CHAPTER 3

UNDERWATER INSPECTION PROCEDURES

3.1 SCOPE
A major portion of the UCT’s activity is directly related to the underwater inspection of a
wide variety of waterfront structures and other marine facilities. UCT underwater inspections
are primarily visual observations of the facility being inspected. Quantitative measurem ems,
such as underwater voltmeter readings on metal structures and thickness measurements on
mooring chain and steel piling, are often taken.

3.2 INTRODUCTION TO WATERFRONT FACILITIES

An important part of the UCT’s work is related to the underwater inspection of a wide
variety marine facilities. Marine facilities of interest to the UCTs include:
 Berthing facilities
 Drydocks
 Coastal protection structures
 Components of waterfront structures:
 fender systems, piling, and dolphins
 Fleet moorings
 Underwater cables and pipelines

3.2.1 Berthing Facilities

Berthing facilities provide space for mooring, shore utilities, hotel services, loading and
unloading of cargo, personnel, ordnance, and fuel, and maintenance, repair, and fitting out.
3.2.1.1 Piers. Piers are docks that extend
outward from the shore into the water. There are basically four types of pier structures
withdistinct differences inconfiguration, open, closed, combination, and floating. These piers
are :
a) Open piers are pilesupported platform structures which allow water to flow
underneath.
b) Closed piers are constructed so that water is prevented from flowing underneath.
c) Floating piers can be constructed of steel or concrete and are connected to the shore
with access ramps.

3.2.1.2 Piling
Piling is a common element found on piers, wharves, and some fender systems. Inspection
and repair of piling forms an important part of UCT tasking.
The basic types of piling are:
a) Vertical bearing piles are used to support the dead weight of the pier as well as the
live loads on the pier.
b) Batter piles primarily provide lateral and longitudinal stability but do provide limited
load carrying capacity.

3.2.1.3 Wharves and Quaywalls.

Wharves are docks which are oriented approximately parallel to the shore and are connected
to shore along their entire length. The retaining structure used to contain the backfill is
commonly referred to as the quaywall or bulkhead.
3.2.1.4 Fender Systems.
Fender systems are used on piers to protect the ship and the pier during berthing operations
and while the ship is moored. On relatively inflexible piers and wharves the fender acts as a
buffer in absorbing or dissipating the impact energy of the ship without damaging the ship.
Where ships are berthed against pile-supported structures, protection of the structure is of
more serious concern.
For modem larger piers, various types of fenders are attached to the pier, and they include:
 Rubber units in compression or shear (various shapes: cylindrical, rectangular,
trapezoidal, wing, etc.).
 Buckling column (various shapes).
 Pneumatic (air filled) shapes.
 Foam filled (typically cylindrical shape).

3.2.1.5 Dolphins.
Dolphins are groups of piles placed near piers and wharves or in turning basins and ship
channels. These structures are used to guide vessels into their moorings, to mark underwater
structures, to moor vessels to, to berth vessels against, and to support navigational aids.

3.2.1.6 Drydocking Facilities.

Drydocking facilities are used for construction and maintenance of ships and barges. The
different types of drydocks include:
a) Graving drydocks are fixed basins adjacent to the water’s edge and are constructed
b) of stone masonry, concrete, or sheet pile cells. They can be closed off from the
waterway by a movable water barrier (usually called a caisson).
c) floating drydocks are ship or U-&aped of heavy seas. Breakwaters may be
constructures that are submerged by flooding . Af- netted-or detached from the shore.
ter flooding, the vessel enters. The dock is then pumped dry which raises the vessel
out of the water for maintenance or repair.

3.2.2 Coastal Pmtection Structures

Coastal protection structures are designed to reduce the effects of wave action, so as to
protect harbors and reduce the formation of sandbars, They can be fabricated out of a variety
of materials including concrete, rock rubble, granitemasonry, and reinforced precast concrete
armor units. Typical coastal structures include seawalls, groins, jetties, and breakwaters.
These structures are:

a) Seawalls are massive coastal structures built along the shoreline.

b) Their primary function is to protect areas from erosion caused by waves or flooding.
c) Groins are designed to minimize coastal erosion by controlling the rate of shifting
sand by influencing offshore currents and waves. Groins project outward,
perpendicular to the shoreline.
d) Jetties extend outward from shore to prevent the formation of sandbars and direct the
flow of water from currents, tides, and waves.
e) Breakwaters are generally located outside the entrance of a harbor, anchorage, or
coastline. They are designed primarily to protect the inner waters and shoreline from
the effects of heavy seas.
3.3 GENERAL INSPECTION PROCEDURES
The purpose of any inspection is to provide the information necessary to assess the
condition (capacity, safety, and rate of deterioration) of a structure. The usefulness of an
inspection depends, therefore, on the suitability and recording of the data (observations)
obtained for use in later engineering evaluations. An underwater inspection is a condition
survey,therefore, the diver should make and report observations and measurements that can
be used by an engineer to make the engineering assessments.

