I.

Objectives
 To learn the different types of energy resources not commonly found in the
Philippines and their working principles.
 To locate different power plants using energy sources commonly not found in the
Philippines.
 To state the advantages and disadvantages of different energy resources outside the
Philippines.

II. Energy Resources Not Found in the Philippines

While the Philippines have many different energy sources, still, there are
many other sources commonly found in other country. These are;

1. Solar Energy

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of
ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar
architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis. In this paper, the solar
thermal energy will be discussed. Example of solar plants is the PS10 in Europe

a. Theory

Solar Thermal Electricity, also known as Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)

technology, is produced using concentrating solar radiation technologies. It provides clean
and reliable power in units ranging from 10kW to 300MW. The first commercial solar
thermal power plants were built in the 1900s and in 2009 more than 600MW are
commercially operated in the world. In Europe around 1,700MW of solar thermal power
plants are either recently operating or under construction. At different stages of technical
development, there are four main CSP technologies to produce solar thermal electricity:
parabolic trough plants, central receiver plants, Dish-Stirling systems and linear Fresnel
systems.

Parabolic trough plants use line-concentrating parabolic trough collectors which

reflect the solar radiation into an absorber tube. The sun’s energy heats up the oil, which
carries the energy to the water in a boiler heat exchanger, reaching a temperature of about
400°C. The heat is transferred into the water, producing steam to drive turbine. In the solar
field, cold heat transfer fluid comes in, picks up the heat collected by the trough and exits at a
high temperature.

Central receiver plants, also called tower plants, use big mirrors (heliostats) larger
than 100m2 which are almost flat and track the sun on two axes. The concentrated radiation
beam hits a receiver on top of a tower. The working fluid temperature depends on the type of
fluid which is used to collect the energy and is within the range of 500 to 600°C. Each
heliostat is individually positioned by a computer control system to reflect the sun's rays to a
tower-mounted thermal receiver. The effect of many heliostats reflecting to a common point
creates the combined energy of thousands of suns, which produces high-temperature thermal
energy. In the receiver, molten nitrate salts absorb the heat energy. The hot salt is then used to
boil water to steam, which is sent to a conventional steam turbine-generator to produce
electricity.

The Dish-Stirling System consists of a solar concentrator in a dish structure that

supports an array of curved glass mirrors. The parabolic dish tracks the sun throughout the
day and concentrates the radiation onto the heat absorption unit of a Stirling engine. The
focused solar thermal energy is then converted to grid-quality electricity. The conversion
process involves a closed cycle, high-efficiency solar Stirling engine using an internal
working fluid (usually Hydrogen or Helium) that is recycled through the engine. The working
fluid is heated and pressurized by the solar receiver, which in turn powers the Stirling engine.
This technology uses no water in the power conversion process (either for steam generation
or cooling) and the only water needed is for the washing of the mirrors. Dish-Stirling
technologies are furthermore attractive due to their high efficiency and modular design,
which gives the systems several key advantages, including a higher degree of slope tolerance
and site flexibility, meaning that it does not require fl at land, a fact that significantly reduces
grading costs and environmental impact; high overall availability due to the fact that there is
no singular point of failure and scheduled maintenance on the dishes can occur on individual
units while the others continue to generate power; and a low-cost of manufacture and
deployment as a result of high throughput automotive style production and assembly.

Linear Fresnel collectors are line focusing systems like parabolic troughs with a
similar power generation technology. The difference with parabolic troughs is the fixed
absorber position above a field of horizontally mounted fl at mirror stripes, collectively or
individually tracked to the sun. Fresnel technology, which is now being tested under actual
operating conditions, is comparatively simple to manufacture, build and operate. The
reflectors, which collect and focus the sun’s rays, are completely flat and, arranged in a linear
pattern, they form long, moveable rows of mirrors. The parallel mirrors focus the radiated
energy from the sun onto a pipe, positioned eight metres above the mirrors. Water flows
through this absorber pipe, which is heated to temperatures of up to 450 degrees centigrade.
This produces steam (as in a conventional power plant), which is converted into electrical
energy in a steam turbine. Fresnel collectors are innovative in that they are not sensitive to
wind and require a smaller area of land than other solar collectors.

b. Schematic Diagram

 Parabolic Trough

Courtesy: https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~wang30y/csp/PTPP.html
Figure 2.1: Parabolic Through Power Plant Schematic Diagram

 Central Receiver Power Plant

 Courtesy: Ortega, J. et al. (2008)
Figure 2.2: Central Receiver Plant Schematic Diagram

 Dish Stirling System

Courtesy: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Dish-Stirling-control-system-diagram_fig3_224179250
Figure 2.3: Dish Stirling System Power Plant Schematic Diagram

 Linear Fresnel Collectors

 Courtesy: http://www.ee.co.za/article/linear-fresnel-systems-future-csp.html
Figure 2.3: Dish Stirling System Power Plant Schematic Diagram
c. Plant Location and Capacity

Example of a solar thermal powerplant is the Solucar PS10 Powerplant located in Europe.
The PS10 Solar Power Plant is the world's first commercial concentrating solar power tower
operating near Seville, in Andalusia, Spain. Figure 2.4 shows the location of PS10
powerplant.
 Courtesy: Google Map
Figure 2.4: PS10 Powerplant Location

PS10 produces 23,400 MWh/year. Aperture size is estimated at 74,880 m2. The
mirrors were delivered by Abengoa, the solar receiver was designed and built by Tecnical-
Tecnicas Reunidas, a Spanish engineering company; and the Solar Tower was designed and
built by ALTAC, another Spanish engineering and construction company. Each of the mirrors
has a surface measuring 1,292 square feet (120.0 m2) that concentrates the sun's rays to the
top of a 115-meter (377 ft) high, 40-story tower where a solar receiver and a steam turbine
are located. The turbine drives a generator, producing electricity. Figure 2.5 shows the actual
photo taken on PS10 powerplant.
 Courtesy: i.pinimg.com
Figure 2.5: PS10 Powerplant

d. Advantage and Disadvantage

Advantages of CRS powerplant are as follows:

 Ability to achieve high temperature

 Renewable. No fuels required.
 Can utilize thermal storage to better match supply with demand
 Operating costs are low
 Multiple thermal energy storage options
 High potential for improved efficiency or cost reduction

Disadvantages include:

 Complexity
 Construction/installation costs can be high
 They require a considerable amount of space
 Slightly more expensive than solar PV
 Low energy density

2. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a process that can produce electricity
by using the temperature difference between deep cold ocean water and warm tropical
surface waters. OTEC plants pump large quantities of deep cold seawater and surface
seawater to run a power cycle and produce electricity. OTEC is firm power (24/7), a clean
energy source, environmentally sustainable and capable of providing massive levels of
energy. Example of an OTEC plant is the Makai Ocean Engineering’s ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC) powerplant.

a. Theory

OTEC power systems operate as cyclic heat engines. They receive thermal energy
through heat transfer from surface sea water warmed by the sun, and transform a portion of
this energy to electrical power. The Second Law of Thermodynamics precludes the complete
conversion of thermal energy in to electricity. A portion of the heat extracted from the warm
sea water must be rejected to a colder thermal sink. The thermal sink employed by OTEC
systems is sea water drawn from the ocean depths by means of a submerged pipeline. A
steady-state control volume energy analysis yields the result that net electrical power
produced by the engine must equal the difference between the rates of heat transfer from the
warm surface water and to the cold deep water. The limiting (i.e., maximum) theoretical
Carnot energy conversion efficiency of a cyclic heat engine scales with the difference
between the temperatures at which these heat transfers occur. For OTEC, this difference is
determined by T and is very small; hence, OTEC efficiency is low. Although viable OTEC
systems are characterized by Carnot efficiencies in the range of 68%, state-of-the-art
combustion steam power cycles, which tap much higher temperature energy sources, are
theoretically capable of converting more than 60% of the extracted thermal energy into
electricity.

The low energy conversion efficiency of OTEC means that more than 90% of the
thermal energy extracted from the ocean’s surface is ‘wasted’ and must be rejected to the
cold, deep sea water. This necessitates large heat exchangers and seawater Sow rates to
produce relatively small amounts of electricity.

In spite of its inherent inefficiency, OTEC, unlike conventional fossil energy systems,
utilizes a renewable resource and poses minimal threat to the environment. In fact, it has been
suggested that widespread adoption of OTEC could yield tangible environmental benefits
through avenues such as reduction of greenhouse gas CO2 emissions; enhanced uptake of
atmospheric CO2 by marine organism populations sustained by the nutrient-rich, deep OTEC
sea water; and preservation of corals and hurricane amelioration by limiting temperature rise
in the surface ocean through energy extraction and artificial upwelling of deep water.
 Carnot efficiency applies only to an ideal heat engine. In real power generation
systems, irreversibilities will further degrade performance. Given its low theoretical
efficiency, successful implementation of OTEC power generation demands careful
engineering to minimize irreversibilities. Although OTEC consumes what is essentially a free
resource, poor thermodynamic performance will reduce the quantity of electricity available
for sale and, hence, negatively affect the economic feasibility of an OTEC facility.

An OTEC heat engine may be configured following designs by J.A. D’Arsonval, the
French engineer who first proposed the OTEC concept in 1881, or G. Claude, D’Arsonval’s
former student. Their designs are known, respectively, as closed cycle and open cycle OTEC.

D’Arsonval’s original concept employed a pure working fluid that would evaporate at
the temperature of warm sea water. The vapor would subsequently expand and do work
before being condensed by the cold sea water. This series of steps would be repeated
continuously with the same working fluid, whose Sow path and thermodynamic process
representation constituted closed loops hence, the name ‘closed cycle.’ The specific process
adopted for closed cycle OTEC is the Rankine, or vapor power, cycle. Figure 2.6 is a
simplified schematic diagram of a closed cycle OTEC system. The principal components are
the heat exchangers, turbogenerator, and seawater supply system, which, although not shown,
accounts for most of the parasitic power consumption and a significant fraction of the capital
expense. Also not included are ancillary devices such as separators to remove residual liquid
downstream of the evaporator and subsystems to hold and supply working fluid lost through
leaks or contamination.

Claude’s concern about the cost and potential biofouling of closed cycle heat
exchangers led him to propose using steam generated directly from the warm sea water as the
OTEC working fluid. The steps of the Claude, or open, cycle are: (1) Sash evaporation of
warm sea water in a partial vacuum; (2) expansion of the steam through a turbine to generate
power; (3) condensation of the vapor by direct contact heat transfer to cold sea water; and (4)
compression and discharge of the condensate and any residual noncondensable gases. Unless
fresh water is a desired by-product, open cycle OTEC eliminates the need for surface heat
exchangers. The name ‘open cycle’ comes from the fact that the working fluid (steam) is
discharged after a single pass and has different initial and final thermodynamic states; hence,
the flow path and process are ‘open.’
 The essential features of an open cycle OTEC system are presented in Figure 2.7. The
entire system, from evaporator to condenser, operates at partial vacuum, typically at pressures
of 13% of atmospheric. Initial evacuation of the system and removal of noncondensable gases
during operation are performed by the vacuum compressor, which, along with the sea water
and discharge pumps, accounts for the bulk of the open cycle OTEC parasitic power
consumption.

b. Schematic Diagram
 Closed Cycle OTEC

Courtesy: Masutani S. et al. (2001)

Figure 2.6: Closed Cycle OTEC

In this system, heat transfer from warm surface sea water occurs in the evaporator, producing
a saturated vapor from the working fluid. Electricity is generated when this gas expands to
lower pressure through the turbine. Latent heat is transferred from the vapor to the cold sea
water in the condenser and the resulting liquid is pressurized with a pump to repeat the cycle.
  Open Cycle OTEC

Courtesy: Masutani S. et al. (2001)

