WORD LIST FOR LEVEL

C1
 This publication has made use of the English Vocabulary Profile. This resource is
based on extensive research using the Cambridge Learner Corpus and is part of the
English Profile programme, which aims to provide evidence about language use that
helps to produce better language teaching materials.
See http://www.englishprofile.org/ for more information.

Compiled electronically by Efthimios Mavrogeorgiadis.

http://www.toe.gr/
 Abbreviations

!
Culturally Sensitive Word

+ two objects
A verb that has two objects.

C
Countable noun: a noun that has both singular and plural forms.

C usually no plural or U
Countable noun which usually has no plural or uncountable noun.

I
Intransitive verb: a verb that has no object.

T
Transitive verb: a verb that has an object.

U
Uncountable noun: noun with no plural form. Cannot be used with 'a', 'an', or 'one'.

UK
British English

US
American English

abbreviation
A short form of a word or phrase.

adjective
A word that describes a noun or pronoun.

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adverb
A word that describes or gives more information about a verb, adjective or other
adverb.

approving
Used in a positive way, to show that you have a good opinion of someone or
something.

auxiliary verb
The verbs 'be', 'have' and 'do' when combined with other verbs to make different
forms.

before noun
An adjective that always comes before a noun.

conjunction
A word used to join parts of a phrase or sentence.

determiner
Word used before noun or adj to show which person or thing is being referred to.

disapproving
Used in a negative way, to show that you have a bad opinion of someone or
something.

exclamation
A word or phrase that you say loudly or suddenly to express strong feelings.

formal
Used in serious writing, or for communicating with people in a serious or polite way.

informal
Used in relaxed situations, for example with friends and family. Used more in speech.

literary
Used in books and poems, and not in ordinary conversation.

4
modal verb
Verb such as can, might, must. With another verb, shows an idea such as possibility.

noun
A word that refers to a person, place, idea, event or thing.

often passive
In a passive verb/sentence, the subject does not do the action but is affected by it.

often plural
Refers to more than one person or thing.

phrasal verb
Verb with an adverb or preposition, with meaning different from meaning of its parts.

plural
Refers to more than one person or thing.

preposition
Word used before noun, pronoun or -ing form of verb to show place, direction, etc.

pronoun
A word used instead of a noun, which has usually already been talked about.

specialized
Used in connection with a particular area of work or study.

symbol
A sign, shape or object used to represent something else.

verb
A word that describes an action, condition or experience.

written abbreviation
A short form of a word or phrase only used in writing

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6
 A

abandon /əˈbæn.dən/

Word family:
Verbs: abandon
Adjectives: abandoned

VERB [T]

STOP DOING

to stop doing something before it is finished, or to stop following a plan, idea, etc.
Dictionary example:
The match was abandoned because of rain.

Learner example:
How would you feel if you establish[ed] a long-time plan for your career and then you ha[d] to
abandon it?

abnormal /æbˈnɔːməl/

Word family:
Nouns: norm, normality
Adjectives: normal, abnormal
Adverbs: normally

ADJECTIVE

different from what is normal or usual, in a way which is strange or dangerous

Dictionary examples:
abnormal behaviour/weather
They found abnormal levels of lead in the water.

Learner example:
The cost of it for the Chinese population is an abnormal level of pollution, that causes many
deaths every year.

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 aboard /əˈbɔːd/

ADVERB; PREPOSITION

on or onto a plane, ship, bus, or train

Dictionary example:
Welcome aboard flight BA109 to Paris.

Learner example:
Competition entry "Welcome aboard on the flight to ancient Rome..." Please fasten your
seatbelts...

abortion /əˈbɔː.ʃən/

NOUN [C or U]

! a medical operation to end a pregnancy when the baby is still too small to live

Dictionary example:
She had an abortion.

Learner example:
Some of these problems are serious and should be eliminated, such as abortion and domestic
violence.

absolutely /ˈæb.sə.luːt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: absolute
Adverbs: absolutely

ADVERB

Absolutely!
used to strongly agree with someone
Dictionary examples:
"Do you think it helped his career?" "Absolutely."
"It was an excellent film, though." "Absolutely!"

Learner example:
So have the Swedish grandparents got funkier? Absolutely!

8
 absorb /əbˈzɔːb/

VERB [T]

REMEMBER

to understand and remember facts that you read or hear

Dictionary example:
It's hard to absorb so much information.

Learner example:
You will have only three school [subjects] and that'[ll] make it easier to absorb the new knowledge.

abuse /əˈbjuːs/

Word family:
Nouns: abuse
Adjectives: abusive

NOUN

WRONG ACTION

! [C or U] an action or activity that is morally wrong or not allowed

Dictionary example:
The politician's behaviour was an abuse of power.

Learner example:
It is a vast resource of information, but the abuse of it may have detrimental consequences.

accelerate /əkˈsel.ə.reɪt/

VERB

HAPPEN

[I or T] to start to happen more quickly, or to make something start to happen more

quickly
Dictionary example:
Inflation is likely to accelerate this year.

Learner example:
Fashion has always been changing but I think this process accelerated after the Second World War.

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 acceptable /əkˈsep.tə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: acceptance
Verbs: accept
Adjectives: acceptable, unacceptable, accepted

ADJECTIVE

ALLOWED

allowed or approved of
Dictionary example:
Smoking is less and less socially acceptable.

Learner example:
They should teach them what is right [and] wrong, and what is morally and socially acceptable.

acceptance /əkˈsep.tənts/

Word family:
Nouns: acceptance
Verbs: accept
Adjectives: acceptable, unacceptable, accepted

NOUN [C or U]

when you accept something

Dictionary examples:
His acceptance of the award was controversial.
There is a growing public acceptance of alternative medicine.

Learner example:
The main reason for the "fast-food" groceries winning acceptance in Swedish culture is lack of
time.

accepted /əkˈsep.tɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: acceptance
Verbs: accept
Adjectives: acceptable, unacceptable, accepted

ADJECTIVE

agreed or approved by most people

Dictionary example:
an accepted spelling

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 Learner example:
Competition can also be an accepted form of expression of one's aggression.

accessory /əkˈses.ər.i/

NOUN [C]

something extra which is not necessary but is attractive or useful

Dictionary examples:
bathroom accessories
computer accessories

Learner example:
They find pleasure in looking at different clothes, shoes, accessories, gadgets and home
furnishings.

acclaimed /əˈkleɪmd/

ADJECTIVE

praised by a lot of people

Dictionary example:
the acclaimed singer and songwriter

Learner example:
In order to avoid s[uch an] embarrassing inconsistency in the next meeting, I suggest inviting
Colin Briggs, the acclaimed footballer, to talk to his fans.

accomplish /əˈkʌm.plɪʃ/

VERB [T]

to succeed in doing something good

Dictionary example:
I feel as if I've accomplished nothing all day.

Learner example:
To accomplish this, schools should try to respect the individuality of each child, give them
chances to think more freely.

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 accordance /əˈkɔː.dənts/

Word family:
Nouns: accord, accordance

NOUN FORMAL

in accordance with sth

in the way described by a rule, law, or wish
Dictionary example:
Both companies have insisted that they were acting in accordance with the law.

Learner example:
Although they do not earn much money in this profession, they try to do their best and judge in
accordance with the law which they also have to interpret.

account /əˈkaʊnt/

Word family:
Nouns: account, accountant

NOUN

by all accounts
as said by a lot of people
Dictionary example:
The party was, by all accounts, a great success.

Learner example:
I have known Michael Van Cleef for over two decades now, and he is, by all accounts, an
exemplary worker.

accumulate /əˈkjuː.mjə.leɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: accumulation
Verbs: accumulate

VERB [I or T]

to increase in amount over a period of time, or to make something increase over a

period of time
Dictionary example:
The chemicals accumulate in your body.

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 Learner example:
Rain water then accumulates in the reservoir.

accusation /ˌæk.jʊˈzeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: accusation
Verbs: accuse

NOUN [C]

when you say that someone has done something bad

Dictionary example:
He made a number of accusations against his former colleagues.

Learner example:
I have enclosed the Distribution Chart in order to prevent you from [making] further accusations.

accustomed /əˈkʌs.təmd/

ADJECTIVE

accustomed to sth/doing sth

If you are accustomed to something, you have experienced it often enough for it
to seem normal to you.
Dictionary examples:
I've worked nights for years now so I've grown accustomed to it.
She isn't accustomed to dealing with so much media attention.

Learner example:
I am quite accustomed to being with many kinds of people of different ages.

acknowledge /əkˈnɒl.ɪdʒ/

VERB [T]

ACCEPT

to accept that something is true or exists

Dictionary example:
He acknowledged that there was a problem.

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 Learner example:
They fully acknowledge the need to keep fit as a part of being a healthy and well-educated
person.

SAY RECEIVED

FORMAL to tell someone, usually in writing, that you have received something they
sent you
Dictionary example:
He sent a letter acknowledging receipt of her application.

Learner example:
Re: Follow-up job as interpreter, I acknowledge receipt of your recent correspondence.

acquaintance /əˈkweɪn.tənts/

NOUN [C]

someone who you know but do not know well

Dictionary example:
He's just a business acquaintance.

Learner example:
Should you not give us a printed apology, I would seriously consider recommending all my friends
and acquaintances not to trust your future articles.

action /ˈæk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: act, action, actor
Verbs: act

NOUN

legal action
a legal process in a court
Dictionary example:
They are planning to take legal action against the company.

Learner example:
If we do not get a satisfactory answer to this letter, apologising and offering the compensation
that the students deserve, we will have no other option but to take legal action.

out of action
damaged or hurt and not able to operate or play sports

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 Dictionary examples:
I'm afraid my car's out of action.
They've got three players out of action.

Learner example:
The air-condition[ing] in my room was out of action and the hotel manager didn't care.

course of action
something that you can do in a particular situation
Dictionary example:
I think the best course of action would be to write to him.

Learner example:
However, I believe that the best course of action in this case is to give our student a refund.

active /ˈæk.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: activity
Adjectives: active
Adverbs: actively

ADJECTIVE

VOLCANO

An active volcano could throw out rocks, fire, etc. at any time.
Dictionary example:
Mount Etna in Sicily is one of the world's most active volcanoes.

Learner example:
The beautiful, crystal-blue sea and the small white houses, the bright orange of the sky during
the evening and the unidentified colour of the volcanic rocks around the great, active volcano are
just a few of the colours that paint the natural beauty of Thera.

adaptation /ˌæd.æpˈteɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: adaptation
Verbs: adapt

NOUN [C or U]

the process or act of changing to suit a new situation

Dictionary example:
Evolution occurs as a result of adaptation to new environments.

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 Learner example:
This varies from one person to another, it depends on everyone's priorities and degree of
adaptation [to] their new communities.

addictive /əˈdɪk.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: addict, addiction
Adjectives: addicted, addictive

ADJECTIVE

If something is addictive, it makes you want more of it so that you become

addicted.
Dictionary examples:
Tobacco is highly addictive.
The problem with computer games is that they're addictive.

Learner example:
Serial dramas are addictive - it is not unknown for whole countries to come to a standstill because
an important re[vel]ation will be made on television.

address /əˈdres/

VERB [T]

DEAL WITH

to deal with a problem

Dictionary example:
We have to address the issue/problem before it gets worse.

Learner example:
On balance, I would say that increasing the price of petrol to solve traffic and pollution problems
is certainly a viable, although maybe not the best, way to address the issue.

administration /ədˌmɪn.ɪˈstreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: administration, administrator
Adjectives: administrative

NOUN [U]

the work of organizing and arranging the operation of something, such as a

company

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 Dictionary example:
The job involves a lot of administration.

Learner example:
For schools, it is much easier in terms of administration.

administrative /ədˈmɪn.ɪ.strə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: administration, administrator
Adjectives: administrative

ADJECTIVE

relating to the organization and management of something

Dictionary example:
The work is largely administrative.

Learner example:
The engineers and administrative staff must be able to work in both English and French whereas
German would be an asset.

administrator /ədˈmɪn.ɪ.streɪ.tər/

Word family:
Nouns: administration, administrator
Adjectives: administrative

NOUN [C]

someone who helps to manage an organization

Dictionary example:
She is an administrator at the hospital.

Learner example:
As a[n] ex-army officer and an administrator in an international firm, I am learning to work as a
member of a team.

adult /ˈæd.ʌlt/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

NOT A CHILD

having finished growing

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 Dictionary example:
an adult male rat

Learner example:
Tony Soprano is the bad kid [in] every adult male.

adviser /ədˈvaɪ.zər/

Word family:
Nouns: advice, adviser
Verbs: advise

NOUN [C] (ALSO advisor)

someone whose job is to give advice about a subject
Dictionary example:
a financial adviser

Learner example:
Some of our financial advisers could provide your students [with] the latest methods used in
Accounting and in developing new business projects.

affluent /ˈæf.lu.ənt/

ADJECTIVE

having a lot of money

Dictionary example:
affluent families/nations/neighbourhoods

Learner example:
Children who come from poor families are more mature and responsible than those children
coming from affluent families.

affordable /əˈfɔː.də.bl
̩/

ADJECTIVE

cheap enough for most people to be able to buy

Dictionary example:
We need more affordable housing in this area.

Learner example:
They are very pleased with the affordable fares, however they are more inclined to comfort.

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 after /ˈɑːf.tər/

PREPOSITION

DESPITE

despite
Dictionary example:
I can't believe he was so rude to you after all the help you've given him!

Learner example:
But, even after earning more in 2001, the women still do not earn as much [as] men on average
earned (£20,363) in 1997.

after all
used to say that something happened or was true although you did not expect it
to happen or be true
Dictionary example:
Helen couldn't come to the party after all.

Learner example:
Cars still enter the city so there will be pollution after all.

against /əˈgentst/

PREPOSITION

have sth against sb/sth

to have a reason not to like someone or something
Dictionary example:
I've got nothing against him personally, I just don't think he's the right man for the job.

Learner example:
If you have nothing against taking public transport, I suggest taking a bus.

agency /ˈeɪ.dʒənt.si/

Word family:
Nouns: agency, agent

NOUN [C]

ORGANIZATION

an international organization or government department

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 Dictionary example:
an international development agency

Learner example:
Television conveys the weather forecasts and any warnings issued by the government agencies,
such as flood alerts.

agenda /əˈdʒen.də/

NOUN [C]

MEETING

a list of subjects that people will discuss at a meeting

Dictionary example:
There are several items on the agenda.

Learner example:
Your memo was one of the points on the agenda for last week's meeting.

aggression /əˈgreʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: aggression
Adjectives: aggressive
Adverbs: aggressively

NOUN [U]

angry or violent behaviour towards someone

Dictionary example:
an act of aggression

Learner example:
However, it can turn into [a] terrible form of violence and aggression, where the very sense of
competition is forgotten and only wild instincts prevail.

aggressive /əˈgres.ɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: aggression
Adjectives: aggressive
Adverbs: aggressively

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ADJECTIVE

DETERMINED

using forceful methods and determined to succeed

Dictionary example:
an aggressive marketing campaign

Learner example:
Our competitors pursue a more aggressive marketing strategy, despite the fact [that] they offer
inferior products.

ago /əˈgəʊ/

ADVERB

long ago
If something happened long ago, it happened a great amount of time ago.
Dictionary examples:
I think we met once, long ago.
It was not long ago that I last saw him.

Learner example:
Not so long ago, you could ring each Dutch doorbell of your choice at 6 pm and you'd f[i]nd the
whole family gathered around the kitchen table, having their supper.

agree /əˈgriː/

Word family:
Nouns: agreement, disagreement
Verbs: agree, disagree

VERB

BE THE SAME

[I] If two descriptions, statements, etc. agree, they are the same.

Dictionary examples:
Her notes do not agree with what I remember happening.
Does the information in the two reports agree?

Learner example:
This does not agree with the intentions of our Programme.

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 ahead /əˈhed/

ADJECTIVE

ahead of time/schedule
before the time that was planned
Dictionary example:
We finished the project ahead of schedule.

Learner example:
However, a bonus will be given if the project finishes ahead of schedule.

aid /eɪd/

NOUN

HELP

[U] money, food, or equipment that is given to help a country or group of people

Dictionary examples:
Emergency aid was sent to the flood victims.
aid workers

Learner example:
Many people in poorer nations die without proper medical aid.

in aid of sb/sth
in order to collect money for a group of people who need it
Dictionary example:
a concert in aid of famine relief

Learner example:
It w[ould] be an honour for us students at the centre if you could attend our sport[s] function in
aid of stress[ed] out kids and present the pri[z]es.

with the aid of sth

using something to help you
Dictionary example:
She can walk with the aid of a stick.

Learner example:
The newest computer can handle data that human brains cannot and therefore all scientific
research [is] carried out with the aid of computers.

EQUIPMENT

[C] a piece of equipment that helps you to do something

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 Dictionary example:
teaching aids such as books and videos

Learner example:
Also, it would be an excellent aid if a new laser printer was bought, so as to make more copies in
less time.

VERB FORMAL

[T] to help someone

Dictionary examples:
The project is designed to aid the homeless.
He was aided in his research by his knowledge of Greek.

Learner example:
Some people believe that it is essential for both poorer and rich countries [that] the rich countries
aid the poorer ones, and this is my opinion, for [a] number of plausible reasons.

air /eər/

NOUN

on air
on television or radio
Dictionary example:
The radio station is on air from 6.00 a.m.

Learner example:
It is on air at 8.30 p.m. every Thursday and Saturday.

alarm /əˈlɑːm/

Word family:
Nouns: alarm
Verbs: alarm
Adjectives: alarming

VERB [T]

to make someone worried or frightened

Dictionary example:
I don't want to alarm you but he really should be here by now.

Learner example:
What alarmed us the most was the daring use of speculation by the author.

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 alarming /əˈlɑː.mɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: alarm
Verbs: alarm
Adjectives: alarming

ADJECTIVE

causing worry or fear

Dictionary examples:
alarming news
Crime has been increasing at an alarming rate.

Learner example:
Moreover, the alarming frequency of heart attacks in Poland [has] made people stop eating too
much fat.

alert /əˈlɜːt/

ADJECTIVE

quick to notice and react to things around you

Dictionary examples:
A young dog should be alert and playful.
Teachers need to be alert to sudden changes in students' behaviour.

Learner example:
A little bit of tension is alright - I guess it keeps you alert while driving.

NOUN

a warning about a possibly dangerous situation

Dictionary example:
a bomb alert

Learner example:
Don't forget to take care of your personal belongings - it won't cause a bomb alert like at Victoria
but may get lost!

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 all /ɔːl/

DETERMINER; PRONOUN

after all
used to say that something happened or was true although you did not expect it
to happen or be true
Dictionary example:
Helen couldn't come to the party after all.

Learner example:
Cars still enter the city so there will be pollution after all.

all things considered

used for saying that something is true in general if you think about all its aspects
Dictionary example:
The show was a great success, all things considered.

Learner example:
All things considered, it seems like "Kavanagh Catering Services" would be most suitable for the
students.

all hours
very late at night, until early morning, or almost all the time
Dictionary example:
Our neighbours are up till all hours every night, playing loud music.

Learner example:
This causes traffic jams at all hours of the day.

ADVERB

all at once
suddenly
Dictionary example:
All at once he stood up and walked out of the room.

Learner example:
All at once, everything started to work again.

be all very well

used to show that you do not agree with something or that you are annoyed about
something
Dictionary example:
It's all very well for her to say everything's fine, she doesn't have to live here.

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 Learner example:
That's all very well for most of the people but according to my desires [i]t's not enough. I envisage
a more sophisticated flat.

be all set
to be ready
Dictionary example:
We were all set to go when the phone rang.

Learner example:
So, there you go. I'm all set!

allegation /ˌæl.ɪˈgeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: allegation
Verbs: allege
Adjectives: alleged
Adverbs: allegedly

NOUN [C]

when you say that someone has done something wrong or illegal, without proof
that this is true
Dictionary examples:
allegations of corruption
Several of her patients have made allegations of professional misconduct against her.
He denied allegations that he had cheated.

Learner example:
Contrary to Mrs Jones' allegation, the exam results of our college are first-class and, moreover,
there is an extremely varied social programme organised.

alleged /əˈledʒd/

Word family:
Nouns: allegation
Verbs: allege
Adjectives: alleged
Adverbs: allegedly

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

believed to be true, but not proved

Dictionary example:
an alleged attack

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 Learner example:
Besides, as far as the alleged "downpour of rain" is concerned, there was, in reality, only a small
April shower which lasted not more than 10 minutes.

allocate /ˈæl.ə.keɪt/

VERB [T]

to give some time, money, space, etc. to be used for a particular purpose
Dictionary examples:
The government has promised to allocate extra money for health care.
More police time should be allocated to crime prevention.

Learner example:
We also think that the gym is under-[us]ed because of the lack of equipment, thus we would ask
for some funding to be allocated to the purchase of more equipment.

allow /əˈlaʊ/

Word family:
Nouns: allowance
Verbs: allow

VERB

TIME/MONEY

[T] to plan to use a particular amount of money, time, etc. for something

Dictionary example:
Allow three hours for the whole journey.

Learner example:
Please allow more free time in the afternoon for shopping and change the free evening which is on
Day 1 in your High Life Programme to another evening.

MAKE POSSIBLE

[I or T] to make it possible for someone to do something

Dictionary example:
The extra money will allow me to upgrade my computer.

Learner example:
These activities allow people to forget about their problems, to enjoy themselves and also to
communicate with others.

27
 allowance /əˈlaʊ.ənts/

Word family:
Nouns: allowance
Verbs: allow

NOUN [C]

MONEY

money that you are given regularly, especially to pay for a particular thing
Dictionary example:
a clothing allowance

Learner example:
She spends most of her allowance quickly and is then without money for the rest of the month.

ally /ˈæ.laɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: alliance, ally
Adjectives: allied

NOUN [C]

PERSON

someone who supports you, especially when other people are against you
Dictionary example:
He is generally considered to be the Prime Minister's closest political ally.

Learner example:
The participants are under pressure and they have to find allies and make decisions.

alone /əˈləʊn/

ADJECTIVE; ADVERB

let alone
used to emphasize that something is more impossible than another thing
Dictionary example:
You couldn't trust her to look after your dog, let alone your child.

Learner example:
We are surrounded by amazing pieces of technology which we do not fully understand, let alone
use to their full capacity.

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 alongside /əˌlɒŋˈsaɪd/

ADVERB; PREPOSITION

NEXT TO

next to someone or something

Dictionary example:
A car pulled up alongside ours.

Learner example:
The skyline [is] filled with huge chimneys displacing tons of gases into the air; millions of vehicles
[are] moving on a highway alongside a dead river, where life flourished a few decades ago.

WITH

together with someone

Dictionary example:
She enjoyed working alongside such famous actors.

Learner example:
Also he worked alongside me at another travel agency for 6 months.

alteration /ˌɔːl.tərˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: alteration
Verbs: alter

NOUN [C or U]

a change, or the process of changing something

Dictionary example:
We've made a few alterations to the kitchen.

Learner example:
I hope that my alterations don't give you too much trouble, but I really think that these changes
are necessary for full satisfaction among our members.

alternate

Word family:
Nouns: alternative
Verbs: alternate
Adjectives: alternative
Adverbs: alternatively

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ADJECTIVE /ɔːlˈtɜː.nət/

alternate days/weeks/years, etc.

one out of every two days, weeks, years, etc.
Dictionary example:
I work alternate Saturdays.

Learner example:
I had to go to a travel agency on alternate weekends in order to translate some programmes into
English.

VERB /ˈɔːl.tə.neɪt/
If two things alternate, one thing happens, then the other thing happens, then the
first thing happens again, etc.
Dictionary example:
She alternates between cheerfulness and deep despair.

Learner example:
Xanadu Express promises to serve us food from all over the world and to alternate [the] menu.

amateur /ˈæm.ə.tər/

ADJECTIVE

doing something as a hobby and not as your job

Dictionary example:
an amateur photographer

Learner example:
Finally I would like to mention that I feel very confident in front of cameras, since I am an amateur
actor.

NOUN [C]

HOBBY

someone who does something as a hobby and not as their job

Dictionary example:
This tennis tournament is open to both amateurs and professionals.

Learner example:
What I want to explain is that if an amateur sees a professional swimmer winning while wearing
our equipment, he is surely going to think that our products helped him succeed, so the amateur
is going to buy our equipment too.

NO SKILL

someone who is not good at what they do

30
 Dictionary example:
I won't be giving them any more work - they're a bunch of amateurs.

Learner example:
I admit that I was an amateur, [which] is why I did not try to do any special "tricks" to impress all
those who were watching me.

amendment /əˈmend.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: amendment
Verbs: amend

NOUN [C or U]

a change in the words of a document, or the process of doing this

Dictionary example:
to make an amendment to the human rights law

Learner example:
In view of the need to clarify all these errors and wrong information, I would urge you to print
another report apologising and providing readers with the right figures and possible
amendments.

amid /əˈmɪd/

PREPOSITION (ALSO amidst)

WHILE

while something else is happening

Dictionary example:
Security was increased amid fears of further terrorist attacks.

Learner example:
They are involved so much with their occupation that they will respond to an emergency call even
when they are amid sweet dreams or having a joyful time with their love[d] ones.

among /əˈmʌŋ/ (ALSO amongst)

PREPOSITION

DIVIDE

to each one in a group

31
 Dictionary example:
She divided the cake among the children.

Learner example:
Although Brazil is the eighth biggest economy in the world and one of the richest countries
regarding natural resources, that wealth is not shared equally among the population.

ample /ˈæm.pl
̩/

ADJECTIVE

enough, or more than enough

Dictionary example:
She's had ample time to get the work done.

Learner example:
There will be three coffee machines on each floor which should provide ample coffee for everyone.

analytical /ˌæn.əlˈɪt.ɪ.kəl/

Word family:
Nouns: analysis, analyst
Verbs: analyse
Adjectives: analytical

ADJECTIVE (ALSO analytic)

examining the details of something carefully, in order to understand or explain it
Dictionary examples:
analytical skills
an analytical mind

Learner example:
Moreover, employers nowadays are seeking the team-working, problem-solving and analytical
skills [needed] for their company.

angle /ˈæŋ.gl
̩/

NOUN [C]

SPACE

the space between two lines or surfaces at the point at which they touch each
other, measured in degrees

32
 Dictionary examples:
an angle of 90 degrees
The interior angles of a square are right angles.

Learner example:
Carriers are to be requested to stick to the regulations which set the approach and takeoff angles
at no less than 45 degrees.

at an angle
not horizontal or vertical, but sloping
Dictionary examples:
He wore his hat at an angle.
The boat settled into the mud at a 35 degree angle.

Learner example:
After purchasing the G5X-1 food processor from your shop last month I discovered, upon
connecting it to the mains socket and switching it on, that I needed to tilt the unit at an angle for
it to work.

DIRECTION

the direction from which you look at something

Dictionary example:
This is the same building photographed from different angles.

Learner example:
It is possible to see all the paintings from different angles. You can also zoom in and out.

WAY OF THINKING

the way you think about a situation

Dictionary example:
Try looking at the problem from another angle.

Learner example:
To be a child is to see the world from a different angle.

annoyance /əˈnɔɪ.ənts/

Word family:
Nouns: annoyance
Verbs: annoy
Adjectives: annoyed, annoying

NOUN [U]

the feeling of being annoyed

Dictionary example:
He kept losing his keys, much to the annoyance of his wife.

33
 Learner example:
This caused a lot of annoyance, so I suggest next year you make some kind of arrangement [for]
booking the places [o]n the computer room in advance.

anticipate /ænˈtɪs.ɪ.peɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: anticipation
Verbs: anticipate

VERB [T]

to expect something, or to prepare for something before it happens

Dictionary examples:
to anticipate a problem
We anticipate that prices will fall next year.

Learner example:
Moreover, it is anticipated that the percentage of the group will rise further in 2010.

anti-social /ˌæn.tɪˈsəʊ.ʃəl/

Word family:
Nouns: society, socialism, socialist
Verbs: socialize
Adjectives: sociable, social, anti-social

ADJECTIVE

BEHAVIOUR

Anti-social behaviour harms or upsets the people around you.

Dictionary example:
Increasingly, smoking is regarded as an anti-social habit.

Learner example:
It cannot be denied that nowadays children and young people are showing many problems, such
as anti-social behaviour.

PERSON

An anti-social person does not like being with other people.

Dictionary example:
I hope they won't think I'm anti-social if I don't go to the party.

Learner example:
Technology has developed so much that [it] has made us very anti-social.

34
 anyhow /ˈeniː.haʊ/

ADVERB

CHANGING STATEMENT

used when you want to slightly change something that you have just said
Dictionary example:
Boys aren't horrible - not all of them anyhow!

anywhere /ˈen.i.weər/

ADVERB

anywhere near sth

used in questions and negatives to mean 'close to being or doing something'
Dictionary example:
The house isn't anywhere near ready.

Learner example:
We could not have gone anywhere near 5000 miles because all our minibuses were broken down -
we even stayed in one place for 8 days.

appalling /əˈpɔː.lɪŋ/

ADJECTIVE

BAD

very bad
Dictionary examples:
appalling behaviour/weather
The film was absolutely appalling!

Learner example:
Also, they believe that their ability to watch videos is handicapped by the fact that some of the
equipment is in [an] appalling condition.

apparent /əˈpær.ənt/

Word family:
Adjectives: apparent
Adverbs: apparently

35
ADJECTIVE

SEEMS TRUE

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] seeming to exist or be true

Dictionary example:
I was a little surprised by her apparent lack of interest.

Learner example:
In conclusion, our research [show]s the residents' apparent unwillingness to transform Greendale
Park into a car park.

appeal /əˈpiːl/

NOUN

REQUEST

[C] when a lot of people are asked to give money, information or help urgently

Dictionary examples:
They're launching an appeal to raise money for famine victims.
The police have issued an appeal to the public to stay away from the centre of town at the
weekend.

Learner example:
I would suggest that the local authorities with the support of the community and companies start
an appeal, to raise money to keep St. Mary's running.

VERB [I]

REQUEST

to make a serious or formal request, especially to the public, for money or help
Dictionary examples:
They're appealing for clothes and blankets to send to the devastated region.
The police are appealing to the public for any information about the missing girl.

appear /əˈpɪər/

Word family:
Nouns: appearance, disappearance
Verbs: appear, disappear

VERB [I]

it would appear (that)

used to say that something seems to be true

36
 Dictionary example:
It would appear that nobody on board the aircraft actually had a licence to fly it.

Learner example:
It would appear that students are not satisfied with the hours and days offered by the Club.

appetite /ˈæp.ɪ.taɪt/

NOUN [C or U]

FOOD

the feeling that makes you want to eat

Dictionary examples:
All that walking has given me an appetite.
I won't have any chocolate, thanks - it'll spoil my appetite.

Learner example:
The tasteless food spoiled our appetite.

applaud /əˈplɔːd/

Word family:
Nouns: applause
Verbs: applaud

VERB

CLAP

[I or T] to clap your hands to show that you have enjoyed a performance, talk, etc.

Dictionary example:
The audience applauded loudly.

Learner example:
Secondly, owing to a sudden shower, there was a short break during the dance display and the
horse show, but eventually, we finished the display and the show successfully and people
applauded.

applause /əˈplɔːz/

Word family:
Nouns: applause
Verbs: applaud

37
NOUN [U]

when people make a noise by clapping their hands to show they have enjoyed or
approve of something
Dictionary example:
There was loud applause at the end of her speech.

Learner example:
Still the audience was very pleased, because they gave massive applause at the end.

appliance /əˈplaɪ.ənts/

NOUN [C]

a piece of electrical equipment with a particular purpose in the home

Dictionary example:
fridges, radios, and other electrical appliances

Learner example:
The fair was well organized and structured into specific sections from clothing and sportswear to
household appliances and electronic [goods].

apply /əˈplaɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: application
Verbs: apply

VERB

USE

[T] to use something in a particular situation

Dictionary example:
The same method can be applied to other situations.

Learner example:
Moreover, he can explain how theory is being applied in the field.

appoint /əˈpɔɪnt/

Word family:
Nouns: appointment
Verbs: appoint

38
VERB [T]

to officially choose someone for a job

Dictionary example:
He was appointed as company director last year.

Learner example:
Moreover, with the liberation of Greece, he was appointed as the First Governor of the new state.

archaeologist /ˌɑː.kiˈɒl.ə.dʒɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: archaeologist, archaeology

NOUN [C]

someone who studies ancient cultures by looking for and examining their
buildings, tools, and other objects
Dictionary example:
Archaeologists believe the remains date back to the 5th century.

Learner example:
It includes articles from prominent journalists, scientists, archaeologists and other experts on
Greek civilisation.

archaeology /ˌɑː.kiˈɒl.ə.dʒi/

Word family:
Nouns: archaeologist, archaeology

NOUN [U]

the study of ancient cultures by looking for and examining their buildings, tools,
and other objects
Dictionary example:
He did archaeology at university.

Learner example:
But I have to admit that there could be more presentations to cover areas like archaeology,
language, etc.

arise /əˈraɪz/

VERB [I] (arose, arisen)

If a problem arises, it starts to happen.

39
 Dictionary example:
The whole problem arose from a lack of communication.

Learner example:
Although the place was very good, a number of problems arose during our visit.

arrival /əˈraɪ.vəl/

Word family:
Nouns: arrival
Verbs: arrive

NOUN

NEW PERSON/THING

[C] a new thing or person that has arrived

Dictionary example:
Two teachers were there to greet the new arrivals.

