Introduction to

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO NC MACHINE NC Machine Tools

TOOLS
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives

1.2 NC Machines
1.2.1 Types of NC Machine
1.2.2 Controlled Axes
1.2.3 Basic Components of NC Machines
1.2.4 Problems with Conventional NC

1.3 Principles of NC Machines

1.4 Summary
1.5 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
NC machines, advantages of NC machines, Types of NC systems, Controlled axes, Basic
Components of NC Machines, Problems with Conventional NC and Principles of NC
Machines are described in this Unit.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand
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1.2 NC MACHINES
Controlling a machine tool by means of prepared program, which consists of blocks, or
series of numbers, is know as numerical control (NC). In manufacturing of more
complicated parts, the system has to calculate automatically additional data points,
which is done by means of an interpolator. Numerical Control (NC) refers to the method
of controlling the manufacturing operation by means of directly inserted coded
numerical instructions into the machine tool. It is important to realize that NC is not a
machining method; rather, it is a concept of machine control. Although the most popular
applications of NC are in machining, NC can be applied to many other operations,
including welding, sheet metalworking, riveting, etc.
NC machines are method of automation, where automation of medium and small volume
production is done by some controls under the instructions of a program. Various
definitions of NC are :
A system in which actions are controlled by direct insertion of Numerical Data at some
point. The system must automatically interpret at least some portion of this data by
Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
Numerical Control is defined as a form of software controlled automation, in which the
process is controlled by alphanumeric characters or symbols.
5
CNC Machines According to these definitions, a programme is prepared which consists of blocks, blocks
consisting of combination of characters and numbers in sequence describing the position
of the tool and job, the cutting speed and feed. The data converted into coded
instructions which are called a Part Programme. As the job changes, the instructions of
part program are also changed. The other instructions which can be included may be for
tool changing or coolant on and off. It is easy to encode a new programme than to
change the machinery for flexibility, thus arising the need of an NC machine tool.

Figure 1.1 : Numerical Control (NC) Machine Tool

Advantages of NC
The major advantages of NC over conventional methods of machine control are as
follows :
Higher Precision
NC machine tools are capable of machining at very close tolerances, in
some operations as small as 0.005 mm.
Better Quality
NC systems are capable of maintaining constant working conditions for all
parts in a batch thus ensuring less spread of quality characteristics.
Higher Productivity
NC machine tools reduce drastically the non machining time. Adjusting the
machine tool for a different product is as easy as changing the computer
program and tool turret with the new set of cutting tools required for the
particular part.
Multi-operational Machining
Some NC machine tools, for example machine centers, are capable of
accomplishing a very high number of machining operations thus reducing
significantly the number of machine tools in the workshops.
Low Operator Qualification
The role of the operation of a NC machine is simply to upload the work
piece and to download the finished part. In some cases, industrial robots are
employed for material handling, thus eliminating the human operator.
Less Time
An easy adjustment of the machine, adjustment requires less time.
6
1.2.1 Types of NC System Introduction to
NC Machine Tools
Machine controls are divided into three groups:
(a) Traditional numerical control (NC);
(b) Computer numerical control (CNC);
(c) Distributed numerical control (DNC).
The original numerical control machines were referred to as NC machine tool. They
have “hardwired” control, whereby control is accomplished through the use of punched
paper (or plastic) tapes or cards. Tapes tend to wear, and become dirty, thus causing
misreading. Many other problems arise from the use of NC tapes, for example the need
to manual reload the NC tapes for each new part and the lack of program editing
abilities, which increases the lead time. The end of NC tapes was the result of two
competing developments, CNC and DNC.
CNC refers to a system that has a local computer to store all required numerical data.
While CNC was used to enhance tapes for a while, they eventually allowed the use of
other storage media, magnetic tapes and hard disks. The advantages of CNC systems
include but are not limited to the possibility to store and execute a number of large
programs (especially if a three or more dimensional machining of complex shapes is
considered), to allow editing of programs, to execute cycles of machining commands,
etc.
The development of CNC over many years, along with the development of local area
networking, has evolved in the modern concept of DNC. Distributed numerical control is
similar to CNC, except a remote computer is used to control a number of machines. An
off-site mainframe host computer holds programs for all parts to be produced in the DNC
facility. Programs are downloaded from the mainframe computer, and then the local
controller feeds instructions to the hardwired NC machine. The recent developments use
a central computer which communicates with local CNC computers (also called Direct
Numerical Control).
1.2.2 Controlled Axes
NC system can be classified on the number of directions of motion they are capable to
control simultaneously on a machine tool. Each free body has six degree of freedom,
three positive or negative translations along x, y, and z-axis, and three rotations
clockwise or counter clockwise about these axes.
Commercial NC system is capable of controlling simultaneously two, two and half,
three, four and five degrees of freedom, or axes. The NC systems which control three
linear translations (3-axis systems), or three linear translations and one rotation of the
worktable (4-axis systems) are the most common.

Figure 1.2 : Coordinate System (Milling and Drilling Operations)

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CNC Machines

Figure 1.3 : Coordinate System (Turning Operations)

Figure 1.4 : Coordinate System (Milling and Drilling Operations)

1.2.3 Basic Components of NC Machines

Software
The programmes or set of instructions, languages, punched cards, magnetic tape,
punched paper tape and other such information processing items are referred to as
software. This software controls the sequence of movement of an NC. That is why
these numerical controls are sometimes called software controlled machines by
NC lies entirely in the programming. The programmer plans the operations and
their sequence from seeing the drawing and writes instructions in tabulated blocks
of information, known as Part Programme on a programme manuscript. Then these
instructions are punched on the control tape. Tape reader reads the codes and
sends it to Machine Control Unit, which conversely converts them into the
machine movements of machine tool.
Machine Control Unit (MCU)
NC machine tool has a main unit, which is known as Machine Control Unit,
consists of some electronic hardware that reads the NC programme, interprets it
and conversely translates it for mechanical actions of the machine tool.
A typical Machine Control Unit may consist of the following units :
Input or Reader Unit
This unit consists of electro-mechanical devices used to collect the input
from punched tape, cards, magnetic tape and disk. Then drive it through the
system under a reading head, interpret the coded information and collect it
again for reuse.
8
 Memory Introduction to
NC Machine Tools
A block of information, consisting of words, is read from tape and stored
into temporary memory called buffer. One block may contain one complete
set of instruction words in sequence. The function of this memory is to keep
on storing the next block of words when the machine is doing processing of
previous block.
Processor
The function of the processor is to coordinate and control the functions of
other units, by giving ready signals to them at appropriate point of time.
Output Channels
The data stored in the memory is converted into actuation signal and
supplied through output channels in the form of pulses.
Control Panel
The control panel has the switches, indicators, Manual Data Input (MDI)
and dials for providing information to the operator.
Feedback Channels
Feedback channel is to check whether the operations are done in the way we
want to, the feedback is sent through feedback channels by position and
velocity.
The MCU may be of three types :
Housed MCU
Machine Control Unit may be mounted on the machine tool or may be built
in the casing of the machine.
Swing Around MCU
Machine Control Unit is directly mounted on the machine, which can swing
around it and can be adjusted as per requirement of the operator’s position.
Stand Alone MCU
Machine Control Unit is enclosed in a separate cabinet which is installed at
some remote or same place near to the machine.
Machine Tool
Machine tool is the main components of a numerical control system, which
executes the operations. It may consist of worktable, cutting tools, jigs and
fixtures, motors for driving spindle and coolant and lubricating system. The latest
development in the numerical control machine tool is the versatile machining
center. This is a single machine capable of doing a number of operations such as
milling, boring, drilling, reaming, and tapping by Automatic Tool Changer (ATC)
under the control of tool selection instruction.
1.2.4 Problems with Conventional NC
The problems arise in the conventional NC system are the following :
Punched Tape
It is an unreliable NC component for repeated use in the shop because of paper
tape is especially fragile and its susceptibility to wear and tear.

