Aircraft Control Devices and

Systems!
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331,
2016
Learning Objectives
•! Control surfaces
•! Control mechanisms
•! Powered control
•! Flight control systems
•! Fly-by-wire control
•! Nonlinear dynamics and aero/
mechanical instability
Reading:!
Flight Dynamics!
214-234!
Airplane Stability and Control!
Sections 5.1 to 5.19!
Copyright 2016 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html 1
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Review Questions!
!! Are the rates of Euler angle change orthogonal?!
!! What are the consequences of the answer to the
previous question?!
!! What are the implications of Euler’s rotation
formula?!
!! What are the characteristics of quaternions?!
!! What are the components of the airplane’s equations
of motion?!
!! What does the MATLAB script FLIGHT.m
(FLIGHTver2.m) calculate?!
!! Whys is human-powered flight so difficult?!
!! What causes aerodynamic damping?!
2
 Cessna Citation Mustang 510
Flight Control Surfaces
•! Unpowered, mechanical system for
basic pilot inputs
•! Aileron-rudder interconnect
•! Electrical yaw damper
•! Electrical/mechanical trim
•! Autopilot

Design for Control

Boeing 757

•! Elevator/stabilator: pitch control •! Leading-edge flaps/slats: High-angle

•! Rudder: yaw control lift control
•! Ailerons: roll control •! Spoilers: Roll, lift, and drag control
•! Trailing-edge flaps: low-angle lift control •! Thrust: speed/altitude control
4
 Control Surface Types!

Elevator
Pitch control
Flap in the wake of the wing
Pitch up moment associated with horizontal tail down force

Principal effect is to change the angle of attack

6
 Dassault Rafale

Canard
•! Pitch control
–! Ahead of wing downwash
–! High angle of attack
effectiveness
–! Desirable flying qualities
effect (TBD)
SAAB Gripen

Downsprings and Bobweights

•! Adjustment of
–! Stick-free pitch trim moment
–! Stick-force sensitivity to
airspeed*
•! Downspring
–! Mechanical spring with low spring
constant
–! Exerts a ~constant trailing-edge Beechcraft B-18
down moment on the elevator
•! Bobweight
–! Similar effect to that of the
downspring
–! Weight on control column that
affects feel or basic stability
–! Mechanical stability augmentation
(weight is sensitive to aircraft’s
angular rotation)
* See pp. 541-545, Section 5.5, Flight Dynamics8
 Ailerons
Roll control
When one aileron goes up, the other goes down
Average hinge moment affects stick force

Principal effect is to change the roll rate

9

Adverse Yaw of Ailerons

10
 Compensating Ailerons
•! Frise aileron
–! Asymmetric contour, with hinge line at or below lower
aerodynamic surface
–! Reduces hinge moment
•! Cross-coupling effects can be adverse or favorable,
e.g. yaw rate with roll
–! Up travel of one > down travel of other to control yaw effect

Abzug & Larrabee, 2002

11

The Jets at an Awkward Age!

Chapter 7, Airplane Stability and
Control, Abzug and Larrabee!
•! What are the principal subject and scope of the
chapter?!
•! What technical ideas are needed to understand
the chapter?!
•! During what time period did the events covered
in the chapter take place?!
•! What are the three main "takeaway" points or
conclusions from the reading?!
•! What are the three most surprising or
remarkable facts that you found in the reading?!
12
 Spoilers

•! Spoiler reduces lift, increases drag

–! Speed control
•! Hinged flap has high hinge moment
•! Differential spoilers Abzug & Larrabee, 2002
–! Roll control
North American P-61
–! Avoid twist produced by outboard
ailerons on long, slender wings
–! free trailing edge for larger high-lift
flaps
•! Plug-slot spoiler on P-61 Black
Widow: low control force 13

Business Jet Plan View

•! Ailerons insensitive at high-speed cruise
•! Differential spoilers provide more effective roll control