Learner example:
Secondly, a barbecue would be a good thing to do on the 1st of September, to welcome the new
arrivals.

art /ɑːt/

Word family:
Nouns: art, artist
Adjectives: artistic

NOUN

arts
subjects, such as history, languages and philosophy, that are not scientific
subjects
Dictionary examples:
an arts subject
the Arts Faculty
an arts graduate/degree

Learner example:
The same percentage of graduates from arts and social science and science areas became
unemployed after finishing university.

SKILL

[C or U] a skill in a particular activity

40
 Dictionary example:
the art of conversation

Learner example:
In my opinion, spoken English is the best course at the school and it really gives one good
practice in the art of negotiation.

as /æz/

ADVERB; PREPOSITION

as it happens
something that you say in order to introduce a surprising fact
Dictionary example:
As it happens, her birthday is the day after mine.

Learner example:
As it happens, I am currrently looking for a computer course for myself and I would like to join
one of your courses.

as many as
used before a number or amount to show that the number or amount is large
Dictionary example:
As many as 6,000 people may have been infected with the disease.

Learner example:
As many as 90% of them went to [the] cinema on a regular basis in 1990, with the peak of [a] 95%
attendance rate taking place in 1996.

as yet
FORMAL until and including this time
Dictionary examples:
We haven't needed extra staff as yet, but may do in the future.
No ambulances had as yet managed to get across the river.

Learner example:
I would like to do something about it, but as I can't imagine building anything near my beautiful
house (because I'm afraid it would destroy its wonderful harmony), I have no idea as yet how to
solve this problem.

assert /əˈsɜːt/

Word family:
Verbs: assert
Adjectives: assertive

41
VERB

[T] FORMAL to say that something is certainly true

Dictionary example:
He asserts that she stole money from him.

Learner example:
Our department have already consulted [the] local Marketing Training Centre, which asserted that
these employees are eligible to take the course.

asset /ˈæ.set/

NOUN

USEFUL

[C] a person, skill or quality which is useful or helps you to succeed

Dictionary example:
He'll be a great asset to the team.

Learner example:
I am sure that you will be more than satisfied with him and that he is going to be an asset to your
hotel.

WORTH MONEY

[C USUALLY PLURAL] something which a person or company owns which has a value

Dictionary example:
The company has $70 billion in assets.

Learner example:
Somehow, all his assets were frozen by the bank and the family became poor overnight.

assign /əˈsaɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: assignment
Verbs: assign

VERB [T]

to give someone a particular job or responsibility

Dictionary examples:
UN forces were assigned the task of rebuilding the hospital.
The case has been assigned to our most senior officer.

Learner example:
Some of the work they were assigned was quite boring for them.

42
 assignment /əˈsaɪn.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: assignment
Verbs: assign

NOUN [C]

a piece of work given to someone, especially as part of their studies or job

Dictionary examples:
a freelance/photo assignment
The assignment is due on Friday.

Learner example:
As your know, I must do the group assignment for Project Management.

associate /əˈsəʊ.si.eɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: association
Verbs: associate

VERB

TWO THINGS/PEOPLE

[T] to connect someone or something in your mind with someone or something

else
Dictionary example:
Most people associate this brand with good quality.

Learner example:
Nowadays we tend to associate computer games or television with young people.

association /əˌsəʊ.siˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: association
Verbs: associate

NOUN

in association with
working together with
Dictionary example:
The event was organized in association with the Sports Council.

43
 Learner example:
This service, which will be [provided] in association with Foster Loft, will be available at the end of
2005.

assumption /əˈsʌmp.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: assumption
Verbs: assume

NOUN

[C] something that you think is true without having any proof

Dictionary examples:
People tend to make assumptions about you when you have a disability.
These calculations are based on the assumption that prices will continue to rise.

Learner example:
But if this assumption is right, and if you consider how much fashion has changed over the last 60
years, does this mean that we are so very different from our grandparents?

assurance /əˈʃʊə.rənts/

Word family:
Nouns: assurance, reassurance, self-assurance
Verbs: assure, reassure
Adjectives: reassuring, self-assured

NOUN

PROMISE

[C] a promise

Dictionary example:
He gave us an assurance that it would not happen again.

Learner example:
Again, may I give my assurances that the above two requests [for] equipment acquisition would be
money well spent for our company.

assure /əˈʃʊər/

Word family:
Nouns: assurance, reassurance, self-assurance
Verbs: assure, reassure
Adjectives: reassuring, self-assured

44
VERB [T]

MAKE CERTAIN

to make something certain to happen

Dictionary example:
This loan should assure the company's future.

Learner example:
The PT is guaranteed to assure higher test results or your money back!

at /æt/

PREPOSITION

at an angle
not horizontal or vertical, but sloping
Dictionary examples:
He wore his hat at an angle.
The boat settled into the mud at a 35 degree angle.

Learner example:
After purchasing the G5X-1 food processor from your shop last month I discovered, upon
connecting it to the mains socket and switching it on, that I needed to tilt the unit at an angle for
it to work.

at the expense of sth

If you do one thing at the expense of another, doing the first thing harms the
second thing.
Dictionary example:
He spent a lot of time at work, at the expense of his marriage.

Learner example:
Unfortunately one is usually done at the expense of the other.

at face value
If you accept something at face value because of the way it first looks or seems,
you do so without thinking carefully about it.
Dictionary examples:
You can't just accept everything you read in the newspapers at face value.
These results should not be taken at face value - careful analysis is required to assess their full
implications.

Learner example:
People are assessed at face value [by] the type of cars they drive.

45
at a glance
If you see something at a glance, you see it very quickly or immediately.
Dictionary example:
He could tell at a glance that something was wrong.

Learner example:
You could tell at a glance that Peter was a loner.

at hand
near in time or space
Dictionary example:
Teachers are always close at hand to give help to any child who needs it.

Learner example:
I haven't had any lectures in English, but now and then there are lectures in English at the
University so you need to understand the spoken language with no dictionary at hand.

at the very least

not less than, and probably much more than
Dictionary examples:
At the very least, you should apologize.
We should earn £500 at the very least.

Learner example:
Thus, I trust you will agree that at the very least I deserve a letter of explanation from you and a
substantial refund of my money.

at short notice UK

only a short time before something happens

Dictionary example:
I had to give a speech at very short notice.

Learner example:
The fact that the speech by the famous actor was cancelled at short notice was disappointing.

at once
at the same time
Dictionary example:
They all started talking at once.

Learner example:
The study centre is really small and all the students talk at once.

all at once
suddenly
Dictionary example:
All at once he stood up and walked out of the room.

46
 Learner example:
All at once, everything started to work again.

at random
chosen by chance
Dictionary example:
Winners will be chosen at random.

Learner example:
The rooms suggested to be [filmed] have not been chosen at random.

at times
sometimes
Dictionary example:
At times, I wish I didn't have to go to school.

Learner example:
STUDYING METHODS All teachers at the college are high[ly]-skilled professionals and can be very
demanding at times, but this is [in] your best interest[s].

attached /əˈtætʃt/

Word family:
Nouns: attachment
Verbs: attach
Adjectives: attached

ADJECTIVE

attached to sb/sth
feeling emotionally close to someone or something
Dictionary example:
The children are very attached to their grandparents.

Learner example:
My only concern is that she is a bit shy and very attached to her family, but I really don't think it
would be a problem since she travels a lot and has already spent two months abroad.

attack /əˈtæk/

VERB

CRITICIZE

[T] to strongly criticize someone or something

47
 Dictionary example:
She attacked the government's new education policy.

Learner example:
I hope he was indeed misinformed, because attacking a charity organization like this on purpose,
is truly an act of a cruel man.

attain /əˈteɪn/

Word family:
Verbs: attain
Adjectives: attainable, unattainable

VERB [T]

to achieve something, especially after a lot of work

Dictionary example:
She's attained a high level of fitness.

Learner example:
Alternatively, an English speaker from a non-English-speaking country may be of help only if
he/she has attained a level higher than yours.

attendance /əˈten.dənts/

Word family:
Nouns: attendance
Verbs: attend

NOUN [C or U]

NUMBER

the number of people who go to an event, meeting, etc.

Dictionary example:
falling attendance

Learner example:
Also in May, we had the swimming gala, which had a very high attendance from students as there
were races for all abilities.

REGULARLY

when you go somewhere such as a church, school, etc. regularly

Dictionary example:
His attendance at school is very poor.

Learner example:
Consequently, I would make attendance more flexible for the members.

48
 auction /ˈɔːk.ʃən/

NOUN [C or U]

a sale in which things are sold to the person who offers the most money
Dictionary example:
The furniture was sold at auction.

Learner example:
And funds could be raised for the changes by [hold]ing auctions, runs, parties, raffles, contests
etc.

audition /ɔːˈdɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [C]

when someone does a short performance to try to get a job as an actor, singer,
etc.
Dictionary example:
She's got an audition for the show.

Learner example:
Many [un]talented pe[ople] think they can sing and attend the auditions, but others laugh at them.

authentic /ɔːˈθen.tɪk/

ADJECTIVE

If something is authentic, it is real, true, or what people say it is.

Dictionary example:
authentic Italian food

Learner example:
I am also nostalgic for authentic Thai culture which has subtly and gradually been replaced by
American and European culture.

authority /ɔːˈθɒr.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: authority
Verbs: authorize

49
NOUN

OFFICIAL GROUP

[C] an official group or government department with power to control particular

public services
Dictionary example:
the local housing authority

Learner example:
The local authority are worried about the fact that many fathers stopped financial support for their
ex-wives and dependent children.

authorize /ˈɔː.θər.aɪz/

Word family:
Nouns: authority
Verbs: authorize

VERB [T] (ALSO UK authorise)

to give official permission for something
Dictionary example:
His manager had authorized the expenditure.

Learner example:
Most of [the] rooms are airconditioned and our prices are competitive and authorized by the
Greek Tourist Organisation.

be authorized to do sth
to be officially allowed to do something
Dictionary example:
Only managers are authorized to sign expense forms.

Learner example:
In my capacity as the secretary of the Social Club, I am authorized to express students'
dissatisfaction with the facilities of the museum and to urge you to take remedial action towards
improving the situation.

avenue /ˈæv.ə.njuː/

NOUN [C]

ROAD

a wide road in a town or city, often with trees along it

50
 Dictionary example:
a tree-lined avenue

Learner example:
The demonstrators just spread litter all over the largest and finest avenue.

average /ˈæv.ər.ɪdʒ/

ADJECTIVE

NOT EXCELLENT

not particularly good

Dictionary example:
The meal was pretty average.

Learner example:
I didn't get the high standard [of] service that you had offered me, and the food was pretty
average.

awareness /əˈweə.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: awareness, self-awareness
Adjectives: aware

NOUN [U]

when you know about something

Dictionary example:
Environmental awareness is increasing all the time.

Learner example:
Thirdly, I have a strong awareness of issues which are important to my local community.

away /əˈweɪ/

ADVERB

SPORT

If a sports team is playing away, the game is at the place where the other team
usually plays.
Dictionary example:
They were playing away.

51
52
 B

back /bæk/

Word family:
Nouns: backing
Verbs: back

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

back road/street
a very small road or street that goes behind or between buildings
Dictionary example:
We wandered through the back streets, looking for Tommy.

Learner example:
From the museum you have to walk across a pedestrian street, through an unspoiled district,
where a jumble of narrow back streets retain old-world characters.

bacteria /bækˈtɪə.ri.ə/

NOUN [PLURAL]

very small living things that sometimes cause disease

Dictionary example:
The infection was caused by bacteria in the lung.

Learner example:
We were just lucky that during that period, the weather was cold and low temperatures prevented
bacteria from spreading.

bad /bæd/

Word family:
Adjectives: bad
Adverbs: badly

53
ADJECTIVE (worse, worst)

PAINFUL

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] If you have a bad arm, leg, heart, etc., there is something wrong
with it and it is painful.
Dictionary example:
I've got a bad shoulder.

Learner example:
I'm lugging [my laptop] with me everywhere, with a bad back as a result.

too bad
used to say that nothing can be done to change a situation
Dictionary example:
I know you don't want to go but it's too bad, we have to.

Learner example:
Human beings have to make their own liv[es] as good as possible, and if they [do] not succeed,
the cynical approach is just: too bad!

balance /ˈbæl.ənts/

Word family:
Nouns: balance
Verbs: balance
Adjectives: balanced, unbalanced

NOUN

strike a balance
to give two things the same amount of attention
Dictionary example:
It's important to strike a balance between spending and saving.

Learner example:
Everything has good and bad sides, the most important thing is to strike a balance.

ball /bɔːl/

NOUN [C]

be on the ball INFORMAL

to be quick to understand and react to things

54
 Dictionary example:
She's over ninety, but she's still on the ball.

Learner example:
When you're at Sants station, you'll need to be on the ball to find the tube.

bankrupt /ˈbæŋk.rʌpt/

ADJECTIVE

unable to continue in business because you cannot pay your debts

Dictionary example:
He went bankrupt after only a year in business.

Learner example:
But the greed for easy money is likely to diminish as many businesses have gone bankrupt these
last few months.

basically /ˈbeɪ.sɪk.li/

Word family:
Nouns: base, basics, basis
Adjectives: basic
Adverbs: basically

ADVERB

MOSTLY

in the most important ways

Dictionary examples:
These two machines are basically the same, but you get a few extra features in the more
expensive one.
The car's basically sound, but the paintwork needs a bit of attention.

Learner example:
Although they will offer some hot meals at any time, most of the food provided is basically fast
food and snacks.

basis /ˈbeɪ.sɪs/ (PLURAL bases)

Word family:
Nouns: base, basics, basis
Adjectives: basic
Adverbs: basically

55
NOUN [C]

REASON

the reason for something

Dictionary example:
There is no scientific basis for these claims.

Learner example:
I cannot imagine on what basis you estimated the figure.

on the basis of sth

having something as a reason
Dictionary example:
Marks are awarded on the basis of progress and performance.

Learner example:
On the basis of the points mentioned above, it is a foregone conclusion that young people do not
face any severe problems.

DEVELOPMENT

a situation, fact, or idea from which something can develop

Dictionary example:
Dani's essay can serve as a basis for our discussion.

Learner example:
As a basis for my proposals, I'll use the programme you sent to me.

beak /biːk/

NOUN [C]

the hard part of a bird's mouth

Dictionary example:
It carried a huge stick in its beak.

Learner example:
It is an elegant bird, about 2 ft tall, with grey feathers, a black tail and a yellow beak.

bear /beər/

Word family:
Verbs: bear
Adjectives: unbearable

56
VERB (bore, borne)

NAME

to have or show a particular name, picture, or symbol

Dictionary example:
The shop bore his family name.

Learner example:
He founded at least 17 cities bearing his name, as centres of art and culture.

bear left/right
to turn left or right
Dictionary example:
Bear right at the next set of traffic lights.

Learner example:
The taxi has to bear left at the fork and then you can see my house, 200 yards on the right si[de],
it's a white house with the number 53.

beat /biːt/

VERB (beat, beaten)

BETTER THAN

[T] to be better than something

Dictionary example:
Being at the youth club beats sitting at home.

Learner example:
The sight of a child cured from an immobilizing disease running around laughing and dancing is
pure happiness, nothing beats it.

FOOD

[T] to mix food using hard, quick movements

Dictionary example:
Beat the egg whites until they are stiff.

beat about/around the bush

to avoid talking about something difficult or embarrassing
Dictionary example:
I decided to stop beating around the bush and told him exactly what I thought of him.

Learner example:
Well, let's stop beating about the bush and g[et] to the point.

57
 before /bɪˈfɔːr/

CONJUNCTION

before you know it

very soon
Dictionary example:
We'll be there before you know it.

Learner example:
It is a bit dark inside and especially in winter, it is dark before you know it.

behind /bəˈhaɪnd/

PREPOSITION

CAUSING

causing something, or responsible for something

Dictionary example:
What was the reason behind her decision to leave?

Learner example:
Another reason behind this kind of thinking is that some boys feel a[w]kward when they see girls
and they think they are being ignored in the class.

ADVERB

SLOWER

slower or later than someone else, or than you should be

Dictionary example:
She's behind with the rent.

Learner example:
Those children who do not get this at home are the ones who are behind in their schoolwork.

behind the times

not fashionable or modern
Dictionary example:
Dad's a bit behind the times.

Learner example:
We [should] improve our equipment. Otherwise we will be behind the times.

58
 best /best/

ADJECTIVE

the next best thing

the thing that is best, if you cannot have or do the thing you really want
Dictionary example:
Coaching football is the next best thing to playing.

Learner example:
For many working people, there is hardly time to cook and prepare your dinner, so the next best
thing is to rush into a Macdonalds' or Burger King.

NOUN

(have) the best of both worlds

to have the advantages of two different situations
Dictionary example:
Living in the country and working in the city you have the best of both worlds.

Learner example:
Only those that can afford to live in the suburban areas can combine the best of both worlds and
they tend to be rather affluent.

bet /bet/

VERB [I or T]

! to risk money on the result of a game, competition, etc.

Dictionary examples:
He lost all his money betting on horses.
I bet him a dollar that I was right.

Learner example:
The game lost its innocence long before 1985 when players were betting on the result of their
own game.

between /bɪˈtwiːn/

ADVERB

SPACE

in the space that separates two people, places, or things

59
 Dictionary example:
The wood is in neat piles with newspaper placed between.

Learner example:
There is a shuttle bus from the airport straight to the main station with only one stop in between.

TIME

in the period of time that separates two events or times

Dictionary example:
There's a train at 6.15 and one at 10.30 but nothing in between.

Learner example:
Besides, there [is] research that prove[s] that people cannot work for more than two hours [at a
time]. They can't concentrate that long [and] they need to rest their minds for short periods in
between.

beware /bɪˈweər/

VERB [I]

used in order to warn someone to be careful

Dictionary examples:
Beware of the dog.
You should beware of spending too long in the sun.

Learner example:
Although it's fun to surf, beware of the danger...

beyond /biˈjɒnd/

PREPOSITION

INVOLVING OTHERS

involving or affecting other things or people than the ones you have talked about
Dictionary example:
You should try to develop interests beyond the family.

Learner example:
Of course, the process of women['s] liberation isn't viewed with enthusiasm by husbands who
would have to wash up and cook if their wives wanted to develop women interests beyond their
family circle.

NOT UNDERSTAND

INFORMAL If something is beyond you, you cannot understand it.

60
 Dictionary examples:
Computer studies is completely beyond me.
It's beyond me why anyone would want to buy that house.

Learner example:
Lastly, touching upon the subject of the money, how you get the figure of 60% is beyond me, as I
have a clear chart of the charity day results.

ADVERB

PLACE

past a place
Dictionary example:
From the top of the hill we could see our house and the woods beyond.

Learner example:
The airport-bus will take you to the centre of Ostersund where I live and even beyond.

biased /ˈbaɪ.əst/

Word family:
Nouns: bias
Adjectives: biased, unbiased

ADJECTIVE

showing unfair support for or opposition to someone or something because of

your personal opinions
Dictionary example:
to be biased against/towards younger workers

Learner example:
Maybe it is not an original idea, but I must admit my choice was a little bit biased, since I am
reading a book about this era at the moment.

bid /bɪd/

NOUN [C]

OFFER

an offer to do something when you are competing with other people to do it

Dictionary examples:
We put in a bid for the stadium contract.
London made a successful bid to host the Olympic Games.

61
 Learner example:
I do not believe Beijing would have won the bid for [the] 2008 Olympic Games.

big /bɪg/

ADJECTIVE (bigger, biggest)

SUCCESSFUL

INFORMAL successful or popular

Dictionary example:
The programme's been a big hit with young children.

Learner example:
Of course, the many traditional craft stalls were a big hit also, and the[re] were hardly any [things]
left!

bilingual /baɪˈlɪŋg.wəl/

ADJECTIVE

using or able to speak two languages

Dictionary examples:
a bilingual dictionary
She's bilingual.

Learner example:
The staff also seem reluctant to help travellers with their children and it would help if the staff
were bilingual.

birth /bɜːθ/

NOUN

BEGINNING

[U] LITERARY the beginning of something

Dictionary example:
the birth of modern science

Learner example:
Pericles was the man who achieved the birth of democracy.

62
 bit /bɪt/

NOUN [C]

a bit of a change/fool/problem, etc.

a change, fool, problem, etc., but not an important or serious one
Dictionary examples:
I am a bit of a romantic.
It was a bit of a shock.

Learner example:
I'm a bit of a computer maniac, so I've always wanted to experience the making of computer
programmes.

bit by bit
gradually
Dictionary example:
She saved up the money, bit by bit.

Learner example:
This film is full of tension as the truth is only revealed bit by bit.

blame /bleɪm/

VERB [T]

be to blame
to be responsible for something bad which has happened
Dictionary example:
Poor housing is to blame for many of their health problems.

blind /blaɪnd/

Word family:
Nouns: blindness
Adjectives: blind

ADJECTIVE

turn a blind eye (to sth)

to choose to ignore something that you know is wrong or illegal
Dictionary example:
Restaurant staff often took food home, and their boss turned a blind eye.

63
 Learner example:
Nevertheless, we can't turn a blind eye to this reality.

NOUN

the blind
people who are blind
Dictionary example:
He went to a school for the blind.

Learner example:
I write from 'Helpers', an Uruguayan Enterprise specialized in selling products for both the blind
and the mute, and whose offerings your Company in Britain is interested in selling.

blindness /ˈblaɪnd.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: blindness
Adjectives: blind

NOUN [U]

NOT SEEING

the state of being blind

Dictionary example:
In its later stages the disease causes blindness.

Learner example:
Apart from his blindness, his health has worsened in general.

block /blɒk/

VERB [T]

CANNOT SEE

to be between someone and the thing they are looking at, so that they cannot see
Dictionary example:
A pillar was blocking my view.

Learner example:
You cannot have a panoramic view [of] the mountains [any more] because buildings block it and
[the] people in the nearby village think only of profit.

64
 blood /blʌd/

Word family:
Nouns: blood
Verbs: bleed
Adjectives: bloody

NOUN [U]

new blood
new people in an organization who will provide new ideas and energy
Dictionary example:
We need some new blood in the organization.

Learner example:
It will give new opportunities to new generations and thus will [provide] new blood in the
differe[n]t organisations.

bloody /ˈblʌd.i/

Word family:
Nouns: blood
Verbs: bleed
Adjectives: bloody

ADJECTIVE

VIOLENT

violent and involving a lot of blood and injuries

Dictionary example:
a bloody war

Learner example:
About 50,000 Romans died during this bloody battle, including the famous Roman Commander
Varus.

blue /bluː/

NOUN [C or U]

out of the blue

If something happens out of the blue, it is completely unexpected.
Dictionary example:
One day, out of the blue, she announced that she was leaving.

65
 Learner example:
Dear Kim, I was extremely happy when I received your letter out of the blue.

board /bɔːd/

NOUN

ORGANIZATION

[C+ SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB] a group of people who officially control a company or
organization, or a particular type of business activity
Dictionary examples:
the Tourist Board
The board approved the sales plan.

Learner example:
We will try to get a subsidy during the next Board of Directors [meeting].

take sth on board

to understand or accept an idea or a piece of information
Dictionary example:
Banks need to take on board the views of their customers.

Learner example:
The students feel that if the above suggestions were taken on board, the study centre could be an
excellent support for them in their studies.

borrow /ˈbɒr.əʊ/

VERB

MONEY

[I or T] to get money from a bank or financial organization and pay it back over a
period of time
Dictionary example:
We had to borrow heavily to set up the business.

Learner example:
Some even borrow from loan sharks just to satisfy impulse shopping needs, which may eventually
lead to building up debts to an individual or his family.

66
 both /bəʊθ/

DETERMINER; PRONOUN

(have) the best of both worlds

to have the advantages of two different situations
Dictionary example:
Living in the country and working in the city you have the best of both worlds.

Learner example:
Only those that can afford to live in the suburban areas can combine the best of both worlds and
they tend to be rather affluent.

bounce /baʊnts/

VERB

bounce back PHRASAL VERB

SUCCESSFUL AGAIN

to start to be successful again after a difficult period

Dictionary examples:
Stock prices bounced back after a steep plunge earlier this week.
After a terrible start the team bounced back and won the game.

Learner example:
The figures reflecting the number of tonnes carried by the rail network had initially fallen in the
nineteen eighties and nineteen nineties by about 40 per cent but then bounced back by the
begin[n]ing of the new century.

bound /baʊnd/

ADJECTIVE

DIRECTION

[NEVER BEFORE NOUN] travelling towards a particular place

Dictionary example:
He was on a train bound for Berlin.

Learner example:
The only risk you run is [gett]ing on a bus bound for Boras, so take care you avoid this one.

67
 boundary /ˈbaʊn.dər.i/

NOUN [C]

LINE

a line that divides two areas or forms an edge around an area

Dictionary example:
The mountains mark the boundary between the two countries.

Learner example:
This gives youngsters the opportunity to exchange opinions with people all over the world, and so
the boundaries of the countries or the continents have less meaning.

LIMIT

a limit
Dictionary example:
Such violence is beyond the boundaries of civilized conduct.

Learner example:
This is a movie that reminds us that a man's soul cannot be measured with a measuring tape, that
passion knows no boundaries, and that love accepts no defeat.

bracket /ˈbræk.ɪt/

NOUN

GROUP

[C] a group of people whose ages, taxes, etc. are between two limits

Dictionary example:
Most heart attack victims are in the 45-65 age bracket.

Learner example:
The 35-49 age bracket remained constant in terms of cinema attendance and [the] same also with
the 50+ age bracket.

brain /breɪn/

NOUN [C]

INTELLIGENCE

used to refer to intelligence

68
 Dictionary examples:
That can't possibly be the right way to do it - use your brain!
He's got brains but he's too lazy to use them.

Learner example:
The whole [of] Western society already seems to be founded on computers and relying on chips,
which to a certain extent has taken away our own abilities of using our brains.

brass /brɑːs/

NOUN [U]

METAL

a shiny yellow metal

Dictionary example:
a door with a brass handle

Learner example:
The dark marble is easy to keep clean and the solid brass handles look luxur[ious].

break /breɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: break, outbreak
Verbs: break
Adjectives: breakable, broken

VERB (broke, broken)

break even
to not make money but also not lose money
Dictionary example:
The company only managed to break even this year.

Learner example:
Company C does not seem to be doing well. In the year 2000, it just seems to be breaking even.

NOUN [C]

DAMAGE

where something has separated in an accident

Dictionary example:
a break in the bone

69
 breakdown /ˈbreɪk.daʊn/

NOUN [C]

FAILURE

when something such as communication or a relationship fails or ends

Dictionary example:
a breakdown in the peace talks

Learner example:
Eventually, society may be affected by the breakdown of these relationships.

breath /breθ/

Word family:
Nouns: breath
Verbs: breathe

NOUN [U]

catch your breath; get your breath back

to rest for a short time until you can breathe regularly again
Dictionary example:
Let's stop here and catch our breath.

Learner example:
Unfortunately, the rooms we stayed in were on the 4th floor. The older people couldn't catch their
breath when they finally arrived there!

bribe /braɪb/

Word family:
Nouns: bribe, bribery
Verbs: bribe

NOUN [C]

! money or a present given to someone so that they will do something for you,
usually something dishonest
Dictionary example:
The politician was accused of accepting bribes from businessmen.

Learner example:
Because we don't like to wait, it is very common to jump in the queues or give bribes to people in
charge.

70
VERB [T]

! to try to make someone do something for you by giving them money, presents or
something else they want
Dictionary example:
He bribed immigration officials and entered the country illegally.

Learner example:
She considers presents to be a means of bribing her in order to love you.

bright /braɪt/

Word family:
Adjectives: bright
Adverbs: brightly

ADJECTIVE

look on the bright side

to find good things in a bad situation
Dictionary example:
Look on the bright side - no one was badly hurt.

Learner example:
I am quite self-confident and I usually look on the bright side, as I am not keen on pessimistic
thoughts.

bring /brɪŋ/

VERB [T] (brought, brought)

bring sth to an end

to make something finish
Dictionary example:
The stories in the newspaper brought her career to a sudden end.

Learner example:
At the end of the year 2002 a great construction was brought to an end.

71
 broaden /ˈbrɔː.dən/

Word family:
Nouns: breadth
Verbs: broaden
Adjectives: broad
Adverbs: broadly

VERB [I or T]

to increase or make something increase and include more things or people

Dictionary examples:
We need to broaden the range of services that we offer.
Travel broadens your mind.

Learner example:
I mentioned the fact that such a presentation would broaden his mind and help him to strengthen
his position in the company.

broadly /ˈbrɔːd.li/

Word family:
Nouns: breadth
Verbs: broaden
Adjectives: broad
Adverbs: broadly

ADVERB

in a general way and not including everything or everyone

Dictionary examples:
The plans have been broadly accepted.
Broadly speaking, don't you think women make better drivers than men?

Learner example:
The car is a marvellous means of transport as far as mobility, freedom, speed and comfort are
concerned but it is now broadly acknowledged that it is inappropriate for the [short journeys] in
our big cities.

broken /ˈbrəʊ.kən/

Word family:
Nouns: break, outbreak
Verbs: break
Adjectives: breakable, broken

72
ADJECTIVE

broken English/Spanish, etc.

English/Spanish, etc. that is spoken slowly and has a lot of mistakes in it
Dictionary example:
I managed to make myself understood in broken French.

Learner example:
A non-English speaker may be [able] to talk in broken English to a native English speaker, but has
only [a vague] idea as to what he's uttering.

bronze /brɒnz/

NOUN

PRIZE

a bronze medal
Dictionary example:
He won a bronze in the 200m.

Learner example:
I have won two bronze medals and one gold for swimming 50m.

brush /brʌʃ/

VERB

brush sth away/off, etc.

to move something somewhere using a brush or your hand
Dictionary examples:
Jackie brushed the hair out of her eyes.
He brushed away a tear.

Learner example:
She picked the diary up, brushed off the dust, and immedi[ate]ly started to read it.

brutal /ˈbruː.təl/

ADJECTIVE

very violent or cruel

73
 Dictionary example:
a brutal murder

Learner example:
Can you remember the days when soccer was peaceful, harmless and all about joy? It has nothing
to do with contemporary soccer, [which] is brutal, aggressive, [and] emotional.

bubble /ˈbʌb.l/

NOUN [C]

a ball of air or gas with liquid around it

Dictionary example:
an air bubble

Learner example:
As a consequence the sea became polluted, and its deep blue colour turned into a dirty green,
covered with bubbles!

VERB [I]

bubble (over) with confidence/enthusiasm, etc.

to be full of a positive emotion or quality
Dictionary example:
The children were bubbling over with excitement.

Learner example:
However taking into account that students often leave class bubbling over with excitement and go
straight to the canteen, the noise is a little bit loud there [so] I do not think this would be a good
place to film.

build /bɪld/

Word family:
Nouns: builder, building
Verbs: build, rebuild

VERB [I or T] (built, built)

build (sth) up or build up (sth) PHRASAL VERB

to increase or develop, or to make something increase or develop

Dictionary examples:
This will help to build up his confidence.
Traffic usually builds up in the late afternoon.

74
 Learner example:
What might take a long time to build up could be ruined in a very short time.

bulk /bʌlk/

Word family:
Nouns: bulk
Adjectives: bulky

NOUN

in bulk
in large amounts
Dictionary example:
to buy in bulk

Learner example:
I suggest that you buy food in bulk so that you not only save money but also save time.

the bulk of sth

the largest part or most of something
Dictionary example:
He spends the bulk of his money on rent.

Learner example:
I have noticed that the bulk of the commit[t]ee are people over forty years old.

bulky /ˈbʌl.ki/

Word family:
Nouns: bulk
Adjectives: bulky

ADJECTIVE

too big and taking up too much space

Dictionary example:
bulky equipment

Learner example:
The problem is actually that to get access to this kind of program, one needs to buy special
equipment, which is [still] quite expensive and bulky.

75
 bully /ˈbʊl.i/

VERB [T]

to intentionally frighten someone who is smaller or weaker than you

Dictionary examples:
He was bullied at school by some older boys.
She was bullied into leaving.

Learner example:
Nowadays, due to active bullying prevention by the schools, the children are exposed to the bad
effects of bullying and how to stand up if anybody tries to bully them.

NOUN [C]

someone who intentionally frightens a person who is smaller or weaker than them
Dictionary example:
He's just a bully.

Learner example:
One day you accidentally kill the bully of the village with a sword you found, and you are cast out
of the village.

bump /bʌmp/

VERB

bump into sb PHRASAL VERB

to meet someone you know when you have not planned to meet them
Dictionary example:
I bumped into Mark when I was out shopping this afternoon.

Learner example:
From the kitchen came a white-haired, overweight, pyjama-clad octagenarian, who was extremely
surprised to bump into Robert.

NOUN

BODY

a raised area on your body where it has been hurt by hitting something hard
Dictionary example:
a nasty bump on the head

SURFACE

a round, raised area on a surface

76
 Dictionary example:
My bike hit a bump in the road.

Learner example:
When people don't feel safe on the streets anymore due to [the] lack of speed limit signs or speed
bumps on the roads, or simply traffic lights!

burden /ˈbɜː.dən/

NOUN [C]

something difficult or unpleasant that you have to deal with or worry about
Dictionary examples:
the burden of responsibility
I'd hate to be a burden to you when I'm older.

Learner example:
With the heavy burden of paying the high school fees already on our shoulders, why not take into
consideration the idea of opening the centre to the public?

burning /ˈbɜː.nɪŋ/

Word family:
Verbs: burn
Adjectives: burning

ADJECTIVE

a burning issue/question
a subject or question that must be dealt with or answered quickly
Dictionary example:
Climate change is the burning issue of the day.

Learner example:
Dear David Gold, I am writing this letter to discuss and give my opinion on the two proposals for
solving the traffic problem in Castlecross, which is widely recognised as arguably the most
burning issue nowadays.

burning ambition/desire, etc.

a very strong need to do something
Dictionary example:
I have no burning desire to go diving.

