A

SEMINAR REPORT

ON THE TOPIC

PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNIT

Submitted by

PADAM DHAR DWIVEDI

ROLL NO – 15EE34

In partial fulfilment for the award of my degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
At

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MAHATMA JYOTIBA PHULE ROHILKHAND UNIVERSITY,
BAREILLY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The seminar report on “VIBRATION COUNT METER” is outcome of guidance, moral

support and devotion bestowed on me
throughout my work. For this I acknowledge and express my profound sense of gratitude and
thanks to everybody who have been a source of inspiration during the seminar preparation.
First and foremost I offer my since phrases of thanks with intake humility to MR. ASHISH
SHANKHWAR sir asst. Professor of IET MJPRU, Bareilly and guide of my seminar for
providing help whenever needed.

PADAM DHAR DWIVEDI

ROLL NO -15EE34
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
M.J.P. ROHIKHAND UNIVERSITY
BAREILLY

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 INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
MAHATMA JYOTIBA PHULE ROHILKHAND UNIVERSITY,
BAREILLY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar entitled “VIBRATION COUNT METER” is submitted by
PADAM DHAR DWIVEDI bearing roll no. 15EE34 partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the award of the degree Bachelor of Technology in Electrical Engineering of I.E.T.
M.J.P.R.U. Bareilly for the academic year 2015-2019.

Seminar Guide Seminar In-charge Head of the Department

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 ABSTRACT

Vibration is the back and forth or repetitive motion of an object from its point of rest. When a
force is applied to a mass spring system it stretches spring thus lowering the weight but as the
force is removed it moves upward through the position of rest to its upper limit. Here the mass
stops and reverses the direction traveling back through the position of rest to the lower limit.
In a friction-free system the mass would continue this motion indefinitely. But all real systems
are damped, that is they will gradually come to their rest position after
several cycles of motion, unless acted upon by an external force. The characteristics of this
vibratory motion are period, frequency, displacement, velocity, acceleration, amplitude and
phase. All rotating machines produce vibrations that are a function of the machine dynamics,
such as the alignment and balance of the rotating parts.
Vibration measurement is an effective, non-intrusive method to monitor machine condition
during start-ups, shutdowns and normal operation thus here we will study the methods of
measurement, it’s effect and need.

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 INDEX

1. Introduction
2. Importance of Vibration Measurement
2.1. What vibration analysis tells us
2.2. Benefits of vibration analysis
3. The basic characteristics of the vibration signal
4. Vibration Measurement Equipment and Vibration Sensor Technology
4.1. Measuring Vibration with contact vibration sensors
4.1.1. Accelerometer
4.1.2. Piezoelectric sensor
4.1.3. Seismometer sensor
4.2. Measuring Vibration with Noncontact Displacement Sensors
4.2.1. Capacitive Linear Displacement Sensor
4.2.2. Eddy-Current/Inductive Linear Displacement Sensors
4.2.3. Laser-Doppler vibrometer
5. Advantages and Disadvantages of different vibration sensors
6. Applications and Industries
7. Conclusion
8. References

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 Introduction
Vibration is a time-based (periodic/cyclic) displacement of an object around a centre static
position. The following contributing factors have a complex relationship with the magnitude
and rate of the vibration.

 The object’s own natural frequencies and stiffness.

 The amplitude and frequencies of any external energy source(s) inducing the vibration.
 The coupling mechanism between vibration energy source and the object of interest.

Vibration measurement is complex because of its many components – displacement, velocity,

acceleration, and frequencies. Also, each of these components can be measured in different
ways – peak-to-peak, peak, average, RMS; each of which can be measured in the time domain
(real-time, instantaneous measurements with an oscilloscope or data acquisition system) or
frequency domain (vibration magnitude at different frequencies across a frequency spectrum),
or just a single number for “total vibration.”

Vibration measurement is sometimes used as an indirect measurement of some other value.

The final measurement goal determines the approach to the measuring
vibration. Often, condition monitoring– predicting or monitoring wear, fatigue, and failure –
requires vibration measurements meant to determine the kinetic energy and forces acting upon
an object . This is often called inertial vibration. Monitoring machinery motors (especially the
bearings) in critical applications is an example. In these cases, the measurement of acceleration
provides an easy conversion to units of force assuming the mass of the object is known.