14
 Elevons
•! Combined pitch and roll control General Dynamics F-106
using symmetric and
asymmetric surface deflection
•! Principally used on
–! Delta-wing configurations
–! Swing-wing aircraft

Grumman F-14

15

Rudder
Rudder provides yaw control
Turn coordination
Countering adverse yaw
Crosswind correction
Countering yaw due to multi-engine loss
Princeton Avionics Research Aircraft
(Modified Ryan Navion)

Principal effect is to change sideslip angle 16

 Rudder
•! Rolling effect
•! Only control surface whose nominal
aerodynamic angle is zero
•! Possible nonlinear effect at low deflection angle
•! Insensitivity of flap-type rudder at high
supersonic speed (Bell X-2)
•! Wedge shape, all-moving rudder on North
American X-15

Bell X-2

North American X-15

17

V (Butterfly) Tail and Pitch-Yaw

Control
Beechcraft Bonanza

Fouga Magister

18
 Northrop N-9M
Yaw Control of !
Tailless Configurations
McDonnell Douglas X-36

•! Typically unstable in pitch and yaw

•! Dependent on flight control system
for stability
•! Split ailerons or differential drag
flaps produce yawing moment

Northrop Grumman B-2

19

All-Moving Control Surfaces

Shorts SB.4

•! Particularly effective at supersonic speed (Boeing

Bomarc wing tips, North American X-15 horizontal
and vertical tails, Grumman F-14 horizontal tail) Boeing
Bomarc
•! SB.4s aero-isoclinic wing
•! Sometimes used for trim only (e.g., Lockheed L-1011
horizontal tail)
•! Hinge moment variations with flight condition

Lockheed L-1011

North American X-15

Grumman F-14

20
 Trailing-Edge Flaps, !
Leading-Edge Flaps/Slats

Gulfstream III Boeing 707

21

Morphing Wings
•! Reduction of drag due to control surface
deflection
•! Aeroelastic structure
•! Distributed actuation

NASA Gulfstream III

22
 Side Force Generators on
Princeton’s Variable-Response
Research Aircraft (VRA)

23

F-15 Power-Boosted
Mechanical Linkages

24
 Critical Issues for Control
•! Effect of control surface deflections on aircraft
motions
–! Generation of control forces and moments on the aircraft
–! Rigid-body dynamics of the aircraft

! !E is an input for longitudinal motion

!!! = ( M aero + M " E" E ) I yy

25

Critical Issues for Control

Command and control of the control surfaces
Displacements, forces, and hinge moments of the
control mechanisms
Dynamics of control linkages included in model
!E is a state for mechanical dynamics

! E!! = ( H aero + H control ) ( Mechanical Inertia )

26
 Control Surface
Aerodynamics!

27

Aerodynamic and
Mechanical Moments
on Control Surfaces
•! Increasing size and speed of aircraft
leads to increased hinge moments
and cockpit control forces
•! This leads to need for mechanical or
aerodynamic reduction of hinge
moments
•! Elevator hinge moment

1 2
H elevator = C H elevator !V Sc
2
28
 Aerodynamic and Mechanical
Moments on Control Surfaces
Hinge-moment coefficient, CH
Linear model of dynamic effects

H surface = C H surface 12 !V 2 Sc or C H surface 12 !V 2 Sb

C H surface = C H!! !! + C H! ! + C H" " + C H command

C H!! : aerodynamic/mechanical damping moment

C H! : aerodynamic/mechanical spring moment
C H" : floating tendency
C H command : pilot or autopilot input
29

Angle of Attack and

Control Surface Deflection
•! Horizontal tail with
elevator control
surface

•! Horizontal tail at
positive angle of attack

•! Horizontal tail with

positive elevator
deflection

30
 Floating and Restoring
Moments on a Control Surface
•! Positive angle of attack produces negative moment on the elevator
•! With stick free, i.e., no opposing torques, elevator floats
 up due
to negative H!