Figure 1.5 : Punched Tape

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CNC Machines Tape Reader
Tape reader is the least reliable hardware components of the machine while any
breakdown is occurred on an NC machine.

Figure 1.6 : Tape Reader

Controller
The hard-wired controller cannot be easily altered to incorporate improvements
into the unit.

Figure 1.7 : Controller

Management Information
The machine tool manufacturers have been continually improving NC technology
by redesigning the systems to provide timely information such as piece counts,
machine tool change, etc. to the management.
Part Programming Mistakes
When preparing the punched tape, part programming mistakes are common and to
achieve the best sequence of processing steps.
Non-optimal Speed and Feed
The control system does not provide the provision to change the speed and feed
during the cutting operation.

1.3 PRINCIPLES OF NC MACHINES

The basic elements and operation of a typical NC machine in numerical control and the
components basically involved of data input, data processing and data output. For data
input, numerical information is read and stored in the tape reader or in computer
memory. In data processing, the programs are read into machine control unit for
processing. For data output, this information is translated into commands, typically
pulsed commands to the motor. The motor moves the table on which the work piece is
placed to specified positions, through linear or rotary movements, by the motors, ball
screw, and others devices.
A NC machine can be controlled through two types of circuits, which is open loop and
10 closed loop. In the open loop system, the signals are given to the motor by the processor,
but the movements and final destinations of the worktable are not accurate. The open Introduction to
loop system cannot accurate, but it still can produce the shape that is required. The NC Machine Tools
closed loop system is equipped with various transducers, sensors, and counters that
measure the position of the table accurately. Through feedback control, the position of
the worktable is compared against the signal. Table movements terminate when the
proper coordinates are reached. For the close loop system normally servomotor is
utilized. For open loop system normally the stepper motor is utilized. The closed loop
system is more complicated and more expensive than the open loop.
There are two basic types of control systems in numerical control, point-to-point and
contouring. In point-to-point system, also called positioning, each axis of the machine is
driven separately by ball screw, depending on the type of operation, at different
velocities. The machine moves initially at maximum velocity in order to reduce
nonproductive time, but decelerates as the tool reaches its numerically defined position.
Thus in an operation such as drilling or punching, the positioning and cutting take place
sequentially. The time required in the operation is minimized for efficiency.
Point-to-point systems are used mainly in drilling, punching, and straight milling
operations.
In the contouring system, also known as the continuous path system, positioning and
cutting operations are both along controlled paths but at different velocities. Because the
tool cuts as it travels along the path, accurate control and synchronization of velocities
and movements are important. The contouring system is used on lathes, milling
machines, grinders, welding machinery and machining centers.

1.4 SUMMARY

1.5 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.

11
 Classification of
UNIT 2 CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEMS NC Systems

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives

2.2 Classification of NC Systems

2.3 Based on Feedback Control
2.4 Driving System
2.5 Feedback Devices
2.6 Classification Based on Control Systems
2.7 NC Coordinate Systems
2.8 Axis Identification
2.9 Summary
2.10 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Classification based on feedback controlling and Classification based on control system
features are described in this Unit.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand
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2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF NC MACHINES

In present era, variety, complexity of geometry, tolerances, skill of personnel and
availability of funds by considering all factors, the NC machines are designed according
to meet different requirements within the cost constraints. These machines are broadly
classified as the following :
(a) Based on feedback control, and
(b) Based on control system features.

2.3 BASED ON FEEDBACK CONTROL

In the NC machines, to control the position of a machine slide, a group of electro-
mechanical, pneumatic or hydraulic components are used which are collectively known
as Servo Mechanism. The output from the data handling equipment is passed through
separate channels to servo system, which in turn drives the machine slides. This servo
system, based on feedback control, can be approached in three ways :
Open Loop System
In an open loop system the machine slides are displaced according to the
information loaded from the part program into the control system. Hence there is 13
CNC Machines no measurement of slide position and no feedback signals for comparison with the
input signal. The correct movement of slide entirely depends upon the ability of
the drive systems to move the slide through the required exact distance. The most
common method of driving the lead screw is by a stepper motor. The stepper
motors are the simplest way for converting detail electrical signals into
proportional movement. As there is no check on the slide position, the system
accuracy depends upon the motors ability to step through the exact number of
steps provided at the input as shown in fig.

INPUT OUTPUT
SYSTEM

Figure 2.1 : Block Diagram of an Open Loop System

Closed Loop System

A closed loop system is sends back a signal to the control unit from a measuring device
called as transducer. The transducer is attached to the slide ways. The signal indicates
the actual movement and position of the slides. The control unit continues to adjust the
position of the slide until it arrives it’s destination, this system has feedback. Although
more costly and complex than open loop system, these system gives more accurate
positioning. For this type of system, servomotors are used.
INPUT OUTPUT
SYSTEM

Feed back

Figure 2.2 : Block Diagram of a Closed Loop System

2.4 DRIVING SYSTEM

The driving system is an important component of a NC machine as the accuracy and
repeatability depend very much on the characteristics and performance of the driving
system. The requirement is that the driving system has to response accurately according
to the programmed instructions. This system usually uses electric motors although
hydraulic motors are sometimes used for large machine tools. The motor is coupled
either directly or through a gear box to the machine leadscrew to moves the machine
slide or the spindle. Three types of electrical motors are commonly used.
DC Servo Motor
The force that rotates the motor armature is the result of the interaction between
two magnetic fields (the stator field and the armature field). To produce a constant
torque from the motor, these two fields must remain constant in magnitude and in
relative orientation. This is achieved by constructing the armature as a series of
small sections connected in sequence to the segments of a commutator. Electrical
connection is made to the commutator by means of two brushes. As successive
commutator segments pass the brushes, the current in the coils connected to those
segments changes direction. This commutation or switching effect results in a
current flow in the armature that occupies a fixed position in space, independent
of the armature rotation, and allows the armature to be regarded as a wound core
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 with an axis of magnetization fixed in space. This gives rise to the production of a Classification of
constant torque output from the motor shaft. The axis of magnetization is NC Systems
determined by the position of the brushes. If the motor is to have similar
characteristics in both directions of rotation, the brush axis must be positioned to
produce an axis of magnetization that is at 90° to the stator field. DC servomotors
are high performance motors and are useful as prime movers in numerically
controlled machine tools where starts and stops must be made quickly and
accurately. The lightweight and low inertia armatures of DC servomotors respond
quickly to the excitation voltage changes. Also low armature inductance in these
motors results in a low electrical time constant (typically 0.05 to 1.5 ms) that
further sharpens motor response to command signals.
Brush Less DC Servomotors
In the brush less motor, the construction of the iron-cored motor is turned inside
out, so that the rotor becomes a permanent magnet and the stator becomes a
wound iron core. The permanent magnet, located on the rotor, requires that the
flux created by the current carrying conductors in the stator rotate around the
inside of the stator in order to achieve motor action. The stator windings are
interconnected so that introducing a three-phase excitation voltage to the three-
stator windings produces a rotating magnetic field. This construction speeds heat
dissipation and reduces rotor inertia. The permanent magnet poles on the rotor are
attracted to the rotating poles of the opposite magnetic polarity in the stator
creating torque. The magnetic field in the stator rotates at a speed proportional to
the frequency of the applied voltage and the number of poles. In the brush less
motor, the flux of the current carrying winding rotates with respect to the stator;
but, like the dc motor, the current carrying flux stays in position with respect to
the field flux that rotates with the rotor. The major difference is that the brush less
motor maintains position by electrical commutation, rather than mechanical
commutation.