3.3.1 Levels of Inspection

Three basic types or levels of inspection are used for inspecting marine facilities. They are
distinguished by the resources and preparation needed to do the work and the type of
damage/defect that is detectable, as:

Level I - General Visual Inspection.

The Level I effort can confirm as-built structural plans and detect obvious major damage or
deterioration due to overstress (collisions, ice), severe corrosion, or extensive biological
growth and attack.
Level II - Close-Up Viiual Inspection.
Level II efforts are complete, detailed investigations of selected components or
subcomponents, or critical areas of the structure, directed toward detecting and describing
damaged or deteriorated areas that may be hidden by surface biofouling.
Level III -Highly Detailed Impection.
This level of inspection is primarily designed to provide data that can be used to perform a
structural assessment and will often require the use of Nondestructive Testing (NDT)
techniques.

3.3.2 Planning for Inspection

Before starting a facility inspection, all available information about the facility should
be obtained. Local information that should be obtained include:
 Atmospheric temperature range.
 Water temperature range.
 idal range.
 Water depths.
 Water visibility.
 Currents.
 Any condition that could have a direct impact on the time needed to perform an
inspection, such as amount of biofouling growth on piles or any other condition that
would inhibit the performance ofaninspection such as ice or seasonal flooding.
 Ship traffic and facility berthing requirements.

3.3.3 Inspection Frequency

The frequency of inspection will be dependent upon whether the inspection is surface or
underwater, and the expected rate of deterioration and damage. A typical example requiring
more frequent inspection is an area experiencing damage by ships berthing that results in
advanced deterioration to both fender and structural piling. The frequency and level of
inspection should, therefore, be closely tied to the historical deterioration rate of the facility.
3.3.4 Documentation of Inspection
For the results of the inspection to be useful, they must be documented in a clear and concise
manner and in accordance with generally understood terminology. Inspection
forms and reports should be completed as soon as possible after the inspection has been
completed.

3.4 STEEL STRUCTURES

3.4.1 Types of steel structures
Structural steel is used in most metal waterfront structures because it is strong, readily
available, easily fabricated into any shape, and not excessively costly. In marine applications,
steel has many uses as a constructionmaterial.

3.4.2 Deterioration of Steel Structures

There are six major types and causes of steel structure deterioration in the marine
environment:
 Corrosion is the principal cause of deterioration of steel waterfront structures.
Corrosion of steel is an electrochemical process that converts the steel into iron
oxides.
 Abrasion of steel structures can generally be recognized by a worn, smooth, polished
appearance of the surf&e. Abrasion is caused by continual rubbing of adjacent
moving steel smfaces, or by the exposure of structural components to wave action in
areas of sandy bottom.
 Loosening of structural connections , Structural comectious joined together by
rivets or bolts have a tendency to work loose over an extended period of time.
Connection loosening can result from impact loadings of the type imparted by a
vessel striking a pier or wharf fender system. Wave action and reciprocating
machinery mounted on or below pier or wharf decks are other sources of possible
connection loosening.
 Fatigue , fatigue failure results in the fracture of structural members as a
consequence of repeated high loadings. Fatigue distress can be recognized by a series
of small hairline fractures perpendicular to the line of stress in the member. Tubular
connections of offshore platforms are particularly susceptible to fatigue failure.
 Overloading. Steel structural elements are sensitive to impact damage from berthing
vessels and other types of accidental overloading. Impact or collision damage can
generally be recognized by the appeamnce of local distortion (deformation) of the
damaged member.
 Foundation Deterioration.. Loss of foundation material from around steel piles leads
to accelerated corrosion and loss of cohmm strength of the piles. The loss of
foundation material is usually caused by the scouring of material from around the
piles.