Learner example:
By travelling back to Germany in 1933 I might be able to find out where Hitler's burning ambition
to rule the world stemmed from in the first place.

77
 bush /bʊʃ/

NOUN [C]

beat about/around the bush

to avoid talking about something difficult or embarrassing
Dictionary example:
I decided to stop beating around the bush and told him exactly what I thought of him.

Learner example:
Well, let's stop beating about the bush and g[et] to the point.

by /baɪ/

PREPOSITION

by all accounts
as said by a lot of people
Dictionary example:
The party was, by all accounts, a great success.

Learner example:
I have known Michael Van Cleef for over two decades now, and he is, by all accounts, an
exemplary worker.

by and large
in general
Dictionary example:
By and large, people have welcomed the changes.

Learner example:
By and large, it is clear that we all enjoy some kind of sport.

by law
If you have to do something by law, it is illegal not to do it.
Dictionary example:
They have to provide a contract by law.

Learner example:
Swedish organisations and [companies] are forced by law to put forward programmes for
employing more women and improv[ing] their conditions.

by way of sth
as a type of something

78
Dictionary example:
He sent me some flowers by way of apology.

Learner example:
The Academy however provided nothing whatsoever by way of entertainment, though with a
group of interesting young people and a little imagination this should not be a pro[b]lem.

79
 C

cabin /ˈkæb.ɪn/

NOUN [C]

HOUSE

a small, simple house made of wood

Dictionary example:
a log cabin

Learner example:
For many years, the visitor could only stay in one of the few cabins near the lake, enjoying a
breathtaking view.

call /kɔːl/

VERB

ASK TO COME

[I or T] to ask someone to come somewhere

Dictionary examples:
She called me into her office.
He called me over to where he was sitting.
I keep the bedroom door open in case the children call for me in the night.

Learner example:
Next door there's an elderly neighbour who I have always helped. [...] Remember to call him over
[sometimes] and together watch television or play cards.

call an election/meeting, etc.

to arrange for an election/meeting, etc. to happen
Dictionary example:
The chairman has called an emergency meeting.

Learner example:
We hope you w[ill] call a meeting to discuss this matter in detail.

80
NOUN [C]

a call for sth

a demand for something to happen
Dictionary example:
a call for action/peace

Learner example:
Their demands included an all-out call for vital reforms in education - not, as one might expect, a
call for higher salaries.

VISIT

a short visit
Dictionary example:
I thought I'd pay Gary a call.

Learner example:
During our stay in Dublin we [took] a half-day trip by bus throughout the city, which was an
unforgettable experience, and paid a call to the National Museum as well.

campaign /kæmˈpeɪn/

NOUN [C]

ACTIVITIES

a series of organized activities or events intended to achieve a result

Dictionary example:
an advertising/election campaign

Learner example:
In order to solve problems caused by traffic congestion, perhaps the City Co[u]ncil should
consider launching a publicity campaign to show people in Baden the alternative means of
transport and the advantages of using them.

WAR

a series of military attacks

Dictionary example:
a bombing campaign

Learner example:
Another example is the campaign of Alexander the Great.

VERB [I]

to organize a series of activities to try to achieve something

81
 Dictionary example:
to campaign against/for something

Learner example:
Instead of campaigning against tourism, people should [look for] ways of making it better and
safer.

cancellation /ˌkæn.səˈleɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: cancellation
Verbs: cancel

NOUN [C or U]

when someone decides that an event will not now happen or stops an order for
something
Dictionary example:
a last-minute cancellation

Learner example:
To begin with, there was a general disappointment due to the cancellation of the opening speech.

cap /kæp/

VERB [T]

LIMIT

to put a limit on an amount of money that can be borrowed, charged, etc.

Dictionary example:
The interest rate has been capped at 5%.

Learner example:
The cost should also be delinked from the international petrol prices and capped at certain fixed
rates for a fixed term.

to cap it all
used when you mention something in addition to all the other bad or
disappointing things that have happened
Dictionary example:
It's been a terrible week and now, to cap it all, the car's broken down.

Learner example:
To cap it all, there was often not enough to eat.

82
 capability /ˌkeɪ.pəˈbɪl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: capability
Adjectives: capable, incapable

NOUN [C or U]

the ability or power to do something

Dictionary examples:
Both players have the capability to win this match.
With the new machines we finally have the capability to do the job properly.

Learner example:
The most important part of this job is to be able to work as a member of a team and manage to
use everyone's skills and capabilities.

capacity /kəˈpæs.ə.ti/

NOUN

JOB

[C] a position or job

Dictionary example:
He attended over 100 events last year in his capacity as mayor.

Learner example:
I'm writing in my capacity as secretary of the Social Club of the language school to complain about
the services provided to us during our visit to the Science and Technology museum.

capture /ˈkæp.tʃər/

VERB [T]

capture sb's attention/ imagination/ interest

to make someone interested in or excited about something
Dictionary example:
The Moon landing captured the attention of the whole world.

Learner example:
I am sure this program would capture the interest of other students in this college, as those who
participated would be telling their friends all about their adventurous trip.

83
NOUN [U]

when a person or animal is caught and made a prisoner

Dictionary example:
He shot himself to avoid capture.

Learner example:
The best example is Operation Takedown w[h]ich is based on the capture of Kevin Mitnick, who
illegally hacked in to computers and stole information, but in the movie he is presented [as] a
hero.

care /keər/

Word family:
Nouns: care, carelessness
Verbs: care
Adjectives: careful, careless, caring
Adverbs: carefully, carelessly

NOUN

take care of sth/doing sth

to be responsible for dealing with something
Dictionary example:
I did the cooking while Guy took care of the washing up.

Learner example:
As for special requirements, one man and one woman are vegetarians and the woman is allergic
to cats. I hope you are able to take care of that.

VERB

I/he, etc. couldn't care less INFORMAL

used to emphasize that someone is not interested in or worried about something

or someone
Dictionary example:
I couldn't care less what people think.

Learner example:
There was hunger, there was poverty and the king couldn't care less about his people['s] well-
being.

84
 carriage /ˈkær.ɪdʒ/

NOUN [C]

TRAIN

one of the separate parts of a train where the passengers sit

Dictionary example:
The front carriage of the train is for first-class passengers only.

Learner example:
You may also buy a ticket in a sleeping carriage and spend the whole night comfortably sleeping.

carry /ˈkær.i/

VERB [T]

DISEASE

to have a disease that you might give to someone else

Dictionary example:
Mosquitoes carry malaria and other infectious diseases.

catch /kætʃ/

VERB (caught, caught)

catch on PHRASAL VERB

BECOME POPULAR

to become popular
Dictionary example:
I wonder if the game will catch on with young people?

Learner example:
The commercial succes[s] of "Super agent" has resulted in introducing "Super agent II", the game
which is sup[p]osed to present further adventures of the agent. Unfortunately, I don't think that it
will catch on.

catch up (sb) or catch (sb) up PHRASAL VERB

BE AS GOOD AS

to reach the same level or quality as someone or something else

85
 Dictionary example:
She's doing extra work to catch up with the rest of the class.

Learner example:
Her father did not really seem to hate her, after all, and if she was always left in the shadow, that
happened because she did not do her best to catch up with her brothers.

cater /ˈkeɪ.tər/

VERB [I or T]

to provide and often serve food and drinks for a particular event
Dictionary example:
How many are we catering for at the wedding reception?

Learner example:
I can understand why you shortlisted these three proposals as all of them seem good enough to
cater for our canteen.

cause /kɔːz/

NOUN

PRINCIPLE

[C] a principle or aim that a group of people support or fight for

Dictionary examples:
The money will all go to a good cause.
He fought for the Republican cause in the war.

Learner example:
It would be a shame if people got the wrong impression, that it is not worth working and making
an effort for charity and good causes and I would certainly not like to beli[e]ve that your paper
contributed to giving that impression??

caution /ˈkɔː.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: caution
Verbs: caution
Adjectives: cautious

86
NOUN

CARE

[U] great care and attention not to take risks or get into danger

Dictionary examples:
Travellers have been advised to exercise great caution when passing through the region.
I would treat anything he says with extreme caution.

Learner example:
Extreme caution has to be taken during push-back and engine start.

central /ˈsen.trəl/

Word family:
Nouns: centre
Adjectives: central

ADJECTIVE

CITY

in the main part of a town or city

Dictionary example:
Our offices are very central.

Learner example:
The house location is very central, it is in South Kensington and it is [with]in walking distance [of]
Gloucester Road Underground station.

ORGANIZATION

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] controlled or organized in one main place

Dictionary examples:
central authorities/government
the US central bank
central control/planning

Learner example:
The contribution of the central government seems to be inevitable to complete the project.

cereal /ˈsɪə.ri.əl/

NOUN [C or U]

PLANT

a plant that is grown to produce grain for food

87
 Dictionary example:
cereal crops

Learner example:
During this part you can see cereal crops, mainly wheat.

certain /ˈsɜː.tən/

Word family:
Nouns: certainty, uncertainty
Adjectives: certain, uncertain
Adverbs: certainly

ADJECTIVE

know/say for certain

to know something without doubt
Dictionary example:
We don't know for certain whether she's coming.

Learner example:
The rules may be considered a bit too strict, the teaching methods too "old-fashioned", but I
know for certain that this course gives very good preparation in [Busi]ness English.

certainly /ˈsɜː.tən.li/

Word family:
Nouns: certainty, uncertainty
Adjectives: certain, uncertain
Adverbs: certainly

ADVERB

certainly not
used after an adverb in short, negative replies
Dictionary examples:
"She's not exactly poor, is she?" "Certainly not."
"Will you be taking her there?" "Certainly not!"

Learner example:
Are all young people lazy and unable to participate in any form of sport? Certainly not!!!

88
 changeable /ˈtʃeɪn.dʒə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: change
Verbs: change
Adjectives: unchanged, changeable

ADJECTIVE

often changing, or likely to change

Dictionary example:
The weather was very changeable last summer.

Learner example:
I must say that summers here are a bit mild and changeable.

chaotic /keɪˈɒt.ɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: chaos
Adjectives: chaotic

ADJECTIVE

in a state of chaos
Dictionary example:
a chaotic situation

Learner example:
Consequently, in order to improve the chaotic traffic situation it is advisable to choose other
means of transport as mentioned above.

character /ˈkær.ɪk.tər/

Word family:
Nouns: character, characteristic
Adjectives: characteristic

NOUN

INTERESTING PERSON

[C] an interesting or funny person whose behaviour is different from most people's

Dictionary example:
Your granny's a real character.

Learner example:
Mr Brown is a great character.

89
 WRITING

[C] a letter, sign, or number that you use when you are writing or printing

Dictionary example:
Chinese characters

Learner example:
However, [the] poems are written in old Japanese characters which are difficult to understand.

charge /tʃɑːdʒ/

NOUN

CRIME

[C] a formal police statement saying that someone is accused of a crime

Dictionary examples:
The 19-year-old will be appearing in court on Thursday where she will face criminal charges.
He has been arrested on a charge of murder.
The police brought a charge of theft against him.

Learner example:
He decided on the spot that if Paul was to return all the money he wouldn't press charges so he
called his parents and asked them to find out where he was.

chatty /ˈtʃæt.i/

Word family:
Nouns: chat
Verbs: chat
Adjectives: chatty

ADJECTIVE

PERSON

liking to talk
Dictionary example:
My sister is very chatty.

Learner example:
Both Mr Brown and Peter are chatty and not afraid of [the] camcorder.

WRITING

A piece of writing that is chatty has a friendly and informal style.

90
 Dictionary example:
a chatty letter/style

Learner example:
To be more specific, the articles will include events taken from our college life, written in a
humorous, chatty way in order to help them see life in its positive aspect.

cheap /tʃiːp/

ADJECTIVE

LOW QUALITY

low in price and quality

Dictionary example:
I bought some cheap wine to cook with.

Learner example:
[The] "luxury hotel" from the advertis[e]ment happened to be a dirty, cheap hotel with no lift
(notice that all the rooms were located on the 4th floor) and no service.

check /tʃek/

VERB

check (up) on sth PHRASAL VERB

to try to discover how something is progressing or whether someone is doing

what they should be doing
Dictionary example:
My boss is always checking up on me.

check sth out or check out sth PHRASAL VERB

INFORMATION

INFORMAL to examine something or get more information about it in order to be

certain that it is true, safe, or suitable
Dictionary example:
We'll need to check out his story.

Learner example:
Can you please check it out and let me know who caused such a[n] awful mistake.

GO TO SEE

INFORMAL to go to a place in order to see what it is like

91
 Dictionary example:
Let's check out that new dance club.

Learner example:
If cooking is not your favourite task or you enjoy eating out, check out the college cant[een].

chilly /ˈtʃɪl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: chill
Adjectives: chilly

ADJECTIVE

unpleasantly cold
Dictionary example:
a chilly evening

Learner example:
Apart from everything mentioned, the worst thing was the fact that our coach broke down in the
middle of nowhere on a chilly rainy day.

cholesterol /kəˈles.tər.ɒl/

NOUN [U]

a type of fat in your body that can cause heart disease if you have too much
Dictionary example:
The doctor said I had high cholesterol.

Learner example:
Hong Kong people have become fatter and fatter due to the adoption of Western food which is
rich in fat and cholesterol.

chore /tʃɔːr/

NOUN [C]

a boring job that you must do

Dictionary example:
I find cooking a real chore.

Learner example:
The speed of "modern" life has increased and we do not have enough time to do the chores like
ironing any more.

92
 cinema /ˈsɪn.ə.mə/

NOUN

ART

[U] the art or business of making films

Dictionary example:
an article about French cinema

Learner example:
In my opinion, this is a really fascinating film, not only for nature and wildlife lovers, but for
everybody who likes good cinema.

civil /ˈsɪv.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: civilization, civilian
Adjectives: civil

ADJECTIVE

relating to the ordinary people or things in a country and not to military or

religious organizations
Dictionary example:
They married in a civil ceremony.

Learner example:
The wedding will occur first in the church, and then in front of the Mayor, who will personally
come [to] the castle for the civil wedding.

civilization (ALSO civilisation) /ˌsɪv.əl.aɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: civilization, civilian
Adjectives: civil

NOUN

WAY OF LIFE

[U] when people have an advanced and comfortable way of life

Dictionary example:
modern civilization

93
 Learner example:
Even if this idea is idealistic, some think that they will take advantage of all the benefits of modern
civilization.

claim /kleɪm/

NOUN [C]

STATEMENT

a statement that something is true or is a fact, although other people might not
believe it
Dictionary examples:
She rejected claims that she had lied.
Can you give any evidence to support your claim?
He made wild claims about being able to cure cancer.

Learner example:
To correct your claims about our target figure and the result of the day, I enclose a sheet
displaying an income pie [chart].

clarification /ˌklær.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: clarification, clarity
Verbs: clarify

NOUN [C or U] FORMAL

an explanation which makes something clearer or easier to understand

Dictionary examples:
Please contact this office again if you require further clarification.
Our lawyer has advised us to seek clarification on the matter.

Learner example:
If any tricky questions come up you simply stay calm and ask for a clarification.

clarify /ˈklær.ɪ.faɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: clarification, clarity
Verbs: clarify

VERB [T]

to make something easier to understand by explaining it

94
 Dictionary example:
The law aims to clarify building regulations.

Learner example:
Could you clarify this situation for me, please?

class /klɑːs/

VERB

class sb/sth as sth

to put someone or something in a particular group according to their qualities
Dictionary example:
The tower is classed as a historic monument.

Learner example:
All things considered, the Day could be classed as a success.

classify /ˈklæs.ɪ.faɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: classification
Verbs: classify

VERB [T]

to put people or things into groups by their type, size, etc.

Dictionary examples:
A third of the population has been classified as poor.
The books are classified by subject.

Learner example:
The paintings will be classified according to their subject and our guests will have the chance to
see them and talk with the creators.

clean /kliːn/

Word family:
Nouns: cleaner
Adjectives: clean

95
VERB [T]

clean (sth/sb) up PHRASAL VERB

MAKE CLEAN

to make a person or place clean and tidy

Dictionary example:
We have to clean up before we leave.

Learner example:
During our accom[m]odation there, nobody came to clean up the room and the staff was not very
friendly.

REMOVE POLLUTION

to remove pollution from somewhere

Dictionary example:
They are developing processes to clean up polluted rivers.

Learner example:
I can also help by distributing leaflets which contain information on how to start cleaning up the
environment.

cleaner /ˈkliː.nər/

Word family:
Nouns: cleaner
Adjectives: clean

NOUN [C]

the cleaner's
a shop where clothes are cleaned with chemicals
Dictionary example:
I took my dress to the cleaner's.

clear /klɪər/

Word family:
Verbs: clear
Adjectives: clear, unclear
Adverbs: clearly

96
ADJECTIVE

NOT BLOCKED

not covered or blocked by anything

Dictionary examples:
a clear road
a clear desk

Learner example:
While banning the private cars brings with it less congestion, less air pollution and clear roads, it
also carries major concerns [for] people's travelling needs. Should there not be a proper transport
infrastructure in place in the city?

crystal clear
extremely clear
Dictionary example:
crystal clear water

Learner example:
You will be amazed by the crystal clear water of the shallow sea and the multitude of colourful
fish which you will see as you [ar]e exploring the bottom of the sea.

VERB

clear sth away or clear away sth PHRASAL VERB

to make a place tidy by removing things from it, or putting them where they
should be
Dictionary example:
The children are not very good at clearing away their toys.

Learner example:
After clearing away the worst mess, she opened the left drawer, and there it was!

clinical /ˈklɪn.ɪk.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: clinic
Adjectives: clinical

ADJECTIVE

MEDICAL

relating to medical treatment and tests

Dictionary example:
clinical trials/research

97
 Learner example:
Doctors, for example, travel to get better qualifications, new medical skills and clinical
experience.

clock /klɒk/

NOUN [C]

around/round the clock

all day and all night
Dictionary example:
Rescue teams are working round the clock to search for survivors of the earthquake.

Learner example:
It is undeniable that people are working around the clock in order to earn a living.

close

Word family:
Nouns: closure
Verbs: close
Adjectives: closed

VERB /kləʊz/

close off sth or close sth off PHRASAL VERB

to put something across the entrance to a place in order to stop people entering it
Dictionary example:
Police quickly closed off the area.

Learner example:
And while it is being buil[t], it will temporar[il]y cause even more problems for traffic, as some
streets will be closed off.

ADJECTIVE /kləʊs/

SIMILAR

having only a small difference

Dictionary examples:
The election results were so close they had to vote again.
He came second in the race, but it was very close.
The youngest boys are so close in age they look like twins.

98
 Learner example:
The over-grazing, the deforestation and the over-cultivation [seem] to be the main causes of the
degradation of the agricultural land, the percentages being quite close in value.

be/come close to doing sth

to almost achieve or do something
Dictionary example:
We are close to reaching an agreement.

Learner example:
We were very close to reaching our objective.

be close to sth
If someone or something is close to a particular state, they are almost in that
state.
Dictionary example:
She was close to tears.

Learner example:
'Do you love me?' 'Of course I do. I've always loved you.' Adrian answered. He was close to tears.

closely /ˈkləʊ.sli/

Word family:
Adjectives: close
Adverbs: closely

ADVERB

VERY NEAR

in a way that is very near in distance, time, or position

Dictionary example:
Elke came into the room, closely followed by her children.

Learner example:
According to statistical figures, Germany is better off as compared to [the] USA and closely
followed by Spain in the management of Government spending.

CAREFULLY

carefully and paying attention to details

Dictionary examples:
Pollution levels are closely monitored.
If you look closely, you can see where he painted over his signature.

99
 Learner example:
I think that working for High Travel as its inte[r]preter would be a great experience if the company
decides to look closely at the co[n]ditions of its employees and of its travellers.

closeness /ˈkləʊs.nəs/

NOUN [U]

NEAR

the state of being close in distance, time, or position

Dictionary example:
We bought the house because of its closeness to my office.

Learner example:
To resize and relocat[e] the coffee bar and the sauna are excellent [ideas] - a larger coffee bar
provides us with a better relaxing area and the closeness of the sauna to the swimming pool saves
us from walking a long way from the pool when we are all wet and cold.

RELATIONSHIP

the quality of knowing someone very well and liking them a lot
Dictionary example:
A special closeness is said to exist between twins.

Learner example:
Fred resented the closeness of the sisters, he wanted Susan for himself.

clutch /klʌtʃ/

NOUN

ENGINE

[C] the part of a car or truck that you press with your foot when you change gear

Dictionary example:
I put my foot on the clutch.

Learner example:
I can remember very well when my father explained to me how to release the clutch and to press
the accelerator very slowly and carefully: easy to say but...

100
 coal /kəʊl/

NOUN

FUEL

[U] a hard, black substance that is dug from under the ground and burnt as fuel

Dictionary example:
a lump of coal

Learner example:
Mining for gold, coal or oil is an option [for] our economy.

code /kəʊd/

NOUN

RULES

[C] a set of rules on how to behave or how to do things

Dictionary examples:
a code of conduct/practice
The club has a strict dress code.

Learner example:
Most of their manners, dress code, personal conduct and their general well-being is taught at
school.

collaborate /kəˈlæb.ə.reɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: collaboration
Verbs: collaborate

VERB [I]

When two or more people collaborate, they work together to create or achieve the
same thing.
Dictionary example:
Didn't you collaborate with him on one of your books?

Learner example:
Even if the staff they collaborated with were quite friendly and cheerful, all of them would prefer
the jobs related with computers and new technolog[y].

101
 collaboration /kəˌlæb.əˈreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: collaboration
Verbs: collaborate

NOUN

[C or U] when two or more people work together to create or achieve the same thing,
or a product of this
Dictionary example:
The show was a result of collaboration between several museums.

Learner example:
On the other hand, we encourage competition on the basis of team collaboration, to optimize the
HR resources in the group, and maximize [the] individual's potential.

colour /ˈkʌl.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: colour
Adjectives: colourful

NOUN

with flying colours

with a very high score or with great success
Dictionary example:
He passed the entrance exam with flying colours.

Learner example:
I worked intens[ive]ly on the course and I passed with flying colours.

column /ˈkɒl.əm/

NOUN [C]

NUMBERS/WORDS

any block of numbers or words written one under the other

Dictionary examples:
the left-hand/right-hand column
Choose an adjective from Column A to use with a noun in Column B.
Put your expenditure in column B.

102
 Learner example:
A[t] the end of the course I had to complete a student questionnaire in which we had to tick in
three columns, and the points were: good, adequate, needs improvement.

come /kʌm/

VERB [I] (came, come)

come easily/easy/naturally
to be very easy for someone
Dictionary example:
Singing came naturally to Louise.

Learner example:
After a while, it came naturally: I could use words I had never seen written, just because I had
picked them up in a conversation or watching a video programme.

come first
to be the most important person or thing
Dictionary example:
Her career always comes first.

Learner example:
They do not take the time to sit down and enjoy being with their family. The work comes first, and
the family next.

come to mind
If an idea comes to mind, you think of it.
Dictionary example:
I was thinking about who might be suitable for this job, and your name came to mind.

Learner example:
Positives did come from that crisis - more efficient engines, lighter vehicles and lead-free petrol
are just some of the examples that come to mind.

when it comes to sth/doing sth

used to introduce a new idea that you want to say something about
Dictionary example:
When it comes to baking cakes, she's an expert.

Learner example:
But when it comes to computers, they just impose some knowledge on students, without any
interaction.

how come INFORMAL

used to ask why or how something has happened

103
 Dictionary example:
How come you didn't go to the party?

Learner example:
Off the record: How come that your reporter can print such lies when knowing they are perhaps
hurting certain people in this important matter?

comfort /ˈkʌm.fət/

Word family:
Nouns: comfort, discomfort
Verbs: comfort
Adjectives: comfortable, uncomfortable, comforting
Adverbs: comfortably, uncomfortably

NOUN

PLEASANT THING

[C] something that makes your life easy and pleasant

Dictionary examples:
home comforts
Good chocolate is one of life's little comforts.

Learner example:
Have you ever thought how our grandparents lived [in] their villages without extra home comforts?

command /kəˈmɑːnd/

Word family:
Nouns: command, commander

NOUN

COMPUTER

[C] an instruction to a computer

Dictionary example:
It's worth learning the shortcuts for some of these commands.

Learner example:
Program list. 1. System commands MAIN console programs. 2. Review of LINUX Sys. console 3.
Server commands. 4. ADD ONs for LINUX OS. 5. LINUX INTERFACE. 6. USER PROFILE.

104
 commodity /kəˈmɒd.ə.ti/

NOUN [C]

a product that you can buy or sell

Dictionary example:
The country's most valuable commodities include tin and diamonds.

Learner example:
Not just that, it will have a domino effect on prime commodities as well.

common /ˈkɒm.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: common
Adjectives: common, uncommon
Adverbs: commonly

ADJECTIVE

ORDINARY

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] not special in any way

Dictionary example:
The herbs all have common names and Latin names.

Learner example:
The fashion of the common people and the average worker had to be practical and had to be worn
for longer than just half a year.

NOUN

in common with sb/sth

in the same way as someone or something
Dictionary example:
In common with many working mothers, she feels guilty about leaving her children.

Learner example:
In common with many city d[we]llers, I do not think this is a wise decision and it could have
negative effects on the city re[s]idents' daily lives.

105
 commonly /ˈkɒm.ən.li/

Word family:
Nouns: common
Adjectives: common, uncommon
Adverbs: commonly

ADVERB

often or usually
Dictionary example:
These caterpillars are commonly found on nettles.

Learner example:
It is commonly acknowledged that, these days, mobile phones have become an important
[accessory].

commute /kəˈmjuːt/

VERB [I]

to regularly travel between work and home

Dictionary example:
He commutes to London every day.

Learner example:
People who work in the centre will have to commute from the suburbs which will be a waste of
time for them.

company /ˈkʌm.pə.ni/

NOUN

be good company
to be a pleasant or interesting person to spend time with
Dictionary example:
Ann and Charles are always good company.

Learner example:
He is a bit narrow-minded and at first he'll drive you crazy, but once you get to know him he'll be
good company.

106
 comparable /ˈkɒm.pər.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: comparative, comparison
Verbs: compare
Adjectives: comparable, comparative
Adverbs: comparatively

ADJECTIVE

similar in size, amount, or quality to something else

Dictionary examples:
Our prices are comparable to those in other shops.
The two experiences are not comparable.

Learner example:
Recent surveys revealed that the gap in salary between men and women doing comparable jobs
increased within the last years.

comparative /kəmˈpær.ə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: comparative, comparison
Verbs: compare
Adjectives: comparable, comparative
Adverbs: comparatively

ADJECTIVE

comparing similar things

Dictionary example:
a comparative study of two poems

Learner example:
In a comparative study we see [the] work force is increasing in Japan, whereas it is declining in
U.S.

comparatively /kəmˈpær.ə.tɪv.li/

Word family:
Nouns: comparative, comparison
Verbs: compare
Adjectives: comparable, comparative
Adverbs: comparatively

107
ADVERB

comparatively cheap/easy/little, etc.

cheap/easy/little, etc. when compared to something else or to what is usual
Dictionary example:
The climb was comparatively easy.

Learner example:
Although I am not a professional interpreter, please notice that my earnings are comparatively
low.

compare /kəmˈpeər/

Word family:
Nouns: comparative, comparison
Verbs: compare
Adjectives: comparable, comparative
Adverbs: comparatively

VERB

compare notes
If two people compare notes, they tell each other what they think about something
that they have both done.
Dictionary example:
We compared notes about our experiences in China.

Learner example:
In conclusion, regular meetings between parents and school teachers [...] help both parties to
compare notes, acting in the best interest[s] of the children.

compatible /kəmˈpæt.̩ ̩/
ə.bl

ADJECTIVE

EQUIPMENT

compatible equipment can be used together

Dictionary example:
This keyboard is compatible with all of our computers.

Learner example:
Actually it is compatible with the newest 3DFX technology, which gives [an] extremely realistic
[look] and the possibility to interact with the game.

108
 compel /kəmˈpel/

VERB FORMAL (compelling, compelled)

feel compelled to do sth

to feel that you should do something
Dictionary example:
He felt compelled to resign from his job.

Learner example:
As a member of the International Student's Sports Club, I felt compelled to write this article in
answer to the previous article about how today's youth is putting sports and healthy activities
aside.

compensate /ˈkɒm.pən.seɪt/

VERB

MONEY

[T] to pay someone money because you are responsible for injuring them or
damaging something
Dictionary example:
Victims of the crash will be compensated for their injuries.

Learner example:
I would like to be compensated for the extra work I have done to please the guests from the last
stay.

competence /ˈkɒm.pɪ.tənts/

Word family:
Nouns: competence
Adjectives: competent

NOUN [U]

the ability to do something well

Dictionary example:
Her competence as a teacher is unquestionable.

Learner example:
This report aims to outline the present state of our library's archives as well as to recommend
another book or newspaper for those interested in improving their competence in Greek.

109
 competent /ˈkɒm.pɪ.tənt/

Word family:
Nouns: competence
Adjectives: competent

ADJECTIVE

able to do something well

Dictionary examples:
a competent teacher/swimmer
I wouldn't say he was brilliant but he is competent at his job.

Learner example:
As the game develops, the creatures and tasks get more and more complicated and by the end of
the game, you will be expected to become a competent shooter.

compile /kəmˈpaɪl/

VERB [T]

to collect information and arrange it in a book, report, list, etc.

Dictionary example:
We're compiling some facts and figures for a documentary on climate change.

Learner example:
The aim of this report is to compile the findings and thereby outline the main reasons why our
branch did not get the contract, in order to prevent future failures.

complaint /kəmˈpleɪnt/

Word family:
Nouns: complaint
Verbs: complain

NOUN

ANNOYING THING

[C] something that makes you complain

Dictionary example:
My only complaint was the lack of refreshments.

Learner example:
My only complaint about the teaching staff is that they did not allow enough time for individual
tuition and help when needed.

110
 completion /kəmˈpliː.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: completion
Verbs: complete
Adjectives: complete
Adverbs: completely

NOUN [U]

when something that you are doing or making is finished

Dictionary examples:
The stadium is due for completion in 2008.
They will be paid on completion of the job.

Learner example:
After the completion of the work at the newly-built part of the airport and its opening for service,
the formerly quiet part of the town has become a victim of the above mentioned kind of noise,
even more than the parts which have had this problem for [a] long [time].

complex /ˈkɒm.pleks/

Word family:
Nouns: complexity
Adjectives: complex

NOUN

BUILDINGS

a group of buildings or rooms that are used for a particular purpose

Dictionary example:
a sports/housing complex

Learner example:
A visit to any local shopping complex suggest[s] people between 14 to 35 years of age are the
[most] frequent shoppers.

complicate /ˈkɒm.plɪ.keɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: complication
Verbs: complicate
Adjectives: complicated

VERB [T]

to make something more difficult to deal with or understand

111
 Dictionary example:
These new regulations just complicate matters further.

Learner example:
My friend, I hope I didn't complicate things for you with my appraisal of the situation.

complication /ˌkɒm.plɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: complication
Verbs: complicate
Adjectives: complicated

NOUN [C]

DIFFICULTY

something which makes a situation more difficult

Dictionary example:
We want to sign the contract, but there are several complications.

Learner example:
As you have already correctly mentioned in your memorandum, we indeed face some
complications in our resort.

compliment

Word family:
Nouns: compliment
Verbs: compliment
Adjectives: complimentary

VERB [T] /ˈkɒm.plɪ.ment/

to praise or express admiration for someone
Dictionary example:
He complimented me on my writing.

Learner example:
Firstly, I must compliment you on lowering your prices and adding new destinations to choose
from.

comply /kəmˈplaɪ/

VERB [I]

to obey an order, rule, or request

112
 Dictionary example:
The pilot complied with instructions to descend.

Learner example:
To comply with even the highest security standards, WEB-DMS features cutting-edge encryption
and access control technologies.

component /kəmˈpəʊ.nənt/

NOUN [C]

MACHINE

one of the parts of a machine or piece of equipment

Dictionary example:
Our company makes components for aircraft engines.

Learner example:
Since both the hardware and software components used by the employees of this department are
not in a good state, there is a need of brand new and more powerful computers and of updated
software.

FEATURE

one of the parts or characteristics of something or someone

Dictionary example:
The course has four distinct components.

Learner example:
These components are present in everyone, whether you are rich or poor, thus it is wrong to be
biased with one kind of people purely based on beliefs not support[ed] by solid evidence.

comprehensive /ˌkɒm.prɪˈhent.sɪv/

Word family:
Adjectives: comprehensive
Adverbs: comprehensively

ADJECTIVE

including everything
Dictionary example:
a comprehensive study of the subject

Learner example:
Presentations on making a career in media, finance and IT could have been more comprehensive.

113
 comprehensively /ˌkɒm.prɪˈhent.sɪv.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: comprehensive
Adverbs: comprehensively

ADVERB

completely
Dictionary example:
We were comprehensively beaten in the final.

Learner example:
However enjoyable and relaxing, driving needs [your] full attention. Therefore, it should be learnt
comprehensively and being experienced shouldn't be relied on.

comprise /kəmˈpraɪz/

VERB [T] FORMAL

CONSIST

to consist of particular parts or members

Dictionary example:
The orchestra was comprised of amateur and professional musicians.

Learner example:
It comprises only twelve single and six double bedrooms, which will provide the intimacy we need.

FORM

to form part of something, especially a larger group

Dictionary example:
Women comprise 15% of the police force.