Figure 2.3 : Brush Less DC Servomotor

AC Servo Motors
These are basically the AC synchronous motors with built-in brush less tacho and
position encoders. The main advantage of this machine is the low rotor inertia and
high power and low weight. This makes them very attractive since they are small
in size compared to the equivalent DC servo motor.
In an AC servomotor, the rotor is a permanent magnet while the stator is equipped
with 3-phase windings. The speed of the rotor is equal to the rotational frequency
of the magnetic field of the stator, which is regulated by the frequency converter.
Stepper Motors
A stepper motor is a device that converts the electrical pulses into discrete
mechanical rotational motions of the motor shaft. A stepper motor rotates (steps)
in fixed angular increments. Step size, or step angle, is determined by the
construction of the motor and the type of drive scheme used to control it. Typical
step resolution is 1.8 degrees. However, micro-step motors are capable of
0.0144 degree steps. Micro-step motors are hybrid 200 steps per revolution motors
that are electrically controlled to produce 25000 steps per revolution.
Stepper motors are usually used in open loop control systems, though an encoder
may be used to confirm positional accuracy. There are many types of step-motor 15
CNC Machines construction. However, permanent magnet (PM) and variable reluctance (VR) are
the most common types.

Figure 2.4 : Stepper Motor

PM Step Motors
The permanent magnet step motor moves in steps when its windings are
sequentially energized. A permanent magnet rotor surrounded by a two-phase
stator. Two rotor sections (N and S) are offset by one half-tooth pitch to each
other. As energy is switched from Phase 2 to Phase 1, a set of rotor magnets will
align with phase 1, and the rotor will turn one step. If both phases are energized
simultaneously, the rotor will establish its equilibrium midway between steps.
Thus, the motor is said to be half-stepping. Stepper motors have a number of
benefits, Low cost, Ruggedness, Simplicity in construction, high reliability, No
maintenance.
There is virtually no conceivable failure within the stepper drive module that
could cause the motor to run away. Stepper motors are simple to drive and control
in an open-loop configuration. They only require four leads. They provide
excellent torque at low speeds, up to 5 times the continuous torque of a brush
motor of the same frame size or double the torque of the equivalent brush less
motor. This often eliminates the need for a gearbox. A stepper-driven system is
inherently stiff, with known limits to the dynamic position error.
In the machine tool, the rotary motion from the drive motor needs to be converted
to the linear motion. For this purpose a lead screw and nut arrangement is
normally used. The Acme thread used in conventional machine tools has more
friction and consequently the maximum feed rates are limited. In order to increase
the feed rates to higher values, it is necessary to reduce the friction between the
nut and the lead screw. Another problem with the Acme thread is the clearance
between the nut and the screw, which causes a considerable backlash. The
backlash will reduce the accuracy of the dimensions produced. Hence most of the
NC machine tools use a lead screw with a recalculating ball nut.

Figure 2.5 : Ball Screws

To reduce the backlash, the ball screws can be preloaded to eliminate the axial
displacement. One of the methods followed for pre-loading is keeping a spacer
between the two parts of the nuts such that they press against the opposite flanks
of the thread. This increases the axial rigidity of the nut while decreasing the axial
displacement. The recalculating ball screws have a number of advantages
compared to the conventional type of screws. The accuracy of the screw can be
maintained over a much longer period since the wear of the screw is relatively
16
 small. Since the friction is small, it is possible to carry heavier loads at faster Classification of
speeds. Also, the power required for driving is small due to negligible friction NC Systems
between the nut and the screw.

2.5 FEEDBACK DEVICES

The NC machine tools generally are run with a closed loop control system. For this
purpose it is necessary to provide appropriate feedback in order to achieve accurate
control of the movement of the axes. The feedbacks that are normally used are the
displacement and velocities of the individual axes in the machine tool. The typical
positional sensors used in the NC machine tools are :
(a) Encoders, and
(b) Linear scales.
The encoder is a transducer that is connected directly to the rotor or the lead screw and
hence is the simplest arrangement requiring no additional gearing. An optical rotary
encoder converts the rotary motion of the motor into a sequence of digital pulses. The
pulses counted to convert to the position measurement. The optical encoder consists of a
disc with a number of accurately etched equidistant lines or slots along the periphery.
The encoder disc is attached to the shaft of the machine whose rotary position needs to
be measured. The disc is placed between a light source and a light-measuring device.
When the disc rotates the lines are interrupted and the light-measuring device counts the
number of times the light is interrupted. By a careful counting and appropriate
calculations it is possible to know the position traversed by the shaft.

Figure 2.6 : Rotary Encoder for Angle-measuring Devices Marked in 3-bit Binary
The rotary encoder is normally mounted on the servo motor shaft or at the end of the
lead screw as shown. This allows the control to calculate the actual distance moved from
the rotary motion by using the lead of the lead screw. If the lead screw has any backlash
then that will be reflected in the position indicated by the encoder. It therefore becomes
mandatory to eliminate the backlash in the lead screw to accurately get the position of
the axis. Also this requires that the pitch of the lead screw be more accurate over its
entire length for accurate sensing of the position.
To obviate such a predicament, it will be better if the exact position reached by the slide
can be measured by means of a transducer rather than the indirect way with the encoder.
This can be done with the help of a linear scale attached directly to the slide. In this case
the positional measurement will be direct and hence any of the inaccuracies present will
not be affecting the measurement. The linear scale consists of a finely graduated grating
made of either glass or stainless steel, which is the measuring surface attached to one
part of the slide. A scanning unit is fixed to the other part. The scanning unit consists of
a light source, a glass grid with graduated windows and some photo diodes as receptors.
17
CNC Machines The basic principle employed in such measurements is that when two gratings overlap
each other, a fringe pattern is formed corresponding to the displacement. The actual
distance moved can be calculated by measuring the shift in the fringe pattern.

2.6 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CONTROL

SYSTEM
Some machine tools require that the cutting tool and work piece shall be placed at
certain positions and also be moved relative to each other. Based on the relative motion,
the NC machines can be classified as :
Point to Point Motion Control System
Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines etc, require
the cutter and the work piece to be placed at a certain fixed relative positions at
which they must remain while the cutter does its work. These machines are known
as point-to-point machines. The control equipment for use with them is known as
point-to-point control equipment. Feed rates need not to be programmed. In theses
machine tools, each axis is driven separately. In a point-to-point control system,
the dimensional information that must be given to the machine tool will be a series
of required position of the two slides. Servo systems can be used to move the
slides and no attempt is made to move the slide until the cutter has been retracted
back.

Figure 2.7 : Point-to-Point motion Control System

Straight Line Motion Control System

The NC systems, in which the tool works along a straight line in the direction of a
major coordinate axis, such as along the direction of feed during turning, boring or
milling operation at a controlled rate, are known as Straight line control system.

Figure 2.8 : Straight-line Control System

18
Contouring or Continuous Path Motion Control System Classification of
NC Systems
Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the
cutter while cutting operation is taking place. These machine tools include milling,
routing machines etc. and are known as contouring machines and the controls
required for their control are known as contouring control. Contouring machines
can also be used as point-to-point machines, but it will be uneconomical to use
them unless the work piece also requires having a contouring operation to be
performed on it. These machines require simultaneous control of axes. In
contouring machines, relative positions of the work piece and the tool should be
continuously controlled. The control system must be able to accept information
regarding velocities and positions of the machines slides. Feed rates should be
programmed.

Figure 2.9 : Contouring or Continuous Path Motion Control System

Combined Motion Control System

The above all the control systems are combined as groups. Most of the Jig boring,
horizontal boring and drilling machines employ this type of control system. This
motions controls systems are having 3 or 4 linear axes to be controlled
continuously and 2 or 3 rotary movements controlled along with the positioning
facility. This combination is used for complex contouring operations, to be carried
out on machining centers.

2.7 NC COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The distances or angles which specify the position of a point, line, circle or any other
geometrical figure with reference to a series of intersecting planes or planes and
cylinders define coordinate systems.
There are two methods of listing the coordinates of points in NC systems, which can be
used independently or in combination.
19
CNC Machines Absolute Coordinate System
In an absolute system all references are made to the origin of the coordinate
system. All commands of motion are defined by the absolute coordinate referred
to the origin.

Figure 2.10 : Absolute Coordinate System

Incremental Coordinate System

This type of control always uses as a reference to the preceding point in a
sequence of points. The disadvantage of this system is that if an error occurs, it
will be accumulated.

