The

Story
of
the
String
2 2
Quar t et
1 1
 i n t ro d u c t i o n
Chapters 1 and 2 written by Larissa Roesch. Contribu- We listen to music every day—whether on the radio, on a walkman or
tors—Eliza Gibson and Fontaine Roberson. Revised stereo, or performed by live musicians. Some kinds of music can tell us stories:
by Jean Hadley and Melanie Smith. songs have words that tell a story; movie music accompanies images that we see.
What about the music we hear that has no words or images? Can instrumental
Chapter 3 written by Jean Hadley and Melanie Smith. music tell us a story?
When we hear music without words or images, we have our own personal
Chapters 4,5 and 6 written by Jessica Ivry, revised by thoughts and feelings. Maybe we feel sad, happy, excited, or peaceful. Maybe
Jean Hadley and Melanie Smith. the sounds remind us of a place we have been before, a special person, even a
cartoon. With instrumental music, how the music makes us feel is the story. It is
Questions written by Christine Lim. each person's own story to imagine. There is no right or wrong answer.
Though there are many kinds of instrumental music, this book will focus on Instrumental music
Copyright: San Francisco Performances. string quartet music. Music for the string quartet is often used to express per- is music performed
on musical instru-
All rights reserved. sonal and powerful ideas in the most beautiful way. This kind of music was cre- ments without text
ated over 200 years ago in the 18th century (the 1700s) and is still being or words.
Written and taped materials are intended exclusively written and performed today.
for pre-approved classroom use. They may not be used
or reproduced without written permission from:
San Francisco Performances
500 Sutter St., Suite 710
San Francisco, CA 94102
415.398.6449

For additional information about these materials,

please contact the Director of Education at
San Francisco Performances.

San Francisco Performances is a publicly supported

not-for-profit charitable and educational organization.

2 3
A
A string quartet is like a family of four instruments. There are two vio- Questions to Consider
lins, one viola, and one cello. The viola is a little larger than the violin,
and the cello is the largest of all. The bigger the instrument, the lower What sort of voice is produced by each of the instruments
the sound; the cello has the deepest voice and the violin has the highest. Togeth- in the string quartet? Do you associate particular character
er the four instruments have musical conversations, like a family at dinner or a or personality traits with the sounds of each instrument?
group of friends talking about the weather, about the government, about their
feelings, or about life in general. What constitutes a good conversation? What makes a good
While the string quartet talks, another conversation is taking place between conversationalist? Do the roles of talker and listener both
the composer, the performers, and the listener. The composer has an idea and get equal billing in a conversation? Are you able to play
writes music to express it; the performer interprets that idea as he/she performs both roles in a conversation, or do you give more weight to
the music; and the listener hears the idea in the music and interprets it again in one or the other?
his/her own way. This is how the original idea continues to grow with each
individual's participation. Conversation–the communication between compos- When you are in a conversation, are you aware of how it pro-
er, performer, and listener–can truly take place only in live performances. gresses? Do you consciously shape the course of your con-
When we imagine what the music is saying, we become part of the per- versation? How do you signal a change of subject?
formance. It is essential to the music that a musical idea is heard and interpret-
ed. Therefore, we must listen actively. This makes the music complete. (If a tree What is the purpose of conversation? Do you think all con-
falls in the woods, but no one is around, did it make a sound? If no one is lis- versations have a purpose? Do you think a conversation
tening, is there really music?) with an interesting person is a worthwhile activity?
A composer often tells us about what was happening when the music was
written: the structure of government, social trends, cultural traditions, even the
fashions of the times. Many composers lived a long time ago, or in countries we
may never have visited. However, the stories they may have been trying to tell us
can still be heard and understood today. This is because we can identify with
music personally, through our experiences and through our imagination. We can
imagine our own stories.

Beginning the Story…

4 5
 D
uring the mid-1700s most European countries were gov- manners and considered open expressions of emotion vulgar.
erned by a single dominant ruler. These monarchs may have Much music of the period reflected these attitudes in its structure.
been called king or queen, prince or princess, emperor or One violin played a beautiful, ornate melody while the other
empress, czar or czarina. The royalty and wealthy aristocrats instruments played a light, elegant accompaniment. An accompaniment
is a part of a piece
enjoyed many privileges and luxuries. Formal music was written The dominant voice of the first violin is typical of this period in
of music designed
and performed only for members of the privileged class in castles, string quartet music. Imagine having a conversation with three to serve as back-
palaces and stately homes. There were no public concert halls, other people in which one person does all the important talking ground and sup-
and no one could buy a ticket to attend a performance. The less and the rest talk quietly in the background. Listen for this in some port for more
important parts
privileged played and sang traditional music taught by their par- of Haydn's earliest string quartets.
ents or grandparents and sang hymns in church. The period of the late 1700's is often called the Enlighten-
Since the main goal of formal music at this time was to enter- ment or the Age of Reason. Scientists investigated the world
A composer is tain, aristocrats employed composers who lived at their estates and around them and based their explanations of natural phenomena
a person who wrote music specifically for them. One of the most famous of on logical analysis of their observations. This belief in the power
writes music
these 18th century composers was a man named Franz Joseph of human reason began to replace the stories and superstitions
Haydn (1732–1809). For most of his life, Haydn worked for that had previously dominated Western thought. A key term used
Prince Nicholas Esterhazy, master of one of the wealthiest and at this time was cause and effect, which required people to look
most powerful families in Austria. Haydn composed whatever for rational scientific explanations. Philosophers and authors also
music the Prince demanded, conducted performances, trained began to use logic and reason to look at humanity as a whole, and
and supervised all the musicians, and repaired the instruments. wrote about a society in which people were no longer divided Franz Joseph Haydn
(1732–1809)
Not until much later in his life was Haydn able to write music he by predetermined social classes. Faith in human reason led
wanted to write. to increased importance of the individual and the growth of
A musical ensem- Haydn wrote music for many different kinds of musical ensem- democracy.
ble is a group
bles, but he preferred the ensemble of two violins, a viola, and a As Haydn continued to write for the string quartet, his music
of musicians per-
cello. It may have been easy for Haydn to write for this combina- became more dramatic and imaginative. He began to incorporate