Other applications are concerned with the displacement of the object of interest because
unintended displacements degrade performance of a system. Hard-disk drives and machine
tools are examples of this type of vibration measurement, sometimes referred to as positional
vibration or relative vibration.

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 Importance of Vibration Measurement

What vibration analysis tells us

Among the most important mechanical faults that vibration analysis can reveal are:

Imbalance: A “heavy spot” in a rotating component causes vibration when the unbalanced
weight rotates around the machine’s axis, creating a centrifugal force. As machine speed
increases, the effects of imbalance become greater. Imbalance can severely reduce bearing life
as well as cause undue machine vibration.

Misalignment/shaft runout: Vibration can result when machine shafts are out of line.
Angular misalignment occurs when the axes of (for example) a motor and pump are not
parallel. When the axes are parallel but not exactly aligned, the condition is known as parallel
misalignment. Misalignment may happen during assembly or develop over time, due to thermal
expansion, components shifting, or improper reassembly after maintenance. The resulting
vibrations may be in the direction of the rotation, along the shaft axis, or both.

Wear: As components, such as bearings, drive belts, or gears, become worn, they may cause
vibration. When a roller-bearing race becomes pitted, for instance, the bearing rollers will cause
a vibration each time they travel over the damaged area. A gear tooth that is heavily chipped
or worn, or a drive belt that is breaking down, can also produce vibration.

Looseness: Vibration that might otherwise go unnoticed may become obvious and
destructive if the component vibrating has loose bearings or is loosely attached to its mounts.
Such looseness may or may not be caused by the underlying vibration. Whatever its cause,
looseness can allow any vibration present to cause damage, such as further bearing wear or
wear and fatigue in equipment mounts and other components.

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Benefits of vibration analysis

Predictability: Studies have shown vibration analysis can provide early warnings of
impending machine failure, giving maintenance staff time to schedule required repairs and
acquire needed parts.

Safety: Having information about machine health enables operators to take faulty equipment
offline before a hazardous condition occurs.

Revenue: Well-maintained machines have fewer unexpected and serious failures, helping to
prevent production stoppages that cut into the bottom line. Increased maintenance intervals:
When machine health is being tracked, maintenance can be scheduled by need, not just by
accumulated hours of operation.

Reliability: Monitored machinery has fewer unexpected or catastrophic failures.

Cost savings: Running machinery until failure often results in more expensive repairs,
overtime, and forced purchases. Twenty-five years of documented savings show a 20:1 benefit-
to-cost ratio for vibration analysis programs.

Peace of mind: A better understanding of machine health builds confidence in maintenance

schedules, budgeting, and productivity estimates.

The basic characteristics of the vibration signal

1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase

Amplitude: Amplitude is a measure of how severe the vibration is and can be expressed in
three different ways: Peak to peak, Zero to peak and RMS, depending on what signal we are
measuring. Vibration is measured either in terms of displacement, velocity or acceleration.

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Frequency: Frequency is a measure of how fast a body is vibrating and is used to identify
the source of vibration.

Phase: Phase is a simple timing relationship between 2 events which may be 2 vibration
signals for Relative Phase measurements or a vibration signal and a key phasor reference signal
for Absolute measurements.

Vibration Measurement Equipment and

Vibration Sensor Technology
Vibration is measured as an acceleration, velocity, or displacement. Each has advantages and
disadvantages and each vibration measurement unit can be converted to the others although
with potentially adverse consequences from the conversion. Acceleration and displacement are
the most common methods of vibration measurement.

Measuring Vibration with contact vibration sensors

Accelerometer:
Accelerometers are small devices that are installed directly on the surface of (or within) the
vibrating object. They contain a small mass which is suspended by flexible parts that operate
like springs. When the accelerometer is moved, the small mass will deflect proportionally to
the rate of acceleration. A variety of sensing techniques can be used to measure the amount
of deflection of the mass. Because the mass and spring forces are known, the amount of
deflection is readily converted to an acceleration value. Accelerometers can provide
acceleration information in one or more axes.