Figure 2.7: Open Cycle OTEC

In open-cycle OTEC, warm sea water is used directly as the working fluid. Warm sea water is
flash evaporated in a partial vacuum in the evaporator. The vapor expands through the turbine
and is condensed with cold sea water. The principal disadvantage of open-cycle OTEC is the
low system operating pressures, which necessitate large components to accommodate the
high volumetric flow rates of steam.

c. Plant Location and Capacity

Makai Ocean Engineering’s ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) power plant is located
in Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA) in Kailua-Kona, Hawaii. The
facility was connected to the US grid in August 2015 and is capable of providing base load
power, meaning it can constantly produce electricity 24h a day throughout the year. Figure
2.8 shows the location of Maki OTEC plant.
 Source: Google Map
Figure 2.8: Makai Ocean Engineering Powerplant Location

Makai Ocean Engineering’s ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) power plant is the
world’s biggest operational facility of its kind, with an annual power generation capacity of
100kW, which is sufficient to power 120 homes in Hawaii.

Source: https://jo.linkedin.com/in/makaioceanengineer
Figure 2.9: Makai Ocean Engineering Powerplant
 d. Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages
 OTEC uses clean, renewable, natural resources. Warm surface seawater and
cold water from the ocean depths replace fossil fuels to produce electricity.
 Suitably designed OTEC plants will produce little or no carbon dioxide or
other polluting chemicals.
 OTEC systems can produce fresh water as well as electricity. This is a
significant advantage in island areas where fresh water is limited.
 There is enough solar energy received and stored in the warm tropical ocean
surface layer to provide most, if not all, of present human energy needs.
 The use of OTEC as a source of electricity will help reduce the state's almost
complete dependence on imported fossil fuels

 Disadvantages
 OTEC-produced electricity at present would cost more than electricity
generated from fossil fuels at their current costs.
 OTEC plants must be located where a difference of about 20º C occurs year
round. Ocean depths must be available fairly close to shore-based facilities for
economic operation. Floating plant ships could provide more flexibility.
 No energy company will put money in this project because it only had been
tested in a very small scale.
 Construction of OTEC plants and lying of pipes in coastal waters may cause
localised damage to reefs and near-shore marine ecosystems.
 Construction of floating power plants is difficult.
 Plant size is limited to about 100 MW due to large size of components.
 Very heavy investment is required.

3. Tidal Power
Tidal energy is produced through the use of tidal energy generators. These large underwater
turbines are placed in areas with high tidal movements, and are designed to capture the
kinetic motion of the ebbing and surging of ocean tides in order to produce electricity. Tidal
power has great potential for future power and electricity generation because of the massive
size of the oceans. These articles explore the potential energy of tidal power technologies.

a. Theory

Tidal energy conversion techniques exploit the natural rise and fall of the level of the oceans
caused principally by the interaction of the gravitational fields in the earth-sun-moon system.
Some coastlines, particularly estuaries, accentuate this effect creating tidal ranges of up to
about 17m. The vertical water movements associated with the rise and fall of the body of
water, and horizontal water motions termed currents, accompany the tides. These resources
therefore have to be distinguished between tidal range energy (the potential energy from the
difference in height – or head – between high and low tides) and tidal current energy (the
horizontal movement, in other words the kinetic energy of the water in a tide or marine
current). The energy of tides can be harnessed with barrages, or via ‘in-stream devices’.

Potential energy associated with tides can be harnessed by building barrages or other forms of
engineering constructions across an estuary. Tidal barrages consist of a large, dam-like
structure built across the mouth of a bay or an estuary in an area with a large tidal range. As
the level of the water changes with the tides, a difference in height develops across the
barrage. Water is allowed to flow through the barrage via turbines, which can provide power
during the ebb tide (receding), flood tide (allowing water to fill the reservoir via sluice gates)
or during both tides. This generation cycle means that, depending on the site, power can be
delivered twice or four times per day on a highly predictable basis. The principle of
conversion is very similar to the technology used in traditional hydroelectric power plants.
Therefore, tidal barrages represent the oldest and most mature of all OE technologies. In
France, the La Rance Barrage is an example.

Rather than using a dam structure, tidal current devices are placed directly ‘in-stream’ and
generate energy from the flow of the tidal current. There are a number of different
technologies for extracting energy from tidal currents. Many are similar to those used for
wind energy conversion, in other words, turbines of horizontal or vertical axis (‘cross flow’
turbine, as well as others, such as venturis and oscillating foils). Additionally, there are a
variety of methods for fixing tidal current devices in place, including seabed anchoring, via a
gravity base or driven piles, as well as floating or semi-floating platforms fixed to the sea-
bottom via mooring lines. In contrast to atmospheric airflows, the availability of tidal currents
can be predicted very accurately, as their motion will be tuned with the local tidal conditions.
Because the density of water is some 850 times higher than that of air, the power intensity in
water currents is significantly higher than in airflows.

b. Schematic Diagram
 Tidal Barrage

Source: http://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/tidal-energy/tidal-stream.html
Figure 2.10: Schematic Diagram of Tidal Barrage

Tidal barrages generate electricity using the difference in the vertical height between the
incoming high tides and the outgoing low tides. As the tide ebbs and flows, sea water is
allowed to flow in or out of the reservoir through a one way underwater tunnel system. This
flow of tidal water back and forth causes the water turbine generators located within the
tunnels to rotate producing tidal energy with special generators used to produce electricity on
both the incoming and the outgoing tides.
  Tidal Stream

Source: http://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/tidal-energy/tidal-stream.html
Figure 2.11: Schematic Diagram of Tidal Stream

Tidal stream generation is very similar in principal to wind power generation, except this
time water currents flow across a turbine, rotor blades which rotate the turbine, much like
how wind currents turn the blades for wind power turbines. In fact, tidal stream generation
areas on the sea bed can look just like underwater wind farms.

c. Plant Location and Capacity

The Rance Tidal Power Station is a tidal power station located on the estuary of the Rance
River in Brittany, France. The barrage is 750 m (2,461 ft) long, from Brebis point in the west
to Briantais point in the east. The power plant portion of the dam is 332.5 m (1,091 ft) long
and the tidal basin measures 22.5 km2 (9 sq mi). Figure 2.12 shows the location of the Rance
Tidal Powerplant.
 Source: Google Map
Figure 2.12: Rance Tidal Power plant Location

Rance Tidal Power station has 24 turbines. It reaches peak output at 240 megawatts (MW)
and average 57 MW, a capacity factor of approximately 24%. At an annual output of
approximately 500 GWh (491 GWh in 2009, 523 GWh in 2010), it supplies 0.12% of the
power demand of France. The power density is of the order of 2.6 W/m2. Figure 2.13 shows
the actual photo of the powerplant.