•! Positive elevator deflection produces a negative (

restoring
)
moment, H!, on elevator due to aerodynamic or mechanical spring
31

Horn Balance

Elevator Horn Balance

C H ! C H" " + C H# E # E + C H pilot input

C H!
•! Stick-free case
–! Control surface free to float


C H ! C H" " + C H# E # E
•! Normally C H! E
C H! < 0 : reduces short-period stability
C H" E < 0 : required for mechanical stability

32
NACA TR-927, 1948
 Horn Balance
Fokker dr.1
•! Inertial and aerodynamic
effects
•! Control surface in front of
hinge line
–! Increasing elevator C H
improves pitch stability, to a
"

point
•! Too much horn area
–! Degrades restoring moment
–! Increases possibility of
mechanical instability
Martin B-57E
–! Increases possibility of
destabilizing coupling to short-
period mode

33

Overhang or
Leading-Edge
Balance
•! Area in front of the C H!
hinge line
•! Effect is similar to
that of horn balance
•! Varying gap and C H! E
protrusion into
airstream with
deflection angle
C H ! C H" " + C H# # + C H pilot input

NACA TR-927, 1948 34

 Trailing-Edge
Bevel Balance
C H!
•! Bevel may have
strong effect on
aerodynamic hinge
moments
•! See discussion in C H! E
Abzug and Larrabee

C H ! C H" " + C H# # + C H pilot input

35

Internally Balanced Control Surface

!! NACA Report 868

!! Control-surface fin
with flexible seal
moves within an
internal cavity in
the main surface
!! Differential
pressures reduce
control hinge
moment

C H ! C H" " + C H# # + C H pilot input

36
 Control Tabs
•! Balancing or geared tabs
–! Tab is linked to the main surface
in opposition to control motion,
reducing the hinge moment with
little change in control effect
•! Flying tabs
–! Pilot's controls affect only the
tab, whose hinge moment
moves the control surface
•! Linked tabs
–! divide pilot's input between tab
and main surface
•! Spring tabs
–! put a spring in the link to the
main surface

37

Control Mechanization!
Effects!

38
 Dynamic Model of a Control
Surface Mechanism
Stability and control derivatives
of the control mechanism

! E!! = ( H aero + H control ) ( Mechanical Inertia )

I elevator = effective inertia of surface, linkages, etc.

" ( H elevator I elevator ) " ( H elevator I elevator )
H !!E = ; H !E =
"!! "!
" ( H elevator I elevator )
H# =
"#
39

Control Mechanization Effects

•! Fabric-covered control Douglas DC-3
surfaces (e.g., DC-3, Spitfire)
subject to distortion under air
loads, changing stability and
control characteristics
•! Control cable stretching
•! Elasticity of the airframe
changes cable/pushrod Supermarine
geometry Spitfire

•! Nonlinear control effects

–! friction
–! breakout forces
–! backlash

40
Nonlinear Control Mechanism Effects
•! Friction between surfaces
•! Deadzone due to loose mechanical connection

41

Control Mechanization Effects

•! Breakout force
•! Force threshold

42
 Rudder Lock
•! Rudder deflected to stops at high
sideslip; aircraft trims at high ! Martin B-26
•! 3 necessary ingredients
–! Low directional stability at high
sideslip due to stalling of fin
–! High (positive) hinge moment-
due-to-sideslip at high sideslip
(e.g., B-26)
–! Negative rudder yawing moment
•! Problematical if rudder is Boeing 737-100
unpowered and requires high
foot-pedal force (
rudder float
 of
large WWII aircraft)
•! Solutions
–! Increase high-sideslip directional
stability by adding a dorsal fin Boeing 737-700
(e.g., B-737-100 (before),
B-737-700 (after))
–! Hydraulically powered rudder
43

Yaw Damping!