Learner example:
According to [a] survey carried out in 1997, the urban population comprises 71% of the total
population in Pakistan.

concentrate /ˈkɒnt.sən.treɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: concentration
Verbs: concentrate

114
VERB [I]

(be) concentrated around/in/on, etc.

to be present in large numbers or amounts in a particular area
Dictionary example:
Most of the fighting was concentrated in the mountains.

Learner example:
However it might imply a shift from large stores, concentrated in a few areas within or outside the
city, to more local services.

concern /kənˈsɜːn/

Word family:
Nouns: concern
Verbs: concern
Adjectives: concerned

VERB [T]

WORRY

to worry or upset someone

Dictionary example:
What really concerns me is her lack of experience.

Learner example:
The fact that the coach only had broken safety belts concerned me a great deal.

concerned /kənˈsɜːnd/

Word family:
Nouns: concern
Verbs: concern
Adjectives: concerned

ADJECTIVE

be concerned with sth

to be about a particular subject
Dictionary examples:
The programme was more concerned with politics than the history of the place.
This field of linguistics is concerned with language acquisition.

115
 Learner example:
This report is concerned with finding the best accom[m]odation for the three-day trip in north-
west England.

conclude /kənˈkluːd/

Word family:
Nouns: conclusion
Verbs: conclude
Adjectives: conclusive
Adverbs: conclusively

VERB

DECIDE

[T] to decide something after studying all the information about it very carefully

Dictionary example:
The report concluded that the drug was safe.

Learner example:
It is because of this apparent pattern that we can conclude that as people grow older, they tend to
visit the cinema less frequent[ly].

END

[I or T] FORMAL to end something such as a meeting, speech, or piece of writing by

doing or saying one last thing
Dictionary examples:
The concert concluded with a firework display.
I would like to conclude by thanking you all for attending.

Learner example:
To conclude, I would like to underline one more time how crucial the setting up of a library would
be for our college.

concrete /ˈkɒŋ.kriːt/

ADJECTIVE

CERTAIN

certain or based on facts

Dictionary examples:
They think she killed her husband, but they have no concrete evidence/proof.
We've got a general idea of what we want, but nothing concrete at the moment.

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 Learner example:
Another piece of concrete evidence to suggest that children from a poorer background cannot
cope with social problems properly compared to the other group is the fact that they are more
inclined to be the troublemakers themselves.

condition /kənˈdɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: condition
Verbs: condition
Adjectives: unconditional

NOUN

AGREEMENT

[C] something that must happen or be agreed before something else can happen

Dictionary example:
One of the conditions of the contract is that we can't keep pets.

Learner example:
Now I want you to pay for that as it was agreed between us and according to the terms and
conditions of the contract.

confidential /ˌkɒn.fɪˈden.ʃəl/

Word family:
Nouns: confidence
Adjectives: confidential

ADJECTIVE

secret, especially in an official situation

Dictionary example:
These documents are strictly confidential.

Learner example:
Remember, you are under no obligation to do anything and of course we will treat the confidential
information you give us with discretion and respect.

congestion /kənˈdʒes.tʃən/

NOUN [U]

when something is full or blocked, especially with traffic

117
 Dictionary example:
traffic congestion

Learner example:
The traffic congestion in Belo Horizonte is an issue that can't be ignored.

conquer /ˈkɒŋ.kər/

VERB

[I or T] to take control of a country or to defeat people by war

Dictionary example:
The English were conquered by the Normans in 1066.

Learner example:
However, following imper[i]alistic politics, the Persian King Darios wanted to expand his Kingdom
in Europe, so he had to conquer Greece.

conscientious /ˌkɒn.ʃiˈen.ʃəs/

Word family:
Nouns: conscience
Adjectives: conscientious

ADJECTIVE

always doing your work with a lot of care

Dictionary example:
a conscientious student

Learner example:
She is conscientious and hardworking.

conscious /ˈkɒn.tʃəs/

Word family:
Nouns: consciousness
Adjectives: conscious, unconscious, self-conscious
Adverbs: subconsciously, unconsciously

ADJECTIVE

AWAKE

awake and able to think and notice things

118
 Dictionary example:
He's still conscious but he's very badly injured.

consciousness /ˈkɒn.tʃə.snəs/

Word family:
Nouns: consciousness
Adjectives: conscious, unconscious, self-conscious
Adverbs: subconsciously, unconsciously

NOUN

AWARE

[NO PLURAL] when someone knows about something

Dictionary example:
There's a growing consciousness about environmental issues among young people.

Learner example:
It also springs up out of a pleasure of playing the game and a consciousness that their health
matters and being fit is an important element of it.

consent /kənˈsent/

NOUN [U]

permission for someone to do something

Dictionary example:
You can't come without your parents' consent.

Learner example:
The role of the council is to organise things [well] and to do so with the consent of people living in
the city.

consequence /ˈkɒnt.sɪ.kwənts/

Word family:
Nouns: consequence
Adverbs: consequently

NOUN [C]

as a consequence FORMAL

used to talk about one thing that is the result of another

119
 Dictionary example:
A lot of birds died as a consequence of the oil spill.

Learner example:
The influence from Italy is very strong and, as a consequence, pasta with different s[a]uces is
common in Slovenia, especially among students.

of little/no consequence FORMAL

not important
Dictionary example:
The money was of little consequence to Tony.

Learner example:
Second, the downpour of rain which was mentioned was in fact nothing more than a small shower,
of no significant consequence for the dance display and horse show.

conservation /ˌkɒn.səˈveɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [U]

NOT WASTE

when you are careful not to waste energy, water, etc.

Dictionary example:
Our top priority is conservation of water.

Learner example:
As the issue of energy conservation is becoming more and more important, our company has
decided to start doing something about it, as well.

conservative /kənˈsɜː.və.tɪv/

ADJECTIVE

not trusting sudden changes or new ideas

Dictionary example:
Older people tend to be very conservative.

Learner example:
However, some people, especially some youngsters, would say that she's too conservative - I
heard lots of people describing her as a 'fuddy-duddy lady'.

120
 consider /kənˈsɪd.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: consideration
Verbs: consider, reconsider
Adjectives: considerate, inconsiderate

VERB

FACTS

[T] to give attention to a particular subject or fact when making a decision or

judging something else
Dictionary examples:
You've got to consider the time element when planning the whole project.
If you consider how long he's been learning the piano, he's not very good.
If you buy an old house, you have to consider the cost of repairs.

Learner example:
The only point we have to consider will be the price of food.

MAY BE TRUE

to think that something may exist or be true

Dictionary example:
Have you considered the possibility that he might be lying?

Learner example:
Many students this year refuse even to consider the possibility of going to one.

all things considered

used for saying that something is true in general if you think about all its aspects
Dictionary example:
The show was a great success, all things considered.

Learner example:
All things considered, it seems like "Kavanagh Catering Services" would be most suitable for the
students.

considerate /kənˈsɪd.ə.rət/

Word family:
Nouns: consideration
Verbs: consider, reconsider
Adjectives: considerate, inconsiderate

ADJECTIVE

showing concern for other people and their feelings

121
 Dictionary example:
He is always a kind and considerate host.

Learner example:
As a colleague, I always found him thoughtful and considerate.

constitute /ˈkɒn.stɪt.juːt/

Word family:
Nouns: constitution
Verbs: constitute
Adjectives: constitutional

VERB [T]

to be or form something
Dictionary example:
This defeat constitutes a real setback for their championship hopes.

Learner example:
Women constitute nearly half (48%) of the university students, and in some departments
(educational colleges, medicine schools) they are clearly the majority.

constitution /ˌkɒn.stɪˈtjuː.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: constitution
Verbs: constitute
Adjectives: constitutional

NOUN [C]

LAWS

the set of laws and principles that a country's government must obey
Dictionary example:
the US Constitution

Learner example:
This is to be seen as progress, although this development seems to start rather late as already in
1949, the German constitution indicated th[at] men and women have equal rights.

122
 constructive /kənˈstrʌk.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: construction, reconstruction
Verbs: construct, reconstruct
Adjectives: constructive

ADJECTIVE

helpful or useful
Dictionary example:
constructive advice/criticism

Learner example:
Moreover, I have quite often [asked] for the opinion of Mr. Walker on the making of our marketing
plan and his comments were always very helpful and constructive.

consult /kənˈsʌlt/

Word family:
Nouns: consultant, consultation
Verbs: consult

VERB [T]

GET INFORMATION

to go to a particular person or book to get information or advice

Dictionary example:
For more information, consult your travel agent.

Learner example:
Even if I think I know what to write, I usually consult an interpreter and/or a lawyer.

DISCUSS

to discuss something with someone before you make a decision

Dictionary example:
Why didn't you consult me about this?

Learner example:
As it is just after Christmas I had to consult my wife - that is why it took some time to write this
reply.

123
 consume /kənˈsjuːm/

Word family:
Nouns: consumer, consumption
Verbs: consume

VERB [T]

USE RESOURCE

to use fuel, energy or time, especially in large amounts

Dictionary example:
Our high living standards cause our present population to consume 25 percent of the world's oil.

Learner example:
It did consume a lot of time, but it was very rewarding.

consumption /kənˈsʌmp.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: consumer, consumption
Verbs: consume

NOUN [U]

the amount of something that someone uses, eats, or drinks

Dictionary examples:
We need to reduce our energy consumption.
fuel/water consumption

Learner example:
One less obvious aspect of pollution is the surge in energy consumption caused by technological
development.

contact /ˈkɒn.tækt/

NOUN

TOUCH

[U] when two people or things are touching each other

Dictionary examples:
She dislikes any kind of physical contact.
Wash your hands if they come into contact with chemicals.

Learner example:
I might even have become afraid of physical contact and of being face to face with others.

124
 contestant /kənˈtes.tənt/

Word family:
Nouns: contest, contestant

NOUN [C]

someone who competes in a contest

Dictionary example:
All the contestants are ready to begin.

Learner example:
The contestants have to sing in front of an audience and the jury.

context /ˈkɒn.tekst/

NOUN [C or U]

LANGUAGE

other words that were said or written at the same time as the word or words you
are talking about
Dictionary examples:
In this exercise, a word is blanked out and you have to guess what it is by looking at the context.
Taken out of context, her remark sounded like an insult.

Learner example:
It's not like studying new words from [a] textbook as you hear or use the words [in] real situations
and [an] appropriate context.

continual /kənˈtɪn.ju.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: continuity
Verbs: continue
Adjectives: continuous, continual
Adverbs: continuously, continually

ADJECTIVE

happening again and again over a long period of time or happening without
stopping
Dictionary example:
I can't work with these continual interruptions.

125
 Learner example:
But, if you are seeking [a] developed city, Buenos Aires is your answer, as it is considered to be a
city in continual improvement.

continually /kənˈtɪn.ju.ə.li/

Word family:
Nouns: continuity
Verbs: continue
Adjectives: continuous, continual
Adverbs: continuously, continually

ADVERB

again and again or without stopping

Dictionary examples:
Dad continually complains about money.
House prices have been rising continually for the last five years.

Learner example:
First of all I would like to mention that new blood is re[q]uired in the club, as the membership is
continually falling.

contradict /ˌkɒn.trəˈdɪkt/

Word family:
Nouns: contradiction
Verbs: contradict
Adjectives: contradictory

VERB

SAY SOMEONE IS WRONG

[I or T] to say that what someone has just said is wrong

Dictionary example:
Nobody dared to contradict her.

Learner example:
Jane: Be pa[t]ient with her, she is a lovely lady, although she doesn't like people to contradict her.

126
 contrary /ˈkɒn.trər.i/

NOUN

to the contrary
saying or showing the opposite
Dictionary example:
She claimed she hadn't been involved, despite evidence to the contrary.

Learner example:
Despite claims to the contrary, young people [are] get[ting] more involved in sport[s] activities.

ADJECTIVE

contrary to sth
opposite to what someone said or thought
Dictionary example:
Contrary to popular belief, bottled water is not always better than tap water.

Learner example:
Contrary to Mrs Jones' allegation, the exam results of our college are first-class and moreover,
there is an extremely varied social programme.

contribute /kənˈtrɪb.juːt/

Word family:
Nouns: contribution
Verbs: contribute

VERB [I or T]

WRITE

to write articles for a newspaper, magazine, or book

Dictionary example:
She contributes to several magazines.

Learner example:
After a lot of thinking and discussing with our members and with people who would like to
contribute to our magazine, I decided to suggest our well thought[-out] ideas.

127
 control /kənˈtrəʊl/

NOUN

CALM

[U] the ability to be calm

Dictionary example:
It took a lot of control to stop myself hitting him.

Learner example:
If you think you [are doing] something wrong during your test you shouldn't [start] panic[k]ing
and losing your control.

controversy /ˈkɒn.trə.vɜː.si/

Word family:
Nouns: controversy
Adjectives: controversial

NOUN [C or U]

a lot of disagreement and argument about something

Dictionary example:
There is a lot of controversy over mobile phone towers.

Learner example:
Travelling abroad to work has been a matter of controversy.

convenience /kənˈviː.ni.ənts/

Word family:
Nouns: convenience
Adjectives: convenient, inconvenient
Adverbs: conveniently

NOUN

HELPFUL THING

[C] something that makes life easier

Dictionary example:
Fortunately, the house has every modern convenience.

Learner example:
Thus, we have many facilities and conveniences in comparison with the past.

128
 convention /kənˈvent.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: convention
Adjectives: conventional, unconventional

NOUN

MEETING

[C] a large formal meeting of people who do a particular job or have a similar
interest, or a large meeting for a political party
Dictionary examples:
the national Democratic convention
Where are they holding their party convention?

Learner example:
Conference facilities: Being completely renovated, the historic building of Edessa's Cultural
Association is the ideal place for a modern scientific convention.

CUSTOM

[C or U] a usual and accepted way of behaving or doing something

Dictionary example:
In many countries it is the convention to wear black at funerals.

Learner example:
Nowadays, people tend to avoid traditions and conventions.

conventional /kənˈvent.ʃən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: convention
Adjectives: conventional, unconventional

ADJECTIVE

conventional wisdom
what most people believe
Dictionary example:
These ideas about childcare go against conventional wisdom on the subject.

Learner example:
Thus, against conventional wisdom, I think that while a lot of adult problems are caused by money
or the lack of it, it is really the ability to deal with money and to see money as a means rather than
an end.

129
 conversation /ˌkɒn.vəˈseɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [C or U]

hold a conversation
to have a conversation
Dictionary example:
I can just about hold a conversation in Italian.

Learner example:
I know the grammar and many different expressions, and I can hold a conversation with other
people.

convey /kənˈveɪ/

VERB [T]

to communicate information, feelings, or images to someone

Dictionary example:
She always conveys a sense of enthusiasm for her work.

Learner example:
Being an Ambassador for Youth bears lot of responsibility, not only because the person must be
an outstanding character and widely well-known, but also because they must behave accordingly
and be able to convey a positive message.

convincing /kənˈvɪn.sɪŋ/

Word family:
Verbs: convince
Adjectives: convinced, convincing

ADJECTIVE

able to make you believe that something is true or right

Dictionary examples:
a convincing argument/explanation
I didn't find the ending of the film very convincing.

Learner example:
The school didn't give us a real and convincing explanation for this.

130
 cool /kuːl/

Word family:
Nouns: cool, coolness
Verbs: cool
Adjectives: cool

ADJECTIVE

CALM

calm and not emotional

Dictionary example:
She seemed cool and confident.

Learner example:
I remember saying to myself that "this little boy will survive" and after that I felt totally cool and
calm and did what had to be done.

NOUN

keep your cool

to remain calm
Dictionary example:
You did well to keep your cool in all that panic.

Learner example:
Whatever the problem is, keep your cool, don't panic.

coolness /ˈkuːl.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: cool, coolness
Verbs: cool
Adjectives: cool

NOUN [U]

COLD

the quality of being cold

Dictionary example:
the coolness of the breeze

Learner example:
The coolness of the coach made me ill.

131
 corporate /ˈkɔː.pər.ət/

Word family:
Nouns: corporation
Adjectives: corporate

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

relating to a large company or group

Dictionary example:
corporate finance

Learner example:
This proposal highlights advisable amendments to the ABC Company's management structure,
namely the marketing department, in view of unforeseen corporate losses.

corrupt /kəˈrʌpt/

Word family:
Nouns: corruption
Verbs: corrupt
Adjectives: corrupt

ADJECTIVE

dishonest or illegal
Dictionary example:
a corrupt government

Learner example:
I am not saying he is corrupt - I don't believe that - but he com[m]ands many corrupt people.

VERB [T]

to make someone or something become dishonest or immoral

Dictionary example:
He became corrupted by power and money.

Learner example:
Maybe wealth can corrupt people's mind[s] and make people weak.

corruption /kəˈrʌp.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: corruption
Verbs: corrupt
Adjectives: corrupt

132
NOUN [U]

BAD BEHAVIOUR

dishonest or immoral behaviour, usually by people in positions of power

Dictionary example:
He was arrested for corruption and bribery.

Learner example:
I think that both have lost respect because of corruption.

MAKE DISHONEST

when you cause someone or something to become dishonest or immoral

Dictionary example:
the corruption of innocent young children

Learner example:
The contrast between those two groups was getting bigger and bigger and it ended up [in] a
destructive war, destructive doesn't refer only to deaths and city damage but also to the
corruption of morals.

cosmopolitan /ˌkɒz.məˈpɒl.ɪ.tən/

ADJECTIVE

consisting of people and things from many different countries

Dictionary example:
London is a very cosmopolitan city.

Learner example:
I chose London because it's a cosmopolitan city, and very near to the other European countries.

could /kʊd/

MODAL VERB

I/he, etc. couldn't care less INFORMAL

used to emphasize that someone is not interested in or worried about something

or someone
Dictionary example:
I couldn't care less what people think.

Learner example:
There was hunger, there was poverty and the king couldn't care less about his people['s] well-
being.

133
 counterpart /ˈkaʊn.tə.pɑːt/

NOUN [C]

someone or something that has the same job or position as someone or

something in a different place or organization
Dictionary example:
I had a meeting with my counterpart in our other branch.

Learner example:
I feel much more confident at work in terms of both my English and the ability to negotiate with
my counterparts.

countless /ˈkaʊnt.ləs/

Word family:
Verbs: count
Adjectives: countless

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

very many
Dictionary example:
The song has been played countless times on the radio.

Learner example:
We had to spend countless hours in the cold coach waiting for a bus that could take us to the
hotel in Edinburgh.

courageous /kəˈreɪ.dʒəs/

Word family:
Nouns: courage
Adjectives: courageous

ADJECTIVE

brave
Dictionary example:
a courageous decision

Learner example:
The people were very courageous and showed an extraordinary sense of calm.

134
 course /kɔːs/

NOUN

course of action
something that you can do in a particular situation
Dictionary example:
I think the best course of action would be to write to him.

Learner example:
However, I believe that the best course of action in this case is to give our student a refund.

during/in/over the course of sth

during a particular time or activity
Dictionary example:
In the course of the interview she mentioned her previous experience.

Learner example:
During the course of my studies and internship, I worked not only with people suffering from
certain disorders, but also with people who faced problems in interpersonal relationships.

a matter of course
If something happens as a matter of course, it always happens as part of the
normal process or system.
Dictionary example:
Babies were tested for the disease as a matter of course.

Learner example:
The transform[ation] has succeeded so far and caused enormous changes in ordinary life as a
matter of course, including eating habits.

cover /ˈkʌv.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: cover, coverage
Verbs: cover, uncover

VERB [T]

REPORT

to report the news about a particular important event

Dictionary example:
She's covering the American election for BBC television.

135
 Learner example:
Should you have your company's channel cover the [event], your profits from the advertis[e]ments
will be innumerable.

FINANCIAL PROTECTION

to provide financial protection if something bad happens

Dictionary example:
travel insurance that covers accident and injury

MONEY

to be enough money to pay for something

Dictionary example:
£100 should cover the cost of the repairs.

Learner example:
This means that only 15% was [allocat]ed to cover the cost of entertainment and administration
costs.

NOUN

FINANCIAL

[U] financial protection so that you get money if something bad happens

Dictionary example:
The policy provides £50,000 accidental damage cover.

Learner example:
A mere 2% went on insurance cover.

FROM WEATHER/ATTACK

[U] protection from bad weather or an attack

Dictionary example:
They took cover under some trees until the rain stopped.

Learner example:
The bodyguards immediately reacted, shooting at the window through which Paul had fired, while
the judge took cover under a near car.

coverage /ˈkʌv.ər.ɪdʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: cover, coverage
Verbs: cover, uncover

136
NOUN [U]

REPORT

the way a newspaper, television programme, etc. reports an event or subject

Dictionary example:
There is live coverage of the game on cable TV.

Learner example:
Jos is very well known among people who love Formula 2 autoracing and I know there are a lot of
them all over the world because of the intense media coverage.

crack /kræk/

VERB [I or T]

crack a joke
to tell a joke
Dictionary example:
He seemed very relaxed, laughing and cracking jokes.

Learner example:
Many members will get the chance to show their talent and we will get to crack some jokes too!

crash /kræʃ/

VERB

MONEY

[I] If a financial market crashes, prices suddenly fall by a large amount.

Dictionary example:
They lost all their savings when the market crashed.

NOUN [C]

BUSINESS

when the value of a country's businesses suddenly falls by a large amount

Dictionary example:
He lost a lot of money in the stock market crash of 1929.

Learner example:
Regarding the economy of the globe, this intensiv[e] trad[ing] may lead to a worldwide crash.

137
 crawl /krɔːl/

NOUN

SPEED

[NO PLURAL] a very slow speed

Dictionary example:
Traffic slowed to a crawl.

Learner example:
Every morning traffic w[as] reduced to a crawl.

SWIMMING

[U] a style of swimming in which you move your arms over your head and kick with
straight legs
Dictionary example:
front/back crawl

Learner example:
I can already swim breaststroke and crawl but I am unable to swim backstroke and the dolphin-
like style.

crazy /ˈkreɪ.zi/

Word family:
Nouns: craziness
Adjectives: crazy

ADJECTIVE

like crazy INFORMAL

doing something a lot or in a fast way

Dictionary example:
We worked like crazy to get everything finished.

Learner example:
My heart was beating like crazy and when the ski-boat started its journey along the blue waves of
the sea...

138
 cream /kriːm/

NOUN

the cream of sth

the best people or things in a particular group
Dictionary example:
the cream of Milan's designers

Learner example:
Last but not least, many Japanese style hotels and restaurants now have square holes in tatami
(straw mat) rooms so that foreign visitors can comfortably stretch their legs under the low table
without having to be seated on folded legs like Zen monks! Thus you will find it easier to enjoy
the cream of Japanese hospitality without tears.

criterion /kraɪˈtɪə.ri.ən/

NOUN [C] (criteria)

a fact or level of quality that you use when making a choice or decision
Dictionary example:
We have strict criteria for deciding which students will receive a grant.

Learner example:
This is because one of the key criteria for being an international commercial centre would be the
extensive transport options.

critic /ˈkrɪt.ɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: critic, criticism
Verbs: criticize
Adjectives: critical
Adverbs: critically

NOUN [C]

NOT APPROVE

someone who says that they do not approve of someone or something

Dictionary example:
an outspoken critic of the government

139
 Learner example:
I am not a critic of modern technology and I am not among those people who have pessimistic
id[e]as about it.

crossing /ˈkrɒs.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: crossing
Verbs: cross

NOUN [C]

TRIP BY WATER

a trip across water

Dictionary example:
regular ferry crossings from Tenerife to Gran Canaria

Learner example:
On the ferry there are rest[a]urants and a Tax-Free Shop. The crossing takes about 50 minutes.

crowd /kraʊd/

Word family:
Nouns: crowd
Adjectives: crowded, overcrowded

VERB

to stand together in large numbers

Dictionary example:
Protesters crowded the streets.

Learner example:
However, this is not the case in big cities, since inhabitants from all over the world crowd their
streets.

cry /kraɪ/

NOUN [C]

be a far cry from sth

to be very different from something
Dictionary example:
Her luxury mansion is a far cry from the house she grew up in.

140
 Learner example:
The museum was a far cry from what we expected. Not only were the machines really old and
should have been replaced a long time ago, but they were boring as well.

crystal /ˈkrɪ.stəl/

NOUN

crystal clear
extremely clear
Dictionary example:
crystal clear water

Learner example:
You will be amazed by the crystal clear water of the shallow sea and the multitude of colourful
fish which you will see as you [ar]e exploring the bottom of the sea.

cultivate /ˈkʌl.tɪ.veɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: cultivation
Verbs: cultivate

VERB [T]

GROW

to prepare land and grow crops on it

Dictionary example:
This shrub is cultivated in Europe as a culinary herb.

Learner example:
We're cutting down our forests to cultivate the plants which give us nourishing food.

cultivation /ˌkʌl.tɪˈveɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: cultivation
Verbs: cultivate

NOUN [U]

the process of preparing land and growing crops

Dictionary example:
The area was drained so that cultivation could begin.

141
 Learner example:
The basic thing is that people should [be] provided [with] better facilities for their cultivation of
crops and farming, so they can earn their bread and butter in their own environment.

cure /kjʊər/

Word family:
Verbs: cure
Adjectives: incurable

VERB [T]

PROBLEM

to solve a problem
Dictionary example:
the fight to cure social inequality

Learner example:
I found out that this problem can be cured in only one way and that is not going to English
courses.

customary /ˈkʌs.təm.ər.i/

Word family:
Nouns: custom
Adjectives: customary

ADJECTIVE

normal or expected for a particular person, situation, or society

Dictionary example:
It is customary for the chairman to make the opening speech.

Learner example:
So it is customary that teachers have longer holiday[s].

cut /kʌt/

VERB (cutting, cut, cut)

to cut a long story short

to mention only the final result or point of something without going into other
details

142
 Dictionary example:
To cut a long story short, he never played baseball again.

Learner example:
Well, to cut a long story short, let's say tuition yes, facilities no.

NOUN [C]

REDUCTION

a reduction in the number or amount of something

Dictionary example:
tax/job cuts

Learner example:
Unfortunately, due to gover[n]ment spending cuts he has lost his employment.

cutback /ˈkʌt.bæk/

NOUN [C]

a reduction of something, usually to save money

Dictionary example:
The company has made cutbacks and closed one of its factories.

Learner example:
There have been enormous cutbacks in the budget and children and teenagers are the ones who
have suffered the most.

cutting-edge /ˌkʌt.ɪŋˈedʒ/

ADJECTIVE

very modern and with all the newest developments

Dictionary example:
cutting-edge design/technology

Learner example:
On the other hand, in the past our previous generation could not enjoy such cutting-edge
technology as it was not developed well before 1970.

143
 D

dare /deər/

VERB

dare sb to do sth
to try to make someone do something dangerous
Dictionary example:
She dared her friend to climb onto the roof.

Learner example:
The idea was to hang like that for a while, then push strongly and start sliding on the rope until
you got to the other end. My friends dared me to tr[y] it.

How dare she/you, etc.

used to express anger about something someone has done
Dictionary example:
How dare you talk to me like that!

Learner example:
How dare you call that high standards?!

dark /dɑːk/

Word family:
Nouns: dark, darkness
Adjectives: dark

ADJECTIVE

BAD

frightening or unpleasant
Dictionary example:
a dark period in human history

Learner example:
They cannot cope with such matters as finances and studies, so they have to turn to the dark side
of society.

144
 date /deɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: date
Verbs: date
Adjectives: dated

NOUN [C]

FRUIT

a sticky brown fruit with a long seed inside

Dictionary example:
I bought a box of dates.

dawn /dɔːn/

NOUN

the dawn of sth

LITERARY the time when something began
Dictionary example:
the dawn of civilization

Learner example:
Since the dawn of time, people of all religions have considered that there is a higher power that
dictates their destiny.

day /deɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: day, midday
Adjectives: daily
Adverbs: daily

NOUN

days
used to talk about a particular period of time when something happened or
existed
Dictionary examples:
in my younger days
This book was written before the days of computers.

145
 Learner example:
Before the days of television, we had the radio.

the old days

a period in the past
Dictionary example:
This place isn't as good as it was in the old days!

Learner example:
In the old days, a scholar could spend years of his life in search of specific information, which now
can be easily found at the click of a button!

daycare /ˈdeɪ.keər/

NOUN [U]

care provided during the day for people who cannot look after themselves,
especially young children or old people
Dictionary example:
a daycare centre

Learner example:
They simply didn't quit after they had a baby, but continued working as before and put their
children in daycare.

daydream /ˈdeɪ.driːm/

VERB [I]

to have pleasant thoughts about something you like or would like to happen
Dictionary example:
She just sits in class daydreaming about her horses.

Learner example:
When we are young, we daydream about becoming famous.

day-to-day /ˌdeɪ.təˈdeɪ/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

happening every day as a regular part of your job or your life

Dictionary example:
the usual day-to-day problems

146
 Learner example:
Unfortunately modern life is very stressful; the day-to-day office routine make[s] people feel very
stressed and upset with their lives.

dead /ded/

Word family:
Nouns: death
Adjectives: dead, deadly
Adverbs: dead, deadly

ADVERB

EXTREMELY

INFORMAL extremely or completely

Dictionary example:
The exam was dead easy.

Learner example:
The teaching is dead boring; it really takes you more than one hour per day just to gain the basics
and if you want to get in contact with the teachers, you have to spend a fortune.

be dead (set) against sth/doing sth

to oppose something strongly
Dictionary examples:
My parents were dead set against us getting married.
They were dead against the proposed new road.

Learner example:
Some others are dead set against the council's decision and provide some alternative ideas about
building a car park in another area.

deadly /ˈded.li/

Word family:
Nouns: death
Adjectives: dead, deadly
Adverbs: dead, deadly

ADVERB

deadly dull/serious, etc.

extremely dull/serious, etc.
Dictionary example:
His speech was deadly dull.

147
 Learner example:
Sports don't have to be boring and deadly serious.

deal /dɪəl/

Word family:
Nouns: deal, dealer

NOUN

a good deal
an agreement, arrangement, or situation that benefits you
Dictionary example:
I think we got a really good deal on our new car.

Learner example:
The possibility [of] get[ting] the needed staff from our own departments is absolutely a good deal
for the company.

debut /ˈdeɪ.bjuː/

NOUN [C]

when someone performs or presents something to the public for the first time
Dictionary examples:
She made her debut as a pianist in 1975.
This is the band's debut album.

Learner example:
Pavarotti's grand debut took place in the Royal Theatre of Reggio Emilia.

decisive /dɪˈsaɪ.sɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: decision
Verbs: decide
Adjectives: decisive
Adverbs: decisively

ADJECTIVE

AFFECTING

strongly affecting how a situation will progress or end

148
 Dictionary examples:
a decisive goal/victory
Seeing that advertisement was a decisive moment in my life.

Learner example:
Recently, our Board of Executives has taken a decisive step: from now on, our clothes will also be
available for purchase on the Internet!

declaration /ˌdek.ləˈreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: declaration
Verbs: declare

NOUN [C]

an announcement, often one that is written and official

Dictionary example:
a declaration of independence

Learner example:
Indochina is a French film that deals with the colonial period in Indochina from the Second World
War to the country['s] declaration of independence.

dedicate /ˈded.ɪ.keɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: dedication
Verbs: dedicate
Adjectives: dedicated

VERB

dedicate your life/yourself to sth

to give most of your energy and time to something
Dictionary example:
She has dedicated her life to helping others.

Learner example:
I have been interested in these matters but due to my lack of time, I haven't been able to dedicate
myself to this investigation.

149
 dedicated /ˈded.ɪ.keɪ.tɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: dedication
Verbs: dedicate
Adjectives: dedicated

ADJECTIVE

GIVING TIME/ENERGY

believing that something is very important and giving a lot of time and energy to it
Dictionary example:
a dedicated teacher

Learner example:
I myself am a totally dedicated sports fan and I believe that basketball is the greatest sport on this
earth.

dedication /ˌded.ɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: dedication
Verbs: dedicate
Adjectives: dedicated

NOUN [U]

when you are willing to give a lot of time and energy to something because you
believe it is very important
Dictionary example:
She thanked the staff for their dedication and enthusiasm.

Learner example:
Sacrifice and self-denial are cornerstones, together with dedication and commitment to a good
cause.

deduction /dɪˈdʌk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: deduction
Verbs: deduce

150
NOUN [C or U]

AMOUNT

when an amount or a part of something is taken away from a total, or the amount
that is taken
Dictionary example:
tax deductions

Learner example:
After the deduction of 5% administration expense and 10% entertainment cost, we contributed the
remaining 85% of the surplus to the local hospital.

deepen /ˈdiː.pən/

Word family:
Nouns: depth
Verbs: deepen
Adjectives: deep
Adverbs: deeply

VERB [I or T]

KNOWLEDGE

if someone's knowledge or understanding deepens, it increases.

Dictionary example:
It certainly helped to deepen my understanding of the situation.

Learner example:
Furthermore, not only can travelling give you an opp[o]rtunity to make a lot of friends, but your
knowledge about this world could be broadened and deepened by travelling.

defect /ˈdiː.fekt/

Word family:
Nouns: defect
Adjectives: defective

NOUN [C]

a fault or problem with someone or something

Dictionary examples:
genetic defects
A mechanical defect caused the plane to crash.

151
 Learner example:
There are also people that are overweight and it is not their own fault, because they suffer from
genetic defects.

defence /dɪˈfents/

Word family:
Nouns: defence, defender
Verbs: defend
Adjectives: defensive

NOUN

MILITARY

[U] the weapons and military forces that a country uses to protect itself against
attack
Dictionary examples:
Government spending on defence is increasing.
the defence industry

Learner example:
[The] USA spent only 2% of money on education; it spent quite a large amount of money on
defence (18%).

defend /dɪˈfend/

Word family:
Nouns: defence, defender
Verbs: defend
Adjectives: defensive

VERB

LAW

[T] to try to show in a court that someone is not guilty of a crime

Dictionary example:
He has hired two lawyers to defend him in court.