Source: Wikipedia
Figure 2.13: Rance Tidal Powerplant
d. Advantage and Disadvantage

 Advantages of Tidal Energy

 Tidal energy is a renewable energy resource because the energy it
produces is free and clean as no fuel is needed and no waste bi-products
are produced.
 Tidal energy has the potential to produce a great deal of free and green
energy.
 Tidal energy is not expensive to operate and maintain compared to other
forms of renewable energies.
 Low visual impact as the tidal turbines are mainly if not totally
submerged beneath the water.
 Low noise pollution as any sound generated is transmitted through the
water.
 High predictability as high and low tides can be predicted years in
advance, unlike wind.
 Tidal barrages provide protection against flooding and land damage.
 Large tidal reservoirs have multiple uses and can create recreational
lakes and areas where before there were none.

 Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

 Tidal energy is not always a constant energy source as it depends on the
strength and flow of the tides which themselves are affected by the
gravitational effects of the moon and the sun.
 Tidal Energy requires a suitable site, where the tides and tidal streams
are consistently strong.
 Must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital,
construction and maintenance costs.
 High power distribution costs to send the generated power from the
submerged devices to the land using long underwater cables.
 Intermittent power generation, only generates power ten hours a day
during the ebb and flow of the tides
 Changes to estuary ecosystem and an increase in coastal erosion where
the tides are concentrated.
 Build up of silt, sediments and pollutants within the tidal barrage from
rivers and streams flowing into basin as it is unable to flow out into the
sea.
 Danger to fish and other sea-life as they get stuck in the barrage or
sucked through the tidal turbine blades.
 4. Biomass

Biomass is used for facility heating, electric power generation, and combined heat and power.
The term biomass encompasses a large variety of materials, including wood from various
sources, agricultural residues, and animal and human waste.

a. Theory

Biomass can be converted into electric power through several methods. The most common is
direct combustion of biomass material, such as agricultural waste or woody materials. Other
options include gasification, pyrolysis, and anaerobic digestion. Gasification produces a
synthesis gas with usable energy content by heating the biomass with less oxygen than
needed for complete combustion. Pyrolysis yields bio-oil by rapidly heating the biomass in
the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic digestion produces a renewable natural gas when organic
matter is decomposed by bacteria in the absence of oxygen.

Different methods work bet with different types of biomass. Typically, woody biomass such
as wood chips, pellets, and sawdust are combusted or gasified to generate electricity. Corn
stover and wheat straw residues are baled for combustion or converted into a gas using an
anaerobic digester. Very wet wastes, like animal and human wastes, are converted into a
medium-energy content gas in an anaerobic digester. In addition, most other types of biomass
can be converted into bio-oil through pyrolysis, which can then be used in boilers and
furnaces.

The most common types of boilers are hot water boilers and steam boilers. Wood chips,
residues and other types of biomass are used in the boilers, in the same way as coal, natural
gas and oil.

Fuel is stored in a bunker for further transport to the boiler. In the boiler, water is heated to
high temperature under pressure. Steam from the boiler powers the turbine, which is
connected to the generator. Steam that has passed through the turbine, heats district heating
water, which is distributed through the district heating network's piping. Example of a
powerplant that uses biomass as fuel is the Woodland Biomass Power, LTD.
 b. Schematic Diagram

Source: watchop.xyz
Figure 2.14: Biomass as Electricity Schematic Diagram

Fuel is stored in a bunker for a further transport to the boiler. In the boiler, water is heated to
high temperature under pressure. Steam from the boiler powers the turbine, which is
connected to the generator. Steam that has passed through the turbine heats district heating
water, which is distributed through the district heating network's piping.

c. Plant Location and Capacity

Woodland Biomass Power, LTD is an alternative energy company located in nearby

Woodland, California. They use biomass, or plant and agricultural waste (such as tree
trimmings & removal, nut shells & fruit pits, and wood from torn down homes) to fuel a
boiler which in turn produces steam to generate electricity 24/7. It is a preferred method of
disposing such waste as opposed to open-air burning (or burying in landfill). Figure 2.15
shows the location of the plant.
 Source: Google Map
Figure 2.15: Woodland Biomass Power, LTD Location

Woodland Biomass Power in Woodland, CA produces up to 25MW for their customers. The
plant utilizes 260,000 tons of woody biomass fuel annually: that creates electricity to meet
the needs of 25,000 homes. Figure 2.16 shows the actual photo of the plant.

Source: Google Map

Figure 2.15: Woodland Biomass Power, LTD
 d. Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages of Biomass Fuel

 Biomass used as a fuel reduces need for fossil fuels for the production of
heat, steam, and electricity for residential, industrial and agricultural use.
 Biomass is always available and can be produced as a renewable resource.
 Biomass fuel from agriculture wastes maybe a secondary product that adds
value to agricultural crop.
 Growing Biomass crops produce oxygen and use up carbon dioxide.
 The use of waste materials reduce landfill disposal and makes more space
for everything else.
 Carbon Dioxide which is released when Biomass fuel is burned, is taken in
by plants.
 Less money spent on foreign oil.