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 Figure.1: Cross section view of Accelerometer sensors for vibration
measurement
Inertial vibration measurements in which the forces acting upon the object are the critical factor
are well served by accelerometers, but accelerometers are sensitive to frequency. Vibrations at
higher frequencies have greater accelerations than those at lower frequencies. For this reason,
accelerometers produce very low signal levels for low-frequency vibration and can have poor
signal to noise ratios. Also, using integration to derive velocity or double integration to derive
displacement values reduces high-frequency signals.

Attaching accelerometers to the object of interest changes the mass of the object which changes
its natural resonant frequencies. When the mass of the object is considerably larger than the
mass of the accelerometer, as is often the case, the effect is negligible. But it does limit the use
of accelerometers on smaller objects.

Accelerometers are a great choice for larger objects, vibrating at higher frequencies, in which
the inertial forces acting upon the object is what needs to be measured.

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 Figure.2: Accelerometer sensor for vibration
measurement

Piezoelectric sensor:

The piezoelectric sensor works on the basis of the seismic principle and the piezoelectric effect.
Here quartz crystal and piezo ceramic replace the spring used in a Seismometer. The piezo
material is fixed to the vibrating object on the one side and to the seismic mass on the other.
Vibrations forces lead to strain and compression on the piezo material. The piezoelectric effect
describes the occurrence of an electric charge due to the change in length of the polarised
materials. This charge is proportional to the acting force and can be tapped. Since the force is
a product of mass and acceleration it can be easily computed. The piezo materials are very
rigid, therefore damping might be necessary. This can be achieved by adding stoppers or
immersing the parts in oil. The weight of piezoelectric sensors varies from less than 1 g up to
several grams. The linear frequency range of piezoelectric sensors varies from below 0.1 Hz
up to 104 Hz. Thus, piezoelectric sensors allow measurements of accelerations under 1 g and
up to several thousand g.

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 Figure.3: Piezoelectric sensor for vibration
Measurement

Seismometer sensor:

Absolute speed can be measured with the Seismometer. The Seismometer consists of a seismic
mass and a spring within a housing. Due to the inertia of the mass, there is a relative movement
between the seismic mass and the housing, in case of vibrations. A coil, which is fixed to the
housing, can be used cause induction. Due to the movement of the mass, a voltage is induced
in the coil. This voltage speed can be measured because it is proportional. Often attenuation
equalization is installed in such a seismometer in order to avoid resonance peaks.

In today’s seismometers the mass is fixed motionless in relation to the housing. Thus there is
no voltage amplitude caused by motion of the seismic mass. However the force, that is needed
to hold the mass in balance, is measured through voltage. Modern seismometers are able to
register frequencies from less than 10-3 Hz up to 100 Hz. It is possible to detect movements in
the range of about 1 nm and several centimetres. The principle of seismic mass can also be
used in path and acceleration measurement.

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 Figure.4: Seismometer sensor for vibration
Measurement

Measuring Vibration with Noncontact Displacement

Sensors
Noncontact displacement sensors mount with a small gap between the sensor (probe) and a
surface of the vibrating object. Capacitive and eddy current displacement sensors are best
choices for high-resolution, high-speed measurements. Because their outputs are
displacement measurements, they are perfect for relative vibration (positional vibration)
measurements. These measurements are made when the physical location of the surface of
the vibrating object at any moment in time is a critical factor.

With frequency response over 10 kHz and as high as 80 kHz, and resolutions as low as
manometers, these sensors indicate the precise instantaneous location of the object even when
it is moving at high speed.

Because the sensors are not mounted on the object, they do not change the object’s mass or
its resonant characteristics. These sensors have a flat frequency response from DC to near

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their rated frequency response. Because the output is not affected by the frequency of the
vibration, measurements are more accurate across the frequency spectrum.

Displacement data from these sensors can be differentiated to provide velocity information and
differentiated a second time to obtain acceleration information. The differentiation process will
limit low frequency signals and emphasize higher frequency signals. This will result in lower
signal-to-noise ratios in the higher frequencies

Capacitive Linear Displacement Sensor:

The capacitive principle can be applied to non-contact vibration measurement, if the vibrating
object or a relevant part of it is useable as a plate of a capacitor. In order to do measurements,
a second plate is needed. Now the whole setup works like any common capacitor. The
variation of the distance of the two plates is proportional to the capacity. An AC supply is
connected to the capacitor. Depending on the distance between the plates, a specific
amplitude can be recognized by the sensor which can be used for further processing. The
measuring stroke reaches from several μm to mm with a resolution of some nm. The band of
frequencies lies between 0 and 6 kHz. However this non-contact method is not feasible for
application in high quantities and must be adapted to the individual case. Capacitive linear
displacement sensors can have very high resolution and must be used in clean environments.