Learner example:
An in[n]ocent man is arrested and the court ap[p]oints an attorney to defend him.

152
 deficiency /dɪˈfɪʃ.ən.si/

NOUN [C or U]

FAULT

a mistake or fault in something so that it is not good enough

Dictionary example:
Parents are complaining of serious deficiencies in the education system.

Learner example:
By studying the effects of rain and ways to handle the expected amount of water, one can plan the
laying out of the new roads and correct the deficiencies in the present ones.

deficit /ˈdef.ɪ.sɪt/

NOUN [C]

the amount by which the money that you spend is more than the money that you
receive
Dictionary example:
a budget deficit

Learner example:
Unfortunately, this could not be fulfilled by the government due to a huge budget deficit.

definitely /ˈdef.ɪ.nət.li/

Word family:
Nouns: definition
Verbs: define
Adjectives: definite, definitive
Adverbs: definitely, indefinitely

ADVERB

definitely not
used after an adverb in short, negative replies
Dictionary example:
"Do you think the work will be finished by June?" "Definitely not."

Learner example:
That's nice, but do you think that money is all that matters? Definitely not!

153
 definition /ˌdef.ɪˈnɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: definition
Verbs: define
Adjectives: definite, definitive
Adverbs: definitely, indefinitely

NOUN

IMAGE

[U] how clear an image of something is in a photograph or on a screen

Dictionary examples:
high-definition TV
There is a slight loss of definition in the picture quality on transfer.

Learner example:
And, do not forget to appreciate the keyboard work from the legendary Tony Banks, and the
spectacular guitar-playing from Mike Rutherford, all of them surrounded by three huge high-
definition screens.

delegate

Word family:
Nouns: delegate, delegation
Verbs: delegate

NOUN [C] /ˈdel.ɪg.ət/

someone who is sent somewhere to represent a group of people, especially at a
meeting
Dictionary example:
The delegates were all given badges to wear.

Learner example:
I participated at the opening of the new Arts Centre as a delegate from my college.

delicate /ˈdel.ɪ.kət/

ADJECTIVE

NEEDING CARE

needing to be handled with great care or skill

154
 Dictionary examples:
I need to speak to you about a rather delicate matter/question.
The pay negotiations have reached a delicate point/stage.
Repairing damaged nerves is a very delicate operation/process.

Learner example:
Being aware of the two proposals our local government is considering in order to solve the
apparently unavoidable matter of traffic in our beloved city, I feel compelled to offer my views on
such a delicate subject.

deliver /dɪˈlɪv.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: delivery
Verbs: deliver

VERB

PROMISE

[I or T] to achieve or do something that you have promised to do, or that people

expect you to do
Dictionary example:
The company failed to deliver the high-quality service that we expect.

Learner example:
I can also help as a team-leader to help others to deliver the right services.

demand /dɪˈmɑːnd/

Word family:
Nouns: demand
Verbs: demand
Adjectives: demanding

NOUN

in demand
wanted or needed in large numbers
Dictionary example:
Good teachers are always in demand.

Learner example:
Nevertheless, people will always use cars and vehicles, so petrol will always be in demand.

155
 demonstrate /ˈdem.ən.streɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: demonstration
Verbs: demonstrate

VERB

SHOW HOW

[T] to show something and explain how it works

Dictionary examples:
The teacher demonstrated how to use the equipment.
He's got a job demonstrating kitchen equipment in a department store.

Learner example:
I could demonstrate to people how to create compost pits and use kitchen waste to generate
compost for their gardens.

demonstration /ˌdem.ənˈstreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: demonstration
Verbs: demonstrate

NOUN

SHOWING

[C or U] showing how to do something, or how something works

Dictionary examples:
Let me give you a demonstration of how the camera works.
a cooking demonstration

Learner example:
Some of our workers will give you a demonstration on how they produce, step by step, some of
the world's best-known rings and necklaces.

PROOF

[C or U] proof that something exists or is true

Dictionary example:
This disaster is a clear demonstration of the need for tighter controls.

Learner example:
Most women are now allowed to wear trousers and this is a demonstration of the change of
women's role in society throughout the years.

156
 density /ˈden.sə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: density
Adjectives: dense
Adverbs: densely

NOUN [C or U]

the number of people or things in a place when compared with the size of the
place
Dictionary example:
The area has a high population density.

Learner example:
However, the factors of population density and transport systems in some regions must not be
ignored during this analysis.

deodorant /diˈəʊ.də.rənt/

NOUN [C or U]

a substance that you put on your body to prevent or hide unpleasant smells
Dictionary example:
I always use deodorant.

Learner example:
On the other hand, men require regular supplies of shaving lotions, shampoo, deodorant, and
many more [things] too.

dependent /dɪˈpen.dənt/

Word family:
Nouns: independence, dependence
Verbs: depend
Adjectives: dependent, independent
Adverbs: independently

ADJECTIVE

dependent on/upon sth

influenced by or decided by something
Dictionary example:
The amount of tax you pay is dependent on how much you earn.

157
 Learner example:
The benefits for a traveller will be dependent upon the purpose for which someone travels.

deposit /dɪˈpɒ.zɪt/

NOUN [C]

BANK

an amount of money that you pay into a bank

Dictionary example:
to make a deposit

Learner example:
Now, you can [make a] deposit, have a record of your expenses, transfer funds from one account
to another and even pay your credit card .

RENT

an amount of money that you pay when you rent something, and that is given back
to you when you return it without any damage
Dictionary example:
Did you get your deposit back?

Learner example:
I told the estate agent I was interested, paid my deposit and moved in within a week.

VERB [T]

to put money into a bank or valuable things into a safe place

Dictionary example:
She deposited $150,000 in a Swiss bank account.

Learner example:
Now, you can deposit [money], have a record of your expenses, transfer funds from one account
to another and even pay your credit card.

deprived /dɪˈpraɪvd/

Word family:
Nouns: deprivation
Verbs: deprive
Adjectives: deprived

ADJECTIVE

not having enough food, money, and the things that you need to have a normal
life

158
 Dictionary example:
children from deprived backgrounds

Learner example:
It is true that possibly, because of a deprived childhood in which every purchase had to be
considered carefully, a person learns to manage his finances.

deputy /ˈdep.jə.ti/

NOUN [C]

someone who has the second most important job in an organization

Dictionary example:
the deputy Prime Minister

Learner example:
If you would like to have [a] teacher on your side, for general questions, I would propose our
deputy principal Mr Brown.

derive /dɪˈraɪv/

VERB

derive (sth) from sth PHRASAL VERB

to come from or be developed from something

Dictionary example:
The name derives from Latin.

Learner example:
From another chart, we can have a clear understanding of nuclear power's contribution to
different European countries. 78.0% [of] electricity production [is] derived from nuclear power in
France.

deserted /dɪˈzɜː.tɪd/

ADJECTIVE

If a place is deserted, it has no people in it.

Dictionary example:
a deserted street

Learner example:
Too often have I seen deserted city centres caused by loss of trade, centres subject to graffiti, dirt
and vandalism.

159
 design /dɪˈzaɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: design, designer
Verbs: design

NOUN

DRAWING

[C] a drawing which shows how an object, machine, or building will be made

Dictionary example:
Engineers are working on the new designs.

Learner example:
To finish some of your designs on time you could take them home and continue them there or
you could work for longer in your office.

desire /dɪˈzaɪər/

Word family:
Nouns: desire
Verbs: desire
Adjectives: desirable, desired, undesirable

VERB [T] FORMAL

to want something
Dictionary example:
You can have whatever you desire.

Learner example:
Indeed, the location of this hotel will allow all of us to do whatever we desire.

destiny /ˈdes.tɪn.i/

NOUN

FUTURE

[C] the things that will happen to someone in the future

Dictionary example:
At last she feels in control of her own destiny.

Learner example:
It was our parents' destiny, it is our destiny and is going to be our children's destiny, too.

160
 POWER

[U] a power that some people believe controls what will happen in the future

Dictionary example:
Nick said it was destiny that we met.

Learner example:
If anybody ever asked me if I believed in destiny, I would hesitate.

detached /dɪˈtætʃt/

ADJECTIVE

BUILDING

a detached building is one that is not joined to another building

Dictionary example:
They have a detached 5-bedroom house in Surrey.

Learner example:
I live in a detached house in the countryside with my two friends, who are married.

detect /dɪˈtekt/

Word family:
Nouns: detective
Verbs: detect

VERB [T]

to discover or notice something, especially something that is difficult to see, hear,

smell, etc.
Dictionary examples:
Some sounds cannot be detected by the human ear.
This special camera can detect bodies by their heat.

Learner example:
The kind of contamination that can be detected and observed most easily is the air pollution.

deteriorate /dɪˈtɪə.ri.ə.reɪt/

VERB [I]

to become worse

161
 Dictionary example:
Her condition deteriorated rapidly.

Learner example:
Otherwise, the situation will deteriorate more and more.

determine /dɪˈtɜː.mɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: determination
Verbs: determine
Adjectives: determined

VERB [T]

FIND

to discover the facts or truth about something

Dictionary examples:
The doctors are still unable to determine what is wrong.
You can use a simple test to determine whether the paint contains lead.

Learner example:
Our feelings about the issue led our class to direct a survey among local residents in Fordham, in
order to determine statistically how often the latter use Greendale Park.

DECIDE

to decide what will happen

Dictionary examples:
Her exam results will determine which university she goes to.
The army's response was determined by a combination of political and social factors.

Learner example:
It considers the reasons for these developments and highlights the trends which will determine
the future of the job market.

devastated /ˈdev.ə.steɪ.tɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: devastation
Adjectives: devastated, devastating

ADJECTIVE

very shocked and upset

162
 Dictionary examples:
She was devastated when her husband died.
They were devastated by the terrible news.

Learner example:
To begin with, everyone was devastated [at] how long we had to wait at the airport, as the flight to
Dublin was late.

devastating /ˈdev.ə.steɪ.tɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: devastation
Adjectives: devastated, devastating

ADJECTIVE

SHOCKING

making someone very shocked and upset

Dictionary example:
Despite the devastating news, no one is giving up hope.

Learner example:
It can be really devastating for such [a] person to experience it.

developer /dɪˈvel.ə.pər/

Word family:
Nouns: development, developer, redevelopment
Verbs: develop, redevelop
Adjectives: developed, developing, underdeveloped, undeveloped

NOUN [C]

PRODUCTS

someone whose job is to create new products, especially computer products such
as software
Dictionary example:
We mostly use developers based in India.

Learner example:
For example, we may have the top website developers in China, but quite often the[ir] skills are
[restrict]ed by poor IT infrastructures.

163
 devote /dɪˈvəʊt/

Word family:
Verbs: devote
Adjectives: devoted

VERB

devote yourself to sth PHRASAL VERB

to spend all your time or energy doing something that you think is important
Dictionary example:
He retired in 1814 to devote himself to social reforms.

Learner example:
Bosses do not like women of such marital status, because there is a threa[t] that they will have not
enough time to devote themselves to their professional work.

dictate /dɪkˈteɪt/

VERB

to decide or control what happens

Dictionary example:
The weather will dictate where we hold the party.

Learner example:
Since the dawn of time people of all religions have considered that there is a higher power that
dictates their destiny.

diesel /ˈdiː.zəl/

NOUN [U]

fuel used in the engines of some vehicles, especially buses and trucks
Dictionary example:
We need to stop for some diesel.

Learner example:
Secondly, if the price of petrol is increased, people will buy cars that run on diesel.

164
 difference /ˈdɪf.ər.ənts/

Word family:
Nouns: difference, indifference
Verbs: differ, differentiate
Adjectives: different, indifferent
Adverbs: differently

NOUN

tell the difference

to notice a difference between two things
Dictionary example:
I can't tell the difference between an American and a Canadian accent.

Learner example:
Not only will their critical sen[s]e atrophy but also they will not be able to tell the difference
between what is right and wrong.

differentiate /ˌdɪf.ərˈen.ʃi.eɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: difference, indifference
Verbs: differ, differentiate
Adjectives: different, indifferent
Adverbs: differently

VERB

SEE DIFFERENCE

[I or T] to understand or notice how two things or people are different from each
other
Dictionary example:
He can't differentiate between blue and green.

Learner example:
The person would learn how to differentiate his needs from his wants and would value hard work.

difficult /ˈdɪf.ɪ.kəlt/

Word family:
Nouns: difficulty
Adjectives: difficult

165
ADJECTIVE

put sb in a difficult position

to cause someone to be in a difficult situation
Dictionary example:
When two of your best friends argue it puts you in a very difficult position.

Learner example:
I know that I will put you in a difficult position with my absence but I must leave.

digest /daɪˈdʒest/

Word family:
Nouns: digestion
Verbs: digest

VERB [T]

FOOD

to change food in your stomach into substances that your body can use
Dictionary example:
I need some time to digest my dinner.

Learner example:
Most families are also trying to eat a bit less meat, because meat is very hard to digest.

INFORMATION

to think about new information carefully in order to understand it

Dictionary example:
You need to give me time to digest this report.

Learner example:
Also I found the lectures about how to write CVs very useful although if the groups were smaller,
it would have made the information easier to digest.

digestion /daɪˈdʒest.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: digestion
Verbs: digest

NOUN [U]

when your body changes food in your stomach into substances that it can use
Dictionary example:
He has problems with his digestion.

166
 Learner example:
Afterwards, I had some serious digestion problems, and no medical care was available.

diminish /dɪˈmɪn.ɪʃ/

VERB [I or T]

to become less, or to make something become less

Dictionary example:
Your pain should diminish gradually after taking these tablets.

Learner example:
As one student I've asked said, if we manage to keep cars out of town, air pollution will
considerably diminish.

diplomatic /ˌdɪp.ləˈmæt.ɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: diplomat, diplomacy
Adjectives: diplomatic
Adverbs: diplomatically

ADJECTIVE

GOVERNMENTS

relating to diplomacy or diplomats

Dictionary example:
diplomatic relations

Learner example:
The price has been arranged by the Argentine an[d] English Governments, that have now entered
diplomatic relations.

direct /daɪˈrekt/

Word family:
Nouns: direction, directions, director
Verbs: direct
Adjectives: direct, indirect
Adverbs: directly, indirectly

167
ADJECTIVE

CLEAR

saying clearly and honestly what you think

Dictionary example:
a direct answer

Learner example:
He preferred to give me [a] hint rather than a direct answer.

VERB

direct sth against/at/towards, etc. sb/sth

to aim something at someone or something
Dictionary example:
The demonstrators' anger was directed at the police.

Learner example:
In these circumstances it is important, however, that alte[r]native options are provided (e.g.
efficient and affordable train services) and that economic measures (such as increased prices) are
directed at those who really cause the most environmental costs.

ORGANIZE

[T] to organize and control the way something is done

Dictionary example:
He directed the building of the new art gallery.

Learner example:
Obviously they will work in the com[m]ercial department, under the supervision of Lorenzo Soboli,
the person who is in charge of directing that section.

direction /daɪˈrek.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: direction, directions, director
Verbs: direct
Adjectives: direct, indirect
Adverbs: directly, indirectly

NOUN

CONTROL

[U] control or instructions

Dictionary example:
Under his direction the company has doubled its profits.

168
 Learner example:
I am writing to you on behalf of the Social Club of our language school to express some
complaints that we had from several students concerning our recent visit to the Science and
Technology Museum which is under your direction.

directory /dɪˈrekt.ər.i/

NOUN [C]

a book or list of names, numbers, or other facts

Dictionary example:
I looked in the telephone directory.

Learner example:
If you['d] like to know more, look at the phone book (directory); you'll find 3 or 4 pages about how
to phone, how to dial, how to get numbers etc. in English.

disadvantaged /ˌdɪs.ədˈvɑːn.tɪdʒd/

Word family:
Nouns: advantage, disadvantage
Adjectives: disadvantaged

ADJECTIVE

Disadvantaged people are poor and do not have many opportunities.

Dictionary example:
economically disadvantaged children

Learner example:
Therefore, there are several ways in which these people are becoming more and more
disadvantaged.

disapproval /ˌdɪs.əˈpruː.vəl/

Word family:
Nouns: approval, disapproval
Verbs: approve, disapprove

NOUN [U]

when you think that someone or something is bad or wrong

Dictionary example:
I could sense their disapproval.

169
 Learner example:
I am writing to express my disapproval of the deplorable service experienced in your museum.

disastrous /dɪˈzɑːs.trəs/

Word family:
Nouns: disaster
Adjectives: disastrous

ADJECTIVE

extremely bad
Dictionary examples:
disastrous consequences
a disastrous week

Learner example:
Let's hope that people involved - politicians and trade union leaders - will be able to sort things
out soon in order to put an end to these disastrous conditions.

discipline /ˈdɪs.ə.plɪn/

NOUN

SELF CONTROL

[U] when you can control your own behaviour carefully

Dictionary example:
I don't have enough discipline to save money.

Learner example:
He's an example to be followed not only as an athlete, but also as a person who is [a] symbol of
discipline, maturity, humility.

discomfort /dɪˈskʌm.fət/

Word family:
Nouns: comfort, discomfort
Verbs: comfort
Adjectives: comfortable, uncomfortable, comforting
Adverbs: comfortably, uncomfortably

170
NOUN

SITUATION

[C or U] a physically uncomfortable situation

Dictionary example:
They travelled in great discomfort.

Learner example:
First of all, the coach was not suitable for adults, as we had very little leg room [and] the seat belts
were broken, which mean[t] discomfort and insecurity.

discontent /ˌdɪs.kənˈtent/

Word family:
Nouns: discontent
Adjectives: content

NOUN [U]

unhappiness about a situation

Dictionary example:
There is growing discontent with this government.

Learner example:
You must know that this is a delicate moment for [the] Italian economy, because of the recession
and unemployment problems, and the discontent with government policy has pushed many
workers to go on strike.

discovery /dɪˈskʌv.ər.i/

Word family:
Nouns: discovery
Verbs: discover

NOUN

THING/PERSON

[C] something or someone that is discovered

Dictionary example:
I've made a great discovery!

Learner example:
My second discovery is a more serious one. After thirty years since its premier[e], "Macbeth" sees
its first release on video.

171
 discriminate /dɪˈskrɪm.ɪ.neɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: discrimination
Verbs: discriminate

VERB [I]

TREAT UNFAIRLY

to treat someone unfairly because of their sex, race, religion, etc.

Dictionary example:
The company was accused of discriminating against people on the basis of age.

Learner example:
Firstly, the disadvantage of this policy is that it discriminates against the poor.

discrimination /dɪˌskrɪm.ɪˈneɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: discrimination
Verbs: discriminate

NOUN [U]

when someone is treated unfairly because of their sex, race, religion, etc.
Dictionary examples:
racial/sex/sexual discrimination
discrimination against older workers

Learner example:
But we must not forget that there is still sexual discrimination when women apply for jobs higher
up in [a] hierarchy.

disgusted /dɪsˈɡʌs.tɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: disgust
Adjectives: disgusting, disgusted

ADJECTIVE

feeling extreme dislike or disapproval of something

Dictionary example:
I'm totally disgusted with your behaviour.

Learner example:
As you realise, I am thoroughly disgusted with the tour which you provided.

172
 dishonestly /dɪˈsɒn.ɪst.li/

Word family:
Nouns: dishonesty, honesty
Adjectives: dishonest, honest
Adverbs: honestly, dishonestly

ADVERB

in a dishonest way
Dictionary example:
She acted dishonestly.

Learner example:
The prize is valueless if achieved dishonestly.

dismiss /dɪˈsmɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: dismissal
Verbs: dismiss

VERB [T]

NOT CONSIDER

to refuse to consider an idea or opinion

Dictionary example:
The committee dismissed the idea as rubbish.

Learner example:
That is why I would dismiss this facility: there is already a small video room in our school which is
hardly ever used.

MAKE LEAVE

[OFTEN PASSIVE] to officially make someone leave their job

Dictionary example:
Anyone who breaks company rules will be dismissed.

Learner example:
What's more, every day hundreds of workmen are dismissed and thereby the ratio of
unemployment still increases.

173
 dismissal /dɪˈsmɪs.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: dismissal
Verbs: dismiss

NOUN

IDEA

[U] when someone refuses to consider an idea or opinion

Dictionary example:
I was angered by his dismissal of my worries.

Learner example:
Their dismissal of our proposal was essentially because of our lack of worldwid[e] investments; as
everybody knows, we fundamentally concentrate our assets inside the European Union
boundaries.

JOB

[C or U] when an employer officially makes someone leave their job

Dictionary examples:
a letter of dismissal
She accused her employers of unfair dismissal.

Learner example:
Another episod[e] of this sort is when Miss K. threatens to leave Darlington Hall because of the
dismissal of the two Jewish maids.

disorder /dɪˈsɔː.dər/

Word family:
Nouns: order, disorder

NOUN

ILLNESS

[C] an illness or medical condition

Dictionary example:
a blood disorder

Learner example:
We should react at an early stage of an eating disorder by watching ourselves, consulting a doctor
and going to the fitness cent[re].

BAD BEHAVIOUR

[U] uncontrolled, bad behaviour, especially by large groups of people

174
 Dictionary examples:
crime and disorder
public/civil disorder

Learner example:
Although the transport facilities are good, the neighbo[u]rhood has become increasingly
dangerous, with numerous incidents of attacks and public disorder.

displace /dɪˈspleɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: place, replacement, displacement
Verbs: place, replace, displace, misplace

VERB [T]

to take the place of someone or something

Dictionary example:
Many of these workers will be displaced by modern technology.

Learner example:
Mexico was traditionally the land of the tortilla and the beans, but every day, this seems to be
changing ever more rapidly, displaced by the heavy advertising campai[gn]s and Americani[z]ed
habits.

displacement /dɪˈspleɪs.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: place, replacement, displacement
Verbs: place, replace, displace, misplace

NOUN [U]

the act of displacing something

Dictionary example:
Widespread flooding has led to the displacement of thousands of people.

Learner example:
Apart from the fact that population growth is also playing its role, the reason for the enormous[ly]
increased size of cities is [the] displacement of people from rural areas to the cities.

175
 dispose /dɪˈspəʊz/

Word family:
Nouns: disposal
Verbs: dispose
Adjectives: disposable

VERB

dispose of sth PHRASAL VERB

to get rid of something, especially by throwing it away

Dictionary example:
I need to dispose of these old clothes.

Learner example:
Naturally there are abuses and in large cities, some people continue to dispose of their rubbish in
the street.

disrespect /ˌdɪs.rɪˈspekt/

Word family:
Nouns: respect, disrespect
Verbs: respect
Adjectives: respectable, respected, disrespectful, respectful
Adverbs: respectfully

NOUN [U]

when someone does not show any respect or behave politely towards someone or
something
Dictionary example:
a disrespect for authority

Learner example:
This report is not only bad publicity for the charity organisation, it also shows a great deal of
disrespect towards the people working with these events.

disruption /ˌdɪsˈrʌp.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: disruption
Verbs: disrupt
Adjectives: disruptive

NOUN [C or U]

when something is stopped from happening as it should

176
 Dictionary example:
a disruption of services

Learner example:
Please also advise if there are evening or weekend courses, so I can attend them without any
disruption to my main work.

dissertation /ˌdɪs.əˈteɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [C]

a very long piece of writing done as part of a course of study

Dictionary example:
She's writing a dissertation on American poetry.

Learner example:
I have completed my dissertation work on antifungal studies.

dissolve /dɪˈzɒlv/

VERB

END

[T OFTEN PASSIVE] to end an organization or official arrangement

Dictionary example:
They decided to dissolve the partnership.

Learner example:
Now, the Parliament is dissolved and we are waiting for new elections.

distant /ˈdɪs.tənt/

Word family:
Nouns: distance
Adjectives: distant

ADJECTIVE

NOT FRIENDLY

not friendly
Dictionary example:
She seemed cold and distant.

177
 Learner example:
I like the idea of join[ing] a lively team; being a gregarious person I need a change from the cold
and distant treatment which is usual in the big department stores.

distinct /dɪˈstɪŋkt/

Word family:
Nouns: distinction
Adjectives: distinct, distinctive

ADJECTIVE

DIFFERENT

different and separate

Dictionary example:
This word has three distinct meanings.

Learner example:
However, two distinct groups of employees, namely the molecular dynamics simulation group and
the Drawing Section, are indeed hampered in their daily work due to old equipment.

CLEAR

clear and certain

Dictionary example:
There's been a distinct improvement in your work.

Learner example:
So, getting married, either in [your] thirties or when younger, has distinct advantages.

distinctive /dɪˈstɪŋk.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: distinction
Adjectives: distinct, distinctive

ADJECTIVE

Something that is distinctive is easy to recognize because it is different from other

things.
Dictionary example:
a distinctive style of writing

Learner example:
But their most distinctive feature is their carefree manner of walking, taking their time and
actually looking at the buildings, the people, the landscapes.

178
 distort /dɪˈstɔːt/

VERB [T]

to change information so that it is not true or realistic

Dictionary example:
Newspapers distorted the truth about their marriage.

Learner example:
The report distorted this figure to "less than 60%".

distraction /dɪˈstræk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: distraction
Verbs: distract

NOUN

NO ATTENTION

[C or U] something that makes you stop giving your attention to something else

Dictionary example:
The phone calls were a constant distraction.

Learner example:
Some of them have really unacceptable behaviour and cause distractions even in class.

FUN

[C] an activity you can do for fun or entertainment

Dictionary example:
He is studying too much and needs some distractions.

Learner example:
Swiss people are workaholics; they sacrifice their free time to earn money, although [occasionally]
they need some kind of distraction.

distress /dɪˈstres/

Word family:
Nouns: distress
Adjectives: distressing, distressed

179
NOUN [U]

UPSET

the feeling of being extremely upset or worried

Dictionary example:
The newspaper reports caused her a great deal of distress.

Learner example:
I am constantly praised for the quality of my work and I get personal satisfaction helping people in
emotional distress.

distressed /dɪˈstrest/

Word family:
Nouns: distress
Adjectives: distressing, distressed

ADJECTIVE

extremely upset or worried

Dictionary example:
They were very distressed to learn of her death.

Learner example:
I was distressed to discover that your advertisement was inaccurate.

distribute /dɪˈstrɪb.juːt/

Word family:
Nouns: distribution
Verbs: distribute, redistribute

VERB [T]

SUPPLY

to supply goods to shops and companies

Dictionary example:
The company manufactures and distributes computer equipment worldwide.

Learner example:
Our company imports all the merchand[i]se from [the] Far East and then distribute[s] those
products in high quantities to different customers.

180
 distribution /ˌdɪs.trɪˈbjuː.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: distribution
Verbs: distribute, redistribute

NOUN

SUPPLYING

[U] when something is supplied or given out to people or places

Dictionary example:
the sale and distribution of electrical goods

Learner example:
During the economic slowdown throughout the 1980s, the use of rail roads for goods transport
dropped significantly (about 50%) while terrestrial and water transport provided cheaper and
mo[re] effective means of distribution.

SHARING

[U NO PLURAL] the way something is divided and shared in a group or area

Dictionary example:
the distribution of wealth

Learner example:
Poverty, domestic problems and [an] uneven distribution of wealth in the community make such
children bitter and instead of working hard, they become reb[ell]ious and try to look for short
cut[s] to gain money and comfort.

disturbance /dɪˈstɜː.bənts/

Word family:
Nouns: disturbance
Verbs: disturb
Adjectives: disturbed, disturbing

NOUN

INTERRUPTION

[C or U] something that interrupts what you are doing, especially something loud or
annoying
Dictionary example:
I don't want any disturbances this morning.

Learner example:
On the other hand, I think I represent each and every student when I apologise for the disturbance
of the residents who live near the College.

181
 diversity /daɪˈvɜː.sə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: diversity
Adjectives: diverse

NOUN [U NO PLURAL]

when many different types of things or people are included in something

Dictionary examples:
Does television adequately reflect the ethnic and cultural diversity of the country?
There is a wide diversity of opinion on the issue.

Learner example:
On the other hand, the fact that all the people buy the same goods and live in similar ways may
threaten the cultural diversity.

divert /daɪˈvɜːt/

VERB [T]

divert sb's attention/thoughts, etc.

to take someone's attention away from something
Dictionary example:
A movement outside the window diverted my attention.

Learner example:
For example, when I feel sad or depressed, shopping can help [me] temporarily forget those
negative feelings by diverting my attention to something which I really love doing.

divide /dɪˈvaɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: division, divide
Verbs: divide
Adjectives: divided

VERB

divide sth (up) among/between sb

to separate something into parts and give a part to each person in a group
Dictionary example:
The prize money will be divided equally among the winners.

182
 Learner example:
As women start to work out[side] the home more, the housework has to be divided among all the
family members.

NUMBERS

[T] to calculate how many times a number can go into another number

Dictionary example:
12 divided by 6 equals 2.

DISAGREE

[T OFTEN PASSIVE] to cause people to disagree about something

Dictionary example:
Council members were divided over plans to build a new stadium.

Learner example:
It is certainly clear to all that cars cannot continue to [enter the city] as they are currently doing,
but this is a polemic subject and citizens are bound to be divided.

NOUN [C]

a difference or separation
Dictionary example:
Because of debt repayments, the divide between rich and poor countries is continuing to grow.

Learner example:
Increasing petrol prices may make the divide between the rich and poor more obvious.

do /duː/

Word family:
Verbs: do, overdo

VERB (did, done)

will do
will be satisfactory
Dictionary example:
You don't have to pay now, next week will do.

Learner example:
You need a telephone card. They can cost from 100zT to 1000zT. One of 100zT will do.

do your utmost
to try as hard as you can to do something
Dictionary example:
We did our utmost to finish the project on time.

183
 Learner example:
In addition, we l[i]ve in a materialistic society where we all do our utmost in order to make ends
meet, but we are never satisfied.

dock /dɒk/

NOUN [C]

the place where ships stop and goods are taken off or put on
Dictionary example:
The ship is in dock.

Learner example:
I would like to take them with me to a very typical restaurant near the docks: Mummie's House 25
Harbour Street 2 Tel. 070 321 26 33.

domain /dəʊˈmeɪn/

NOUN [C]

a particular area, activity, or subject that someone controls or deals with

Dictionary examples:
The garden is his domain.
This information should be in the public domain.

Learner example:
In the late 70s, a profitable domain to work in was the petrol and oil business and, as large
reserves of that natural resource were located in Alaska, the Americans and certain other
companies moved their "base-camp" over there.

dominant /ˈdɒm.ɪ.nənt/

Word family:
Nouns: dominance, domination
Verbs: dominate
Adjectives: dominant, predominant
Adverbs: predominantly

ADJECTIVE

IMPORTANT

main or most important

Dictionary example:
Unemployment will be a dominant issue at the next election.

184
 Learner example:
Looking back on the ongoing discussion about women's role in modern German society, there is
one dominant impression: women have to enlarge, improve, intensify, etc.... they have to enlarge
their horizon, to improve their professional skills, to intensify their involvement in politics and so
on ....

dominate /ˈdɒm.ɪ.neɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: dominance, domination
Verbs: dominate
Adjectives: dominant, predominant
Adverbs: predominantly

VERB [I or T]

BE IMPORTANT

to be the largest, most important, or most noticeable part of something

Dictionary examples:
The subject of pay dominated their discussions.
The cathedral dominates the skyline.

Learner example:
The religious values that dominated every aspect of life are slowly being replaced by new ones
and the outcome of this metamorphosis has yet to be examined.

domination /dɒm.ɪˈneɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: dominance, domination
Verbs: dominate
Adjectives: dominant, predominant
Adverbs: predominantly

NOUN [U]

great power and control over someone or something else

Dictionary example:
world domination

Learner example:
[A] more serious argument is that [the] domination of huge multinationals suppresses local
creativity and forces the local traditions to fade away.

185
 donate /dəʊˈneɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: donation, donor
Verbs: donate

VERB [I or T]

BLOOD/ORGANS

to allow some of your blood or part of your body to be used for medical purposes
Dictionary example:
He donated a kidney to his sister.

Learner example:
For example, he once saved my life, putting his in danger by donating a large quantity of blood.

doubt /daʊt/

Word family:
Nouns: doubt
Verbs: doubt
Adjectives: doubtful, undoubted
Adverbs: undoubtedly

NOUN [C or U]

no doubt
used to say that something is very likely
Dictionary example:
No doubt she'll spend the money on new clothes.

Learner example:
No doubt I will find the skills acquired [on] the course, especially speaking skills, most useful in
my future contacts with clients from English-speaking countries.

VERB [T]

NOT BELIEVE

to not believe someone or something

Dictionary example:
Do you have any reason to doubt her?

Learner example:
I urge you to act fast and promptly in order to avoid serious consequen[c]es: to apologise to the
hospital, note the mistakes in your newspaper and to doubt the reliability of your source.

186
 down /daʊn/

ADVERB

down to earth
People or ideas that are down to earth are practical and work well.
Dictionary example:
David's a bit of a dreamer but Ruth's much more down to earth.

Learner example:
He has much practical knowledge, he is down to earth.

ADJECTIVE

NOT WORKING

If a computer or machine is down, it is temporarily not working.

Dictionary example:
The network was down all morning.

Learner example:
If other departments use the online system, it seems to be down for a while.

downside /ˈdaʊn.saɪd/

NOUN [NO PLURAL]

the disadvantage of a situation

Dictionary example:
The downside of living in a city is all the pollution.