 Disadvantages of Biomass Fuel

 Agricultural wastes will not be available if the basic crop is no longer
grown.
 Additional work is needed in areas such as harvesting methods.
 Land used for energy crops maybe in demand for other purposes, such as
faming, conservation, housing, resort or agricultural use.
 Some Biomass conversion projects are from animal wastes and are
relatively small and therefore are limited.
 Research is needed to reduce the costs of production of Biomass based
fuels.
 Is in some cases is a major cause of pollution.

5. Nuclear Energy
Nowadays, the main use given to nuclear energy is the generation of electric power. Nuclear
power plants are responsible of doing this process. Almost all nuclear power plants in
production are using nuclear fission since the nuclear fusion, despite being under
development, is currently unfeasible. Example of a nuclear powerplant is Beaver Valley
Nuclear Powerplant.
 a. Theory

Nuclear power plants heat water to produce steam. The steam is used to spin large turbines
that generate electricity. Nuclear power plants use heat produced during nuclear fission to
heat water.

In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Fission takes
place inside the reactor of a nuclear power plant. At the center of the reactor is the core,
which contains uranium fuel.

The uranium fuel is formed into ceramic pellets. Each ceramic pellet produces about the same
amount of energy as 150 gallons of oil. These energy-rich pellets are stacked end-to-end in
12-foot metal fuel rods. A bundle of fuel rods, some with hundreds of rods, is called a fuel
assembly. A reactor core contains many fuel assemblies.

The heat produced during nuclear fission in the reactor core is used to boil water into steam,
which turns the blades of a steam turbine. As the turbine blades turn, they drive generators
that make electricity. Nuclear plants cool the steam back into water in a separate structure at
the power plant called a cooling tower or they use water from ponds, rivers, or the ocean. The
cooled water is then reused to produce steam.

The basic principle of the performance of a nuclear power plant is based on obtaining heat
energy through the nuclear fission of the atoms´ nucleus from the fuel. This heat energy,
already being steam, will be converted into mechanical energy by a turbine, and in the end
this mechanical energy will be converted into electrical energy by a generator.

The nuclear reactor is responsible for rising and handling this atomic fission that generates a
lot of heat. With this heat the reactor converts water to steam at a high temperature and
pressure.
 b. Schematic Diagram

Source: https://nuclear-energy.net/how-nuclear-power-plant-work.html
Figure 2.16: Schematic Diagram of a Nuclear Powerplant

The steam exits the containment building due to the high pressure that it is subjected to, until
it reaches the turbine and the steam makes the turbine rotate. At this moment, part of the heat
energy of the steam is being transformed into kinetic energy. This turbine is connected to an
electric generator whereby the kinetic energy is transformed into electric energy.

On the other hand, the water vapour that has gone out of the turbine, although it has lost
calorific energy, it continues being in gas state and very warm. To re-use water contained in
the mentioned water steam, it is necessary to refrigerate it before introducing the water back
to the circuit. Once out of the turbine, the steam goes to a condensation chamber where it
cools down by being in contact with pipelines of cold water. The water steam becomes liquid
and using a pump, water is sent back again to the nuclear reactor so that the cycle can start
again.

That is why nuclear plants are always installed near of an abundant supply of cold water (sea,
river, lake) to take this water to the condensation chamber. The column of white smoke that
can be seen emerging from some plants is the steam raised when this heat exchanges.

c. Plant Location and Capacity

Beaver Valley Power Station is a nuclear power plant covering 1,000 acres (400 ha) near
Shippingport, Pennsylvania, United States, 34 miles (55 km) roughly northwest of Pittsburgh.
The Beaver Valley plant is operated by FirstEnergy Nuclear Operating Corporation. Figure
2.17 shows the location of the plant.
 Source: Google Map
Figure 2.17: Beaver Valley Nuclear Powerplant Map

Beaver Valley Nuclear Powerplant has 1826 MW capacity. This plant has two Westinghouse
pressurized water reactors. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission defines two emergency
planning zones around nuclear power plants: a plume exposure pathway zone with a radius of
10 miles (16 km), concerned primarily with exposure to, and inhalation of, airborne
radioactive contamination, and an ingestion pathway zone of about 50 miles (80 km),
concerned primarily with ingestion of food and liquid contaminated by radioactivity. Figure
2.18 shows the aerial view of the plant.

Source: Wikipedia
Figure 2.17: Beaver Valley Nuclear Powerplant
d. Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages
 Space needed for operating a nuclear power plant is less as compared to
other conventional power plants for production of same amount of
energy.
 A nuclear power plant consumes very small quantity of fuel. Thus fuel
transportation cost is less and large fuel storage facilities are not
required. Further the nuclear power plants will conserve the fossil fuels
such as coal, oil, gas etc. for other energy need.
 There is increased reliability of operation.
 Nuclear power plants are not affected by the unfavourable weather
conditions.
 Nuclear power plants are well suited to meet large demands of power
requirement. They give better performance at higher load factors of 80
to 90%.
 Materials expenditure on metal structures, piping, storage mechanisms
is much lower compared to a coal-burning power plant.
 It does not need large quantity of water.

 Disadvantages
 Initial cost to set up nuclear power plant is higher as compared to hydro
or steam power plant.
 Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying load conditions.
 Radioactive wastes if not disposed carefully may have an effect on the
health of operators and the population nearby. In a nuclear power plant
the major problem faced is the disposal of highly radioactive waste in
form of solid, liquid and gas without any injury to the atmosphere. The
preservation of radioactive waste for a long duration of time creates
many difficulties.
 Maintenance cost of the nuclear power plant is high.
 Trained people are required to handle nuclear power plants.
 6. Wave Energy

Wave Energy also known as Ocean Wave Energy, is another type of ocean based renewable
energy source that uses the power of the waves to generate electricity. Unlike tidal energy
which uses the ebb and flow of the tides, wave energy uses the vertical movement of the
surface water that produce tidal waves. Example of a powerplant that uses wave is
Aguçadoura Wave Farm.

a. Theory

Wave power converts the periodic up-and-down movement of the oceans waves into
electricity by placing equipment on the surface of the oceans that captures the energy
produced by the wave movement and converts this mechanical energy into electrical power.