44
 Boeing B-47 Yaw Damper
Yaw rate washout to reduce opposition to steady turns (TBD)

•! Yaw rate gyro drives rudder to increase

Dutch roll damping Boeing B-47
•! Comment: The plane wouldn t need this
contraption if it had been designed right
in the first place.
•! However, mode characteristics --
especially damping -- vary greatly with
altitude, and most jet aircraft have yaw
dampers 45

B-52 Mechanical
Yaw Damper
Boeing B-52

•! Combined stable rudder tab, low-friction bearings,

small bobweight, and eddy-current damper for B-52
•! Advantages
–! Requires no power, sensors, actuators, or computers
–! May involve simple mechanical components
•! Problems
–! Misalignment, need for high precision
–! Friction and wear over time
–! Jamming, galling, and fouling
–! High sensitivity to operating conditions, design difficulty
46
 Flight Control Systems!

47

Mechanical and Augmented

Control Systems
•! Mechanical system
–! Push rods, bellcranks, cables, pulleys
•! Power boost
–! Pilot's input augmented by hydraulic servo that
lowers manual force
•! Fully powered (irreversible) system
–! No direct mechanical path from pilot to
controls
–! Mechanical linkages from cockpit controls to
servo actuators

48
 Stability Augmentation for Northrop
YB-35/49 Flying Wing Bombers
•! Northrop B-35/49 flying wing Northrop XB-35
bombers motivated
significant SAS development
•! Complications for early
systems
–! Pneumatic/hydraulic logic
–! Primitive electronic analog
computation
–! No digital computation
–! Unreliable and inaccurate
sensors and actuators
("servo-actuators")
–! Limited math models of
system components
–! Non-analytical approach to
design and implementation
•! Northrop among first to take
systematic approach to SAS Northrop YB-49
design

Advanced Control Systems

•! Artificial-feel system
–! Restores control forces to those of an
"honest" airplane
–! "q-feel" modifies force gradient
–! Variation with trim stabilizer angle
–! Bobweight responds to gravity and to
normal acceleration
•! Fly-by-wire/light system
–! Minimal mechanical runs
–! Command input and feedback signals
drive servo actuators
–! Fully powered systems
–! Move from hydraulic to electric power

50
 Next Time:!
Linearized Equations and
Modes of Motion!
Reading:!
Flight Dynamics!
234-242, 255-266, 274-297,
321-325, 329-330!

Learning Objectives

Develop linear equations to describe

small perturbational motions
Apply to aircraft dynamic equations

51

Supplementary!
Material!

52
 Instabilities Due To
Control Mechanization
•! Aileron buzz (aero-mechanical instability; P-80)
•! Rudder snaking (Dutch roll/mechanical coupling; Meteor, He-162)
•! Aeroelastic coupling (B-47, Boeing 707 yaw dampers)

53

Rudder Snaking
Douglas DC-2
•! Control-free dynamics
–! Nominally symmetric control position •! Solutions
–! Internal friction –! Trailing-edge bevel
–! Aerodynamic imbalance –! Flat-sided surfaces
•! Coupling of mechanical motion with –! Fully powered controls
Dutch roll mode

54
Roll/Spiral Limit Cycle
Due to Aileron Imbalance Lockheed P-38

•! Unstable nonlinear
oscillation grows
until it reaches a
steady state
•! This is called a
limit cycle

55

North American FJ-4

Control Surface Buzz

•! At transonic speed, normal shocks

may occur on control surface
–! With deflection, shocks move
differentially
–! Possibility of self-sustained
nonlinear oscillation (limit cycle)

•! Solutions
–! Splitter-plate rudder
fixes shock location
for small deflections
–! Blunt trailing edge
–! Fully powered
controls with
actuators at the
ARC R&M 3364
surfaces
56
 Control-Configured Vehicles
•! Command/stability augmentation
•! Lateral-directional response USAF F-15 IFCS
–! Bank without turn
–! Turn without bank
–! Yaw without lateral translation
–! Lateral translation without yaw
–! Velocity-axis roll (i.e., bank)
•! Longitudinal response
–! Pitch without heave
–! Heave without pitch
–! Normal load factor
–! Pitch-command/attitude-hold
–! Flight path angle