1
forming together
tion of instruments because it resembles the four choral voices: a style called fugue, which had been used extensively by earlier
soprano, alto, tenor and bass. He called his compositions string composers. In this kind of musical conversation, one person states
quartets. Many people believe that Haydn wrote the first music an idea, then the next person states the same idea while the first
specifically for string quartets. For this reason, and because he was person elaborates on the original theme. The fugue continues
very warm and friendly, he is often referred to as “Papa” Haydn. until each person has had a chance to state the original idea. In
Haydn's string quartet music can be compared to a conversa- this kind of string quartet music, each instrument has an opportu-
tion between four people in the manner of the 18th Century nity to play the melody. Therefore, each instrument is treated as
aristocracy. In the 18th century, architecture and fashion were an individual, a striking change from the earlier form which fea-
highly ornamental, and social conversation was refined, tured the first violin.
restrained and witty. Aristocratic society valued elegance and good

6 7
1752: Benjamin Franklin
conducts his first

the electricity experiment

Polite
conversation 1760: First Conestoga
Wagon built, later used
to cross the Oregon Trail
1769: Spain sets up the first mis-
sion in San Diego, marking the
1758: French philoso- beginning of California colonization
pher Voltaire writes George III of England
satirical novel, Candide crowned king
 This development in music is consistent with the displacement Questions to Consider
of monarchies and the growth of democracy throughout Europe
and in America. However, artists were still creating music and “The Age of Reason” valued order, harmony and
A patron is a per- other works of art for their wealthy patrons. clarity. Can you hear the musical rendering of
son who supports At the same time Haydn was writing string quartets for Prince these ideas in Haydn’s music? Does the music
someone with
Esterhazy, a young composer named Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart communicate order and harmony to your ears?
money, gifts, or
endorsement (1756–1791) was also busy writing music. By age six he was per-
forming all over Europe, by nine he had written his first sympho- One of the major changes occurring in the 18th
ny, and by twelve he had completed his first opera. In total, century is the reconfiguration of social order.
Mozart wrote over 600 compositions, including 68 string quar- Consider how the structure of Haydn’s string
tets, although he died when he was only 36. He is generally quartets changed, from one instrument (violin)
regarded as one of the world's great musical geniuses. Like many dominating the conversation to a more equal
geniuses, Mozart was often stubborn and impulsive, and he loved participation by all of the instruments. Do you
to play jokes on people. His brilliance also inspired terrible jeal- think Haydn was influenced by the changing pat-
ousy among many of his musical colleagues. terns of the social order to deliberately alter his
However, Mozart was greatly impressed and inspired by style? Or do you think it was subconscious?
Mozart the child prodigy Hadyn's music, and he composed a set of six quartets which he
dedicated to Haydn. Papa Haydn was present at the first perform-
ances of these quartets and told Mozart's father, “Before God, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
as an honest man, I tell you that your son is the greatest composer (1756-1791)
known to me, either in person or by name.”
Mozart's music combines beautiful, simple melodies with
drama and emotion. The co-existence of lightness and seriousness
is what makes his music extraordinary. This contrast was also the
essence of his own personality, which he expressed through his
music.
The ideas of the Enlightenment were changing politics, reli-
gion, and education, and reinforcing a belief in the power of the
individual. During this time, the acquisition of wealth could lead
to social advancement. To show their refinement, the middle class
developed an interest in the arts. Public concerts were held for
the first time and could be attended by anyone with the price of a
ticket. Composers began to write for this new, broad and diverse
audience, rather than to suit the tastes of a particular noble family
Typical 18th century court dress
or a church official.

8 9
1774: First Continental
Congress assembles in 1784: George 1788: American
1776: Thomas Jefferson writes The Washington purchases Constitution ratified 1792: Denmark is the first 1803: Louisiana Purchase dou-
Philadelphia to boycott
Declaration of Independence the newly-made “ice country to forbid slavery bles the size of the United States
British goods
cream machine”

Napoleon crowns himself

1775: Volta invents emperor of France
the electric battery 1777: Vermont becomes 1789: French Revolution
first state to abolish slavery 1791: Bill of Rights constructed
 B
oth the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution his housekeeping and physical appearance; he had great difficulty get-
(1789) brought about dramatic changes in the structure of govern- ting along with people or holding civil conversations.
ments and the balance of political power in America, France, and Perhaps, this was an expression of anger and frustration brought on
throughout Western Europe. The United States was founded on the by an illness which caused him to lose his hearing. Beethoven's musical
idea that government should be run “by the people and for the people,” conversations began to reflect his frustration with life. They have a
and the slogan of the French Revolution was “Liberté, Egalité, Frater- sense of impatience, anger, and confrontation. Many of his composi-
nité” (Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood). tions make bold musical statements, followed by silence. This motif A motif is is a
Continuing what Mozart had begun, musicians in Europe com- almost dares the listener to follow Beethoven into unfamiliar emotional recurring subject,
theme, idea, etc.,
posed music to satisfy their creative impulses and to appeal to their new territory. especially in an
audiences. Performing groups and orchestras who were not employed in By the time he was 48, Beethoven had completely lost his hearing. artistic work such
an aristocrat's court were organized to present public concerts. Their Yet he wrote some of his greatest music in the decade of his deafness. as a symphony
audiences went to concerts to listen to the music rather than to have it Another famous composer described one of Beethoven's last string
Ludwig van Beethoven
(1770–1827)
serve as background for their social events. Music performed at these quartets by saying, “This is the dance of the world itself: wild joy,
concerts was also different from the music they might have heard in painful lament, love's transport, utmost bliss, misery, rage, lust, and suf-
church, although much magnificent church music was often written by fering; lightning flashes, thunder growls...”
the same composers.
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) is perhaps the greatest compos-
er to write music for his own self-expression, not for a particular person
or a specific event. String quartets written by Haydn and Mozart fol-
lowed a standard musical form, which had become familiar and pre-
dictable. Beethoven broke the rules and created his own forms; each
quartet is unique. People did not easily accept these radical changes in
music. Beethoven's music is full of emotions like anger, fear, passion and
sadness so intense that audiences were at times both puzzled and
embarrassed; they were not used to hearing so much raw emotion
expressed in public. When people first heard Beethoven's music, they
were outraged, and many walked out of the concert halls.
Musicians laughed at his String Quartet in F major, thinking that
Beethoven was playing a joke on them. “Surely you do not consider this
music,” said the first violinist. Beethoven replied, “Not for you, but for a
later age.” He was extremely confident in his musical abilities and even
arrogant toward people of his era. He refused to conform to the social
conventions of his day: he was extremely messy and unkempt in both Beethoven’s study a few days after his death