3.4.4 Steel Structures Offshore

When steel is used as a structural member in support towers and other ocean platforms,
members are usually welded together. These welded connections must be carefully inspected
as they are highly susceptible to electrochemical corrosion and fatigue cracking.
3.4.5 Equipment and Tools Required
To ensure a thorough inspection, the area must be cleared of all marine growth. This
can be done by various means, depending on surface support. A high-pressure water jet is the
most effective method for clearing marine growth sufficiently for visual inspection. Hand
tools, such as wire brushes and scrapers are sufficient for smaller jobs.
3.4.5.1 Ultrasonic Inspection.
Ultrasonic thickness measurement equipment is available for inspecting steel structures.
Thicknessmeammmentsareobtainedbecausecertain types of ultrasonic waves travel at a
constant speed through a material, because they travel in straight lines, and because a portion
of the wave is reflected when it meets an interface.

3.4.5.2 Underwater Magnetic Particle Testing.

Underwater magnetic particle testing (UWMT) is a nondestructive method for locating
and defining surface discontinuities (such as cracks) in magnetic materials underwater. Its
principle of operation is that magnetic particles are attracted to flux leakages at the surface of
magnetized materials and form indications of discontinuities located either at or just below
the surface.

3.5 FLEET MOORINGS

3.5.1 Types of Fleet Moorings
Fleet moorings allow ships to maintain either a fixed or semi-fixed position. A fleet mooring
in common use is the riser freeswinging mooring.

3.5.2 Fleet Mooring Anchors

The most common types of anchors used in Navy fleet moorings .
 Drag Embedment Anchors. Common drag embedment anchor types found in Navy
moorings
 Wedge Anchor (Pearl Harbor Anchor). This inexpensive anchor may be found in low
capacity and short-scope moorings in single and multiple anchor ground legs.
 Direct Embedment Anchors. Two direct embedment anchor types, which are
characterized by their method of installation, are used in Navy fleet moorings.
 Pile Anchors. This anchor is used often with bow ground legs of Mediterranean
moorings. Its use should be limited in the future due to expanded use of driven plate
anchors.
3.5.3 Deterioration of Fleet Moorings
Deterioration of fleet moorings is primarily due to corrosion and wear losses on the mooring
chains, fittings, and anchors. Fleet moorings are affected by loss of buoyancy due to
accumulations of fouling organisms.
3.5.4 Typical Inspection Procedure
Inspecting a fleet mooring should be performed after contacting the fleet mooring inspection
agency (NFESC Code ESCSS) .

3.6 CONCRETE STRUCTURES

3.6.1 Types of Marine ConcreteStructures
Concrete is widely used in the marine environment as a construction material because of its
many desirable properties. In its plastic state, concrete is easily mixed, handled, transported,
and placed into forms.
3.6.2 Deterioration of Marine Concrete structures
The most common damage resulting from the premature deterioration of concrete structures
in or near seawater is cracking and loss of material (or cross section). Softening of the
concrete due to chemical action is another form of damage but less common than cracking.
3.6.2.1 Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel.
With the exception of mass gravity structures, most marine concrete structures use steel
reinforcement. This reinforcement, to be most effective, is nearly always located within a few
inches of the concrete surface, making the steel susceptible to corrosion if it does not have
adequate cover of good quality concrete.
3.6.2.2 Freeze/Thaw Deterioration.
Freeze/thaw deterioration is the freezing of absorbed moisture or water in porous concrete
exposed to subfreezing temperatures. This is one of the most common causes of concrete
deterioration in the tidal and splash zones.
3.6.2.3 Abrasion Wear. Abrasion is defined
as erosion of a concrete surface by the physical action (impact and rubbing) of external
loadings or abrading agents. Deck slabs are subject to abrasion by vehicular traffic and
loading equipment.
3.6.2.4 Chemical Deterioration. The most
significant and serious saltwater chemical reaction to hardened concrete is the combining of
sulfates in seawater with chemicals in the cement paste, referred to as sulphate attack.
3.6.2.5 Axial Overloading. Deterioration
of concrete piles from axial overloading can be a cause of eventual faihue of the pile.
Overloading can result from superimposed “dead” and “live” loads exceeding thebearing
capacity of the pile, and also from overstressing at the time of pile driving.
3.6.2.7 Swelling. Concrete that increases
in moisture content by absorbing water or increases in temperature will swell or expand.
Typically, swelling by water absorption is not a concemunless precast dry-concrete members
are used.
3.6.2.8 Other Deterioration Factors
The preceding has discussed deterioration in concrete caused by improper selection or
proportioning of concrete materials, faulty construction methods and procedures, and attack
by environmental forces.
3.6.3 Concrete Inspection Procedure
Three specialized instruments have been developed for underwater inspection of concrete
structures. These instruments are the:
  Magnetic rebar locator - used to determine the location and orientation of rebar in
concrete structures and to measure theamount of concrete cover over the rebar.
 Rebound hammer - used to evaluate the surface hardness of the concrete and obtain
a general condition assessment.
 Ultrasonic system - used to obtain a general condition rating and indication of overall
strength of the concrete based on sound velocity me asurements through a large
volume of the structural element.