Figure 2.11 : Incremental Coordinate System

2.8 AXIS IDENTIFICATION

Generally,
X- Axis

(a) It should be horizontal.

(b) It is generally the longest axis of movement of work piece or tool.
(c) It should be perpendicular to Z-axis.
(d) It is always parallel to surface of the holding device.
20
Y-Axis Classification of
NC Systems
It should be perpendicular to X and Z-axes.
Z-A xis
(a) It is always parallel to the spindle.
(b) It should be perpendicular to the X and Z-axis.
The lathe, one of the most productive machine tools, has always been an efficient means
of producing round parts. Most lathes are programmed on two axes. The X-axis controls
the cross motion of the cutting tool. Negative X (X-) moves the tool towards the spindle
centerline; positive X moves the tool away from the spindle centerline. The Z-axis
controls the carriage travel toward or away from the headstock.

Figure 2.12 : Main Axes of a Lathe or Turning Center

The milling machine has always been one of the most versatile machine tools used in
industry. Operations such as milling, contouring, gear cutting, drilling, boring, and
reaming are only a few of the many operations which can be performed on a milling
machine. The milling machine can be programmed on three axes. The X-axis controls the
table movement left or right. The Y-axis controls the table movement toward or away
from the column. The Z-axis controls the vertical (up or down) movement of the knee or
spindle.

Figure 2.13 : Main Axes of a Vertical Machining Center

2.9 SUMMARY

21
CNC Machines

2.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.

22
 CNC Machine Tools
UNIT 3 CNC MACHINE TOOLS
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives

3.2 Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Machines

3.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3.2.2 Servo Control Unit
3.2.3 Operator Control Panel
3.2.4 Machine Control Panel
3.2.5 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
3.2.6 Other Peripheral Devices
3.2.7 CNC Concept
3.2.8 Hardware
3.2.9 Software
3.2.10 Information

3.3 Direct Numerical Control (DNC) Machines

3.4 Advantages of CNC Machines
3.5 Disadvantages of CNC Machines
3.6 Parts Suitable for CNC Machines
3.7 Environmental Control for CNC Machines
3.8 Summary
3.9 Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
CNC machines, DNC machines, Advantages and disadvantages of CNC machines, Parts
suitable for CNC machines and Environmental control for CNC machines are described
in this Unit.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand
 ,
 ,
 , and
 .

3.2 COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC)

MACHINES
The present day computer can be considered as a direct consequence of the progress in
the field of numerical control of machine tools. A real breakthrough was achieved
around 1965 when numerical control machines were fitted with minicomputers which
introduced the name Computer Numerical Control. The first step in the process of
implementing automation in any industry is to manufacture parts or components through
automation using machines and machine tools with little human intervention. In order to
meet the increasing demand to manufacture complicated components of high accuracy in
large quantities, sophisticated technological equipment and machinery have been 23
CNC Machines developed. Production of these components calls for machine tools which can be set up
fairly rapidly without much attention. The design and construction of Computer
Numerically Controlled (CNC) machines differs greatly from that of conventional
machine tools. This difference arises from the requirements of higher performance
levels. The CNC machines can be operated automatically using computers. A CNC is
specifically defined as “The numerical control system where a dedicated, stored program
computer is used to perform some or all of the basic numerical control functions in
accordance with control programs stored in read & write memory of the computer” by
Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
CNC is a microprocessor based control system that accepts a set of program instructions,
processes and sends output control information to a machine tool, accepts feedback
information acquired from a transducer placed on the machine tool and based on the
instructions and feedback, assures that proper motion, speed and operation occur.
Some of the important parts of CNC machines are Machine structure, guide ways, feed
drives, spindle and Spindle bearings, measuring systems, controls, software and operator
interface, gauging, tool monitoring.

Figure 3.1 : Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Machine

The information stored in the computer can be read by automatic means and converted
into electrical signals, which operate the electrically controlled servo systems.
Electrically controlled servo systems permits the slides of a machine tool to be driven
simultaneously and at the appropriate feeds and direction so that complex shapes can be
cut, often with a single operation and without the need to reorient the work piece.
Computer Numerically Control can be applied to milling machines, Lathe machines,
Grinding machines, Boring machines, Flame cutters, Drilling machines etc.
A CNC system basically consists of the following :
(a) Central processing unit (CPU)
(b) Servo control unit
(c) Operator control panel
(d) Machine control panel
(e) Programmable logic controller
(f) Other peripheral devices.
3.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is the heart of a CNC system. It accepts the information stored in the memory
as part program. This data is decoded and transformed into specific position control and
velocity signals. It also oversees the movement of the control axis or spindle and
whenever this does not match with the programmed values, a corrective action as taken.
24
All the compensation required for machine acquires (like lead screw pitch error, tool CNC Machine Tools
wear out, backlashes.) are calculated by CPU depending upon the corresponding inputs
made available to the system. The same will be taken care of during the generation of
control signals for the axis movement. Also, some basic safety checks are built into the
system through this unit and continuous necessary corrective actions will be provided by
CPU unit. Whenever the situation goes beyond control of the CPU, it takes the final
action of shutting down the system and in turn the machine.
3.2.2 Servo Control Unit
The decoded position and velocity control signals, generated by the CPU for the axis
movement forms the input to the servo control unit. This unit in turn generates suitable
signals as command values. The command values are converted by the servo drive units
which are interfaced with the axes and the spindle motors. The servo control unit
receives the position feedback signals for the actual movement of the machine tool axes
from the feedback devices (like linear scales, rotary encoders, revolvers, etc.)
3.3.3 Operator Control Panel
The Operator Control Panel provides control panel provides the user interface to
facilitate a two way communication between the user, CNC system and the machine tool.
This consists of two parts are Video display unit and Keyboard.
3.3.4 Machine Control Panel
It is the direct interface between the operator and the NC system, enabling the operation
of the machine through the CNC system. During program execution, the CNC controls
the axis the motion, spindle function or tool function on a machine tool, depending upon
the part program stored in the memory. Prior to the starting of the machining process,
machine should first be prepared with some specific takes like, establishing a correct
reference point, loading the system memory with the required part program, loading and
checking of tool offsets, zero offsets, etc.
3.3.5 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
A PLC matches the NC to the machine. PLC’s were basically as replacement for hard
wired relay control panels. They were basically introduced as replacement for hard wired
relay panels. They developed to be re-programmed without hardware changes when
requirements were altered and thus are re-usable. PLC’s are now available with
increased functions, more memory and larger input/output capabilities. In the CPU, all
the decisions are made relative to controlling a machine or a process. The CPU receives
input data, performs logical decisions based upon stored programs and drives the output
connection to a computer for hierarchical control are done through CPU.
3.3.6 Other Peripheral Devices
These include sensor interface, provision for communication equipment, programming
units, printer, tape reader interface, etc.
3.3.7 CNC Concept
A CNC system may be characterized in terms of three major elements: hardware,
software and information.

Programme
CNC Controller Actuating Devices Machine Tool

Feedback Transducer

Figure 3.2 : Computer Numerical Control (CNC) System 25

CNC Machines 3.3.8 Hardware
Hardware includes the microprocessors that effect control system functions and
peripheral devices for data communication, machine tool interfacing and machine tool
status monitoring.
3.3.9 Software
Software includes the programs that are executed by the system microprocessors and
various types of software associated with CNC.
3.3.10 Information
Information regarding the dynamic characteristics of the machine and many other
information pertaining to the process.
When any of these unreliable components fails, the diagnostics subsystem would
automatically disconnect the faulty component from the system and activate the
redundant component in place of faulty one so that newly installed component can
perform its function.

3.3 DIRECT NUMERICAL CONTROL (DNC)

MACHINES
Direct Numerical Control can be defined as a type of manufacturing system in which
several NC or CNC machines are controlled remotely from a Host/Main frame computer
or direct numerical control (DNC) – control of multiple machine tools by a single
(mainframe) computer through direct connection.