Two 2Emotional
The
10

1807: Beethoven writes

his fifth symphony
1814: The New York Times
newspaper begins publication
by printing press
11

1823: Beethoven writes

his Ninth Symphony
1827: Joseph Smith
founds Mormon church

Conversation 1813: Jane Austen writes

1819: First steamship
crosses Atlantic 1824: Mexico
becomes a republic
Pride and Prejudice
 T
Questions to Consider he late 18th century was an age of profound change through-
out Europe and the New World. The social and political pres-
Many consider Beethoven the greatest musical mind of sures that had ignited the American and French Revolutions
all time. Why do you think that is so? Does his kept alive a spirit of individualism which gave birth to the Romantic
music affect you? How? Beethoven struggled with philosophy of art. Although there is no general agreement about what
great crises in his personal life, and is much admired the word Romantic in this context means, we know that it does not
for overcoming his trials to compose great music. have anything to do with Valentines, candle lit dinners or love songs.
Does his compelling history add to (or detract from) The term probably comes from the French word, romans, which were
your appreciation of his music? stories or legends especially popular during the Middle Ages. The
Romantics longed for a bygone era before the Age of Reason.
Beethoven taps into a depth of feeling and elicits an Romantic art was haunted by a sense of longing or an endless pur-
emotional response from his listeners; yet he was per- suit of some unattainable object or goal. In a world dominated by the
sonally unable to connect with people around him. pursuit of science and industry, Romantic artists often saw themselves
What do you make of Beethoven’s inability to “hold as separate from the mainstream of society. They did not create their
a civil conversation” with others? Do you think art for individual patrons but rather for posterity, or for some imag-
Beethoven’s musical conversation compensates for his ined audience that would someday appreciate their genius. They
lack of conversation with others? helped create the stereotype of the suffering artist. In fact, many of
them did suffer from illnesses that were incurable in those days, and
What do you do when you cannot think in words? they often died quite young. Faced with the reality of early death, the
How do you think Beethoven uses the language of Romantics believed that only their art would survive and live forever.
music to express himself? Do you have a song or a Beethoven lived nearly 60 years, so the body of his work can be
piece of music (or another work of art) that for you identified as both Classical and Romantic. His early work is more con-
conveys a feeling/emotion/mood that cannot be cerned with form, while the music he wrote during the middle of his
expressed in words? life reflects the free expression valued by the Romantics. Like the
other Romantic artists, Beethoven believed that he wrote, not for his
contemporaries, but for a later age.
The short lives of German composer Franz Schubert
(1797–1828) and English poet John Keats (1795–1821) perfectly
illustrate the tragic genius of the Romantic artist. Many 19th century
composers were interested in literary as well as musical expression,
and many Romantic poets and novelists wrote about music with

3
insight and passion. The general public did not appreciate Schubert's
music, and Keats's work was viciously attacked by literary critics. Yet Franz Peter Schubert
1825