3.6.4 Equipment and Tools Required

To perform a thorough inspection, the marine growth on the structure must be removed. A
“Barnacle Buster” or pneumatic chipping gun is an efficient method of removing marine
growth from concrete surfaces.

 Magnetic Rebu Locator.

 Rebound Hammer
 Ultrasonic System.

3.7 TIMBER STRUCTURES

3.7.1 Types of Timber Structures
Timber is used in marine applications as a commotion material chiefly because of its low
initial cost and the ease with which it can be -procured, transported, and constructed into
required shapes.
3.7.2 Deterioration of Timber Structures
Timber structures are subject to deterioration from decay or rot, attack by marine borers and
insects, splitting and checking brought about by drying shrinkage or by the alternate wetting
arxl drying cycle within the splash zone, overloading, corrosion of
connections, abrasion, and ice heaving.
3.7.2.1 Fungi and Rot Damage
Several species of fungi exist by feeding on timber, causing a breakdown within the cellular
structure of timber under attack. In the early stages, fungi attack is evident by a discoloration
and softening of the wood accompanied by a fluffy or cottony appeamw.
3.7.2.2 Marine Borer and Insect Attack.
Marine borer attack is a very serious problem for timber structures in the splash and
submerged zones. The ravaging effects of two large groups of marine invertebrates, the
Teredo (commonly called shipworms) and the Limnoriu (commonly called woodgribbles), are
welldocumented.
3.7.2.3 shinkage Damage. Drying causes
timber to shrink. After installation this drying process continues, especially in hot dry
climates, and the timber members split and check.
3.7.2.4 Overloading.
Overloading of piles may be due to a contimous source of loading or to an infrequent type of
loading. Materials being stored in a warehouse on a pier is a form of continuous loading.
Short-time loading is exemplified by the impact of a vessel striking a pier or heavy vehicles
passing over the deck of the pier.
3.7.2.5 Strudurai Conection Corrosion.
The weak link in marine timber construction is the connecting hardware, since this
steel hardware is subject to corrosion. Figure 3-60 illustrates one consequence of one type of
hardware failure.
3.7.2.6 Abrasion Damage. Abrasion from
suspended sand or silt and from ice during winter months will continually decrease the
diameter of piles,
3.7.2.7 Ice Heaving. Timber piles used
singly as mooring piles or in groups in light structures are subject to heaving by ice. Ice
freezes to the pile and as the tide rises the buoyant force acting on the ice-may cause the pile
to heave

3.8 STONE MASONRY STRUCTURES

3.8.1 Types of Stone Masonry Structures
Although very few waterfront structures built today are constructed from stone masonry,
it is still necessary to be familiar with the inspection of this type of structure.
3.8.2 Deterioration of Stone Masonry
Strudures Stone masonry structures typically develop problems at the joints between pieces
of stone. Failures of these types of structures usually occur as a result of washout of the
joints. In addition, increased earth or hydrostatic pressure causes joints to crack and stones to
fall out.
3.8.3 Typical Inspection Procedure
Stone masonry retaining walls, such as those found on quaywalls and wharves, germ-ally
require only avery simple inspection, as follows:

a) Begin the inspection at the waterline, checking for excessive weathering and abrasion
deterioration, and loss of mortar from the joints.
b) Inspect below the waterline, taking note of the general condition of the wall, and
paying particular attention to the joints between each stone.
c) If there are significant gaps between stones or stones are missing, note the location,
depth, and length of missing stone.
d) Continue to the bottom of the structure and note any undermining or scouring of the
material under the wall structure.
e) At any missing stone or undermining, probe the cavity to estimate the extent of the
void (if any) behind or below the wall.
f) Record the depth of the water at the base of the wall.
g) After returning to the surface, immediately transcribe all information into the
inspection log if information has not been communicated viahardwire.

3.8.4 Equipment and Tools Required

Since the underwater inspection of stone masonry structures involves only a cursory
inspection of the joints between stones and the general condition of the. wall and its
foundation, only a few tools are required.

A ruler is used to determine the width and depth of cracks and open joints, as well as
the size of missing stones or pieces of stone. A Plexiglas slate and a grease pencil are used
underwater to record any pertinent information, or the informationis communicated to topside
person viahardwire. Small hand tools, such as wire brushes and scrapers, are also useful to
clear off cracks and joints.