USAF AFTI/F-16

Princeton Variable-Response Research Aircraft

57

B-52 Control Compromises to

Minimize Required Control Power
•! Limited-authority rudder, allowed
by
–! Low maneuvering requirement
–! Reduced engine-out requirement
(1 of 8 engines)
–! Crosswind landing gear
•! Limited-authority elevator,
allowed by
–! Low maneuvering requirement
–! Movable stabilator for trim
–! Fuel pumping to shift center of
mass
•! Small manually controlled
"feeler" ailerons with spring tabs
–! Primary roll control from powered
spoilers, minimizing wing twist 58
 B-52 Rudder Control Linkages

59

The Unpowered F4D Rudder

•! Rudder not a problem under normal flight conditions
–! Single-engine, delta-wing aircraft requiring small rudder inputs
•! Not a factor for upright spin
–! Rudder was ineffectual, shielded from flow by the large delta wing
•! However, in an inverted spin
–! rudder effectiveness was high
–! floating tendency deflected rudder in a pro-spin direction
–! 300 lb of pedal force to neutralize the rudder
•! Fortunately, the test aircraft had a spin chute

60
 Powered Flight Control Systems
•! Early powered systems had a single Douglas A4D
powered channel, with mechanical
backup
–! Pilot-initiated reversion to
"conventional" manual controls
–! Flying qualities with manual control
often unacceptable
•! Reversion typically could not be
Douglas A3D
undone
–! Gearing change between control stick
and control to produce acceptable pilot
load
–! Flying qualities changed during a high-
stress event Boeing B-47
•! Hydraulic system failure was common
–! Redundancy was needed
•! Alternative to eject in military aircraft
61

Classical Lateral Control Logic for

a Fighter Aircraft (c.1970)

MIL-DTL-9490E, Flight Control Systems - Design, Installation and Test of

Piloted Aircraft, General Specification for, 22 April 2008
Superseded for new designs on same date by
SAE-AS94900 62
http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEAA6A3&docID=AS94900&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
 Boeing 767 Elevator Control System

Abzug & Larrabee, 2002 63

Boeing 777 Fly-By-Wire Control System

64
 Direct Lift and
Propulsion Control!

65

Direct-Lift Control-Approach
Power Compensation
Vought F-8
•! F-8 Crusader
–! Variable-incidence wing,
better pilot visibility
–! Flight path control at low
approach speeds
•! requires throttle use
•! could not be accomplished
Vought A-7
with pitch control alone
–! Engine response time is slow
–! Flight test of direct lift control
(DLC), using ailerons as flaps
•! Approach power
compensation for A-7 Corsair Princeton VRA
II and direct lift control studied
using Princeton’s Variable-
Response Research Aircraft

66
 Direct-Lift/Drag Control

•! Direct-lift control on S-3A

Viking
–! Implemented with spoilers
–! Rigged up  during landing
to allow ± lift.
•! Speed brakes on T-45A Lockheed S-3A
Goshawk make up for slow
spool-up time of jet engine
–! BAE Hawk's speed brake Boeing T-45

moved to sides for carrier

landing
–! Idle speed increased from
55% to 78% to allow more
effective modulation via
speed brakes

67

United Flight 232, DC-10!

Sioux City, IA, 1989
•! Uncontained engine failure damaged all three flight control
hydraulic systems (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Airlines_Flight_232)

68
 United Flight 232, DC-10!
Sioux City, IA, 1989
•! Pilot maneuvered on differential control of engines to make a runway approach
•! 101 people died
•! 185 survived

69

Propulsion Controlled Aircraft

Proposed backup attitude control in event of flight control system failure
Differential throttling of engines to produce control moments
Requires feedback control for satisfactory flying qualities

Proposed retrofit to McDonnell-Douglas

(Boeing) C-17

NASA MD-11 PCA Flight Test

NASA F-15 PCA Flight Test

70