12 13
C H A P T E R

Romanticism
a pa s s i o nat e c o n v e r s at i o n
 both worked constantly while struggling against poverty and fatal ill- Schumann's personal life also was full of drama and tragedy. He Clara Wieck
Schumann
nesses, and each produced a huge body of work. had studied to become a concert pianist. However, at age 22 he devel-
(1819–1896) was
Best remembered for his song writing, Schubert wrote over 600 oped a muscular weakness in his hands which was probably a side- considered a child
songs for voice and piano. These songs, known as Lieder, set the stan- effect of the mercury treatments he endured in an attempt to cure prodigy by the
dard for the merging of poetry and music. Schubert wrote all of his syphilis. Realizing that he could not devote his life to performing, he time she was 10,
both as a pianist
songs in German, though he used words from Romantic poets of began to compose music and reached his most productive period of
and a composer.
many countries. work within a few years. During this time, he had fallen in love with Her musical talent
Robert and Clara
Schubert also blended melodies from his song compositions into his teacher's daughter, Clara Wieck, when she was just 15 years old. was held in the
Schumann 1850
his instrumental works. He wrote string quartets and other chamber Her father refused for five years to permit their marriage, so the two highest regard not
only in Germany,
music mainly for his friends to enjoy playing at home. These quartets went to court to seek legal permission. They won their case in the fall
but throughout
are not as full of emotional outpouring as Beethoven's late quartets of 1840, and married almost immediately. Clara had a brilliant career Europe. She mar-
were, yet they show the longing and suffering that is a common theme as a concert pianist and composer, and in fact was much more famous ried fellow com-
of Romantic art. Schubert's String Quartet in D minor is subtitled during their lives than her husband. Sadly, her reputation died when poser/musician
Robert Schumann
“Death and the Maiden,” based on the narrative from his own song of she did, and her work is only recently being studied and appreciated.
when she was 21.
the same title. The song tells the story of a young woman who is visit- The Schumanns had a large family and were widely known, but unfor- The traditional
ed by Death in several disguises, and the string quartet attempts to tunately, Robert’s mental and physical condition deteriorated until he roles of wife and
tell the story through music alone. Instrumental music based on a was placed in an institution for the insane and lived there for two mother demanded
that Clara care for
poetic or narrative subject became very popular during the Romantic years until his death in 1856.
her husband and
era and is now known as program music. Schumann wrote three complete string quartets in 1842. These eight children at
Because many of the Romantic artists knew they would not live quartets show the influence of Beethoven's Romantic period in their the expense of her
long, death was a prevalent theme in their work. general emotionalism and in their musical details. Some of the own work.
However, she con-
Schubert died at age 31, having written nearly 700 different musi- melodies in these quartets even sound like Beethoven's melodies.
tinued to compose
cal works, including several string quartets. On his tombstone is writ- Johannes Brahms (1833–1897) was the major composer of cham- and perform as
ten yet another expression of Romantic longing, “Music has here ber music, including piano trios, string sextets, and several string time permitted.
buried a rich treasure but still fairer hopes.” quartets during the 19th century, and is considered Beethoven's true After her death,
her 66 composi-
Robert Schumann (1810–1856) was Schubert's successor in musical successor in the Romantic era. His music exudes powerful
tions were largely
merging poetry and music through Lieder. He is known as the central emotion, yet it maintains some of the structure and order of earlier forgotten as
figure of musical Romanticism and represented the quintessential German composers like Haydn and Mozart. women were left
Romantic composer with his emphasis on self-expression and interest Brahms received his first musical training from his father, who out of most history
and musicology Johannes Brahms as
in literary associations. Throughout his life Schumann was involved played bass in the orchestra of his native city, Hamburg, Germany. a young man
textbooks. Only
both as a writer and a critic of Romantic literature. He also wrote Like many musicians who became composers, he showed exceptional recently has there
extensively about the music of his age and was one of the first to rec- skill on the piano at an early age, and began performing in public been a resurgence
ognize the genius of fellow composer Johannes Brahms. when he was 10 years old. An American talent agent heard him at one of interest in her
life and work.
of these early concerts, and tried to book the child prodigy on a U.S.

14 15

1830: Native Americans living 1838: First public school 1844: First telegraph 1848: Gold Rush in California
east of the Mississippi displaced instruction in music message transmitted
by Indian Removal Act

1837: First US college for

women, Mount Holyoke 1852: Harriet Beacher Stowe
College, is founded Daguerre takes first photograph writes Uncle Tom’s Cabin
First Women’s Rights Convention
1841: Saxophone invented
 concert tour. This scheme was quickly stopped, and Brahms contin- Questions to Consider
ued his studies in piano, music theory, and composition.
When Brahms was 15, the Austrian army suppressed an uprising A novel feature in the music of this period is the addi-
in Hungary, and hundreds of Hungarian refugees made their way to tion of dramatic elements in the string quartet,
Hamburg. Many were headed to North America, but many others especially the drama of the individual. The artist
A gypsy is a mem- stayed in Hamburg. The passion of their gypsy music and their exotic struggles with his own passions, effectively conduct-
ber of a nomadic beauty started a craze for Hungarian fashion, food and art. Brahms ing a conversation with himself. How does this
Caucasoid people
heard gypsy music for the first time. The influences of this music can inward turn affect the music? How does this change
of generally dark
complexion, who be felt in many of his compositions. Schubert and Brahms were the dynamic among the instruments in the string
migrated originally among the earliest composers to incorporate melodic material from quartet?
from India, settling cultures they viewed as exotic.
in various parts of
Brahms idolized Schumann, and traveled to Dusseldorf to meet Do you think the inward turn of the Romantics is
Asia, Europe, and
most recently him. When he later learned of Schumann's nervous breakdown and related to the profound social and political changes
North America. subsequent death, he fell madly in love with Schumann's widow occurring throughout Europe? How are they relat-
Gypsies are noted Clara, who was 14 years his senior. Though it is not known if they ed? How does the music (or art) respond to the
as entertainers,
were ever lovers, Clara remained an important friend throughout times? Consider this example: Beethoven originally
especially musi-
cians and dancers. Brahms's life. She introduced him to people who would help advance dedicated his “Emperor” concerto to Napoleon; but
They were often his career. Like Beethoven, he was never quite successful in mingling when Napoleon declared himself emperor of
favored as court with the rich and famous, and in fact, expressed disdain for them, say- France and disappointed Beethoven’s political ide-
musicians. They
ing “A fellow who pleases the aristocracy is bound to be a good-for- alism, Beethoven scratched out the dedication.
usually improvise
and most often nothing.”
their ensembles Brahms preferred his small circle of devoted, life-long friends.
include guitar, lute, Many people found him reserved. Unlike many of his Romantic con-
cymbalom, drums,
temporaries, Brahms's life was not filled with great personal tragedy
cello, and violin.
or drama. His music reflected his private nature; though Romantic, it
balances emotion and self-expression with form and structure. His
three string quartets, the product of 20 years' effort, demonstrate his
determination to master the form. Each quartet is unique. The first
(Op. 51, No. 1 in C minor) seems to be modeled after one of
Beethoven's, and the second (Op. 51 No. 2 in A minor) is more remi-
niscent of Schumann with several passages of gypsy music. Brahms'
third string quartet, Op. 67 in B, is written in a style uniquely his own.