Figure 3.3 : Direct Numerical Control (DNC) Machine

A DNC is specifically defined as “A system connecting a set of numerically controlled
machines to a common memory for part program or machine program storage with
provision for on-demand distribution of data to machines” by Electronic Industries
Association (EIA). In DNC, several NC machines are directly controlled by a computer,
eliminating substantial hardware from the individual controller of each machine tool.
The part-program is downloaded to the machines directly (thus omitting the tape reader)
from the computer memory. The basic DNC system requires following basic component
are Main frame computer, Memory, Communication network, NC machine tool. The
communication network can be done either through connecting the remotely located
computer, with lengthy cables to the individual machine control directly or connecting
the main frame computer with a small computer at individual operator’s station known
as satellite computer. DNC system is expensive and is preferably used in large
organizations. The combination of DNC/CNC makes possible to eliminate the use of
programme as the input media for CNC machines. The DNC computer downloads the
program directly to the CNC computer memory. This reduces the amount of
26 communication required between the central computer and each machine tool.
3.3.1 Advantages of DNC CNC Machine Tools

(a) The computer can be remotely located, even a thousand miles away.
(b) The computer can program simultaneously many NC machines.

3.4 ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES

(a) High Repeatability and Precision, e.g. Aircraft parts.
(b) Volume of production is very high.
(c) Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined, e.g. Turbines.
(d) Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less scrap.
(e) Safer, higher productivity, better quality.
(f) Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction in lead times.
(g) Easier to program.
(h) Easy storage of existing programs.
(i) Avoids human errors.
(j) Usually generates closer tolerances than manual machines.
(k) Program editing at the machine tool.
(l) Control systems upgrades possible.
(m) Option -resident CAM system at machine tool.
(n) Tool path verification.

3.5 DISADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES

(a) Costly setup, skilled operators.
(b) Computers, programming knowledge required.
(c) Maintenance is difficult.
(d) Machines have to be installed in air conditioned places.

3.6 PARTS SUITABLE FOR CNC MACHINES

The following parts are usually made in practice on the CNC Machines :
(a) Aerospace equipments.
(b) Automobile Parts.
(c) Complex shapes.
(d) Electronic industry uses CNC e.g. Printed circuit board.
(e) Electrical industry uses CNC e.g. Coil winding.
(f) For small to medium batch quantity.
(g) Where the set-ups are very large.
(h) Where the tool storage is a problem.
(i) Where much metal needs to be removed.
(j) When the part geometry is so complex.
(k) The operations are very complex.
27
CNC Machines (l) For parts subjected to regularly design changes.
(m) When the inspection is required 100%.
(n) When lead time does not permit the conventional tooling manufacture.
(o) When the machining time is very less as compared to down.
(p) Where tool storage is a problem.
(q) Where repetitive operations are required on the work.

3.7 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL FOR CNC

MACHINES
There are various factors, which are very much important to maintain proper
environmental conditions. CNC machines are very costly and complex in design, so
great care is necessary for these machines in handling as well as up keeping. For proper
working of these machines, the following environmental conditions are to be maintained
(a) Well air circulation.
(b) Working temperature should be within control limits.
(c) Space should not be congested but should be quite open.
(d) Electrical power supply should be regulated.
(e) There should be proper disposal point for scrap.
(f) There should not be presence of noisy source near to the machine.
(g) There should not be presence of harmful chemicals near to the machine.
(h) Proper lighting to the system.
(i) The machine should be protected from the moisture.
(j) There should not be presence of vibrating source near to the machine.
(k) Power supply should be regulated.
(l) Floor should be cleaned free from oily and greased.
(m) Trained person should operate the machine.
(n) Dust free floor space and environment.
(o) Sufficient supply of coolant required during machining.

3.8 SUMMARY

28
 CNC Machine Tools
3.9 ANSWERS TO SAQs
Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.

29
 Fundamentals of
UNIT 4 FUNDAMENTALS OF PART Part Programming

PROGRAMMING
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives

4.2 Types of Part Programming

4.2.1 Manual Part Programming
4.2.2 Computer Aided Part Programming

4.3 Fundamental Elements for Developing Manual Programming

4.3.1 Type of Dimensioning System
4.3.2 Axes Designation
4.3.3 NC Words
4.3.4 Standard G and M Codes
4.3.5 Tape Programming Format
4.3.6 Machine Tool Zero Point Setting
4.3.7 Coordinate Word
4.3.8 Parameter for Circular Interpolation
4.3.9 Spindle Function
4.3.10 Feed Function
4.3.11 Tool Function
4.3.12 Work Settings and Offsets
4.3.13 Rapid Positioning
4.3.14 Linear Interpolation
4.3.15 Circular Interpolation
4.3.16 Circular Interpolation

4.4 Symbols Used

4.5 Part Program for Lathe Operation
4.6 Part Program for Machining Centres (Milling)
4.7 Fixed Cycle/Canned Cycle
4.8 Do-Loops
4.9 Subroutine
4.10 Summary
4.11 Answers to SAQs

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Types of part programming, Computer aided part programming, Part programming
manual, Part programme using sub routines, do loops and fixed cycles are described in
this Unit.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand
 ,
 ,
 , and
 . 31
CNC Machines
4.2 TYPES OF PART PROGRAMMING
The part program is a sequence of instructions, which describe the work, which has to be
done on a part, in the form required by a computer under the control of a numerical
control computer program. It is the task of preparing a program sheet from a drawing
sheet. All data is fed into the numerical control system using a standardized format.
Programming is where all the machining data are compiled and where the data are
translated into a language which can be understood by the control system of the machine
tool. The machining data is as follows :
(a) Machining sequence classification of process, tool start up point, cutting
depth, tool path, etc.
(b) Cutting conditions, spindle speed, feed rate, coolant, etc.
(c) Selection of cutting tools.
While preparing a part program, need to perform the following steps :
(a) Determine the startup procedure, which includes the extraction of
dimensional data from part drawings and data regarding surface quality
requirements on the machined component.
(b) Select the tool and determine the tool offset.
(c) Set up the zero position for the workpiece.
(d) Select the speed and rotation of the spindle.
(e) Set up the tool motions according to the profile required.
(f) Return the cutting tool to the reference point after completion of work.
(g) End the program by stopping the spindle and coolant.
The part programming contains the list of coordinate values along the X, Y and Z
directions of the entire tool path to finish the component. The program should also
contain information, such as feed and speed. Each of the necessary instructions for a
particular operation given in the part program is known as an NC word. A group of such
NC words constitutes a complete NC instruction, known as block. The commonly used
words are N, G, F, S, T, and M. The same is explained later on through examples.
Hence the methods of part programming can be of two types depending upon the two
techniques as below :
(a) Manual part programming, and
(b) Computer aided part programming.
4.2.1 Manual Part Programming
The programmer first prepares the program manuscript in a standard format.
Manuscripts are typed with a device known as flexo writer, which is also used to type
the program instructions. After the program is typed, the punched tape is prepared on the
flexo writer. Complex shaped components require tedious calculations. This type of
programming is carried out for simple machining parts produced on point-to-point
machine tool.
To be able to create a part program manually, need the following information :
(a) Knowledge about various manufacturing processes and machines.
(b) Sequence of operations to be performed for a given component.
(c) Knowledge of the selection of cutting parameters.
(d) Editing the part program according to the design changes.