Learner example:
However, there is a downside to it as more and more products are exported/imported, domestic
economies lose a lot trying - and usually failing - to face the competition that is coming from
other countries.

down-to-earth /ˌdaʊn.tuˈɜːθ/

ADJECTIVE

Down-to-earth people or ideas are practical and work well.

Dictionary example:
I like your down-to-earth approach to problem-solving.

187
 Learner example:
His huge popularity mainly lies in his down-to-earth attitude.

downward /ˈdaʊn.wəd/

ADJECTIVE

moving towards a lower position

Dictionary example:
a downward trend

Learner example:
Company B's profit marks a downward tendency from 1990 to 2000, going from [a] 2 million
dollar profit to the extrem[e] result of no profit at all.

downwards /ˈdaʊn.wədz/

ADVERB

towards a lower place or level

Dictionary example:
The road slopes downwards to the river.

Learner example:
Water runs downwards into [the] turbine when the valve is open.

dozen /ˈdʌz.ən/

NOUN [C]; DETERMINER

dozens
INFORMAL a lot
Dictionary example:
She's got dozens of friends.

Learner example:
There are, as well, dozens of robots able to handle any kind of work in our homes.

188
 draft /drɑːft/

VERB [T]

to produce a piece of writing or a plan that you intend to change later

Dictionary example:
to draft a letter

Learner example:
I hope all these statements will help you to draft the new programme, good luck!

drastic /ˈdræs.tɪk/

Word family:
Adjectives: drastic
Adverbs: drastically

ADJECTIVE

severe and sudden or having very noticeable effects

Dictionary example:
drastic measures

Learner example:
If within 30 days I don't receive any kind of compensation (preferably money), I may have to take
drastic measures.

drastically /ˈdræs.tɪk.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: drastic
Adverbs: drastically

ADVERB

in a drastic way
Dictionary example:
The number of bees has drastically declined due to a combination of factors.

Learner example:
Conditions have changed drastically after the reunification.

189
 draught /drɑːft/

NOUN [C]

a current of cold air in a room

Dictionary example:
There's a terrible draught coming from under the door.

Learner example:
When it is windy we can feel a draught.

draw /drɔː/

Word family:
Nouns: drawing
Verbs: draw

VERB (drew, drawn)

SPORT

[I or T] to finish a game or competition with each team or player having the same
score
Dictionary example:
England drew 2-2 against Italy.

drawback /ˈdrɔː.bæk/

NOUN [C]

a problem or disadvantage
Dictionary examples:
The only drawback with this camera is the price.
One of the main drawbacks of the program is the amount of memory required.

Learner example:
Both perspectives are important, but, overall, the advantages of proper in-house teaching
outweigh the drawbacks.

drive /draɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: drive, driver
Verbs: drive

190
VERB (drove, driven)

drive sb to sth; drive sb to do sth

to make someone have a bad feeling or do something bad
Dictionary example:
The arguments and violence drove her to leave home.

Learner example:
She would discover all about her affair with Lorraine's husband and the real cause that drove him
to commit suicide.

NOUN

ENERGY

[U] energy and determination to achieve things

Dictionary example:
She has drive and ambition.

Learner example:
They definitely have the drive and motivation to succeed.

drop /drɒp/

VERB (-pp-)

TAKE

[T] (ALSO drop off) to take someone or something to a place, usually by car as you
travel somewhere else
Dictionary example:
I can drop you at the station on my way to work.

Learner example:
You [had] better hire a car or get to know somebody who can drop you there.

NOUN

DISTANCE

[NO PLURAL] a vertical distance down from somewhere to the ground

Dictionary example:
It's a drop of about 50 metres from the top of the cliff.

191
 dry /draɪ/

ADJECTIVE (drier, driest or dryer, dryest)

WINE

! Dry wine is not sweet.

Dictionary example:
I'd like a glass of dry white wine.

Learner example:
The only wine sold - a dry white wine of a very good quality - is the one made by the owners of
the restaurant and I can assure you that it's worth trying it.

HAIR/SKIN

Dry skin or hair does not feel soft or smooth.

Dictionary example:
My lips feel really dry.

Learner example:
She looked old, her skin was dry and her eyes so lucid... .

dual /ˈdjuː.əl/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

having two parts, or having two of something

Dictionary examples:
dual nationality
She's got a bit of a dual personality.

Learner example:
I have dual nationality.

due /djuː/

ADJECTIVE

be due for sth

If you are due for something, it should happen very soon.
Dictionary example:
I'm due for a check-up at the dentist's.

192
 Learner example:
The facilities and canteen are due for improvement too.

dull /dʌl/

ADJECTIVE

NOT BRIGHT

not bright
Dictionary examples:
dull colours
dull weather

Learner example:
Confronted with her childrens' styles she changed from old-fashioned skirts in dull colours to
comfortable jeans and colourful shirts.

dumb /dʌm/

ADJECTIVE

physically unable to talk

Dictionary example:
The child is deaf and dumb.

Learner example:
The first one is "Lessons of Piano". It is the story of a dumb woman who uses a piano to express
her feelings and moods.

dump /dʌmp/

VERB

GET RID OF

[T] to put something somewhere to get rid of it, especially in a place where you
should not put it
Dictionary example:
The company was fined for illegally dumping toxic chemicals.

Learner example:
I can pick up all the bottles and other rubbish that are dumped on the street where I live.

193
NOUN [C] (ALSO UK tip)

WASTE

a place where people take things that they do not want

Dictionary example:
We took our old mattress to the dump.

Learner example:
Thankfully, with the help of the government, a recycling centre was built nearby and so the
rubbish littering the streets, as well as that being taken to the dump, was cut down by 60%.

duration /djʊəˈreɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [U] FORMAL

the amount of time that something lasts

Dictionary example:
The singer remained in the hotel for the duration of his stay in the UK.

Learner example:
If you are between 18 and 30 years old, we offer you a wide range of jobs with a duration varying
from two weeks to three months.

dwell /dwel/

VERB

dwell on/upon sth PHRASAL VERB

to keep thinking or talking about something, especially something bad or

unpleasant
Dictionary example:
I don't want to dwell on the past.

Learner example:
Considering this astonishing technical feature, I do not wish to dwell too long upon the subject.

194
 E

ear /ɪər/

NOUN [C]

have an ear for sth

to be good at hearing, repeating, or understanding a particular type of sound
Dictionary example:
He has no ear for music.

Learner example:
In terms of communication I believe that I have an ear for languages.

earth /ɜːθ/

NOUN

how/what/why, etc. on earth? INFORMAL

used when you are extremely surprised, confused, or angry about something
Dictionary example:
Why on earth didn't you tell me before?

Learner example:
How on earth can you have a coach without a toilet?

down to earth
People or ideas that are down to earth are practical and work well.
Dictionary example:
David's a bit of a dreamer but Ruth's much more down to earth.

Learner example:
He has much practical knowledge, he is down to earth.

195
 easily /ˈiː.zɪ.li/

Word family:
Nouns: ease
Adjectives: easy, uneasy
Adverbs: easily, easy

ADVERB

LIKELY

used to emphasize that something is likely

Dictionary example:
A comment like that could easily be misunderstood.

Learner example:
Considering the results of our research and the available alternatives, we came to the conclusion
that there is no valid reason for replacing a valuable park with a car park that could easily be
located somewhere else.

easy /ˈiː.zi/

Word family:
Nouns: ease
Adjectives: easy, uneasy
Adverbs: easily, easy

ADJECTIVE

(take) the easy way out

to do what is easiest in a difficult situation
Dictionary example:
I know you don't approve of his working methods, but why not take the easy way out this time
and agree to his request?

Learner example:
On the other hand you cannot survive without your pay-check and to be able to both make a
car[ee]r and have the time to be green, sometimes you just have to take the easy way out.

ADVERB

easier said than done

used to say that something seems like a good idea but it would be difficult to do
Dictionary example:
I want to ask her out, but it's easier said than done.

Learner example:
I know it's easier said than done but you have to try.

196
 ecology /ɪˈkɒl.ə.dʒi/

Word family:
Nouns: ecology
Adjectives: ecological
Adverbs: ecologically

NOUN [U NO PLURAL]

the relationship between living things and the environment, or the scientific study
of this
Dictionary example:
The oil spill caused terrible damage to the fragile ecology of the coast.

Learner example:
This solution supports business - well, then it's up to the residents to choose either business or
ecology.

edible /ˈed.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Adjectives: edible, inedible

ADJECTIVE

safe to eat and not harmful

Dictionary example:
edible berries

Learner example:
Part of your journey can be made th[r]ough the forests where you can pick up some edible berries
and wild mushrooms but be careful, you may need the local guide to help you with de[c]isions
there.

effect /ɪˈfekt/

Word family:
Nouns: effect, effectiveness
Adjectives: effective
Adverbs: effectively

NOUN

have little/no effect

make little/no difference

197
 Dictionary example:
The new measures have had little effect on ordinary people's lives.

Learner example:
As for the weather, it was only a five-minute shower that soon went over and therefore had no
effect on the show.

take effect
to start to produce results or changes
Dictionary example:
They had to wait ten minutes for the anaesthetic to take effect.

Learner example:
Some factories tried to organize the transport for the employees, but it took effect in small towns
only, where people live with[in] shorter distances.

effectiveness /ɪˈfek.tɪv.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: effect, effectiveness
Adjectives: effective
Adverbs: effectively

NOUN [U]

the degree to which something achieves its intended result

Dictionary example:
There are doubts about the effectiveness of the drug.

Learner example:
If this is done, the effectiveness of the lessons will no doubt be increased.

elderly /ˈel.dəl.i/

NOUN

the elderly
people who are elderly
Dictionary example:
The elderly are given help with fuel bills.

Learner example:
I also heard complaints from the elderly, fearing the city streets due to the traffic, something that
would not be resolved by a central parking lot, and certainly the elderly would be the ones [worst]
affected by increased pollution, with their less effective immune systems.

198
 electrical /ɪˈlek.trɪ.kəl/

Word family:
Nouns: electrician, electricity
Adjectives: electric, electrical

ADJECTIVE

SUPPLY

relating to the production and supply of electricity

Dictionary example:
an electrical engineer

Learner example:
As an electrical engineer, computer training is very important to me in several ways.

elegance /ˈel.ɪ.gənts/

Word family:
Nouns: elegance
Adjectives: elegant
Adverbs: elegantly

NOUN [U]

when someone or something is stylish or attractive in their appearance or

behaviour
Dictionary example:
We were impressed by the elegance of his clothes.

Learner example:
As with the sport I mentioned before, it also has the grace and elegance of a dancer and the
technique, of course, of a skater.

eligible /ˈel.ɪ.dʒə.bl
̩/

ADJECTIVE

If you are eligible to do something, you can do it because you are in the right
situation.
Dictionary examples:
Only people over 18 are eligible to vote.
You might be eligible for a grant for your studies.

199
 Learner example:
I am [a] member of ACCA Council, am I eligible for any discount on this Course, as I have
information from AAA College that they can charge discounted fees for ACCA students?

eliminate /ɪˈlɪm.ɪ.neɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: elimination
Verbs: eliminate

VERB [T]

GET RID OF

to remove something from something, or get rid of something

Dictionary example:
The doctor advised me to eliminate salt from my diet.

Learner example:
The parents should spend enough time with their offspring and teach them the good things and
eliminate the bad things.

COMPETITION

to defeat someone so that they cannot go any further in a competition

Dictionary example:
She was eliminated after the first round of the tournament.

elite /ɪˈliːt/

NOUN [GROUP]

the richest, most powerful, or best educated group in a society

Dictionary examples:
a member of the elite
an elite group

Learner example:
But before you decide to become one of the elite, you should think about all the freedom you
would be giving up and all the freedom you would get.

200
 embrace /ɪmˈbreɪs/

VERB

ACCEPT

to accept new ideas, beliefs, methods, etc. in an enthusiastic way

Dictionary example:
We are always eager to embrace the latest technology.

Learner example:
They seem to have embraced "the new deal" symbolising "freedom".

INCLUDE

to include a number of things

Dictionary example:
The report embraces a wide range of opinions.

Learner example:
This should embrace things like examination entries (I was not able to enter for any exam [due to]
time constrain[t]s), as well as "social affairs".

emerge /ɪˈmɜːdʒ/

VERB [I]

BECOME KNOWN

to become known
Dictionary example:
It emerged that she had lied to her employers.

Learner example:
It emerged from the students' survey conducted during the recent protest that unhealthy food and
little choice were the main reasons to complain, followed by high prices, unfriendly service and
limited opening hours.

emission /ɪˈmɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: emission
Verbs: emit

201
NOUN [C or U]

when gas, heat, light, etc. is sent out into the air, or an amount of gas, heat, light,
etc. that is sent out
Dictionary example:
Carbon dioxide emissions will be reduced by 20%.

Learner example:
One may argue from the point of linking CO2 emissions to other known pollutants, like industry,
but recent studies have shown traffic to be [one of] the most important causes of air pollution.

emperor /ˈem.pə.rər/

NOUN [C]

the male ruler of an empire

Dictionary example:
Emperor Charlemagne

Learner example:
I would certainly go, because it fascinates me how more or less 2,000 years ago, the Roman
emperors could build up such a big empire.

empire /ˈem.paɪər/

NOUN [C]

COUNTRIES

a group of countries that is ruled by one person or government

Dictionary example:
the British Empire

Learner example:
All the Greeks can be very proud of him and have to [hope] that a general with unlimited skills like
Alexander will make Greece an unstoppable and worldwide empire again.

BUSINESSES

a large group of businesses that is controlled by one person or company

Dictionary example:
a publishing empire

Learner example:
This concerns products like pizzas, French fries and of course hamburgers and the empire
MacDonald's.

202
 employ /ɪmˈplɔɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: employee, employer, employment, unemployment, unemployed
Verbs: employ
Adjectives: unemployed

VERB [T]

USE

FORMAL to use something

Dictionary example:
Companies employ clever tactics to persuade us to buy their products.

Learner example:
A friend that I made on the course shares the same opinion and insists on the fact that the course
gave us the opportunity to employ some of the techniques we practi[s]ed in the "How to
Negotiate" classes.

empty /ˈemp.ti/

ADJECTIVE

NO MEANING

having no meaning or value

Dictionary example:
an empty promise/threat

Learner example:
But on the other hand, I need to point out all the empty promises you made with your
advertisements.

enclose /ɪnˈkləʊz/

VERB [T]

BE ALL AROUND

to be all around something and separate it from other things or places

Dictionary example:
The house is enclosed by parkland.

Learner example:
You know that Aragon is a deep valley which is enclosed by two ranges of mountains.

203
 end /end/

Word family:
Nouns: end, ending
Verbs: end
Adjectives: endless

NOUN

make ends meet

to have just enough money to pay for the things that you need
Dictionary example:
I've taken a second job in the evenings just to make ends meet.

Learner example:
Most students support themselves and barely make ends meet every month.

bring sth to an end

to make something finish
Dictionary example:
The stories in the newspaper brought her career to a sudden end.

Learner example:
At the end of the year 2002 a great construction was brought to an end.

endeavour /ɪnˈdev.ər/

VERB

endeavour to do sth FORMAL

to try very hard to do something

Dictionary example:
I endeavoured to help her, but she wouldn't let me.

Learner example:
I totally [agree] with the latter and I shall endeavour to look at both points of view.

enforce /ɪnˈfɔːs/

VERB [T]

to make people obey a rule or law

Dictionary example:
It is the duty of the police to enforce the law.

204
 Learner example:
Traffic police rarely enforce the law on public transport vehicles, which leads to a lot of chaos.

engage /ɪnˈgeɪdʒ/

VERB [T] FORMAL

to interest someone in something and keep them thinking about it

Dictionary example:
The debate about food safety has engaged the whole nation.

Learner example:
It would be great if we could employ professional entertainers to set up activities to engage
people and buy fun prizes and awards.

enhance /ɪnˈhɑːns/

VERB [T] FORMAL

to improve something
Dictionary example:
Winning that award greatly enhanced her reputation.

Learner example:
In addition, enhancing the reputation of the family might be anoth[e]r factor as well.

enough /ɪˈnʌf/

DETERMINER; PRONOUN

have had enough

to want something to stop because it is annoying you
Dictionary example:
I've had enough of your excuses.

Learner example:
My neighbours and I have had enough of this sudden and deafening noise, which seems to affect
our pets as well.

205
 enrich /ɪnˈrɪtʃ/

Word family:
Nouns: riches, richness
Verbs: enrich
Adjectives: rich

VERB [T]

to improve the quality of something by adding something to it

Dictionary example:
Our culture has been enriched by the many immigrants who live here.

Learner example:
It can be of great assistance especially for those who start studying the Greek language and for
those who want to enrich their knowledge, too.

enter /ˈen.tər/

Word family:
Nouns: entrance, entry
Verbs: enter

VERB

PERIOD OF TIME

[T] to begin a period of time

Dictionary example:
The violence is now entering its third week.

Learner example:
It is a family-run business which is now entering its tenth successful year.

enterprise /ˈen.tə.praɪz/

NOUN

BUSINESS

[C] a business or organization

Dictionary example:
a state-owned enterprise

Learner example:
It is true that many state enterprises went on strike several days ago, among others transport and
medical services.

206
 QUALITY

[U] when someone is enthusiastic and willing to do something new and clever,
although there are risks involved
Dictionary example:
The scheme shows imagination and enterprise.

Learner example:
I am talking about a frank and sincere young lady with enterprise.

entitle /ɪnˈtaɪ.tl
̩/

VERB [T OFTEN PASSIVE]

GIVE TITLE

to give something a particular title

Dictionary example:
a lecture entitled "Language, Learning and Literacy"

Learner example:
In June, [the] club arranged a slide show and talk which was entitled 'Walking In The Black Hills';
this was very informative and the students had lots of tips for hill walking.

environmentalist /ɪnˌvaɪə.rənˈmen.təl.ɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: environment, environmentalist
Adjectives: environmental
Adverbs: environmentally

NOUN [C]

someone who tries to protect the natural environment from being damaged
Dictionary example:
She is a well-known environmentalist.

Learner example:
Others also, especially environmentalists, suggest that we should turn to electric-powered
engines which are environmentally friendly, as these air pollutants bring about the thinning of the
ozone layer.

207
 envisage /ɪnˈvɪz.ɪdʒ/

VERB [T]

to imagine something happening, or think that something is likely to happen

Dictionary example:
The police don't envisage any trouble at the festival.

Learner example:
We envisage the size of the branch to be around 50 people to start with and expect to grow circa
20% a year.

envision /ɪnˈvɪʒ.ən/

VERB [T]

to imagine something happening, or think that something is likely to happen

Dictionary example:
He envisioned a partnership between business and government.

Learner example:
From the childhood, when you are only a kid, you envision you[r]self getting married and quite
naturally it is a great feeling when you do get married.

equally /ˈiː.kwə.li/

Word family:
Nouns: equality, inequality
Adjectives: equal
Adverbs: equally

ADVERB

SAME AMOUNTS

into amounts or parts that are the same size

Dictionary example:
She shared the money equally between the four children.

Learner example:
The obligations should be divided equally between the members of the gro[u]p.

SAME DEGREE

to the same degree or level

208
 Dictionary examples:
an equally important question
She did equally well in the competition last year.

Learner example:
I think the choice of a good organization, which can provide good facilities and social conditions,
along with good teaching, is equally important.

equation /ɪˈkweɪ.ʒən/

Word family:
Nouns: equation
Verbs: equate

NOUN [C]

when you show that two amounts are equal using mathematical symbols
Dictionary example:
In this equation, x = 6.

Learner example:
I would like to address the issue [using] a very simple equation of economics: Demand = supply.

equivalent /ɪˈkwɪv.əl.ənt/

ADJECTIVE

equal in amount, value, importance, or meaning

Dictionary example:
The UK's Brit Awards are roughly equivalent to the Oscars.

Learner example:
They go to the same school and I daresay that the same percentage of girls does the Abitur
(equivalent to the English GCE A level).

NOUN [C]

something that has the same value, importance, size, or meaning as something
else
Dictionary example:
She won the equivalent of $5 million.

Learner example:
As well as this I have passed the Cambridge First Certificate exam and another exam in Spain
which is the equivalent of FCE.

209
 erosion /ɪˈrəʊ.ʒən/

Word family:
Nouns: erosion
Verbs: erode

NOUN [U]

PHYSICAL DAMAGE

when soil, stone, etc. is gradually damaged and removed by the sea, rain, or wind
Dictionary example:
soil/coastal erosion

Learner example:
Deforestation changes the climate and natural ability to stop soil erosion also plays a role here.

escape /ɪˈskeɪp/

NOUN

GETTING OUT

[C or U] when someone succeeds in getting out of a place or a dangerous or bad

situation
Dictionary examples:
He made his escape on the back of a motorbike.
an escape route

Learner example:
Being impatient in the jail, Tom planned for his escape.

establish /ɪˈstæb.lɪʃ/

Word family:
Nouns: establishment
Verbs: establish

VERB [T OFTEN PASSIVE]

establish communication/relations, etc.

to start having a relationship or communicating with another person, company,
country, or organization
Dictionary example:
The two countries have only recently established diplomatic relations.

210
 Learner example:
[As] everyone knows, English is called "the universal language", which is used in all the airports of
the world, to establish communication between the airports and the planes that arrive from all
over the world.

establish sb/sth as sth

to put someone or something into a successful and lasting position
Dictionary example:
He quickly established himself as a talented actor.

Learner example:
In fact, after ending his career as a football player, Pele managed to establish himself as a
successful businessman.

establishment /ɪˈstæb.lɪʃ.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: establishment
Verbs: establish

NOUN

ORGANIZATION

[C] FORMAL a business or other organization, or the place where an organization

operates
Dictionary example:
an educational/religious establishment

Learner example:
Even if you do not enjoy novel eating experiences, this establishment is worth a visit due to its
architecture and atmosphere.

STARTING

[U] when an organization, school, business, etc. is started

Dictionary example:
the establishment of a new national bank

Learner example:
That explains the establishment of various fast-food restaurants in our countries, which spread in
a[n] incredibly quick way, and have changed our eating habits in a short time.

211
 ethnic /ˈeθ.nɪk/

ADJECTIVE

relating to a particular race of people

Dictionary example:
ethnic minorities

Learner example:
Over 98% of the population are ethnic Chinese.

evaluate /ɪˈvæl.ju.eɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: evaluation
Verbs: evaluate

VERB [T] FORMAL

to consider or study something carefully and decide how good or bad it is

Dictionary example:
We need time to evaluate the proposal.

Learner example:
The aim of this report is to evaluate and describe how successful our College Film Club has been
so far.

evaluation /ɪˌvæl.juˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: evaluation
Verbs: evaluate

NOUN [C or U]

the act of considering something carefully and deciding how good or bad it is
Dictionary examples:
There was no evaluation of the risks involved.
She carried out an evaluation of their services.

Learner example:
And that is what counts in the evaluation of job candidates.

212
 even /ˈIː.vən/

ADVERB

even so
used to emphasize that something surprising is true despite what you have just
said
Dictionary example:
Car prices have gone down a lot, but even so, we couldn't afford to buy one.

Learner example:
I'm sure many of [these things] happened due to bad luck, but even so, there are some
arrangements that, I bel[ie]ve, can easily be improved.

break even
to not make money but also not lose money
Dictionary example:
The company only managed to break even this year.

Learner example:
Company C does not seem to be doing well. In the year 2000, it just seems to be breaking even.

event /ɪˈvent/

Word family:
Nouns: event
Adjectives: eventful, uneventful

NOUN [C]

in the event of sth FORMAL

if something happens
Dictionary example:
An airbag could save your life in the event of an accident.

Learner example:
In the event of bad weather, it would be wise to plan an alternative to the boat trip, for example a
visit of Buckingham Palace or the Houses of Parliament.

in any event
whatever happens
Dictionary example:
I'm not sure if I'm coming on Friday, but in any event, I'll see you next week.

213
 Learner example:
In any event, it is incumbent upon all of us to carefully plan our travel matters, so as to take
advantage of their several benefits.

ever /ˈev.ər/

ADVERB

better/faster/happier, etc. than ever

better/faster/happier, etc. than at any time before
Dictionary example:
She is running faster than ever.

Learner example:
First of all, I would like to thank you for your invitation to the new opening of Longridge Arts
Centre, the centre looks better than ever and I enjoyed the arts exhibition that is on now.

every /ˈev.ri/

DETERMINER

every now and then

sometimes, but not often
Dictionary example:
We still meet up every now and then.

Learner example:
Each day choose 10 new words and learn them by heart. In a week you will have learned 70 new
words, and in a year 3640, a lot of words. Please, do not forget to repeat them every now and
then.

everything /ˈev.ri.θɪŋ/

PRONOUN

do everything in your power to do sth

to do everything that you are able and allowed to do in order to achieve something
Dictionary example:
I've done everything in my power to help him.

214
 Learner example:
I think of myself as an open-minded and cheerful person and if I get the job I will do everything in
my power to make sure your visitors will have a great time at the theme park.

evolve /ɪˈvɒlv/

Word family:
Nouns: evolution
Verbs: evolve

VERB

to develop or make something develop, usually gradually

Dictionary example:
rapidly evolving technology

Learner example:
This device has evolved from being a large machine into the size of a notebook.

exactly /ɪgˈzækt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: exact
Adverbs: exactly

ADVERB

not exactly easy/new/rich, etc. INFORMAL

used to emphasize that someone or something does not have a particular quality
Dictionary example:
Let's face it, we're not exactly rich, are we?

Learner example:
The Hotel Royal was not exactly luxurious.

exaggerate /ɪgˈzædʒ.ə.reɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: exaggeration
Verbs: exaggerate

VERB [I or T]

to make something seem larger, better, worse, etc. than it really is

Dictionary example:
Don't exaggerate - it didn't cost that much!

215
 Learner example:
Without exaggerating, I would like to mention that she is dependable and trustworthy but also
tactful and supportive.

exaggeration /ɪgˌzædʒ.ərˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: exaggeration
Verbs: exaggerate

NOUN [C or U]

when you describe something as larger, better, worse, etc. than it really is
Dictionary example:
a slight/gross exaggeration of the facts

Learner example:
You wrote about "a sudden downpour of rain" which was a huge exaggeration.

exceed /ɪkˈsiːd/

Word family:
Nouns: excess
Verbs: exceed
Adjectives: excess, excessive

VERB [T]

BE MORE

to be more than a particular number or amount

Dictionary example:
Sales have exceeded $1 million so far this year.

Learner example:
Our administration costs didn't exceed 5%, the other 10% were the pure costs of the
entertainment.

exceed sb's expectations

to be much bigger or better than expected
Dictionary example:
The location of the apartment exceeded our expectations.

Learner example:
They might exceed our expectations with the top-quality cuisine, which is fine as long as it is
value for money; we don't want an unaffordable canteen.

216
 exceed the speed limit
to drive faster than you are allowed to according to the law
Dictionary example:
She was caught exceeding the speed limit.

Learner example:
There are three ground rules you have to follow: stop at stop-signs, don't exceed the speed limit
and don't be in the way of other cars.

exception /ɪkˈsep.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: exception
Adjectives: exceptional
Adverbs: exceptionally

NOUN [C or U]

make an exception
to not treat someone or something according to the usual rules
Dictionary example:
They don't usually take cheques, but they said they'd make an exception in my case.

Learner example:
Unfortunately, they were not flexible enough to make an exception, but on the other hand we
know about the problem now and can avoid it in the future.

exceptionally /ɪkˈsep.ʃən.əl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: exception
Adjectives: exceptional
Adverbs: exceptionally

ADVERB

extremely
Dictionary example:
an exceptionally gifted student

Learner example:
Jacky Chan is an exceptionally hardworking person who won't let anything bring him down and he
has a great sense of humour which is why most people like him.

217
 excess

Word family:
Nouns: excess
Verbs: exceed
Adjectives: excess, excessive

NOUN /ɪkˈses/
more of something than is usual or needed
Dictionary examples:
An excess of oil on the markets has caused prices to fall sharply.
He earns in excess of £60,000 a year.

Learner example:
We should change our behaviour and buy what we need and not in excess, giving the children a
pattern to follow.

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] /ˈek.ses/

more than is usual or allowed
Dictionary example:
We had to pay £100 for excess baggage.

Learner example:
Most students feel that they need to get rid of excess energy at the end of the day and also
convey that they are hampered by the fact that not enough sports facilities are available.

excessive /ɪkˈses.ɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: excess
Verbs: exceed
Adjectives: excess, excessive

ADJECTIVE

more than is necessary or wanted

Dictionary example:
They accused the police of using excessive force.

Learner example:
On the other hand the excessive use of mobile telephones ha[s given] us the excuse to decrease
our face to face contact.

218
 exclude /ɪksˈkluːd/

Word family:
Verbs: exclude
Adjectives: exclusive
Adverbs: exclusively

VERB [T]

KEEP OUT

to not allow someone or something to take part in an activity or enter a place

Dictionary example:
Women are still excluded from the club.

Learner example:
Sometimes the range of sports offered is small and they feel excluded from some sports because
they are not fit enough or the sport is too violent.

NOT INCLUDE

to intentionally not include something

Dictionary example:
The insurance cover excludes particular medical conditions.

Learner example:
Thus, excluding the cost of organising the day, we were able to give 85% of what we earned to the
hospital.

exclusive /ɪkˈskluː.sɪv/

Word family:
Verbs: exclude
Adjectives: exclusive
Adverbs: exclusively

ADJECTIVE

NOT SHARED

not shared with another person, organization, newspaper, etc.

Dictionary example:
an exclusive interview

Learner example:
They don't have a personal life anymore because of this and photographers are following them
everywhere because they want to take an exclusive picture, so they can earn a lot of money with it
when a magazine wants to buy it.

219
 exclusively /ɪksˈkluː.sɪv.li/

Word family:
Verbs: exclude
Adjectives: exclusive
Adverbs: exclusively

ADVERB

only
Dictionary example:
an exclusively female audience

Learner example:
In addition, the reduced price mentioned refers exclusively to UK students, which caused
significant problems.

executive /ɪgˈzek.jə.tɪv/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

relating to making decisions and managing businesses

Dictionary example:
an executive director

Learner example:
So I am now an executive director, I have a job and I know very important people in the Romanian
Government.

NOUN

[C] someone who has an important job in a business

Dictionary example:
a company executive

Learner example:
The main reason why I attended this conference was to learn how international companies select
their employees and how I could improve my qualifications as a finance executive.

exhaust /ɪgˈzɔːst/

Word family:
Nouns: exhaustion
Verbs: exhaust
Adjectives: exhausted, exhausting, exhaustive

220
VERB [T]

to make someone very tired

Dictionary example:
The long journey exhausted the children.

Learner example:
I think that the students were expecting to be given a job that would actually improve their
English and not just exhaust them physically.

NOUN

GAS

the waste gas from a vehicle's engine

Dictionary example:
exhaust fumes

Learner example:
Therefore, it might cause a great deal of pollution because of exhaust fumes.

PIPE

(exhaust pipe) the pipe that waste gas from a vehicle's engine flows through

Dictionary example:
The car needs a new exhaust.

Learner example:
There are traffic jams and it becomes a real hell to drive or simply to walk (because of the noise
and pollution of exhaust pipes).

exhaustive /ɪgˈzɔːs.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: exhaustion
Verbs: exhaust
Adjectives: exhausted, exhausting, exhaustive

ADJECTIVE

complete and including everything

Dictionary example:
an exhaustive account of the incident

Learner example:
I think this report is exhaustive and that we can rely on this institution, should other colleagues be
sent on a similar course there.

221
 exhibit /ɪgˈzɪb.ɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: exhibition, exhibit
Verbs: exhibit

VERB

SHOW OBJECTS

to show objects such as paintings to the public

Dictionary example:
She's exhibiting her roses at the local flower show.

Learner example:
One of the most important pictures of Van Gogh will be exhibited at the London Museum during
the summer holidays.

NOUN [C]

an object such as a painting that is shown to the public

Dictionary example:
a museum exhibit

Learner example:
Apart from that, there are English-speaking tourist guides in museums and historical sites, so
that visitors can enjoy them and understand what the exhibits are.

exist /ɪgˈzɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: existence
Verbs: exist
Adjectives: existing, non-existent

VERB [I]

LIVE

to live in difficult conditions

Dictionary example:
You can't exist without water for more than a week.

Learner example:
It's hard to exist without water, so there were long queues to our local wells.

222
 existence /ɪgˈzɪs.tənts/

Word family:
Nouns: existence
Verbs: exist
Adjectives: existing, non-existent

NOUN

LIFE

[C] a particular way of life

Dictionary example:
We could have a much more peaceful existence in the countryside.

Learner example:
People from all over the world emigrated to the fifth continent and it was believed that they would
have a better existence there.

expectation /ˌek.spekˈteɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: expectation
Verbs: expect
Adjectives: expected, unexpected
Adverbs: unexpectedly

NOUN

exceed sb's expectations

to be much bigger or better than expected
Dictionary example:
The location of the apartment exceeded our expectations.

Learner example:
They might exceed our expectations with the top-quality cuisine, which is fine as long as it is
value for money; we don't want an unaffordable canteen.

expense /ɪkˈspents/

Word family:
Nouns: expense, expenditure, expenses
Adjectives: expensive, inexpensive

223
NOUN [C or U]

at the expense of sth

If you do one thing at the expense of another, doing the first thing harms the
second thing.
Dictionary example:
He spent a lot of time at work, at the expense of his marriage.

Learner example:
Unfortunately one is usually done at the expense of the other.

expenses /ɪkˈspens.ɪz/

Word family:
Nouns: expense, expenditure, expenses
Adjectives: expensive, inexpensive

NOUN [PLURAL]

money that you spend when you are doing your job, that your employer will pay
back to you
Dictionary examples:
travel expenses
They pay us two hundred pounds a week, plus expenses.