16 17

1853: First US railroad

connects New York to Chicago 1864: Lewis Carroll writes
Alice in Wonderland
1861: U.S. Civil War begins

Serfs emancipated in Russia

1859: Charles Darwin
writes Origin of Species
 G
erman composers dominated the story of the string quartet I. The composer's love of art in his youth, the yearning and the
until the 19th century. The Classicists, like Haydn and foreshadowing of approaching troubles; II. A brief, happy time
Mozart, originated the form, and the Romantics, including from his youth; III. The happiness of his first love for the girl
Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann and Brahms, began to develop who later became his wife; and IV. The recognition of national
it in more individualistic ways. As the 19th century progressed, Czech music and its success, and the ringing in his ears, signal-
the Romantic ideal of personal self-expression expanded to ing the onset of deafness and ultimately, complete physical debil-
include expressions of cultural or national identity as well. itation. Along with telling Smetana's own life story, this quartet Bedrich Smetana
European countries began to assert their national identities also includes rhythms and motifs from Czech dance music.
politically and artistically. Artists and intellectuals became inter- Smetana placed less importance on folk songs as the source for

Chapter ested in national causes and cultural themes. For many com-
posers, incorporating local folk tunes into larger compositions
became one method of creating a national music.
creating a national Czech music than later composers did. Like
the Romantics, his compositions expressed more personal ideas
and themes, but these came to be accepted as the definition of

4
Folk music expresses the experiences and traditions of a cul- Czech music.
ture, orally passed from generation to generation. Folk songs Antonin Dvořák (1841–1904) was the second major Czech
can describe many different ideas or experiences, from the land- composer of the 19th century. After graduating from music
scape and geography of a country, to a people's occupations and school, he played viola in an orchestra conducted by Bedrich
hobbies, to their personal relationships. Folk songs also demon- Smetana, who helped show him how to make a living as a musi-
strate the sounds, colors and patterns of a culture's language. cian and composer. Early on in his career, Dvořák was a popular
String quartet composers from the late 19th and early part of composer among the Czech people. Outside of Czecholslavakia,
the 20th century often used folk melodies and motifs to intro- Johannes Brahms helped to establish his reputation. Dvořák Antonin Dvořák
duce the sounds and rhythms of their cultures into a standard was invited by the wife of a wealthy New York businessman to
musical form. come to the United States and head a new music school. He did
The composer Bedrich Smetana (1824–1884) from Bohemia this for a few years, and during this period he heard and became
A Slav is one of a
(now the Czech Republic), is today considered the father of influenced by American folk music. Fragments of both Czech
race of peoples in
Czech music. Smetana's father was a successful master brewer and American folk songs can be heard in many of his composi- eastern, southeast-
and his family was comfortably well off. Because of this, Smetana tions. ern, and central
had opportunities to study music at an early age. At 4 he demon- Dvořák’s String Quartet in F op. 96 is commonly known as Europe. Southern
Slavs include
strated great skill at the piano, and two years later he turned to the “American.” It was written during his visit to a small town in
Bulgars, Serbs,
the violin. As a composer, Smetana often wrote program music, Iowa, and one of its musical themes is based on a bird song he Croats, Slavonians,
or music that told a story. The spread of nationalist culture heard in the Iowa woods. Other quartets by Dvořák incorporate Slovenes, etc.
across Europe led to Smetana's interest in telling Slavic, and the syncopated rhythms and patterns of repetition common to Western Slavs
Expressions of specifically Czech, stories through his music. Czech dumka, or slow sad folk ballads.
include the Poles,
Czechs, Moravians,
Smetana's first string quartet is titled, “From My Life.” Its Dvořák successfully absorbed the characteristics of Czech
Cultural Identity four movements tell the following personal story through music: folk songs into all his works. By combining qualities of Roman-
Slovaks, etc.
(Western Slavs)

18
A Patriotic 19

conversation 1865: Civil War ends in U.S.;

slavery abolished
1874: Alexander Graham
Bell invents the telephone

Bartok gathers folk songs

from Slovak peasants, 1907

1870: Joseph Hayne Rainey becomes

first black representative in Congress
 tic music with the musical elements of his native culture, he cre- within the Danbury town square. As a boy Ives listened and
ated a national and international music that appealed equally to played music amid this overlapping conglomeration of sound.
traditionalists and those who looked for change. These early experiences became his musical norm and served as
In contrast, composer Bela Bartǒk (1881–1945) methodically his inspiration when he began to compose. The blending of
studied the folk music of his native country, Hungary. He trav- melodies, harmonies and rhythms together in unlikely musical
eled around the Hungarian countryside collecting and recording situations reflects the overlap of sound Ives heard in his youth
local folk songs, which were only known by the small number of Like many Romantic composers, Ives encouraged listeners
people who regularly sang them. Bartǒk then based his composi- and performers to relate his music to specific images. The manu-
tions on these folk tunes, adding highly developed techniques of script for his Second String Quartet bears the following text:
music theory and performance to these rustic melodies and
rhythms. String quartet for four (men) who converse, discuss,
Bartǒk's string quartets are very difficult, challenging both argue (politics), fight, shake hands, shut up, then walk
Bela Bartǒk
the instrumentalists and the audience. Bartǒk explored a variety up to the mountainside to view the firmament.
Charles Ives during his days on
of colors, sounds and rhythmic energy in his quartets by using
the Hopkins Grammar School
several string techniques to the fullest. He often employed col This string quartet's musical conversation contains heated baseball team, 1894
legno, striking the string with the wood of the bow, and what is exchanges and calming resolutions. Like other nationalist com-
now termed as Bartǒk pizzicato, where the string player plucks posers, Ives incorporated the folk songs that he grew up
the string, making an explosive crack as the string rebounds singing, as well as those common to many North Americans.
against the instrument. Like the great quartets of Haydn and Fragments of traditional American songs including “Hail Colum-
Beethoven, Bartǒk’s quartets have attained an undisputed place bia” and “Turkey in the Straw” can be heard in this quartet.
in the string quartet repertory. Smetana, Dvořák, Bartǒk and Ives introduced the rhythmic
Another composer who challenged audiences with his uncon- emphasis, sound and harmonies of their native cultures into
ventional harmonies and melodies was the North American, their music. Each used composition as a means to express his
Charles Ives (1874–1954). Unlike most composers, Ives had two national identity. These composers successfully created a musi-
careers. He spent most of his adult life as a successful insurance cal language for their communities that was both familiar and
executive, and he often composed music while on his way to completely innovative, paving the way for a future era of cultur-
work, on the commuter train from Connecticut to New York City. al exchange in music.
With his music, Ives tries to unsettle his listeners, to make them
sit up and listen as well as to react strongly.
Charles Ives Ives is considered the first important distinctively American
composer. The son of a well-known marching bandmaster, Ives
grew up in Danbury, Connecticut. His father experimented with
musical acoustics and layers of musical sound by having several
marching bands perform simultaneously in different locations