32 (e) Knowledge about the codes and functions used in part programs.
4.2.2 Computer Aided Part Programming Fundamentals of
Part Programming
If the complex-shaped component requires calculations to produce the component are
done by the programming software contained in the computer. The programmer
communicates with this system through the system language, which is based on words.
There are various programming languages developed in the recent past, such as APT
(Automatically Programmed Tools), ADAPT, AUTOSPOT, COMPAT-II, 2CL,
ROMANCE, SPLIT is used for writing a computer programme, which has English like
statements. A translator known as compiler program is used to translate it in a form
acceptable to MCU.
The programmer has to do only following things :
(a) Define the work part geometry.
(b) Defining the repetition work.
(c) Specifying the operation sequence.
Over the past years, lot of effort is devoted to automate the part programme generation.
With the development of the CAD (Computer Aided Design)/CAM (Computer Aided
Manufacturing) system, interactive graphic system is integrated with the NC part
programming. Graphic based software using menu driven technique improves the user
friendliness. The part programmer can create the geometrical model in the CAM package
or directly extract the geometrical model from the CAD/CAM database. Built in tool
motion commands can assist the part programmer to calculate the tool paths
automatically. The programmer can verify the tool paths through the graphic display
using the animation function of the CAM system. It greatly enhances the speed and
accuracy in tool path generation.

Figure 4.1 : Interactive Graphic System in Computer Aided Part Programming

4.3 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS FOR

DEVELOPING MANUAL PART PROGRAMME
The programmer to consider some fundamental elements before the actual programming
steps of a part takes place. The elements to be considered are as follows :
4.3.1 Type of Dimensioning System
We determine what type of dimensioning system the machine uses, whether an absolute
or incremental dimensional system which has been explained in Unit 2. 33
CNC Machines 4.3.2 Axis Designation
The programmer also determines how many axes are availed on machine tool. Whether
machine tool has a continuous path and point-to-point control system that has been
explained in Unit 2.

4.3.3 NC Words
The NC word is a unit of information, such as a dimension or feed rate and so on. A
block is a collection of complete group of NC words representing a single NC
instruction. An end of block symbol is used to separate the blocks. NC word is where all
the machining data are compiled and where the data are translated in to a language,
which can be understood, by the control system of the machine tool.
Block of Information
NC information is generally programmed in blocks of words. Each word conforms
to the EIA standards and they are written on a horizontal line. If five complete
words are not included in each block, the machine control unit (MCU) will not
recognize the information; therefore the control unit will not be activated. It
consists of a character N followed by a three digit number raising from 0 to 999.

Figure 4.2 : A Block of Information

Using the example shown in Figure 4.2. The words are as follows :
N001 – represents the sequence number of the operation.
G01 – represents linear interpolation.
X12345 – will move the table in a positive direction along the X-axis.
Y06789 – will move the table along the Y-axis.
M03 – Spindle on CW and
; – End of block.

4.3.4 Standard G and M Codes

The most common codes used when programming NC machines tools are G-codes
(preparatory functions), and M codes (miscellaneous functions). Other codes such as F,
S, D, and T are used for machine functions such as feed, speed, cutter diameter offset,
tool number, etc. G-codes are sometimes called cycle codes because they refer to some
action occurring on the X, Y, and/or Z-axis of a machine tool. The G-codes are grouped
into categories such as Group 01, containing codes G00, G01, G02, G03, which cause
some movement of the machine table or head. Group 03 includes either absolute or
incremental programming. A G00 code rapidly positions the cutting tool while it is
above the workpiece from one point to another point on a job. During the rapid traverse
movement, either the X or Y-axis can be moved individually or both axes can be moved
at the same time. The rate of rapid travel varies from machine to machine.
34
The total numbers of these codes are 100, out of which some of important codes are Fundamentals of
given as under with their functions : Part Programming

G-Codes (Preparatory Functions)

Code Function
G00 Rapid positioning
G01 Linear interpolation
G02 Circular interpolation clockwise (CW)
G03 Circular interpolation counterclockwise (CCW)
G20 Inch input (in.)
G21 Metric input (mm)
G24 Radius programming
G28 Return to reference point
G29 Return from reference point
G32 Thread cutting
G40 Cutter compensation cancel
G41 Cutter compensation left
G42 Cutter compensation right
G43 Tool length compensation positive (+) direction
G44 Tool length compensation minus (-) direction
G49 Tool length compensation cancels
G 53 Zero offset or M/c reference
G54 Settable zero offset
G84 canned turn cycle
G90 Absolute programming
G91 Incremental programming
Note : On some machines and controls, some may be differ.
M-Codes (Miscellaneous Functions)
M or miscellaneous codes are used to either turn ON or OFF different functions,
which control certain machine tool operations. M-codes are not grouped into
categories, although several codes may control the same type of operations such as
M03, M04, and M05, which control the machine tool spindle. Some of important
codes are given as under with their function s:
Code Function
M00 Program stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle start (forward CW)
M04 Spindle start (reverse CCW)
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M08 Coolant on
M09 Coolant off
35
CNC Machines M10 Chuck - clamping
M11 Chuck - unclamping
M12 Tailstock spindle out
M13 Tailstock spindle in
M17 Tool post rotation normal
M18 Tool post rotation reverse
M30 End of tape and rewind or main program end
M98 Transfer to subprogram
M99 End of subprogram
Note : On some machines and controls, some may be differ.

4.3.5 Tape Programming Format

Both EIA and ISO use three types of formats for compiling of NC data into suitable
blocks of information with slight difference.
Word Address Format
This type of tape format uses alphabets called address, identifying the function of
numerical data followed. This format is used by most of the NC machines, also
called variable block format. A typical instruction block will be as below :
N20 G00 X1.200 Y.100 F325 S1000 T03 M09 <EOB>
or
N20 G00 X1.200 Y.100 F325 S1000 T03 M09;
The MCU uses this alphabet for addressing a memory location in it.
Tab Sequential Format
Here the alphabets are replaced by a Tab code, which is inserted between two
words. The MCU reads the first Tab and stores the data in the first location then
the second word is recognized by reading the record Tab. A typical Tab sequential
instruction block will be as below :
>20 >00 >1.200 >.100 >325 >1000 >03 >09
Fixed Block Format
In fixed block format no letter address of Tab code are used and none of words
can be omitted. The main advantage of this format is that the whole instruction
block can be read at the same instant, instead of reading character by character.
This format can only be used for positioning work only. A typical fixed block
instruction block will be as below:
20 00 1.200 .100 325 1000 03 09 <EOB>

4.3.6 Machine Tool Zero Point Setting

The machine zero point can be set by two methods by the operator, manually by a
programmed absolute zero shift, or by work coordinates, to suit the holding fixture or the
part to be machined.
Manual Setting
The operator can use the MCU controls to locate the spindle over the desired part
zero and then set the X and Y coordinate registers on the console to zero.
36
Absolute Zero Shift Fundamentals of
Part Programming
The absolute zero shift can change the position of the coordinate system by a
command in the CNC program. The programmer first sends the machine spindle to
home zero position by a command in the program. Then another command tells
the MCU how far from the home zero location, the coordinate system origin is to
be positioned.

Figure 4.3 : Machine Tool Zero Point Setting

R = Reference point (maximum travel of machine)

W = Part zero point workpice coordinate system

M = Machine zero point (X0, Y0, Z0) of machine coordinate system

The sample commands may be as follows :
N1 G28 X0 Y0 Z0 (sends spindle to home zero position or Return to reference
point).
N2 G92 X3.000 Y4.000 Z5.000 (the position the machine will reference as part
zero or Programmed zero shift).
4.3.7 Coordinate Word
A co ordinate word specifies the target point of the tool movement or the distance to be
moved. The word is composed of the address of the axis to be moved and the value and
direction of the movement.
Example
X150 Y-250 represents the movement to (150,  250). Whether the dimensions are
absolute or incremental will have to be defined previously using G-Codes.
4.3.8 Parameter for Circular Interpolation
These parameters specify the distance measured from the start point of the arc to the
center. Numerals following I, J and K are the X, Y and Z components of the distance
respectively.
4.3.9 Spindle Function
The spindle speed is commanded under an S address and is always in revolution per
minute. It can be calculated by the following formula :
Surface cutting speed in m/min × 1000
Spindle Speed =
π × Cutter Diameter in mm
Example
S1000 represents a spindle speed of 1000 rpm. 37
CNC Machines 4.3.10 Feed Function
The feed is programmed under an F address except for rapid traverse. The unit may be in
mm per minute or in mm per revolution. The unit of the federate has to be defined at the
beginning of the programme. The feed rate can be calculated by the following formula :
Chip Load
Feet Rate =
Tooth × No. of tooth  Spindle speed
Example
F100 represents a feed rate of 100 mm/min.
4.3.11 Tool Function
The selection of tool is commanded under a T address. T04 represents tool number 4.
4.3.12 Work Settings and Offsets
All NC machine tools require some form of work setting, tool setting, and offsets to
place the cutter and work in the proper relationship. Compensation allows the
programmer to make adjustments for unexpected tooling and setup conditions. A
retraction point in the Z-axis to which the end of the cutter retracts above the work
surface to allow safe table movement in the X-Y axes. It is often called the rapid-traverse
distance, retract or work plane. Some manufacturers build a workpiece height distance
into the MCU (machine control unit) and whenever the feed motion in the Z-axis will
automatically be added to the depth programmed.
When setting up cutting tools, the operator generally places a tool on top of the highest
surface of the work piece. Each tool is lowered until it just touches the workpiece
surface and then its length is recorded on the tool list. Once the work piece has been set,
it is not generally necessary to add any future depth dimensions since most MCU do this
automatically.