Wave energy is actually a concentrated form of solar power generated by the action of the
wind blowing across the surface of the oceans water which can then be used as a renewable
source of energy. As the sun rays strike the Earth’s atmosphere, they warm it up. A difference
in the temperature of the air masses around the globe causes the air to move from the hotter
regions to the cooler regions, resulting in winds.

As the wind passes over the surface of the oceans, a portion of the winds kinetic energy is
transferred to the water below, generating waves. In fact, the ocean could be viewed as a vast
storage collector of energy transferred by the sun to the oceans, with the waves carrying the
transferred kinetic energy across the surface of the oceans. Then we can say that waves are
actually a form of energy and it is this energy and not water that moves along the ocean’s
surface.

These waves can travel (or “propagate”) long distances across the open oceans with very little
loss in energy, but as they approach the shoreline and the depth of the water becomes
shallower, their speed slows down but they increase in size. Finally, the wave crashes onto
the shoreline, releasing an enormous amount of kinetic energy which can be used for
electricity production. A breaking waves energy potential varies from place to place
depending upon its geographic location and time of year, but the two main factors which
affect the size of the wave energy are the winds strength and the uninterrupted distance over
the sea that the wind can blow.
Then we can say that “Wave Energy” is an indirect form of wind energy that causes
movement of the water on the surface of the oceans and by capturing this energy the motion
of the waves is converted to mechanical energy and used to drive an electricity generator. In
many respects, the technology used for capturing this wave energy is similar to tidal
energy or hydroelectric power.

The kinetic energy of the wave turns a turbine attached to a generator, which produces
electricity. However, the open oceans can be a stormy and violent environment, resulting in
the wave energy machines being destroyed by the very energy they were designed to capture.

b. Schematic Diagram

Source: http://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/wave-energy/wave-energy.html
Figure 2.18: Wave Power Schematic Diagram

Shoreline devices are wave energy devices which are fixed to or embedded in the shoreline,
that is they are both in and out of the water. Nearshore devices are characterised by being
used to extract the wave power directly from the breaker zone and the waters immediately
beyond the breaker zone, (i.e. at 20m water depth).

Offshore devices or deep water devices are the farthest out to sea and extend beyond the
breaker lines utilising the high-energy densities and higher power wave profiles available in
the deep water waves and surges.
 c. Plant Location and Capacity

The Aguçadoura Wave Farm was the world's first wave farm. It was located 5 km (3 mi)
offshore near Póvoa de Varzim north of Porto in Portugal. The farm was designed to use
three Pelamis Wave Energy Converters to convert the motion of the ocean surface waves into
electricity. Figure 2.19 shows the location of the plant.

Source: Google Map

Figure 2.19: Aguçadoura Wave Farm Location

Developed by the Scottish company Pelamis Wave Power, the Pelamis machine is made up
of connected sections which flex and bend relative to one another as waves run along the
structure. This motion is resisted by hydraulic rams which pump high pressure oil through
hydraulic motors which in turn drive electrical generators. The three machines which made
up the Aguçadoura Wave Park were each rated at a peak output of 750 kW, giving an
installed peak capacity of 2.25 MW, enough to meet the average electricity demand of more
than 1,500 Portuguese homes. Figure 2.20 shows the Pelamis machine used in Aguçadoura
Wave Farm.
 Source: Wikipedia
Figure 2.20: Pelamis Machine

d. Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages
 Wave energy is an abundant and renewable energy resource as the waves
are generated by the wind.
 Pollution free as wave energy generates little or no pollution to the
environment compared to other green energies.
 Reduces dependency on fossil fuels as wave energy consumes no fossil
fuels during operation.
 Wave energy is relatively consistent and predictable as waves can be
accurately forecast several days in advance.
 Wave energy devices are modular and easily sited with additional wave
energy devices added as needed.
 Dissipates the waves energy protecting the shoreline from coastal erosion.
 Presents no barriers or difficulty to migrating fish and aquatic animals.

 Disadvantages
 Visual impact of wave energy conversion devices on the shoreline and
offshore floating buoys or platforms.
 Wave energy conversion devices are location dependent requiring suitable
sites were the waves are consistently strong.
 Intermittent power generation as the waves come in intervals and does not
generate power during calm periods.
 Offshore wave energy devices can be a threat to navigation that cannot see
or detect them by radar.
  High power distribution costs to send the generated power from offshore
devices to the land using long underwater cables.
 They must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital,
construction and maintenance costs.

7. Hydrogen Energy

Of all elements present in the universe, hydrogen is the most abundant. Hydrogen gas has
remarkable characteristics including colorless, tasteless and invisible that make it hotly
pursued. It can also be transformed into a renewable, non-polluting and zero emission energy
resource. It’s considered the cornerstone of the new energy economy. The pursuit of
hydrogen energy began way back in 1776 by the British scientist Henry Cavendish. Example
of a hydrogen powerplant is the Fusina hydrogen power station.

a. Theory

Hydrogen gas is an expensive and complex fuel to make because it has to be separated from
whatever element it is joined to. It often takes a lot of energy to make hydrogen gas, making
it a costly power source. There are a number of ways to separate hydrogen from its
companion elements.

Before we look at how hydrogen is converted into electricity, it would be beneficial to know
how hydrogen is produced. Hydrogen is produced using two main methods; steam reforming
and electrolysis (commonly referred to as water splitting).

Steam reforming produces hydrogen from hydrocarbon fuels such as methane, oil, renewable
liquid fuels, gasified biomass, gasified coal and natural gas. A processing device called a
reformer is used in this hydrogen production process. The reformer react steam with the
hydrocarbon fuels at extremely high temperatures to generate hydrogen. Today, over 90% of
hydrogen gas is produced using the steam reforming technique.

