter is more precise?

mean

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Accuracy and errors
g Systematic errors
n Result from a variety of factors
g Interfering or modifying variables (i.e., temperature)
g Drift (i.e., changes in chemical structure or mechanical stresses)
g The measurement process changes the measurand (i.e., loading errors)
g The transmission process changes the signal (i.e., attenuation)
g Human observers (i.e., parallax errors)
n Systematic errors can be corrected with COMPENSATION methods (i.e.,
feedback, filtering)
g Random errors
n Also called NOISE: a signal that carries no information
n True random errors (white noise) follow a Gaussian distribution
n Sources of randomness:
g Repeatability of the measurand itself (i.e., height of a rough surface)
g Environmental noise (i.e., background noise picked by a microphone)
g Transmission noise (i.e., 60Hz hum)
n Signal to noise ratio (SNR) should be >>1
g With knowledge of the signal characteristics it may be possible to interpret a signal with
a low SNR (i.e., understanding speech in a loud environment)

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Example: systematic and random errors

Systematic Random
error error
(Bias) (Precision)

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More static characteristics
g Input range
n The maximum and minimum value of the physical variable that can be measured
(i.e., -40F/100F in a thermometer)
n Output range can be defined similarly
g Sensitivity
n The slope of the calibration curve y=f(x)
g An ideal sensor will have a large and constant sensitivity
n Sensitivity-related errors: saturation and “dead-bands”
g Linearity
n The closeness of the calibration curve to a specified straight line (i.e., theoretical
behavior, least-squares fit)
g Monotonicity
n A monotonic curve is one in which the dependent variable always increases or
decreases as the independent variable increases
g Hystheresis
n The difference between two output values that correspond to the same input
depending on the trajectory followed by the sensor (i.e., magnetization in
ferromagnetic materials)
g Backslash: hystheresis caused by looseness in a mechanical joint

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Dynamic characteristics
g The sensor response to a variable input is different from that
exhibited when the input signals are constant (the latter is
described by the static characteristics)
g The reason for dynamic characteristics is the presence of
energy-storing elements
n Inertial: masses, inductances
n Capacitances: electrical, thermal
g Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the
response of the sensor to a family of variable input waveforms:
n Impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal, white noise…

1
A
Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude

Amplitude
Amplitude

1/A time time time time time

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Dynamic models
g The dynamic response of the sensor is (typically) assumed to
be linear
n Therefore, it can be modeled by a constant-coefficient linear differential
equation
dk y(t) d2 y(t) dy(t)
ak k
+L a 2 2
+ a1 + a0 y(t) = x(t)
dt dt dt
n In practice, these models are confined to zero, first and second order.
Higher order models are rarely applied
g These dynamic models are typically analyzed with the Laplace
transform, which converts the differential equation into a
polynomial expression
n Think of the Laplace domain as an extension of the Fourier transform
g Fourier analysis is restricted to sinusoidal signals
n x(t) = sin(ωt) = e-jωt
g Laplace analysis can also handle exponential behavior
n x(t) = e-σtsin(ωt) = e-(σ +jω)t

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The Laplace Transform (review)
g The Laplace transform of a time signal y(t) is denoted by
n L[y(t)] = Y(s)
g The s variable is a complex number s=σ+jω
n The real component σ defines the real exponential behavior
n The imaginary component defines the frequency of oscillatory behavior
g The fundamental relationship is the one that concerns the
transformation of differentiation
d 
L  y(t) = sY(s) - f (0 )
 dt 
g Other useful relationships are

Impulse : L[ W] = 1 L[exp(at )] = (s - a )
-1
Decay :

Step : L[u(t)] =
1 Sine : L[sin( W )] =
s s2 + 2

L[cos( W )] = 2
s
L[r(t)] = 2
1 Cosine :
Ramp :
s s + 2

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The Laplace Transform (review)
g Applying the Laplace transform to the sensor model yields
 dk y d2 y dy 
L ak k + L a 2 2 + a1 + ao y(t) = x(t)
 dt dt dt 
⇓
(a s k
k
)
+ L a 2s2 + a1s + a o Y(s) = X(s)
⇓
Y(s) 1
G(s) = =
X(s) ak sk + L a 2s2 + a1s + ao
n G(s) is called the transfer function of the sensor
g The position of the poles of G(s) -zeros of the denominator- in
the s-plane determines the dynamic behavior of the sensor
such as
n Oscillating components
n Exponential decays
n Instability