20 21

1876: Mark Twain 1883: Automobile

writes Tom Sawyer motor patented 1886: Statue of Liberty
unveiled in New York harbor

1888: Tutti-Frutti Gum becomes first

1885: Brooklyn Bridge built chewing gum sold from vending machines
1884: Mark Twain writes
Huckleberry Finn
 T
Questions to Consider he early nineteenth century was marked by growth in industry
and commerce. This period is known as the Industrial Revo- The Industrial
Nationalism influenced all aspects of European lution. Urban landscape, industry and job opportunities Revolution, which
politics and culture during this period. Is there began in England
attracted people from the countryside. Cities like Paris became
and later spread to
something specifically Slavic in the music of major industrial and economic centers. Urban environments other countries,
Smetana and Dvořák? Can you identify the ele- inspired painters, musicians and writers. The work of artists at this marked a major
ments of folk music in their compositions? time reflected a combination of contemporary city life with the change in econom-
ic and social
familiar calming atmosphere of the country.
organization. Hand
Some historians suggest that writers, artists, and A literary movement which flourished in France in the late 19th tools were
composers exerted great influence on how peo- century was known as Symbolism. Using words symbolically replaced by
ple conceived of their national identities and rather than literally, poets wrote to evoke a sensory, not just an machines that
communities during this period. In effect, they could produce
intellectual, response from their readers. Poets such as Charles
items much faster
claim that prominent cultural players helped Baudelaire, Stephane Mallarme, Paul Verlaine, and Arthur Rim- and in mass
create the idea of nation, allowing actual baud created prose and verse that would challenge their readers' quantities. Large
nations such as Germany and Italy to emerge as emotions. Although the following poem by Baudelaire is a trans- establishments
viable political entities in the 19th century. with their factories
lation from the French, the translated words still convey the imme-
and assembly lines
Does this argument seem convincing to you? diate sense of the images described. took the place of
Do you think culture, and cultural events, can Some of these poems were very short, intended to evoke an individual skilled
affect politics? Can you think of any current immediate and powerful emotion. Others were longer, intended tradesmen.
examples? to sustain and develop images and feelings. Composers of music
did the same thing.

Correspondences
Charles Baudelaire

The pillars of Nature’s temple are alive

and sometimes yield perplexing messages;
forests of symbols between us and the shrine
remark our passage with accustomed eyes