Learner example:
They actually helped me a lot with relocation and even reimbursed my travel expenses.

exploration /ˌek.spləˈreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: exploration
Verbs: explore

NOUN [C or U]

a journey to a place to find out about something

Dictionary examples:
Livingstone was the first European to make an exploration of the Zambesi river.
She's always loved travel and exploration.

Learner example:
In the near future robots will take part in space exploration, as well as ocean exploration.

224
 explosion /ɪkˈspləʊ.ʒən/

Word family:
Nouns: explosion, explosive
Verbs: explode
Adjectives: explosive

NOUN [C]

INCREASE

when something increases suddenly by a large amount

Dictionary example:
the recent population explosion

Learner example:
The factors leading to this population explosion in cities of the world might vary from country to
country and city to city, but there is one common demominator - the quest for a better life.

exposure /ɪkˈspəʊ.ʒər/

Word family:
Nouns: exposure
Verbs: expose

NOUN

[U] when someone experiences something or is affected by it because they are in a

particular situation or place
Dictionary examples:
There is a risk of exposure to radiation.
Many young children now have exposure to computers in the home.

Learner example:
Due to exposure to low temperatures throughout the tour I developed pneumonia and had to be
admitted to hospital on arrival [in] London.

exterior /ɪkˈstɪə.riər/

NOUN [C]

the outside part of something or someone

Dictionary example:
The exterior of the house was painted white.

225
 Learner example:
Thus, it is best for the management to improve the look of this building as other buildings in this
area have a better looking exterior than ours.

extinct /ɪkˈstɪŋkt/

Word family:
Nouns: extinction
Adjectives: extinct

ADJECTIVE

If a type of animal is extinct, it does not now exist.

Dictionary example:
These creatures could soon be extinct.

Learner example:
We are destroying the Earth by polluting it and we do not realise [this], and the thing is, we will
not do so until we have made some species become extinct and we have damaged it all.

extinction /ɪkˈstɪŋk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: extinction
Adjectives: extinct

NOUN [U]

when a type of animal no longer exists

Dictionary example:
Many species of animal are threatened with extinction.

Learner example:
I wholeheartedly suggest that it should be returned to nature and to the turtles, as they face
extinction after the loss of their natural home.

extra /ˈek.strə/

NOUN [C]

ACTOR

an actor in a film who does not have a main part and usually plays someone in a
crowd

226
 Dictionary example:
He was an extra in the crowd scene.

Learner example:
A theatre troop at the beginning of a new project is more often than not a flabbergasting rabble of
actors, technicians, extras, back-stage workers and so forth.

extrovert /ˈek.strə.vɜːt/

NOUN [C]

someone who is very confident and likes being with other people
Dictionary example:
She is an extrovert.

Learner example:
She is an extrovert, a sociable person, who loves talking to people and is always ready to
sacrif[i]ce her free time to make them happy.

eye /aɪ/

NOUN [C]

keep an eye out for sb/sth

to watch carefully for someone or something to appear
Dictionary example:
Keep an eye out for the delivery van.

Learner example:
Although individually we try to deliver the best care possible for our individual patients, we do
keep an ear or an eye out for the other members of the team that day.

turn a blind eye (to sth)

to choose to ignore something that you know is wrong or illegal
Dictionary example:
Restaurant staff often took food home, and their boss turned a blind eye.

Learner example:
Nevertheless, we can't turn a blind eye to this reality.

be in the public eye

to be famous and often featured in the media
Dictionary example:
Her new role means that she will be in the public eye.

227
Learner example:
But being famous also means that you are always in the public eye, which is a major drawback.

228
 F

fabric /ˈfæb.rɪk/

NOUN

[C or U] cloth

Dictionary example:
a light/woollen fabric

Learner example:
Do small pieces of coloured fabric really have the might to change how people live their lives?
(1533768; Certificate in Advanced English; Germany; C1 EFFECTIVE OPERATIONAL PROFICIENCY;
2004; German; Pass)Lifestyle-changing fashion Do small pieces of coloured fabric really have the
might to change how people live their lives?

fabulous /ˈfæb.jə.ləs/

ADJECTIVE

extremely good
Dictionary examples:
They've got a fabulous house.
We had an absolutely fabulous holiday.

Learner example:
Everybody admitted that the entertainment was absolutely fabulous.

face /feɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: face
Verbs: face
Adjectives: facial

NOUN

at face value
If you accept something at face value because of the way it first looks or seems,
you do so without thinking carefully about it.

229
 Dictionary examples:
You can't just accept everything you read in the newspapers at face value.
These results should not be taken at face value - careful analysis is required to assess their full
implications.

Learner example:
People are assessed at face value [by] the type of cars they drive.

VERB

face the music

to accept punishment or criticism for something bad that you have done
Dictionary example:
At the end of the day I had to go home and face the music.

Learner example:
Teenagers who live with their parents have to face the music about the long bills their parents
receive monthly!

facilitate /fəˈsɪl.ɪ.teɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: facilities, facility
Verbs: facilitate

VERB [T] FORMAL

to make something possible or easier

Dictionary example:
I will do everything in my power to facilitate the process.

Learner example:
I found that the presentations and talks about CVs and letters of application were really useful,
[but] we should have been divided into smaller groups to facilitate conversation.

faculty /ˈfæk.əl.ti/

NOUN

the English/law/science, etc. faculty

a particular department at a college or university, or the teachers in that
department
Dictionary example:
He works in the law faculty.

230
 Learner example:
I graduated from Warsaw University, where I studied [in] the faculties of applied linguistics and
journalism.

fair /feər/

Word family:
Nouns: fairness
Adjectives: fair, unfair
Adverbs: fairly, unfairly

ADJECTIVE

AVERAGE

not very good but not very bad

Dictionary example:
Her German is very good, but her knowledge of French is only fair.

Learner example:
As for grammar, listening and writing skills, they were only fair.

NOUN [C]

SHOW OF GOODS/SERVICES

an event where people show and sell goods or services relating to a particular
business or hobby
Dictionary example:
a trade fair

Learner example:
Starting on 18th May 2003, the Birmingham NEC hosted the annual British trade fair.

fairness /ˈfeə.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: fairness
Adjectives: fair, unfair
Adverbs: fairly, unfairly

NOUN [U]

when you treat everyone in the same way, so that no one has an advantage
Dictionary example:
He believes in fairness and decency.

231
 Learner example:
I think you have not treated us with fairness and truthfulness and therefor[e] I do think that an
apology in the newspaper would be in order.

fake /feɪk/

ADJECTIVE

not real, but made to look or seem real

Dictionary examples:
fake fur
a fake passport

Learner example:
On the walls there are paintings which are very artistic - one of them is a fake Picasso.

fall /fɔːl/

VERB [I] (fell, fallen)

fall flat
If an event or joke falls flat, it fails to have the effect that you wanted, such as
making people laugh.
Dictionary example:
All the jokes in his speech fell flat.

Learner example:
The cultural visits fell flat [in comparison] to their expectations, although the sightseeing tour of
Willstown was, as the students said, "fascinating".

NOUN [C USUALLY NO PLURAL]

DEFEAT

when a city, government, leader, etc. loses power or control

Dictionary example:
the fall of communism

Learner example:
After the fall of the previous system everything changed.

232
 false /fɒls/

ADJECTIVE

NOT SINCERE

not sincere or expressing real emotions

Dictionary examples:
false promises
I hate the way he smiles at everyone. It's so false.

Learner example:
The actor is really getting on my nerves because he is so selfish and so false.

far /fɑːr/

ADVERB (farther, farthest or further, furthest)

far from sth

certainly not something
Dictionary example:
The situation is far from clear.

Learner example:
The quality of catering was far from ideal as well, as a meal in a hamburger restaurant can hardly
be called a typical English lunch.

far from it INFORMAL

used to tell someone that something is certainly not true

Dictionary example:
He's not handsome - far from it.

Learner example:
The Hotel Royal cannot be considered as being luxury - far from it - i.e. our rooms were dirty and
situated [o]n the 4th floor without a lift.

how far
used to talk about how true something is
Dictionary example:
How far do politicians represent the views of ordinary people?

Learner example:
How far and to what extent would the characteristics we are born with influence our future
development in life?

233
ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

be a far cry from sth

to be very different from something
Dictionary example:
Her luxury mansion is a far cry from the house she grew up in.

Learner example:
The museum was a far cry from what we expected. Not only were the machines really old and
should have been replaced a long time ago, but they were boring as well.

fascinate /ˈfæs.ɪ.neɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: fascination
Verbs: fascinate
Adjectives: fascinated, fascinating

VERB [T]

to interest someone a lot

Dictionary example:
Science has always fascinated me.

Learner example:
What fascinates me about it is that this style of music allows the artist to bring in crazy new ideas
such as African or Indian rhythms.

fascination /ˌfæs.ɪˈneɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: fascination
Verbs: fascinate
Adjectives: fascinated, fascinating

NOUN [U NO PLURAL]

when you find someone or something fascinating

Dictionary example:
Her fascination with fashion started at an early age.

Learner example:
Anyhow, even if you can't grasp the deep meaning behind [the] words, its beautiful rhyme and
r[h]ythm will exert a fascination on you.

234
 fatty /ˈfæt.i/

Word family:
Nouns: fat
Adjectives: fat, fatty

ADJECTIVE

Fatty foods contain a lot of fat.

Dictionary example:
Try to cut down on eating fatty foods.

Learner example:
There is a greater reliance on fast food and fatty foods.

favour /ˈfeɪ.vər/

Word family:
Nouns: favour, favourite
Verbs: favour
Adjectives: favourable, favourite, unfavourable

NOUN

in sb's favour
If something is in your favour, it helps you to win or succeed.
Dictionary example:
Both sides have strong arguments in their favour.

Learner example:
Unfortunately the weather conditions were not in our favour, but the rain only lasted a few
minutes and did not look at all like a downpour.

feasible /ˈfiː.zə.bl
̩/

ADJECTIVE

possible to do
Dictionary examples:
a feasible plan
It may be feasible to clone human beings, but is it ethical?

Learner example:
In the context of Singapore, where land is scarce and [the] widening or building of more roads is
just not feasible, we have no choice but to choose what is best for everyone.

235
 feast /fiːst/

NOUN [C]

a large meal, especially to celebrate something special

Dictionary example:
a wedding feast

Learner example:
Finally, they have a feast with a lot of food and wine.

feed /fiːd/

VERB (fed, fed)

EAT FOOD

[I] If an animal or a baby feeds, it eats.

Dictionary example:
The caterpillars feed on cabbage leaves.

Learner example:
In the same way, animals killed plants and fed on them.

SUPPLY

[T] to supply something such as information to a person or a machine, especially in

a regular or continuous way
Dictionary examples:
We fed them false information about our plans.
Nicola fed the pages into the photocopier.

Learner example:
For heaven's sake, the strike lasted for three weeks not three years. [...] They feed you with lies.

feel /fiːl/

Word family:
Nouns: feeling
Verbs: feel

VERB (felt, felt)

feel compelled to do sth

to feel that you should do something

236
 Dictionary example:
He felt compelled to resign from his job.

Learner example:
As a member of the International Student's Sports Club, I felt compelled to write this article in
answer to the previous article about how today's youth is putting sports and healthy activities
aside.

feeling /ˈfiː.lɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: feeling
Verbs: feel

NOUN

bad/ill feeling
when people are upset or angry with each other
Dictionary example:
I don't want to cause any bad feeling between us.

Learner example:
For those who can't afford to shop, this might cause them to envy and harbo[u]r ill feeling
[towards] those they can see are enjoying and splurging.

feminine /ˈfem.ə.nɪn/

ADJECTIVE

showing qualities that people generally think are typical of women

Dictionary examples:
a feminine voice
feminine beauty

Learner example:
When my grandmother was a young women, it was a must for her to wear a dress or at least a
skirt and a very feminine blouse.

fibre /ˈfaɪ.bər/

NOUN

[U] the substance in plants which cannot be digested and helps food pass through
your body

237
 Dictionary example:
Broccoli is a good source of fibre.

Learner example:
We try to eat less fat and more fibre, like oats, instead of sandwiches with butter and cheese.

fiction /ˈfɪk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: fiction
Adjectives: fictional

NOUN

NOT TRUE

[U OR NO PLURAL] something that is not true or real

Dictionary examples:
Nobody knows whether his statement is fact or fiction.
Everything she had said turned out to be a complete fiction.

Learner example:
With regret I have to admit that [the] lively social programme was a total fiction and the only thing
participants could do was to find and make friend[s] oneself, as I did.

figure /ˈfɪg.ər/

NOUN [C]

AMOUNT

a number that expresses an amount, especially in official documents

Dictionary example:
Government figures show a rise in unemployment.

Learner example:
They do not have any avenues of change until they migrate to cities, which only 15% of villagers
do in Pakistan according to government figures.

PICTURE

(WRITTEN ABBREVIATION fig.) a picture or drawing in a book or document, usually with a

number
Dictionary example:
Look at the graph shown in Figure 2.

Learner example:
Figure 1 demonstrates the use of electricity in England in summer and winter.

238
 fill /fɪl/

VERB

JOB

[T] to give a job or position to someone

Dictionary examples:
I'm sorry, the job/position/post/vacancy has already been filled.
We would prefer to fill the position with a recent graduate.

Learner example:
Suppose if ten people retire from an organization, the vacancies are filled by bringing up the
middle management and their previous positions will be filled be lower management.

filthy /ˈfɪl.θi/

ADJECTIVE

DIRTY

extremely dirty
Dictionary example:
Wash your hands, they're filthy!

Learner example:
Creaking, worn-out beds, dripping taps and filthy rugs have nothing in common with 'luxury'!

OFFENSIVE

rude or offensive
Dictionary examples:
filthy language/jokes
Smoking is a filthy habit.

Learner example:
As far as books are concerned, pornography and filthy language is evident everywhere, to lure
people to buy these books.

finish /ˈfɪn.ɪʃ/

VERB

finish off (sth) or finish (sth) off PHRASAL VERB

to complete the last part of something that you are doing

239
 Dictionary example:
I want to finish off this essay before I go to bed.

Learner example:
I am going to finish off with the sad story about the exam that we didn't get to take.

NOUN [C]

from start to finish

from the beginning of something to its end
Dictionary example:
I enjoyed the film from start to finish.

Learner example:
I found out that the service itself should last at least one and half hour[s] from start to finish.

first /fɜːst/

Word family:
Nouns: first
Adjectives: first
Adverbs: first, firstly

ADVERB

first and foremost

more than anything else
Dictionary example:
In spite of being elected to office, she remains first and foremost a writer.

Learner example:
First and foremost it is my longing to help others with what they cannot do for themselves.

come first
to be the most important person or thing
Dictionary example:
Her career always comes first.

Learner example:
They do not take the time to sit down and enjoy being with their family. The work comes first, and
the family next.

240
 fit /fɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: fitness
Adjectives: fit

VERB (-tt-)

SAME

[I or T] to be the same as or like something

Dictionary example:
She seems to fit the police description.

Learner example:
The ac[c]ommodation I [had] during the trip didn't fit the description in the advertisement and
neither did the restaurants or the cultural activit[ie]s.

SUITABLE

[T] to be suitable for something

Dictionary example:
The punishment should fit the crime.

Learner example:
You ought to put on a formal dress or suit to fit the atmosphere.

ADJECTIVE (fitter, fittest)

SUITABLE

of a good enough quality or suitable type for a particular purpose

Dictionary examples:
Is this water fit to drink?
She's not in a fit state to drive.

Learner example:
It has undergone restoration recently and is now fit to serve as a perfect example of [a] model and
modern British college library.

fix /fɪks/

Word family:
Verbs: fix
Adjectives: fixed

VERB [T]

fix sth up PHRASAL VERB

to arrange a meeting, date, event, etc.

241
 Dictionary example:
Can we fix up a date for the next meeting?

Learner example:
The date of this event should be aranged soon. Perhaps if you tell us when it is more conve[ni]ent
for you, we will fix up the date according to your answer.

flair /fleər/

NOUN

ABILITY

[NO PLURAL] a natural ability to do something well

Dictionary example:
She has a flair for languages.

Learner example:
She's an artist with a flair for promotion.

flat /flæt/

Word family:
Verbs: flatten
Adjectives: flat
Adverbs: flat

ADVERB (flatter, flattest)

fall flat
If an event or joke falls flat, it fails to have the effect that you wanted, such as
making people laugh.
Dictionary example:
All the jokes in his speech fell flat.

Learner example:
The cultural visits fell flat [in comparison] to their expectations, although the sightseeing tour of
Willstown was, as the students said, "fascinating".

flaw /flɔː/

Word family:
Nouns: flaw
Adjectives: flawed, flawless

242
NOUN [C]

a mistake or bad characteristic that stops someone or something from being

perfect
Dictionary example:
There's a flaw in your reasoning.

Learner example:
However, there were some minor flaws which I would like to give my view on.

flee /fliː/

VERB [I or T] (fleeing, fled)

to leave a place quickly because you are in danger or are afraid
Dictionary example:
Police think the suspect has now fled the country.

Learner example:
Of course most people on those boats were fleeing their country for religious or political reasons
but I would have left Europe for the spirit of adventure.

fleet /fliːt/

NOUN [C]

SHIPS

a group of ships, or all of the ships in a country's navy

Dictionary example:
The entire naval fleet was used for the operation.

Learner example:
The Spartans order the people of Athens to destroy their city walls and most of their remaining
fleet.

VEHICLES

a group of vehicles that are owned and controlled by one person or organization
Dictionary example:
a fleet of aircraft/cars

Learner example:
In a simplified scenario one can consider when one has a fleet of cars, some manual and other
automatic, and a pool of drivers who can only drive one type of car.

243
 flow /fləʊ/

Word family:
Nouns: flow
Verbs: flow, overflow

NOUN [NO PLURAL]

MOVEMENT

when something flows in one direction

Dictionary examples:
the flow of a river
the flow of traffic

Learner example:
So, a possible solution is to build more roads and optimally design the roads and their subways,
to make the flow of cars on [the] road quicker.

fly /flaɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: flight
Verbs: fly

VERB (flew, flown)

with flying colours

with a very high score or with great success
Dictionary example:
He passed the entrance exam with flying colours.

Learner example:
I worked intens[ive]ly on the course and I passed with flying colours.

focus /ˈfəʊ.kəs/

NOUN

the focus of sth

the person or thing that is getting most attention in a situation or activity
Dictionary examples:
He is the focus of a police investigation.
In any family, a baby tends to be the focus of attention.

244
 Learner example:
The focus of the human being and society is changing, such that more resources are put into
building roads, controlling traffic and aiming at having the best transportation system as possible,
while giving less attention to the more important areas of a society's well-being such as health
and education.

follow /ˈfɒl.əʊ/

Word family:
Nouns: following, follower
Verbs: follow
Adjectives: following

VERB

BE INTERESTED

[T] to be interested in an event or activity and watch its progress

Dictionary example:
I followed the trial closely.

Learner example:
I was happy to know you follow our national news.

foot /fʊt/ (PLURAL feet)

NOUN [C]

the foot of sth

the bottom of something such as stairs, a hill, a bed, or a page
Dictionary example:
Put the notes at the foot of the page.

Learner example:
Every year, expedition-groups from almost every country me[e]t at the foot of the highest
mountain in the world to conquer it.

set foot in/on sth

to go into a place or onto a piece of land
Dictionary example:
He told me never to set foot in his house again.

Learner example:
I dream of being the first one to set foot on a white sandy beach, to admire a new kind of
vegetation: cranberry bushes, sweet potatoes, wild turkeys, a different climate; how scary and
exciting at the same time!

245
 footstep /ˈfʊt.step/

NOUN

[C] the sound of a foot hitting the ground when someone walks

Dictionary example:
I heard footsteps behind me and quickly turned round.

Learner example:
In Stockholm people [walk] - the streets are [thi]ck with people and you can even hear their
footsteps!

for /fɔːr/

PREPOSITION

RESPONSIBILITY

used to say whose responsibility something is

Dictionary example:
I can't tell you whether you should go or not - that's for you to decide.

Learner example:
It is for you to decide whet[h]er my colleagues should take part in this kind of course or not, but
all in all I would like to recommend this course.

COMPARE

when compared to a particular fact

Dictionary example:
She's quite tall for her age.

Learner example:
She spends all day indoors "stuffing" her craving for knowledge with books quite hard for her age.

for good
forever
Dictionary example:
When he was 20, he left home for good.

Learner example:
He was renting this property previously, but he went back to Sri Lanka for good.

for life
for the whole of someone's life
Dictionary example:
I will have to take this medicine for life.

246
 Learner example:
A wedding opens a new life when the two parties commit to each other for life.

for long
for a long time
Dictionary example:
Have you been waiting for long?

Learner example:
There're departures every half an hour to the city centre, so you won't have to wait for long.

for the most part

mostly or usually
Dictionary example:
I enjoyed it for the most part.

Learner example:
First of all, for the most part, people have to use computers in their jobs.

for the time being

for now but not permanently
Dictionary examples:
I'm living with my parents for the time being.
Leave the ironing for the time being - I'll do it later.

Learner example:
I think that is all for the time being.

for a start
used when you are giving the first in a list of reasons or things
Dictionary example:
I won't be going - I've got too much homework for a start.

Learner example:
So this creates an awareness of the obligation to look after oneself for a start.

foremost /ˈfɔː.məʊst/

ADVERB

first and foremost

more than anything else
Dictionary example:
In spite of being elected to office, she remains first and foremost a writer.

247
 Learner example:
First and foremost it is my longing to help others with what they cannot do for themselves.

foresee /fɔːˈsiː/

Word family:
Verbs: foresee
Adjectives: foreseeable, unforeseen

VERB [T] (foreseeing, foresaw, foreseen)

to expect a future situation or event
Dictionary example:
I don't foresee any problems in the future.

Learner example:
Our duty is to foresee any complication before it appears.

form /fɔːm/

Word family:
Nouns: form, formation, transformation
Verbs: form, transform

NOUN [C]

in the form of sth

the particular way in which something appears or exists
Dictionary examples:
The novel is written in the form of a series of letters.
The medicine comes in the form of a liquid or pills.

Learner example:
For all this, I can only say that I want my money back immediately, or [some] compensation in the
form of a real trip to a real country.

formal /ˈfɔː.məl/

Word family:
Adjectives: formal, informal
Adverbs: formally, informally

248
ADJECTIVE

STUDY

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] Formal education, training, etc. happens through studying
rather than working in a job.
Dictionary example:
Tom had little formal schooling.

Learner example:
I never had any formal training in computers but I know how to operate the system, to make files
and to use [the] internet.

OFFICIAL

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] public or official

Dictionary example:
a formal announcement/apology

Learner example:
For that reason, I have to ask you for a formal apology in print, where you could give the correct
version of events and also change the bad image you gave to the readers of the people of my
organisation.

formally /ˈfɔː.məl.i/

Word family:
Adjectives: formal, informal
Adverbs: formally, informally

ADVERB

OFFICIALLY

officially
Dictionary example:
The deal will be formally announced on Tuesday.

Learner example:
First of all I'll tell you a little about the ceremony. It's usually held in a church, (in our case, a
Catholic one as we are Catholics); the priest reads some parts of the Bible to the bridegroom
(that's usually chosen before with the couple); then they exchange rings and they'll be formally
married.

POLITELY

in a polite way
Dictionary example:
They shook hands formally.

249
 Learner example:
On New Year's Day all members in a family got together (members who lived separately came
home), greeted [each other] more formally than usual, and ate the special food.

format /ˈfɔː.mæt/

NOUN [C]

the way something is designed, arranged, or produced

Dictionary example:
This year's event will have a new format.

Learner example:
There is one particular format which has been consistently on air almost without any adjustments:
the soap opera.

formula /ˈfɔː.mjə.lə/

NOUN [C] (PLURAL formulas, formulae)

METHOD

a plan or method that is used to achieve something

Dictionary example:
There's no magic formula for success.

Learner example:
Every member of his company works as a group, rather than an individual, which is the main
formula for his company's success.

RULE

a set of letters, numbers, or symbols that are used to express a mathematical or

scientific rule
Dictionary example:
a mathematical formula

Learner example:
[The] teacher will play a role [in] explain[ing] new terminology to the trainees and give a clue [as
to] how different scientific equations and formulae are being used.

250
 forthcoming /ˈfɔːθˌkʌm.ɪŋ/

ADJECTIVE

OFFERED

[NEVER BEFORE NOUN] If money or help is forthcoming, it is offered or given.

Dictionary example:
He insisted that no more money would be forthcoming.

Learner example:
For all these reasons, I'm sure you realise that I deserve at the very minimum to be refunded all
the money I spent on the trip and unless this is forthcoming, I shall take the matter a step further.

forward /ˈfɔː.wəd/

ADVERB (ALSO forwards)

PROGRESS

used to say that something is making progress

Dictionary example:
This is a big step forward for democracy.

Learner example:
For us, this would be a big step forward and a perfect motivation for the accountants.

foul /faʊl/

ADJECTIVE

UNPLEASANT

very dirty, or with an unpleasant smell

Dictionary example:
the foul smell of rotting fish

Learner example:
Each day early in the morning, a group of twenty persons picked [up] the rubbish and when we
went out to go to work, the streets were as clean as [if] there was no strike. Anyway we had to do
that if we wanted to "survive" in this foul atmosphere.

foul language
very rude and offensive words

251
 Dictionary example:
There was a lot of foul language in the movie.

Learner example:
It is the responsibility of the parents not to fight or use any foul language in front of the kids, as
they may learn and use it in front of others.

foundation /faʊnˈdeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: foundation, founder
Verbs: found

NOUN

START

[U] when an organization, state, or country is established

Dictionary example:
the foundation of a new state

Learner example:
Moreover the foundation of schools and stadiums will benefit young people.

ORGANIZATION

[C] an organization that gives money for a particular purpose

Dictionary example:
the Mental Health Foundation

Learner example:
A memorable event I recently attended [was] the Barbie Ball which was held at the National History
Museum in London on 1st December, to benefit the Elton John Aids Foundation.

free /friː/

Word family:
Nouns: freedom
Adjectives: free
Adverbs: freely

ADJECTIVE

free from/of sth

not containing or having anything harmful or unpleasant
Dictionary example:
a life free from pain

252
 Learner example:
We can start to grow new plants so that our environment looks fresh and enchanting and free
from pesticides and sicknesses as well.

fresh /freʃ/

ADJECTIVE

NOT TIRED

having a lot of energy and not feeling tired

Dictionary example:
We got up the next day feeling fresh and relaxed.

Learner example:
Before the test, you should have your breakfast with a cup of coffee to make yourself feel fresh.

friction /ˈfrɪk.ʃən/

NOUN [U]

disagreement or dislike caused by people having different opinions

Dictionary example:
There’s less friction in relationships when you use teamwork.

Learner example:
Money spen[t] on shopping can also be the cause of friction or arguments between husbands and
wives.

fright /fraɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: fright
Verbs: frighten
Adjectives: frightened, frightening

NOUN [U NO PLURAL]

a sudden feeling of shock and fear

Dictionary examples:
That dog gave me a terrible fright.
She screamed in fright when she saw him.

253
 Learner example:
She suddenly realised she was being followed, so, speechless with fright, began to stride along
back to her car.

from /frɒm/

PREPOSITION

from then/that day, etc. on

starting then, that day, etc. and continuing into the future
Dictionary examples:
From then on, he began to keep all her letters and cards.
They were good friends from that day on.

Learner example:
It happened like a miracle, suddenly I could speak quite well and I had lots of friends and from
then on, I had a very nice time and I lived the best experience I've ever live[d] in my short life.

from start to finish

from the beginning of something to its end
Dictionary example:
I enjoyed the film from start to finish.

Learner example:
I found out that the service itself should last at least one and half hour[s] from start to finish.

from scratch
If you do something from scratch, you do it from the beginning.
Dictionary example:
We didn't have any furniture of our own so we had to start from scratch.

Learner example:
That means you don't have to start from scratch with your teacher.

fruitful /ˈfruːt.fəl/

Word family:
Nouns: fruit
Adjectives: fruitful

ADJECTIVE

producing good or useful results

Dictionary example:
We had a very fruitful discussion.

254
 Learner example:
We had a fruitful talk about his previous achievements in his first job, after which he found out
how creative he was.

frustrated /frʌsˈtreɪ.tɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: frustration
Adjectives: frustrated, frustrating

ADJECTIVE

annoyed because things are not happening in the way that you want, or in the way
that they should
Dictionary examples:
I'm very frustrated at/with my lack of progress.
Fans are frustrated by their lack of success this season.

Learner example:
What, however, made us very frustrated was that there was no opportunity for us to take an exam
at the end of this month.

frustrating /frʌsˈtreɪ.tɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: frustration
Adjectives: frustrated, frustrating

ADJECTIVE

making you feel frustrated

Dictionary examples:
a frustrating situation
It's frustrating to see money going to waste like that.

Learner example:
When you are working and you are in a hurry to get to your work place on time, waiting for the
bus becomes quite annoying and frustrating.

fulfil /fʊlˈfɪl/

Word family:
Nouns: fulfilment
Verbs: fulfil
Adjectives: fulfilling

255
VERB (fulfilling, fulfilled)

fulfil a duty/promise/responsibility, etc.

to do something that you have promised to do or that you are expected to do
Dictionary example:
He has failed to fulfil his duties as a father.

Learner example:
Therefore, she fulfils her duties carefully and precisely.

fulfil an ambition/dream/goal, etc.

to do something that you really wanted to do
Dictionary example:
She has finally fulfilled her childhood ambition to swim with dolphins.

Learner example:
For numerous football fans who seek to fulfil their ambitions in the computer world I would
recommend The Cup of Life.

fulfil a function/need/role, etc.

to do something that is necessary or useful
Dictionary example:
You seem to fulfil a very useful role in the organization.

Learner example:
The reason is obviously not a lack of intelligence but mainly duties with educating children,
housework and fulfilling the conservative role of women.

fulfil criteria/requirements/qualifications, etc.

to have all the qualities that are wanted or needed for something
Dictionary example:
You have to fulfil certain requirements to qualify for the competition.

Learner example:
It fulfils all the criteria expressed above, and has a swimming pool too.

fumes /fjuːmz/

NOUN [PLURAL]

strong, unpleasant, and often dangerous gas or smoke

Dictionary example:
car exhaust fumes

Learner example:
Cars emit fumes that are very dangerous.

256
 function /ˈfʌŋk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: function
Adjectives: functional

NOUN [C]

EVENT

a large, formal party or ceremony

Dictionary example:
a charity function

Learner example:
Almost 600 people gathered at my main wedding function.

fund /fʌnd/

Word family:
Nouns: fund, funding
Verbs: fund

NOUN

[C] an amount of money collected, saved, or provided for a purpose

Dictionary example:
a pension fund

Learner example:
A fund in her name has been made for handicapped children and the amount in this fund is
growing fast.

funds
[PLURAL] money needed or available to spend on something

Dictionary example:
The charity closed down due to lack of funds.

Learner example:
Due to the limited funds available to the commit[t]ee responsible for the festivities, the location
was not in accordance with the expectations.

VERB [T]

to provide the money to pay for an event, activity or organization

Dictionary examples:
The company has agreed to fund my trip to Australia.
The new college is being privately funded.

257
 Learner example:
We'd like to suggest, as an alternative, that by opening the Centre to [the] public when the Centre
is less crowded, you'll be able to fund the changes.

funding /ˈfʌnd.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: fund, funding
Verbs: fund

NOUN [U]

money given by a government or organization for an event or activity

Dictionary example:
The company received state funding for the project.

Learner example:
I must admit that this is an important community project that has long been neglected due to lack
of Council funding.

furnished /ˈfɜː.nɪʃt/

ADJECTIVE

If a room or building is furnished, there is furniture in it.

Dictionary example:
He's renting a fully furnished apartment by the river.

Learner example:
The so called Student Study Centre was quite noisy and poorly furnished.

further /ˈfɜː.ðər/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

a further 10/100, etc.

additional
Dictionary example:
A further 20 stores will be opening in Europe next year.

Learner example:
As a matter of fact, only 5% of the total income was taken to pay for administration costs, and a
further 10% to pay for the cost of entertainment.

258
 fuss /fʌs/

Word family:
Nouns: fuss
Adjectives: fussy

NOUN [U NO PLURAL]

when people become excited, annoyed, or anxious about something, especially

something unimportant
Dictionary examples:
What's all the fuss about?
She made such a fuss when Richard spilt a drop of coffee on her blouse!
It's all a fuss about nothing.
We tried to arrange a ceremony with as little fuss as possible.

Learner example:
The internet contains more information than any library, more easily access[i]ble and without the
fuss of library cards or the risk of losing books.

259
 G

gadget /ˈgædʒ.ɪt/

NOUN [C]

a small piece of equipment that does a particular job, especially a new type
Dictionary example:
a kitchen gadget

Learner example:
I believe that robots and hi-tech gadgets will definitely invade our private and profes[s]ional life.

gain /geɪn/

NOUN [C or U]

INCREASE

an increase in something such as size, weight, or amount

Dictionary example:
Side effects of the drugs may include tiredness, headaches or weight gain.

Learner example:
Consumption of pre-cooked meals, fast food, [and] canned food not only results in weight gain
but also cause[s] health problems.

garden /ˈgɑː.dən/

Word family:
Nouns: garden, gardener, gardening

NOUN [C]

gardens
a park or large public area where plants and flowers are grown
Dictionary example:
We visited the botanic gardens.

260
 Learner example:
After that we are going to see the "Mary's gardens", where the photo session is going to take
place, and at 13.00 we will have lunch at the main restaurant.

garment /ˈgɑː.mənt/

NOUN [C] FORMAL

a piece of clothing
Dictionary example:
They were luxurious garments, made of silk and velvet.