Figure 4.4 : Work Settings

Figure 4.5 : Offsets

38
4.3.13 Rapid Positioning Fundamentals of
Part Programming
This is to command the cutter to move from the existing point to the target point at the
fastest speed of the machine.

Figure 4.6 : Rapid Positioning

4.3.14 Linear Interpolation

This is to command the cutter to move from the existing point to the target point along a
straight line at the speed designated by the F address.

Figure 4.6 : Linear Interpolation

4.3.15 Circular Interpolation

This is to command the cutter to move from the existing point to the target point along a
circular arc in clockwise direction or counter clockwise direction. The parameters of the
center of the circular arc is designated by I, J and K addresses. I is the distance along the
X-axis, J along the Y, and K along the Z. This parameter is defined as the vector from the
starting point to the center of the arc.

Figure 4.7 : Clockwise Circular Interpolation

39
CNC Machines

Figure 4.8 : Counter Clockwise Circular Interpolation

4.3.16 Circular Interpolation

In NC machining, if the cutter axis is moving along the programmed path, the dimension
of the workpiece obtained will be incorrect since the diameter of the cutter has not be
taken in to account. What the system requires are the programmed path, the cutter
diameter and the position of the cutter with reference to the contour. The cutter diameter
is not included in the programme. It has to be input to the NC system in the tool setting
process.

Figure 4.9 : Tool Path without Cutter Compensation

Figure 4.10 : Tool Path with Cutter Compensation

4.4 SYMBOLS USED

% – Main Programme (1 to 9999)
L – Sub program (1 to 999)/Home position
N – Sequence of block number.
Lf – Block end (EOB) means “; or *”
40 T – Tool number or Tool station number
 D – Tool offset Fundamentals of
Part Programming
S – Spindle speed
F – Feed
M – Switching function
G – Transverse commands
R – Parameters
I, J, K – Circle parameters
B/U/R – Radius
X/Y/Z – Axis coordinates
P – Passes.

4.5 PART PROGRAM FOR LATHE OPERATION

The CNC lathe operation such as simple facing, turning, taper turning, thread, boring,
parting off etc. The X-axis and Z-axis are taken as the direction of transverse motion of
the tool post and the axis of the spindle respectively. To prepare part programs using
G-codes and M-codes. The following examples illustrated the part program for different
components.
Example
01 (All dimensions are in mm).

Ø 35 Ø 25

Ø 16 (0, 0)

100
60
Figure 4.11 : Turning Operation
% 1000; (Main programme)
N01 G54 G90 G71 G94 M03 S800; (Parameters Setting)
N05 G01 X-12.5 Z0 F2; (Facing the job)
N10 G00 Z1; (Retrieval of tool)
N15 G00 X00; (Tool clearance)
N20 G01 Z-100; (Starting cut)
N25 G00 X1 Z1; (Clearance position)
N30 G00 X-2; (Position of cut)
N35 G01 Z-60; (Cutting length)
N40 G00 X-1 Z1; (Retrieval of tool)
N45 G00 X-3; (Position of cut)
N50 G01 Z-60; (Cutting length)
N55 G00 X-2 Z1; (Retrieval of tool)
N60 G00 X-4; (Position of cut)
N65 G01 Z-60; (Cutting length) 41
CNC Machines N70 G00 X-3 Z1; (Retrieval of tool)
N75 G00 X-4.5; (Position of cut)
N80 G01 Z-60; (Cutting length)
N85 G00 X5 Z5; (Final position of tool)
N90 M02; (End of programme)
Example
02 (All dimensions are in mm).

Ø 30 Ø 20

30 30 35

Figure 4.12 : Taper Turning

% 2000; (Main programme)
N01 G54 G91 G71 G94 M03 S800; (Parameters Setting)
N05 G01 X-15 Z0 F2; (Facing the job)
N10 G00 Z1; (Tool clearance)
N15 G00 X10; (Tool clearance from the centre)
N20 G01 Z-36; (Turning operation)
N25 G01 X5 –Z30; (Taper turning operation)
N30 G00 X1 Z66; (Final position of tool)
N35 M02; (End of programme)
Example
03 (All dimensions are in mm).
R5

Ø 10

50

Figure 4.13 : Circular Interpolation

% 2000; (Main programme)
N01 G91 G71 G94 M03 S800; (Parameters Setting)
N05 G01 X-5 Z0 F1; (Facing the job)
N10 G02 X5 Z-5 I0 K5; (Circular Interpolation)
N15 G00 X6 Z6; (Final position of tool)
N20 M02; (End of programme).
42
 Fundamentals of
4.6 PART PROGRAM FOR MACHINING CENTRES Part Programming
(MILLING)
The CNC milling machine, the motion is possible in three axes, X-axis, Y-axis and
Z-axis. The movement of Z-axis is taken as positive when tool moves away from the job
or vice versa.
Example
01 (All dimensions are in mm).

1.5
R5

10

25

10 30
15
50 SQ

Figure 4.14 : Straight Line

% 100; (Main programme)
N5 G17 G71 G90 G94 G54; (Parameters Setting)
N10 T2 L90; (Home position)
N15 G00 D2 Z50 M3 S700 X10 Y-25; (Position of tool)
N20 G01 Z-1.5; (Position of cut)
N25 G01 X4 F100 M8; (Cutting slat)
N30 G00 Z100 M9; (Final position of tool)
N35 M30; (Main programme end)
Example
02 (All dimensions are in mm).

10
R40

R20

50

20 20

Figure 4.15 : Circular Interpolation

43
CNC Machines %101; (Main programme)
N2 G17 G71 G90 G94 G54; (Parameters Setting)
N4 T1 L90; (Home position)
N6 G00 Z5 D5 M3 S500 X20 Y90; (Position of tool)
N8 G01 Z-2 F50; (Position of cut)
N10 G02 X60 Y50 I0 J-40; (Circular interpolation clockwise-CW)
N12 G03 X80 Y50 I20 J0; (Circular interpolation clockwise-CCW)
N14 G00 Z100; (Final position of tool)
N16 M02; (End of programme)