like long-held echoes, blending somewhere else

into one deep and shadowy unison
posse
ss the as limitless as darkness and as day,
powe while
r of s the sounds, the scents, the colors correspond.
uch i other
in a n d musk, nfinit s -rich
b e n ja m e t h i n , cor
b e r, g s rupt There are odors succul
s in c e n se, am and
mast
sweet as
flutes, and ent as young flesh,
a erful green as a
22 s. ny grass, 23
and the mind’
pr ai se th e se nses’ raptures
to
CHAPTER FIVE
I M P R E S S I O N I S M—
A MOODY CONVERSATION
 Many painters in late 19th century France worked in a style him to pursue a career as a pianist. Having left the small French
similar to that of the Symbolists. We call this artistic movement town where he grew up to become part of the artistic scene in
The Origins of Impressionism. Instead of attempting to copy nature, these artists Paris, he began composing music in the company of other musi-
Impressionism: painted their impressions of it. Often in Impressionist painting, the cians, visual artists, poets, and writers. A number of Debussy’s
The art world was
entire scene is blurred and forms are not clearly outlined. The compositions are based on Verlaine's poems.
shocked in 1863
when Edouard canvas looks like a patchwork quilt of colors covered in daubs of In 1889 Debussy went to the World Exposition in Paris with his
Manet exhibited a paint that form recognizable images only when viewed from a friend and student Maurice Ravel (1875–1937). Musical and the-
painting that distance. atrical groups from all over the world gathered there to perform
would inspire the
Impressionist painters were fascinated with light– the way light their works. Debussy and Ravel were impressed by the unusual
Impressionist style.
Manet painted reflected off objects, how lights changed during different times of sounds they heard, particularly the Indonesian gamelan orches-
Maurice Ravel
everyday subjects day, and how light created different moods. In fact, the movement tra, which is comprised of gongs and other percussion instru-
using direct, bold is named for a painting by Claude Monet, called Impressions of ments. Excited by hearing something totally new and different, the
brush strokes. His
Sunrise. Monet also studied light in several series of paintings. two composers immediately began to experiment with producing
first painting to
come to public One series shows a simple haystack at six different times of the complex rhythmic sounds on traditional string instruments.
attention, Le day, showing six different qualities of light, and six different Debussy composed a substantial amount of music for piano
Déjeuner sur impressions or moods. The Impressionists' fascination with light and orchestra, but only one string quartet. In the quartet, bits of
l’herbe, depicted
inspired them to use color in unconventional ways. People had melodies surge in and out like the tides, passing from one musi-
a woodland picnic
with two fully- difficulty finding beauty in this new style of painting, just as they cian to another, creating a mood in the same way the Impression-
clothed men and a had struggled with Beethoven's new style of string quartet writing. ist painters did with their daubs of color. Color in music
nude woman, seat- Some of the music written in 19th century France has also been Ravel's string quartet imitates Debussy's closely. It is flowing and refers to the char-
ed on the grass, acteristic quality of
called Impressionism. Composers began writing music in a char- richly colored, but it is also detailed and clearly structured, and a sound, independ-
gazing boldly at
the viewer. The acteristically French manner, in which they expressed emotion has a more exotic use of rhythm. The Debussy and Ravel string ent of pitch and
painting was bit- through long sustained harmonies and musical phrases, rather quartets are often paired together in concerts and on recordings. loudness. For
terly attacked by than through dramatic changes in melody, harmony or rhythm. The Impressionist composers and painters, along with the Sym- example, the color
art critics, but it of a sound may be
Claude Debussy (1862–1918) was the first composer to be bolist poets, created works that defined French culture in the 19th described as warm
inspired a group of
young painters labeled an Impressionist, although he didn't feel he belonged in and early 20th centuries. Though Debussy's and Ravel's string and soothing or
who later became this category. The son of poor shopkeepers, he showed extraordi- quartets form only a small part of all the music they composed, harsh and jarring.
known as the nary talent at the piano by the age of 6. Somehow, his parents the new direction established by these quartets led to striking
Impressionists.
were able to provide young Debussy with piano lessons. His first changes in musical composition in the 20th century. The strong
teacher was the mother-in-law of the poet Paul Verlaine. cultural statements they made, and the inclusion of other cultural
Debussy’s talent was so unusual that at age 11 he was accepted expression set the stage for greater exploration of cultural themes
as a student at the Paris conservatory. This was similar to being in music and art.
admitted to university. However, after six long years of gruelling
piano study, he failed to pass the examinations that would allow
Claude Debussy

24 25
1908: Ford Motor Company 1920: American women win the 1924: George
produces the first “Model T” right to vote through the 19th Gershwin composes
1891: Tycoon Andrew Carnegie 1903: Wilbur and Orville 1912: Titanic sinks Amendment to the Constitution Rhapsody in Blue
opens Carnegie Hall in New York City Wright conduct first
successful airplane flight

1889: Eiffel Tower 1892: Basketball

completed in Paris invented in Springfield, 1917: Bolshevik revolution in Paris
Massachusetts 1907: First one-piece bathing suit 1909: Robert Peary becomes first First commercial
worn at Revere Beach in Boston explorer to reach the North Pole radio broadcast
1906: San Francisco earthquake and fire 1919: First Atlantic airplane crossing
 M
Questions to Consider uch string quartet music composed in the 20th century reflects
the diversity of cultures, environments, and circumstances that
The industrial age brings us closer to contempo- surround us. Ravel and Debussy heard gamelan music for the
rary urban life as we know it. Does the music of first time at the World Exposition in Paris in 1889. Shortly after this,
the post-industrial age sound more familiar to the American inventor Thomas Edison invented the tape recorder
you? Does the music reflect a more modern way and phonograph, which brought recorded music to every continent.
of thinking? Radio and television began to broadcast both live and recorded per-
formances, and satellite technology further extended the reach of
Impressionist painters like Monet play with light, these broadcasts. Consequently, 20th century composers are able to
color, and shading, giving us a radically new incorporate music from any culture into their string quartet writing.
way of seeing. Can you hear the way an Impres- In spite of these technological advances, the same four instruments
sionist composer like Debussy plays with color have stayed together since the days of Papa Haydn. Today’s string
and shading? How does he evoke and/or quartets also perform music composed for other instruments.
express different emotions? Computer technology has changed the way in which music is
composed and published, and in many cases has also influenced the
sounds of the music being written today. New compositions can be
faxed or e-mailed almost anywhere in the world in a few minutes,
and many composers now incorporate electronic sounds into live
performances. Through digital technology, a string quartet ensemble
can record a work simultaneously even if they are in four different
places in the world; it will sound as though they are sitting in the
same room. It is possible for people all over the world to join in a
jam session on the internet and play with music's superstars.
American composer George Crumb (b.1829) has lived through this
explosion of technology. He currently teaches music composition at
the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. Crumb's composition-
al style is best known for its blending of sounds from Western and
non-Western cultures. He combines instruments such as Tibetan
prayer stones, Japanese Kabuki blocks, alto African thumb piano
(mbira), and Chinese temple gongs with vibraphone, tambourine,
cymbals and tamtams. The music he writes also explores the mystical
qualities and meaning of life experiences.