Figure.5: Capacitive sensor for vibration

Measurement

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Eddy-Current/Inductive Linear Displacement Sensors:

In eddy current sensors, the displacement measurement of vibrations is limited to metallic

objects or at least objects with a metallic surface. The sensor consists of a coil which is
connected to an AC supply. This configuration develops an electromagnetic field that in turn
causes eddy currents within the metallic object. These eddy currents interfere with the
electromagnetic field and result in a measureable dissipation. Possible path measurements are
between 0.5 and 80 mm. Here the resolution lies somewhere between nm and μm. The band of
frequency ranges between 1 Hz and 100 kHz.
Eddy-Current linear displacement sensors also have high resolution, although not as high as
capacitive sensors, and are unaffected by debris in the measurement area.
Eddy-Current sensors are used in manufacturing and industrial applications where
environments may be dirty or hostile but precision, noncontact displacement sensing is still
required.

Figure.6: Eddy current sensor for vibration

Measurement

Laser-Doppler vibrometer:

The Laser-Doppler vibrometer (LDV) uses the Doppler frequency shift for non-contact speed
measurement. In principle, it consists of a laser, beam splitters, a reflector, a Bragg cell and a

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photo detector. The coherent laser light is split into a measuring beam and the reference beam
by means of polarisation. The measuring beam is projected onto the vibrating object and is
reflected on its surface. The reference beam is used to be send through a Bragg cell for a
frequency shift. This frequency shift allows the detection of motion direction later. The
interference of both beams leads to a frequency modulated signal. Various demodulation
methods are able to translate the signal into path or speed information. Commercial LDVs have
a frequency range between 0 Hz and 30 MHz and can follow vibration speeds from 100 nm/s
up to 20 m/s.

LDVs are used in a wide variety of scientific, industrial, and medical applications. Some
examples are as follows:
 Aerospace – LDVs are being used as tools in non-destructive inspection of aircraft
components.
 Architectural – LDVs are being used for bridge and structure vibration tests.
 Biological – LDVs have been used for diverse applications such as eardrum diagnostics
and insect communication.

Figure.7: Laser Doppler sensor for vibration

Measurement

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Advantages and Disadvantages of different vibration
sensors

Figure.8: Advantages and Disadvantages of different vibration sensors

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 Applications and Industries

The table below describes the industries which commonly use vibration measurement, as well
as the product traits for sensors designed for each. The unique characteristics of each industry
determine ideal sensor characteristics; for example, the very slow rotation of turbines in the
mining and wind power industries results in the use of a vibration sensor with a very low
frequency response of around 1 Hz or less. In contrast, the oil and gas industry requires high
frequency (greater than 10 Hz – 10 kHz) sensors to cope with the faster rotation of turbines and
gears.

Figure.9: Applications of different vibration sensors in industries

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 CONCLUSION

Vibration measurement is used very frequently in industries for maintenance and predictability
of condition of machine to ensure safety and reliability with the advantage of cost saving from
regular maintenance and failure of the equipment resulting in shutdown of plant or machines,
thereby ultimately ensures the peace of mind of producer. In spite of this it also helps in testing
of disease in humans e.g. it is used in determination of Hip prosthesis loosening. It is also used
in floor vibration survey in hospital if MRI machine is to be installed because it causes MRI
image artifacts and also used in infrastructures, transportation systems and various other fields.
Thus from above discussion we get to know that vibration has both
adverse and good effects, in some situations this has major impact on the performance and
durability of machines and in applications such as mobile phones, massager used as the utility.
So it depends on us the way we use it as a advantage or disadvantage.

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 REFERENCES

 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17587635
 https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107088/
 https://instrumentationtools.com
 https://www.mtiinstruments.com/technology-principles/capacitance-based-
measurement/
 https://www.eddycurrentprobe.com/
 https://blog.mide.com/vibration-sensor-types-and-where-to-buy-them
 https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/PINSA/Vol74_20081Art07.pdf
 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-04546-7_10

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