Electrolysis is a method that utilizes direct current (DC) to instigate a chemical reaction. In
the production of hydrogen, electrolysis decomposes water and splits it into its main
elements, which are hydrogen and oxygen by use of an electric current. The electricity used
in the electrolysis process can be derived from fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal or
hydrocarbons.
The most effective way to convert hydrogen into oxygen is using a fuel cell. A fuel cell
converts chemical energy into electrical energy. A fuel cell enables hydrogen and oxygen to
blend in an electrochemical reaction. The result is production of electricity, water, and heat.
Fuel cells mimic batteries since they both convert the energy generated by the
electrochemical reaction into useful electric power. Nonetheless, the fuel cell will generate
electric power as long as fuel, mainly hydrogen, is available.

Fuel cells represent a potential technology for use a source of electricity and heat for
buildings. It’s also a promising source of power for electric and hybrid vehicles. Fuel cells
function best on pure hydrogen. However, other fuels such as gasoline, methanol, or natural
gas can be reformed to generate the needed hydrogen for fuel cells.

With technology moving fast, hydrogen could come on par with electricity as a vital energy
carrier. An energy carrier transmits energy to the customer in a ready to use form.
Some renewable energy sources such as wind and sun may not be able to generate energy
around the clock, but are able to produce hydrogen and electric power and stored for later
use.

b. Schematic Diagram

Source: https://www.mpoweruk.com/hydrogen_fuel.htm
Figure 2.21: Schematic Diagram on how hydrogen turns into electricity

The fuel cell was invented in 1839 by Welsh lawyer Sir William Robert Grove. It takes in
Hydrogen and Oxygen from the air and puts out electricity, heat, and water. It doesn't use
fossil fuels and it doesn't produce greenhouse gases and so it should be the ideal solution to
providing distributed or portable electrical power. Despite its obvious advantages it was not
until the 1950s in response to the needs of the US space programme that practical device
were developed. Even today, although there are many variants of fuel cells working in
development labs throughout the world and small scale deployment of demonstration units in
some countries, there is still no volume production.

c. Plant Location and Capacity

Fusina hydrogen power station is a hydrogen-fueled power station located in Fusina, near
Venice in the Veneto region of Italy. It is the first commercial-scale power station in the
world that is fueled with pure hydrogen. The power station is operated by Enel. Figure 2.22
shows the location of the Fusina hydrogen power plant.

Source: Google Map

Figure 2.22: Fusina hydrogen power station map

The Fusina project was launched in 2004. Construction of the power station started in April
2008 and it became operational in August 2009.[3] It was inaugurated on 12 July 2010. The
plant is located adjacent to the Andrea Palladio Power Station. Fusina hydrogen power station
has an installed capacity of 12 MW. An additional 4 MW could be generated in the Andrea
Palladio Power Station through the reuse of steam produced by the hydrogen-fueled turbine.
The power station is equipped by a General Electric combined-cycle gas engine.
 Source: http://www.boldrocchi.it/products/industrial_noise_protection.php
Figure 2.22: Fusina hydrogen power station

d. Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages
 Hydrogen is a rich source of energy for many reasons; the main being that it’s
bountiful in supply. While it may take a lot of resources to harness it, no other
energy source is infinite as hydrogen. That, essentially, means there is no
possibility of it running out like other sources of energy.
 When hydrogen is burnt to produce fuel, the byproducts are totally safe, which
means, they have no known side effects.
 Hydrogen is solidly efficient energy type since it has the ability to convey a lot
of energy for every pound of fuel. This categorically means that an automobile
that utilizes hydrogen energy will travel more miles than one with an equal
amount of gasoline.
 Hydrogen energy’s efficiency and power makes it an ideal fuel source for
spaceships. Its power is so high that it’s able to quickly rocket spaceships to
exploration missions. It’s also the safest form of energy to perform such an
energy-intensive task. Hydrogen energy is in fact 3 times more potent than
gasoline and other fossil-based sources of fuel. This ideally means that you
need less hydrogen to complete an enormous task.
  It also offers motive power for airplanes, boats, cars, and both portable and
stationary fuel cell applications. The downside to using hydrogen in cars is
that it’s practically difficult to store in cryogenic or high-pressure tanks.

 Disadvantages
 Electrolysis and steam reforming, the two main processes of hydrogen
extraction are extremely expensive. This is the real reason it’s not heavily used
across the world. Today, hydrogen energy is chiefly used to power
most hybrid vehicles.
 One of hydrogen properties is that it has a lower density. In fact, it is a lot less
denser than gasoline. This means that it has to be compressed to liquid state
and stored the same way at lower temperatures to guarantee its effectiveness
and efficiency as an energy source.
 The power of hydrogen should not be underestimated at all. Although gasoline
is a little more dangerous than hydrogen, hydrogen is hugely flammable and
frequently makes headlines for its potential dangers. Compared to gas,
hydrogen lacks smell, which makes any leak detection almost impossible. To
detect leaks, one must install sensors.
 It’s a daunting task to transport hydrogen brilliantly due to its lightness. Oil
can be transported safely because it’s mostly pushed through pipes. Coal can
conveniently be transported in dump trucks. Hydrogen also presents
challenges when considering moving it in large quantities, which is why it’s
mostly only transported in small batches.
 Despite the fact that hydrogen is bountiful in supply, the cost of harnessing it
limits extensive utilization. As you realize, it’s quite challenging to disrupt the
status quo. Energy from fossil fuels still rule the world. There is also no
framework put in place to ensure cheap and sustainable hydrogen energy for
the normal car owner in the future. Even if hydrogen were to become cheap
right now, it would take years to become the most used source of energy since
vehicles themselves and service stations would need to be customized to
conform to hydrogen requirements. This would require massive capital outlay.
 8. Osmotic Power

Osmotic power is the energy derived from the difference in salinity between seawater and
fresh water, which is harnessed to generate electricity.

a. Theory

Osmotic Power or Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO) is a burgeoning renewable energy

source (RES) that converts the pressure differential between water with high salinity and
water with lower or no salinity into hydraulic pressure. This hydraulic pressure can be used to
drive a turbine that produces electrical energy. Osmotic power can occur naturally where a
river meets the sea or by bringing together two manmade sources from processing plants (like
a wastewater treatment or desalination facility). Energy Recovery’s PX technology works in
unison with next-generation PRO membranes to cost-effectively enable stable, reliable,
environmentally friendly energy production anywhere that both freshwater and saltwater are
available. PX Pressure Exchanger devices are an essential component of an osmotic power
plant, maintaining high osmotic pressure in the system by recycling the water pressure with
extremely high efficiency.