6
Many composers incorporate 20th century global events and cul-

X
ture into their music. George Crumb's string quartet Black Angels:

an Inter national Conversation I

26 27

1929: New York stock market

crash and the beginning of
1936: Spanish
world-wide economic depression
Civil War begins

1927: First experimental 1937: Golden Gate

1933: Hitler granted dictatorial powers; first
television transmission Bridge opens
concentration camps erected in Germany
 Thirteen Images from the Dark Land, for electric string quartet, writ- On this recording, the members of the quartet play multiple
ten in 1970, is probably the first quartet to be inspired by the Viet- instruments in addition to the strings. The composer Obo Addy joins
nam War. Crumb states about the quartet: in with the quartet on his piece, Wawshishijay, playing instruments
such as the donno, brekete, pretia, aketse, and the gidi which define
The work draws from an arsenal of sounds including the sounds and textures of his native Ghana.
shouting,chanting, whistling, whispering, gongs,
maracas, and crystal glasses...Black Angels was
The Oakland, California based Turtle Island String Quartet adds
conceived as a kind of parable on our troubled jazz, folk, bluegrass and improvised styles and techniques to the
Obo Addy
contemporary world. The work portrays a voyage of standard string quartet medium. Their recordings feature songs and
the soul. The three stages of this voyage are Departure short pieces they themselves have composed. The Turtle Island musi-
(fall from grace), Absence (spiritual annihilation), and
Return (redemption).
cians often play like a jazz quartet—introducing the melody, and
then having each member take a turn improvising and varying the
These unusual and amplified sounds are very different from the melodic theme. The cellist often functions as both the bass and
soothing music of the 18th century court. The music is meant to be rhythm sections of a jazz combo, while the upper strings usually
as difficult to confront as war itself. solo above the bass line. The members of the quartet have all been
Another major American composer of string quartets, Elliott trained as classical musicians, and they have successfully expanded
Carter, speaks directly of confrontation as a form of response. We upon this training to produce the kind of sound that has become
cannot yet judge whether or not this will be a defining quality of their signature style.
late 20th century music.
Many traditions continue to thrive. Composers have been writing
pieces with specific ensembles in mind since the beginning of the
string quartet. Quite often in today's international music communi-
Elliott Carter
ty, ensembles commission works by composers from around the
world. These ensembles often work very closely with the composers
whose pieces they perform in order to understand fully the compos-
er’s musical ideas. Turtle Island String Quartet

In 1992, the San Francisco based Kronos Quartet recorded a

CD entitled Pieces of Africa. This sampling of traditional African
sounds and song mixed with a classical string quartet is just one
example of today's cultural fusion in music. The composers who
wrote Pieces of Africa for the Kronos Quartet were born in various
countries of Africa. In addition to the music they grew up with, all
the composers have had some kind of Western classical music experi-
Kronos Quartet ence or training.

28 29
1941: U.S. enters WWII after Japan’s
surprise attack on Pearl Harbor; Japanese 1948: Mahatma 1954: U.S. Supreme
Americans sent to internment camps. Ghandi is assassinated Court decision outlaws 1960: US military action
school segregation in Vietnam begins

1944: Allied invasion of 1949: Communist

Normandy, France; 1945: U.S. drops government is 1951: Color T.V. 1957: USSR launches Sputnik,
Hitler surrenders atomic bomb in Japan; established in China is introduced first earth orbiting satellite
World War II ends
 Questions to Consider

Have you detected any pattern in the way musicians

(and artists in general) interact with their society?
The composers of our study responded to their
society and times in various ways—integrating
new elements and reflecting social change, as well
as challenging social norms. While their work tran-
scended their time, these individuals were
definitely of their time. Events of great political
and social significance inevitably influence cul-
ture, but cultural forces also profoundly affect
political and social discourse. Is there a way to
determine how these forces impact one another?

Innovators are often considered rebels because they

break with older, inherited tradition, although
they are deeply influenced by these traditions. In
fact, to break with tradition, one must know it
well. How do you think the composers we have
studied negotiated between their roles as engaged
citizens of their society, and as challengers of
accepted values?

30 31
1968: Martin Luther 1981: Scientists
King, Jr. assassinated 1971: In response to identify Acquired
1963: President 1975: End of U.S. military
1961: Peace Vietnam protests, voting Immune Deficiency
John F. Kennedy involvement in Vietnam
Corps established age is lowered to 18 Syndrome (AIDS)
assassinated

Berlin Wall erected to 1964: The Beatles achieve

separate Eastern and 1974: President Nixon
international fame Sandra Day O’Connor becomes
Western Germany resigns as a result of
first female appointed to
Watergate scandal
1969: First man on the moon Supreme Court
 glossary of terms

accompaniment part of a piece of music that serves as background melody a tune, or succession of notes that together form a
and support for more important parts. complete musical statement.

arco playing a stringed instrument by drawing the hair motif a recurring theme, subject or idea in art, music,
of a bow across the strings. literature or dance.

bow a long rod with horsehairs stretched from one end musical ensemble a group of musicians performing together.
to the other, used for playing stringed instruments
pizzicato playing a stringed instrument by plucking the strings.
cello the second largest member of the string family, and
the lowest sounding member of the string quartet romanticism a movement in art, literature and music in which
form is subordinate to content. Romanticism empha-
chamber music music performed in a small concert hall or room sizes imagination and emotion, and celebrates nature
by a small group of musicians and freedom of the human spirit.

classical music formal, artistically sophisticated music that endures string quartet a musical ensemble of two violins, one viola, and
over time. one cello; or a piece of music written for this combi-
nation of instruments.
col legno playing a stringed instrument with the wooden
part of a bow. viola the second smallest member of the string family. The
viola makes middle range sounds, comparable to that
composer someone who writes music. of the human voice.

folk music anonymous music passed on by oral tradition violin the smallest member of the string instrument
family. The violin makes the highest sounds of
impressionism an artistic style in which daubs of paint or tonal the string family.
colors are used to convey moods and impressions
in painting and music

instrumental music music performed on instruments without text

or words.

32 33
 resources

Websites:
www.asq4.com
www.kronosquartet.org
www.tisq.com/home.html
www.cypressquartet.com

Movies:
Amadeus
Immortal Beloved
The Madness of King George
The Red Violin

Recordings:
Alexander String Quartet–The Complete Beethoven Quartets
(Arte Nova Classics)
Any recording by the Alexander String Quartet
Any recording by the Kronos Quartet
Any recording by the Turtle Island String Quartet
Any recording by the Cypress String Quartet (under the Alexander)

34 35