4.7 FIXED CYCLE/CANNED CYCLE

Machining holes is probably the most common operation, mainly done on CNC milling
machines and machining centers. Even in the industries traditionally known for their
complex parts, such as aircraft and aerospace components manufacturing, electronics,
instrumentation, optical or mold making industries, machining holes is a vital part of the
manufacturing process. Machining on simple hole may require only one tool but a
precise and complex hole may require several tools to be completed. Number of holes
required for a given job is important for selection of proper programming approach. In
the majority of programming applications, hole operations offer a great number of
similarities from one job to another. Hole machining is a reasonably predictable is an
ideal subject to be handled very efficiently by a computer. Several advance technique are
used such that a sequence can be programmed just once and given an identity so that it
can be called back into the main programme as and when required. These sequences are
referred to in a number of ways like cycle, subroutines and loops, etc.
A fixed cycle is a combination of machine moves resulting in a particular machining
function such as drilling, milling, boring and tapping. By programming one cycle code
number, as many as distinct movements may occur. These movements would take blocks
of programme made without using Fixed or Canned cycles. The corresponding
instructions of a fixed cycle are already stored in the system memory. The advantages of
writing a part programme with these structures are :
(a) Reduced lengths of part programme.
(b) Less time required developing the programme.
(c) Easy to locate the fault in the part programme.
(d) No need to write the same instructions again and again in the programme.
(e) Less memory required in the control unit.
The following examples are some basic and fixed cycle codes available with a number of
machines, assigned by EIA.
Example
01 (G81 Drilling Cycle) (All dimensions are in mm).
R00 – Dwell time at the starting point for chip removal.
R02 – Reference plane absolute with sign.
R03 – Final depth of hole absolute with sign.
R04 – Dwell time at the bottom of drilled hole for chip breaking.
R10 – Retract plane without sign.
R11 – Drilling axis number 1 to 3.
44 % 400;
 24 Thick Fundamentals of
Part Programming

27

4 3

Ø 8 Drill
70

1 2
27

27 70 27

Figure 4.16 : Drilling Cycle

N5 G17 G71 G90 G94 G55;
N10 T1 L90;
N15 G00 D5 Z5 M3 S600 X27 Y27;
N20 G81 R02=5, R03=-33, R11=3, F50 M7;
N25 X97;
N30Y97;
N35 X27;
N40 G00 G80 Z100 M9;
N45 M02;
Example
02 (G83 Deep Drilling Cycle) (All dimensions are in mm).
124 SQ

Ø 8 Drill 60 Deep

65 Thick

62

62

Figure 4.17 : Deep Drilling Cycle 45

CNC Machines R00 – Dwell time at the starting point for chip removal.
R01 – First drilling depth (incremental) without sign.
R02 – Reference plane absolute with sign.
R03 – Final depth of hole absolute with sign.
R04 – Dwell time at the bottom of drilled hole for chip breaking.
R05 – Amount of digression is without sign.
R10 – Retract plane without sign.
R11 – Drilling axis number 1 to 3.
% 401;
N5 G17 G71 G90 G94 G55;
N10 T1 L90;
N15 G00 D5 Z5 M3 S600 X62 Y62;
N20 G83 R00=30, R01=15, R02=5, R03=-60, R04=1, R05=15, R10=80, R11=3,
F50 M7;
N25 G00 G80 Z100 M9;
N30 M02;
Example
03 (G84 Tapping Cycle) (All dimensions are in mm).

24 Thick

27

4 N os.
70 M10 Tap

27

27 70 27

Figure 4.18 : Tapping Cycle

R02 – Reference plane absolute with sign.
R03 – Final depth of hole absolute with sign.
R04 – Dwell time at the bottom of drilled hole for chip breaking.
R06 – Reverse direction of spindle rotation.
R07 – Return to the original direction of spindle rotation.
R08 – Machine data setting.
R09 – Thread pitch.
46
 R11 – Drilling axis number 1 to 3. Fundamentals of
Part Programming
% 403;
N5 G17 G71 G90 G94 G55;
N10 T1 L90;
N15 G00 D5 Z5 M3 S600 X27 Y27;
N20 G81 R02=5, R03=-32, R11=3, F50 M7;
N25 X97;
N30 Y97;
N35 X27;
N40 G00 G80 Z100 M9;
N45 T2 L90;
N43 G00 D10 Z5 M3 S60 X27 Y27;
N50 G84 R02=5, R03=-29, R04=1, R06=4, R07=3, R08=0, R09=1, R11=3
F60 M7;
N55 X97;
N60 Y97;
N65 X27;
N70 G00 G80 Z100 M9;
N75 M02;
Example
04 (G86 Boring cycle) (All dimensions are in mm).
124 SQ

Ø 19 Bore

24 Thick
62

62

Figure 4.19 : Boring Cycle

R02 – Reference plane.
R03 – Final depth of hole.
R04 – Dwell time at the bottom of drilled hole for chip breaking.
R07 – Spindle on after M05.
R10 – Retract plane.
R11 – Drilling axis.
47
CNC Machines R12 – X distance.
R13 – Y distance.
% 404;
N5 G17 G71 G90 G94 G55;
N10 T1 L90;
N15 G00 D5 Z5 M3 S600 X62 Y62;
N20 G81 R02=5, R03=-27, R11=3, F50;
N25 G00 G80 Z100 M9;
N30 T2 L90;
N35 G00 D10 Z5 M3 S600 X62 Y62;
N40 G81 R02=5, R03=-30, R11=3, F50 M7;
N45 G00 G80 Z100 M9;
N50 T3 L90;
N55 G00 D15 Z5 M3 S600 X62 Y62;
N60 G81 R02=5, R03=-33, R11=3, F50 M7;
N65 G00 G80 Z100 M9;
N70 T4 L90;
N75 G00 D20 Z5 M3 S800 X62 Y62;
N80 G86 R02=5, R03=-33, R04=1,R07=3, R10=60, R11=3, R12=0.1, R13=0.1,
F50 M7;
N85 G00 G80 Z100 M9;
N90 M02;

4.8 DO-LOOPS
In a few jobs some portion of the programme needs to be repeated, which do not fit into
standardized category. Some of the non-standardized cycles are Do-loops and
Subroutines. Do-loop is a number of operations repeated over a number of equal steps
for a previously fixed number of times.
Do-loops always are implemented on incremental mode because each previous position
becomes reference for next iteration. Do-loop is actually jumping back to an already
written initial portion of the program for the number of times a loop count.
Example
01 (Do-loop) (All dimensions are in mm).

Ø 6 drill, 5 nos.

i iii v
10

5 10 10 10 10
Figure 4.20 : Do-loop
48
 % 500; Fundamentals of
Part Programming
N2 G71 G90 G94;
N4 G92 X0 Y0 Z0 ;
N6 T1 M06;
N8 G81 G99 X5 Y10 Z-8 R.2 F100 S500 M03 M08; (Canned Drill cycle)
N10 G51 P4; (Start loop 4 times)
N12 G91 X 10 ;
N14 G50 ;
N16 G80 G90 M09; (Cancel cycle)
N18 T2 M06 ;
N20 G81 G99 X5 Y10 Z-8 R.2 F100 S500 M03 M08; (Canned Drill cycle)
N22 G51 P4 ; (Start loop 4 times)
N24 G91 X 10 ;
N26 G50;
N28 G80 G90 M09; (Cancel cycle)
N30 M30;

4.9 SUBROUTINE
A subroutine is a portion of a programme, complete in itself, which is stored in computer
after programming once. It is called with required data when required again in a
programme.
Example
01 (Subroutine) (All dimensions are in mm).

30

15 SQ 15 SQ
50 SQ

30

Each
1.5 Depth

30 15 Thick
Figure 4.21 : Subroutine
49
CNC Machines %1001;
N2 G17 G71 G94 G90 G54;
N4 T1 L90;
N6 G00 D5 Z5 M3 S500 X9 Y16;
N8 G01 Z0 F500;
N10 L100 P1; (Call the subroutine)
N12 G00 X34 Y16;
N14 G01 Z0 F500;
N16 L100 P1; (Call the subroutine)
N18 G00 X9 Y41;
N20 G01 Z0 F500;
N22 L100 P1; (Call the subroutine)
N24 G00 X34 Y41;
N26 G01 Z0 F500;
N28 L100 P1; (Call the subroutine)
N30 G00 Z100;
N32 M02;
Subroutine Programme is below :
L100;
N2 G01 G91 Z-1.5 F100 M7;
N4 X7;
N6 Y-7;
N8 X-7;
N10 Y7;
N12 G00 G90 Z5 M9;
N14 M17;
This has been called as a subroutine in the main programme as above.

4.10 SUMMARY

4.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs

50 Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.