There are enormous benefits with osmotic power, namely that it’s the cleanest, most reliable
source of renewable energy on the planet, it is always available and more cost-effective than
solar or wind power, has a small ecological footprint and it recycles natures resources
(seawater or wastewater).

Seventy percent of the earth's surface is covered with water, 97 percent of which is saltwater.
The revolutionary process of Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO) is created by mixing of
seawater and freshwater and the resulting osmotic power serves as both a renewable and
consistent source of electricity. While still the in the early stages, the best estimates of global
production potential of osmotic power exceed 1,600 terawatt hours, or the equivalent of half
of Europe’s entire energy demand.

Osmotic power is the process of converting the pressure differential between water with high
salinity and water with lower or no salinity into hydraulic pressure. This hydraulic pressure
can be used to drive a turbine that produces electrical energy.
There are two primary methodologies for osmotic power:
A) natural occurrence's globally where river water meets the sea OR
B) bringing together two man made water sources from processing plants

Both methods are viable but one produces more power than the other method. Method A:
Seawater averages 40 grams of salt/ liter + River Water provides less power than Method B:
Brine (from desalination) averages 60 grams of salt/ liter + treated water. The higher the
salinity, the more power can be generated.

b. Schematic Diagram

Source: Wikipedia
Figure 2.23: Schematic Diagram of Osmotic Power

When fresh water is separated from seawater by a semi permeable membrane, the fresh water
moves by osmosis through the membrane into the seawater. The resulting osmotic pressure,
combined with the permeation flow rate, turns a hydraulic turbine, producing electricity.

c. Plant Location and Capacity

The Statkraft osmotic power plant at Tofte, Norway, is the world’s first osmotic power or
salinity gradient power generation plant. The prototype, which is based on osmotic
technology, was constructed and is owned by Statkraft. It is operated by SINTEF Energy
Research, a research division of SINTEF Group. Figure 2.24 shows the map of the plant.

Source: Wikipedia
Figure 2.24: Statkraft Osmotic Powerplant Map

It is estimated that the osmotic technology will produce 1,600TWh-1,700TWh a year, which
is about 13 times the hydropower generated in Norway annually. Out of the total estimated
osmotic power of 200TWh that is expected to be generated in Europe, 12TWh will be
generated in Norway. Figure 2.25 shows the actual photo of the plant.

Source: https://www.power-technology.com/projects/statkraft-osmotic/
Figure 2.24: Statkraft Osmotic Powerplant
 d. Advantage and Disadvantages
 Advantages
 The cleanest energy, since leaving no dangerous gasses.
 The source is always available on our planet and also cost-effective.
 This device recycles the seawater and river water during its process.

 Disadvantages
 The equipment is 36 times expensive than other marine energy devices.
 The engineering problem will be occurred.
 Difficult to build the device, which needs a 110 meters depth in the ocean.
 The turbines will also disturb sea creatures in the ocean.

III. Conclusion

Electricity that we depend on every day comes from a large variety of sources. Each
energy source has its advantages and disadvantage. In the previous research paper, the
student cited some energy sources that were found in the Philippines. In this case, the student
cited some energy sources commonly not found in the Philippines. These are solar energy,
ocean thermal energy conversion, tidal power, biomass, nuclear energy, wave power,
hydrogen power, and osmotic power. Each of the sources has one example of a plant with
location and capacity.

Based on the research, nuclear energy produces more electricity than any other
sources. If the nuclear powerplant in the Philippines is on operation, imagine what will
happen. This nuclear powerplant can supply electricity for many houses. The student believes
that there are areas in the Philippines that still experiencing power shortages. But with this
kind of source, imagine the Philippines with no power shortages.

These energy resources plays a major role in the community. As a citizen, it is

important to know where the electricity comes from so that the people can somehow conserve
it or rather use it in proper way since some sources are not renewable.

As a mechanical engineering student, this paper would be a big help because when the
time comes, they are the one working in different powerplants in and out the country. This
will also serve as guide for them to improve or add powerplants using different energy
sources in the Philippines. Like for example, the Philippines is an archipelago with many
islands, therefore the use of ocean power, tidal and wave energy is applicable.

IV. References

 https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.4984395
 https://www.slideshare.net/sudhanshuanand2/central-receiver-power-system
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PS10_solar_power_plant
 https://www.power-technology.com/projects/makais-ocean-thermal-energy-
conversion-otec-power-plant-hawaii/
 http://www.curry.eas.gatech.edu/Courses/6140/ency/Chapter2/Ency_Oceans/OTEC.p
df
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 http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/hydro/tidal-power/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rance_Tidal_Power_Station#/media/File:Rance_tidal_p
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 http://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/tidal-energy/tidal-energy.html
 https://corporate.vattenfall.com/about-energy/renewable-energy-
sources/biomass/how-it-works/
 https://www.wbdg.org/resources/biomass-electricity-generation
 https://www.reenergyholdings.com/renewable-energy/what-is-biomass/
 http://science134.tripod.com/id9.html
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver_Valley_Nuclear_Power_Station
 https://www.nei.org/fundamentals/what-is-nuclear-energy
 https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.php?page=nuclear_power_plants\
 https://nuclear-energy.net/how-nuclear-power-plant-work.html
 https://me-mechanicalengineering.com/nuclear-power-plant/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agu%C3%A7adoura_Wave_Farm#/media/File:Pelamis
_bursts_out_of_a_wave.JPG
 http://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/wave-energy/wave-energy.html
 http://www.zeroco2.no/projects/fusina
 https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-electrolysis
 https://sciencing.com/hydrogen-power-plant-work-4572545.html
 https://deepoceanfacts.com/marine-energy
 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.5004/dwt.2010.1759