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Pole location and dynamic behavior

jω jω
+jω1 e − 1t sin( t)
1
-σ1
-σ2 σ e− 2t
e− 1t
t
-σ1 σ t
-jω1

jω jω
+jω2 sin( 2 t)
+jω1
σ1 σ t +jω1 σ t
+jω2 sin( t)
1

jω jω
+ 1t
e +jω1

-σ1 σ t +σ1 σ t
-jω1
e + 1t sin( 1 t)

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Zero-order sensors
g Input and output are related by an equation of the type
Y(s)
y(t) = k ⋅ x(t) ⇒ =k
X(s)
n Zero-order is the desirable response of a sensor
g No delays
g Infinite bandwidth
g The sensor only changes the amplitude of the input signal
n Zero-order systems do not include energy-storing elements
n Example of a zero-order sensor
g A potentiometer used to measure linear and rotary displacements
n This model would not work for fast-varying displacements

X
VCC
Y

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First-order sensors
g Inputs and outputs related by a first-order differential equation
dy Y(s) 1 k
a1 + a 0 y(t) = x(t) ⇒ = =
dt X(s) a1s + a0 τ s + 1
n First-order sensors have one element that stores energy and one that
dissipates it
n Step response
g y(t) = Ak(1-e-t/τ)
n A is the amplitude of the step
n k (=1/a0) is the static gain, which determines the static response
n τ (=a1/a0) is the time constant, which determines the dynamic response
n Ramp response
g y(t) = Akt - Akτu(t) + Akτe-t/τ
n Frequency response
g Better described by the amplitude and phase shift plots

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First-order sensor response
g Step response g Frequency response
n Corner frequency ωc=1/τ
n Bandwidth

From [PAW91]

g Ramp response

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Example of a first-order sensor
g A mercury thermometer immersed into a fluid
n What type of input was applied to the sensor? θF
n Parameters
g C: thermal capacitance of the mercury
g R: thermal resistance of the glass to heat transfer
R
g θF: temperature of the fluid θF θ
g θ(t): temperature of the thermometer
n The equivalent circuit is an RC network C
g Derivation
n Heat flow through the glass ( F − W)/R
d W − W
n Temperature of the thermometer rises as = F
dt RC
n Taking the Laplace transform

(s) − V
s V =
F
⇒ (RCs + 1) V = F (s) ⇒
RC
⇒ V = F (s)
(RCs + 1)
(
⇒ W = F 1− e − t/RC )

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Second-order sensors
g Inputs and outputs are related by a second-order differential
equation
d2 y dy Y(s) 1
a 2 2 + a1 + a0 y(t) = x(t) ⇒ =
dt dt X(s) a 2s 2 + a1s + a0
n We can express this second-order transfer function as
2
Y(s) k
= 2 n
X(s) s + 2 n s+ 2
n

1 a1 a0
with k = , = , n =
a0 2 a0a1 a2
n Where
g k is the static gain
g ζ is known as the damping coefficient
g ωn is known as the natural frequency

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Second-order step response
g Response types
n Underdamped (ζ<1)
n Critically damped (ζ=1)
n Overdamped (ζ>1)
g Response parameters
n Rise time (tr)
n Peak overshoot (Mp)
n Time to peak (tp)
n Settling time (ts)

From [PAW91]

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Second-order response (cont)
g Ramp response g Frequency response

From [PAW91]

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Example of second-order sensors
g A thermometer covered for protection
n Adding the heat capacity and thermal resistance of the protection yields a
second-order system with two real poles (overdamped)
g Spring-mass-dampen accelerometer
n The armature suffers an acceleration
g We will assume that this acceleration is x0
orthogonal to the direction of gravity
M
n x0 is the displacement of the mass M with
K B
respect to the armature
&x&
n The equilibrium equation is: i

M(&x&i − &x&0 ) = Kx 0 + Bx& 0

⇓
[
Ms2 Xi (s) = X0 (s) K + Bs + Ms2 ]
⇓
X0 (s) M K/M
=
s 2 Xi (s) K s 2 + s(B/M) + K/M

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References
[PAW91] R. Pallas-Areny and J. G. Webster, 1991, Sensors and
Signal Conditioning, Wiley, New York
[Web99] J. G. Webster, 1999, The Measurement, Instrumentation
and Sensors Handbook, CRC/IEEE Press , Boca Raton, FL.
[Tay97] H. R. Taylor, 1997, Data Acquisition for Sensor Systems,
Chapman and Hall, London, UK.
[Fdn97] J. Fraden, 1997, Handbook of Modern Sensors. Physics,
Designs and Applications, AIP, Woodbury, NY
[BW96] J. Brignell and N. White, 1996, Intelligent Sensor Systems,
2nd Ed., IOP, Bristol, UK

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