Learner example:
Their garments consisted of four layers of robes.

gather /ˈgæð.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: gathering
Verbs: gather

VERB

THINK

[T] to think something is true because you have heard or seen information about it

Dictionary examples:
From what I can gather, they haven't sold their house yet.
As far as I can gather, there will only be light refreshments available.

Learner example:
From a modest survey I have made among citizens of different age groups and occupations, I can
gather that both proposals have advantages and disadvantages.

gather speed/strength/support, etc.

to increase in speed/strength/support, etc.
Dictionary example:
Finally, the train began to gather speed, and we were on our way.

Learner example:
The use of railways was a bit fluctuating until around 1995, but gathered momentum after that.

261
 gathering /ˈgæð.ə.rɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: gathering
Verbs: gather

NOUN [C]

a party or a meeting when many people get together as a group

Dictionary example:
a family gathering

Learner example:
Parks, for example, can't be used for [a] barbeque or family gathering in the winter time.

gene /dʒiːn/

Word family:
Nouns: genetics, gene
Adjectives: genetic

NOUN [C]

a part of a cell that is passed on from a parent to a child and that controls
particular characteristics
Dictionary example:
Scientists have discovered the gene responsible for causing this disease.

Learner example:
I think it would be reasonable to include capsules with human genes and the genetic material of
endangered species.

generalization /ˌdʒen.ər.əl.aɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [C or U] (ALSO UK generalisation)

when someone says something very basic that is often true but not always true
Dictionary example:
It's a sweeping generalization to say that girls read more than boys.

Learner example:
As the organizer of the International Student's Sports Club, I feel inclined to report from [my] own
experience that such a generalisation is not appropriate.

262
 generalize /ˈdʒen.ər.əl.aɪz/

VERB [I] (ALSO UK generalise)

to say something very basic that is often true but not always true
Dictionary example:
You can't generalize about a continent as varied as Europe.

Learner example:
Anyway, even though it's hard to generalise, it seems clear that people don't want to work, and
want to enjoy themselves without working.

generous /ˈdʒen.ər.əs/

Word family:
Nouns: generosity
Adjectives: generous
Adverbs: generously

ADJECTIVE

LARGE

larger than usual or than expected

Dictionary examples:
a generous discount for students
a generous portion

Learner example:
To sum up, I must correct the conclusion in your article, as the event did come up to the
organisers' expectations, [rais]ing a generous amount of money to donate to the hospital.

genetic /dʒəˈnet.ɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: genetics, gene
Adjectives: genetic

ADJECTIVE

relating to genes
Dictionary examples:
a rare genetic disorder
genetic research

263
 Learner example:
Mendel thought that basically it is the genetic material which is responsible for the future
development of a child.

genetically modified /dʒəˌnet.ɪ.kliˈmɒd.ɪˌfaɪd/

ADJECTIVE

having had some of the genes changed by a scientific process

Dictionary example:
They are opposed to genetically modified food.

Learner example:
Despite the fact that the European Union prohibited genetically modified products in its countries,
we are still using pesticides, causing pollution and food poisoning.

genius /ˈdʒiː.ni.əs/

NOUN

PERSON

[C] someone who is extremely intelligent or extremely good at doing something

Dictionary example:
Einstein was a genius.

Learner example:
And what about Mozart - poor little genius!

gentle /ˈdʒen.tl
̩/

Word family:
Adjectives: gentle
Adverbs: gently

ADJECTIVE

SLOPE

A gentle slope or climb is not steep.

Dictionary example:
It was a fairly gentle climb to the summit.

264
 Learner example:
THE TOUR Trained guides lead people across gentle slopes towards thick woods displaying a wide
variety of birds and animal life.

genuine /ˈdʒen.ju.ɪn/

Word family:
Adjectives: genuine
Adverbs: genuinely

ADJECTIVE

SINCERE

If a person or their feelings are genuine, they are sincere and honest.
Dictionary example:
They showed genuine sympathy for our situation.

Learner example:
On the other hand, it is well known in environmental management that strategies that work via
[the] people's purse are often the only way to motivate people who have little genuine interest in
environmental problems (or just too many other concerns).

geology /dʒiˈɒl.ə.dʒi/

NOUN [U]

the study of rocks and soil and the physical structure of the Earth
Dictionary example:
a book about geology

Learner example:
I have graduated from school and I am now studying geology at the University of Greece.

germ /dʒɜːm/

NOUN

DISEASE

a very small living thing that causes disease

Dictionary example:
Wash your hands before cooking so that you don't spread germs.

265
 Learner example:
I am more careful with cleaning up and taking care of my baby. It was amazing the way they spoke
about germs and dust.

gerund /ˈdʒer.ənd/

NOUN [C]

A gerund is a noun made from the form of a verb that ends with -ing, for example
'fishing' in 'John loves fishing.'
Dictionary example:
We learned about gerunds today.

gesture /ˈdʒes.tʃər/

NOUN [C]

MOVEMENT

a movement you make with your hand, arm, or head to express what you are
thinking or feeling
Dictionary example:
He made a rude gesture at the crowd.

Learner example:
Review - The Body Speaks [...] In the second part, you are taught how to read the gestures, voice,
[and] hesitations, and analyse them.

ACTION

something you do to show people how you feel about a person or situation
Dictionary example:
It would be a nice gesture to invite her to dinner.

Learner example:
Dear Sir, I am the secretary of the Student Committee in Bringtown College and I am writing to
thank you for your kind gesture [in] inviting me to the opening of the new Arts Centre.

get /get/

VERB (getting, got, got)

get a grip (on yourself)

to make an effort to control your emotions and behave more calmly

266
 Dictionary example:
Stop panicking and get a grip on yourself!

Learner example:
The best thing to do was to talk to people who were not doing the test rather than building up my
anxiety. However, I did not do this and it almost resulted in a disaster, but I got a grip on myself
and just barely passed.

get on sb's nerves

to annoy someone, especially by doing something again and again
Dictionary example:
Please stop making that noise! It really gets on my nerves.

Learner example:
My neighbour is always quarrel[l]ing with his wife. It['s] getting on my nerves!

get rid of sb
to make someone leave
Dictionary example:
She was useless at her job so we had to get rid of her.

Learner example:
Improving your English on your own (or a self-guide [on] how to get rid of your English teacher!)

get sth straight

to make sure that you completely understand a situation
Dictionary example:
Let me get this straight - am I paying for this?

Learner example:
Next time you should try to get your facts straight.

giant /ˈdʒaɪ.ənt/

NOUN [C]

IMAGINARY MAN

an imaginary man who is much bigger and stronger than ordinary men
Dictionary example:
The story is about a friendly giant.

Learner example:
People have always seen him as a "big friendly giant", always ready to help those who are in need.

267
 gift /gɪft/

NOUN [C]

ABILITY

a natural ability or skill

Dictionary example:
She has a gift for design.

Learner example:
He understands the thought processes of children quite well, and has a gift for making difficult
concepts understandable to youngsters, which obviously means he would be a very good
supervisor.

gifted /ˈgɪf.tɪd/

ADJECTIVE

A gifted person has a natural ability or is extremely intelligent.

Dictionary examples:
a gifted athlete
a school for gifted children

Learner example:
Roger Federer is a young and extremely gifted tennis player.

give /gɪv/

VERB [T] (gave, given)

give sth a miss

to not do an activity
Dictionary example:
I think I'll give aerobics a miss this evening.

Learner example:
For this reason, I don't encourage you to buy the Spanish version of these CDs. I think you should
give it a miss. Kind regards

give way
to stop in order to allow other vehicles to go past before you drive onto a bigger
road

268
 Dictionary example:
You must give way at this junction.

Learner example:
Of course, you have to remember to give way to the pedestrians, to respect the signs and to push
on the brake when you see a red light.

give sb your word

to promise someone something
Dictionary example:
Paolo gave me his word that he wouldn't tell anyone.

Learner example:
I give you my word that it will never happen again.

glad /glæd/ (gladder, gladdest)

ADJECTIVE [NEVER BEFORE NOUN]

be glad of sth FORMAL

to be grateful for something

Dictionary example:
I was glad of a few days off before going back to work.

Learner example:
We are glad of the changes [at] the Sports Centre even if the changes do not solve all [the]
problems.

glamour /ˈglæm.ər/

NOUN [U]

the quality of being attractive, exciting and special

Dictionary example:
the glamour of Hollywood

Learner example:
The red carpet, the glamour, the glitter, the fame are things we all dream about at one point or
another [in] our lives.

269
 glance /glɑːnts/

NOUN [C]

at a glance
If you see something at a glance, you see it very quickly or immediately.
Dictionary example:
He could tell at a glance that something was wrong.

Learner example:
You could tell at a glance that Peter was a loner.

glimpse /glɪmps/

NOUN [C]

when you see something or someone for a very short time

Dictionary example:
He caught/got a glimpse of her as she got into the car.

Learner example:
If you go to Canada, like I did, you will enjoy great camping in the Rockies and might even catch a
glimpse of the famous bears.

globalization (ALSO UK globalisation) /ˌgləʊ.bəl.aɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: globalization, globe
Adjectives: global
Adverbs: globally

NOUN [U]

the process by which businesses operate in many different countries and the
culture of different countries becomes more similar
Dictionary examples:
the globalization of big brands
the globalisation of fashion

Learner example:
Thanks to globalisation, fast food has arrived [in] Argentina, as almost everywhere in the world.

270
 glory /ˈglɔː.ri/

NOUN [U]

PRAISE

when people praise and respect you for achieving something important
Dictionary example:
It was my idea, but she got all the glory.

Learner example:
This point of view states that it is more fulfilling for a single person to achieve a goal on [their]
own, without having to share the glory with other people and that by doing it alone, one really
feels that [one] has achieved something.

QUALITY

the quality of being very impressive or beautiful

Dictionary example:
The castle has been restored to its former glory.

Learner example:
Two years ago, the state, helped by the community of the island, gave birth to an ambitious plan
to restore this beach to its former glory.

go /gəʊ/

VERB (going, went, gone)

go hand in hand
If two things go hand in hand, they exist together and are connected with each
other.
Dictionary example:
Prosperity goes hand in hand with investment.

Learner example:
Traffic and pollution go hand in hand.

keep sb going
to provide what someone needs for a short period of time
Dictionary example:
Dinner is at eight, but I had an apple to keep me going.

Learner example:
Because of health concerns, advertisements lately show the people in Holland how important it is
to have a good breakfast and that it will keep you going the whole day.

271
 go from strength to strength
to continue to become more successful
Dictionary example:
The business is going from strength to strength.

Learner example:
To sum up, I believe that if the suggestions outlined above are put into action our magazine will
go from strength to strength.

good /gʊd/

Word family:
Nouns: good, goodness
Adjectives: good

ADJECTIVE (better, best)

LARGE

used to emphasize the number, amount, quality, etc. of something

Dictionary example:
There's a good chance he'll pass the exam.

Learner example:
Your children have a good chance of getting a better education.

be good company
to be a pleasant or interesting person to spend time with
Dictionary example:
Ann and Charles are always good company.

Learner example:
He is a bit narrow-minded and at first he'll drive you crazy, but once you get to know him he'll be
good company.

a good deal
an agreement, arrangement, or situation that benefits you
Dictionary example:
I think we got a really good deal on our new car.

Learner example:
The possibility [of] get[ting] the needed staff from our own departments is absolutely a good deal
for the company.

NOUN [U]

for good
forever

272
 Dictionary example:
When he was 20, he left home for good.

Learner example:
He was renting this property previously, but he went back to Sri Lanka for good.

grab /græb/

VERB (-bb-)

grab the opportunity/chance

to take an opportunity quickly and with enthusiasm
Dictionary examples:
I'd grab the opportunity to travel.
If you get the chance to meet her, you should grab it.

Learner example:
I do admit that I could be more sociable and could grab the opportunity and meet many of my
neighbours.

grab sb's attention INFORMAL

to attract someone's attention

Dictionary example:
The advertisement is designed to grab people's attention.

Learner example:
We have to find the books that best grab the reader's attention.

grace /greɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: grace
Verbs: grace
Adjectives: graceful

NOUN [U]

MOVEMENT

the quality of moving in a smooth, relaxed, and attractive way

Dictionary example:
She moved with grace and elegance.

Learner example:
As with the sport I mentioned before, it also has the grace and elegance of a dancer and the
technique, of course, of a skater.

273
 graceful /ˈgreɪs.fəl/

Word family:
Nouns: grace
Verbs: grace
Adjectives: graceful

ADJECTIVE

MOVEMENT/SHAPE

moving in a smooth, relaxed, and attractive way, or having a smooth, attractive

shape
Dictionary examples:
graceful movements
a graceful neck

Learner example:
One of the reasons for its popularity is that Hebe was a famous singer years ago, so her fans are
the audience of her show. She is graceful, talented, impartial and spontaneous.

grade /greɪd/

VERB

LEVEL

to separate people or things into different levels of quality, size, importance, etc.
Dictionary example:
The fruit is washed and then graded by size.

Learner example:
Our members graded everything on a scale from 1 to 5, with 1 being very poor, and 5 being
excellent.

grand /grænd/

ADJECTIVE

very large and special

Dictionary examples:
a grand hotel
the Grand Canal

Learner example:
Do you want to live in a grand mansion, an expensive flat or even a castle?

274
 grasp /grɑːsp/

VERB [T]

HOLD

to take hold of something or someone firmly

Dictionary example:
He grasped my hand enthusiastically.

Learner example:
It would take my heart away to be able to grasp his wrinkled hand and give him a kiss on the
cheek of his crimson face, as I would always do when visiting him.

UNDERSTAND

to understand something
Dictionary example:
I find these mathematical problems difficult to grasp.

Learner example:
Children born into wealth cannot grasp the importance of money, and when they finally leave the
shelter of their parents' home, they are completely unable to restrict their spending and save
money.

greed /griːd/

Word family:
Nouns: greed
Adjectives: greedy

NOUN [U]

when you want a lot more food, money, etc., than you need
Dictionary example:
We were shocked by their greed.

Learner example:
I hate to accept that greed and ambition are the trademarks of our society, but it seems clear to
me now.

275
 grey /greɪ/

ADJECTIVE

BORING

not interesting or attractive

Dictionary example:
Life was grey and tedious.

Learner example:
If you join one of [the] Excel Academy language courses it will not be for the food- it was very
grey and dull.

grill /grɪl/

Word family:
Nouns: grill
Adjectives: grilled

NOUN [C]

OVER FIRE

a flat, metal structure used to cook food over a fire

Dictionary example:
He placed a grill over the coals.

Learner example:
First you have to light the fire, then you have to put a grill above it and finally you put the meat on
the grill, but it is not so easy as it looks, because you have to know when the meat is done and
you have to choose the right meat.

grip /grɪp/

Word family:
Nouns: grip
Verbs: grip
Adjectives: gripping

NOUN [NO PLURAL]

get a grip (on yourself)

to make an effort to control your emotions and behave more calmly
Dictionary example:
Stop panicking and get a grip on yourself!

276
 Learner example:
The best thing to do was to talk to people who were not doing the test rather than building up my
anxiety. However, I did not do this and it almost resulted in a disaster, but I got a grip on myself
and just barely passed.

gripping /ˈgrɪp.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: grip
Verbs: grip
Adjectives: gripping

ADJECTIVE

If something is gripping, it is so interesting that it holds your attention completely.

Dictionary example:
a gripping story

Learner example:
'I know why the caged bird sings' is the most gripping read I have ever read.

gross /grəʊs/

ADJECTIVE

TOTAL

A gross amount of money has not had taxes or other costs taken from it.
Dictionary example:
gross earnings/profit

Learner example:
Considering that our business is booming, we suggest invest[ing] a certain amount of money in
the above-mentioned technical devices in order to achieve the financial target, which is to
increase our gross profit by 10%.

SERIOUS

very serious or unacceptable

Dictionary example:
gross misconduct

Learner example:
Secondly, in the second paragraph, two gross mistakes were made.

277
 ground /graʊnd/

NOUN

gain/lose ground
to become more/less popular and accepted
Dictionary example:
The idea is gradually gaining ground.

Learner example:
Lately, Italian food is gaining ground in Slovenia.

grounds /graʊndz/

NOUN [PLURAL]

on the grounds of/that

because of a particular reason
Dictionary examples:
You cannot discriminate on the grounds of religion.
I refused on the grounds that it was too risky.

Learner example:
I am convinced that it is better than Southside College on the grounds that a great mass of
students are satisfied.

group /gruːp/

VERB [T]

to form a group or put people or things into a group or groups

Dictionary example:
The children are grouped according to their ability.

Learner example:
I would like to suggest that we should be grouped according to the level of our English
proficienc[y] on the first day of the semester.

278
 grumpy /ˈgrʌm.pi/

ADJECTIVE

easily annoyed and often complaining

Dictionary example:
a grumpy old man

Learner example:
Secondly, our coach driver was a grumpy, unpleasant man who was not even polite enough to
answer our questions.

guideline /ˈgaɪd.laɪn/

NOUN [C USUALLY PLURAL]

advice about how to do something

Dictionary examples:
government guidelines
The EU has issued guidelines on appropriate levels of pay.

Learner example:
To avoid being injured, you must follow all the guidelines provided by your employer.

279
 H

habitat /ˈhæb.ɪ.tæt/

NOUN [C]

the natural environment of an animal or plant

Dictionary example:
We want to see lions in their natural habitat.

Learner example:
These snakes and wild cats are able to live in the wild, as the forests in Denmark are like their
natural habitat.

hand /hænd/

Word family:
Nouns: hand, handful

NOUN [C]

go hand in hand
If two things go hand in hand, they exist together and are connected with each
other.
Dictionary example:
Prosperity goes hand in hand with investment.

Learner example:
Traffic and pollution go hand in hand.

at hand
near in time or space
Dictionary example:
Teachers are always close at hand to give help to any child who needs it.

Learner example:
I haven't had any lectures in English, but now and then there are lectures in English at the
University so you need to understand the spoken language with no dictionary at hand.

be in sb's hands
to be in someone's control or care

280
 Dictionary example:
The matter is now in the hands of my solicitor.

Learner example:
If we [do] not hear from you within 10 days we shall be obliged to put the matter in the hands of
our solicitors which is not what we desire.

happen /ˈhæp.ən/

VERB [I]

happen to do sth
to do something by chance
Dictionary examples:
If you happen to see Peter, say "hi" for me.
You don't happen to know her phone number, do you?

Learner example:
I am certainly more confident and can understand whatever I happen to read in English, which is
of course of the utmost importance for my work in this company.

as it happens
something that you say in order to introduce a surprising fact
Dictionary example:
As it happens, her birthday is the day after mine.

Learner example:
As it happens, I am currently looking for a computer course for myself and I would like to join one
of your courses.

happily /ˈhæp.ə.li/

Word family:
Nouns: happiness, unhappiness
Adjectives: happy, unhappy
Adverbs: happily

ADVERB

LUCKY

having a good or lucky result

Dictionary example:
Happily, the operation was a complete success.

281
 Learner example:
Happily, I had met a friend who could take me to school!

harassment /ˈhær.əs.mənt/

NOUN [U]

behaviour that annoys or upsets someone

Dictionary example:
sexual harassment

Learner example:
However, they may be underpaid in comparison to men carrying out the same tasks, are seldom
promoted - although they may be better qualified - and sometimes have to endure sexual
harassment by their bosses.

hard /hɑːd/

ADJECTIVE

UNPLEASANT

full of problems and difficult to deal with

Dictionary examples:
My grandparents had a very hard life.
The past few months must've been really hard for you.

Learner example:
It was a really hard time for all of us, but it passed and, I hope, will never come again.

hardship /ˈhɑːd.ʃɪp/

NOUN [C or U]

a problem or situation that makes you suffer a lot, especially because you are very
poor
Dictionary example:
They have suffered years of financial hardship.

Learner example:
However, I have to say that this plan would cause much inconvenience and hardship for our local
residents.

282
 harm /hɑːm/

Word family:
Nouns: harm
Verbs: harm
Adjectives: harmful, harmless

NOUN [U]

there's no harm in doing sth

used to say that something is not a bad thing to do and could possibly have a
good effect
Dictionary example:
I suppose there's no harm in trying.

Learner example:
There is no lack of go[o]d language schools and there is no harm in trying another one the next
time.

harsh /hɑːʃ/

Word family:
Adjectives: harsh
Adverbs: harshly

ADJECTIVE

UNPLEASANT

very cold, dangerous, or unpleasant and difficult to live in

Dictionary example:
harsh conditions

Learner example:
Furthermore, I have been trained for a year in living in harsh conditions.

CRUEL

cruel, unkind, or unpleasant in a way that seems unfair

Dictionary examples:
harsh criticism/punishment
Taking him out of the game was a bit harsh.

Learner example:
Sorry if I sounded so harsh in the letter but I felt it was important to make these points.

TOO STRONG

too strong, bright, loud, etc.

283
 Dictionary example:
harsh chemicals/lighting

Learner example:
It only contains herbs and plant extracts so it would not be too harsh a product for the skin and
will not destroy the skin's natural defences.

hate /heɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: hate, hatred
Verbs: hate

NOUN [U]

a strong dislike for someone or something

Dictionary example:
Hate and bigotry can only make our lives more difficult.

Learner example:
Feelings of hate and disgust may fill us, but we may love somebody. Many people say that love
and hate go together.

hatred /ˈheɪ.trɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: hate, hatred
Verbs: hate

NOUN [U]

an extremely strong feeling of dislike

Dictionary examples:
What is very clear in these letters is Clark's passionate hatred of his father.
The motive for this shocking attack seems to be racial hatred.

Learner example:
The producers create situations involving different feeling[s] [such] as love, hatred, anger, fear,...

have /hæv/ (had, had)

VERB [T]

have sth against sb/sth

to have a reason not to like someone or something

284
 Dictionary example:
I've got nothing against him personally, I just don't think he's the right man for the job.

Learner example:
If you have nothing against taking public transport, I suggest taking a bus.

hazard /ˈhæz.əd/

Word family:
Nouns: hazard
Adjectives: hazardous

NOUN

[C] something that is dangerous

Dictionary examples:
a fire hazard
a health hazard

Learner example:
Like all things, mobile phones have advantages and disadvantages. [...] It is said that they produce
cancer and that they are a health hazard.

head /hed/

Word family:
Nouns: head, heading
Verbs: head

NOUN [C]

lose your head

to stop being calm in a difficult situation
Dictionary example:
I saw the fire and I lost my head.

Learner example:
She has never lost her head in dangerous s[i]tuations and she always knows what to do.

VERB

FRONT/TOP

[T] to be at the front or top of something

Dictionary example:
Jo headed a very short list of candidates.

285
 Learner example:
When it comes to money paid to the families, Germany headed the list with 2%, follow[ed] by Spain
with 0.25% and the USA with 0.2%.

heading /ˈhed.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: head, heading
Verbs: head

NOUN [C]

words at the top of a piece of writing that tell you what it is about
Dictionary example:
You'll find it under the heading 'Information for new students'.

Learner example:
As the advertis[e]ment included the heading "Come and discover the career of your dreams!", my
attention was drawn to it.

health care /ˈhelθˌkeər/

NOUN [U] (healthcare)

the set of services provided by a country or an organization for treating people
who are ill
Dictionary examples:
A large proportion of these taxes go towards providing health care.
Healthcare workers are some of the lowest paid people in the country.

Learner example:
In Britain, the NHS provides free health care for every citizen.

heart /hɑːt/

NOUN

in your heart
used to say what you really think
Dictionary example:
In his heart he felt they were wrong.

286
 Learner example:
It is all because it was followed by a big mistake, when I focussed on [the] German language and
thought is was my dream. I have to admit that it was only a [sensi]ble decision, because deep in
my heart I knew I want[ed] to learn English.

heavenly /ˈhev.ən.li/

ADJECTIVE

INFORMAL very nice

Dictionary example:
a heavenly day

Learner example:
The Art Gallery was well presented and the exhibits were heavenly.

hectic /ˈhek.tɪk/

ADJECTIVE

extremely busy and full of activity

Dictionary example:
a hectic day/week

Learner example:
Alongside today's hectic life we need to adapt fashion to our lives and interests.

helpless /ˈhelp.ləs/

Word family:
Nouns: helper
Verbs: help
Adjectives: helpful, unhelpful, helpless

ADJECTIVE

not able to defend yourself or do things without help

Dictionary example:
a helpless animal/child

Learner example:
I remember one day in school how helpless I felt because I had forgotten my glasses at home.

287
 hence /hens/

ADVERB

for this reason

Dictionary examples:
He's got an interview today, hence the suit.
Drivers have been shown to adapt their behaviour according to perceived risk. Hence, if they are
wearing seat belts, they tend to take more risks with their driving.

Learner example:
Hence, the more competition there is, the more benefits are given to both people and society.

heroic /hɪˈrəʊ.ɪk/

ADJECTIVE

BRAVE

very brave
Dictionary examples:
a heroic figure
a heroic act/deed

Learner example:
I would be thrilled if I could lead thousands of warriors into heroic battles to con[qu]er the world.

TRYING HARD

If someone makes a heroic effort to do something, they work very hard to try to do
it.
Dictionary example:
In spite of England's heroic efforts, they lost the match.

Learner example:
Individually or in organised groups, those who worry about the subject are making a heroic
attempt to convince others of the importance of recycling, caring about the wildlife and sparing
the woods from fire or massive exploitation.

hesitation /ˌhez.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: hesitation
Verbs: hesitate

288
NOUN

have no hesitation in doing sth

when you are very willing to do something because you know it is the right thing
to do
Dictionary example:
He had no hesitation in signing for the team.

Learner example:
I think that Juan Pablo is a very well qualified applicant for this job, and I have no hesitation in
supporting him wholeheartedly.

high /haɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: height
Adjectives: high
Adverbs: highly

ADJECTIVE

high in sth
If a food is high in something, it contains a lot of it.
Dictionary example:
Avoid foods that are high in salt.

Learner example:
Since there is no time even for cooking a healthy meal, they get used to ready meals that are high
in fat and salt.

ADVERB

AMOUNT/LEVEL

at or to a large amount or level

Dictionary example:
Temperatures rose as high as 40 degrees.

Learner example:
Can we expect to see the world unemployment rate reach as high as fifty percent?

289
 highly /ˈhaɪ.li/

Word family:
Nouns: height
Adjectives: high
Adverbs: highly

ADVERB

VERY

very or to a large degree

Dictionary examples:
a highly effective treatment
We are highly unlikely to meet anyone here.

Learner example:
Now it features a highly effective searching system.

hilarious /hɪˈleə.ri.əs/

ADJECTIVE

extremely funny
Dictionary example:
They all thought the film was hilarious.

Learner example:
In addition to this, the hosts and actors of the show have very few boundaries and are not afraid
to make fools out of themselves, which means that they can do things that most people find very
embar[ra]ssing, and this is something that contributes to making the show hilarious.

historian /hɪˈstɔː.ri.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: history, historian
Adjectives: historic, historical
Adverbs: historically

NOUN [C]

someone who writes about or studies history

Dictionary example:
His father was a famous historian.

Learner example:
I would be very willing to help historians solve the enigma about the origin of Thailand.

290
 historically /hɪˈstɒr.ɪ.kli/

Word family:
Nouns: history, historian
Adjectives: historic, historical
Adverbs: historically

ADVERB

in a way that is connected to history

Dictionary examples:
The film makes no attempt to be historically accurate.
Historically, there have always been close links between France and Scotland.

Learner example:
Well, maybe this brief description of my travel in time is not historically accurate; nevertheless I
hope that you have enjoyed yourself reading it as much as I did writing it, and I hope you will
consider it worth[y] of publication in your magazine.

history /ˈhɪs.tər.i/

Word family:
Nouns: history, historian
Adjectives: historic, historical
Adverbs: historically

NOUN

a history of sth
If you have a history of a particular problem or illness, you have already suffered
from it.
Dictionary example:
a man with a history of drug addiction

Learner example:
The characteristic we are born with is to a certain level affected by genetic factor[s] e.g. if a
mother has a history of depression her daughter or son will also have higher chance [of] get[ting]
depression.

hit /hɪt/

VERB [T] (hitting, hit, hit)

REACH

to reach a place, position, or state

291
 Dictionary example:
Our profits have already hit $1 million.

Learner example:
Having already hit the 50% boundary in 1991, we still see that the teachers' salaries experienced a
significant rise.

hold /həʊld/

VERB [T] (held, held)

JOB OR QUALIFICATION

to have a particular job, position, or qualification

Dictionary example:
She held the post of treasurer.

Learner example:
In fact 90% males hold the skilled vocational diploma where[as] only 10% females hold the same
degree.

hold an opinion/belief/view
to believe something
Dictionary example:
They held the view that physical punishment was good for children.

Learner example:
Nowadays, some people hold the opinion that children who do not have good living conditions are
better prepared to deal with the problems which they will encounter later on.

hold a conversation
to have a conversation
Dictionary example:
I can just about hold a conversation in Italian.

Learner example:
I know the grammar and many different expressions, and I can hold a conversation with other
people.

hold sb's attention/interest

to keep someone interested in something
Dictionary example:
The film held my attention from beginning to end.

Learner example:
The recent protest about our canteen held my attention.

292
NOUN

on hold
If a plan or activity is on hold, it will not be done until a later time.
Dictionary example:
The project is on hold until we get more money.

Learner example:
What's more, it might, intentional[l]y or not, raise awareness on issues that might have been put
on hold by authorities, such as the legalization of soft drugs.

on hold
waiting to speak to someone on the telephone
Dictionary example:
His secretary put me on hold.

Learner example:
The day after, I called your office and after being put on hold, the person answering the phone
was unwilling to come up with a proper reply.

holy /ˈhəʊ.li/

ADJECTIVE

relating to a religion or a god

Dictionary example:
the holy city of Jerusalem

Learner example:
I'd like to go inside and see for myself but only the holy priests are allowed to be in there and only
[on] special occasions.

home /həʊm/

Word family:
Nouns: home, homeless, homelessness
Adjectives: homeless
Adverbs: home

NOUN

the home of sth/sb

the place where you usually find something or someone, or where they come from
Dictionary example:
France, the home of good food

293
 Learner example:
Every golfer - and those watching golf - know, that the home of golf is St. Andrews in Scotland.

make yourself at home

to behave in a relaxed way in a place, as if it was your own home
Dictionary example:
Take off your coat and make yourself at home.

Learner example:
Please relax and make yourself at home and help yourself.

CARE

[C] a place where people who need special care live

Dictionary examples:
a children's home
My grandmother lives in a home now.

Learner example:
However, I am also experienced with elderly people because I worked in an old people's home for
about 3 months in the summer 1997.

homeless /ˈhəʊm.ləs/

Word family:
Nouns: home, homeless, homelessness
Adjectives: homeless
Adverbs: home

ADJECTIVE

without a place to live

Dictionary example:
10,000 people were made homeless by the floods.

Learner example:
As a result, there are a lot of homeless people in our local community.

NOUN

the homeless
people who are homeless
Dictionary example:
They're opening a new shelter for the homeless.

Learner example:
The money spen[t] on the royal family could be used for something else like building houses for
the homeless.

294
 honoured /ˈɒn.əd/

Word family:
Nouns: honour
Adjectives: honoured

ADJECTIVE

proud and pleased because you have been given respect or asked to do something
special
Dictionary examples:
I am honoured to accept your invitation.
We would be honoured if you would join us for the day.

Learner example:
We would be honoured if you could present the prizes at this event.

hop /hɒp/

VERB [I] (hopping, hopped)

MOVE QUICKLY

to go somewhere quickly or get into or out of a vehicle quickly

Dictionary example:
to hop on a plane/train

Learner example:
The next thing that happen[s] is that everyone hops in their cars and drives to the restaurant
where they have dinner.

hope /həʊp/

Word family:
Nouns: hope
Verbs: hope
Adjectives: hopeful, hopeless
Adverbs: hopefully, hopelessly

NOUN [C or U]

in the hope of/that

because you want something good to happen
Dictionary examples:
She went to Paris in the hope of improving her French.
They wrote to the Prime Minister in the hope that he would help.

295
 Learner example:
Not only would I want to travel back to understand Hitler's incredible success, but also in the hope
of thwarting his plans.

horizon /həˈraɪ.zən/

Word family:
Nouns: horizon
Adjectives: horizontal

NOUN

broaden/expand/widen your horizons

to increase the number of things that you know about, have experienced, or can
do
Dictionary example:
Travelling certainly broadens your horizons.

Learner example:
Overall, I can say the conference was a success and definitely broadened my horizons.

on the horizon
likely to happen soon
Dictionary example:
Economic recovery is on the horizon.

Learner example:
Often this is justified as [a] result of society being collective[ly] afraid that a shortage of fuel is on
the horizon.

horizontal /ˌhɒr.ɪˈzɒn.təl/

Word family:
Nouns: horizon
Adjectives: horizontal

ADJECTIVE

level and flat, or parallel to the ground or to the bottom of a page

Dictionary example:
a horizontal line/stripe

Learner example:
Years are projected along the horizontal axis.

296
 horn /hɔːn/

NOUN [C]

ANIMAL

one of the two hard, pointed growths on the heads of cows, goats, and some other
animals
Dictionary example:
These cows have curved horns.

Learner example:
Far in the south of Chile, you will find the smallest deer of the world called "Pudù". It is only 25
cm. tall, doesn't have big horns and eats fruit.

hospitable /hɒsˈpɪt.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: hospitality
Adjectives: hospitable

ADJECTIVE

A hospitable person or place is friendly, pleasant, and welcomes visitors.

Dictionary example:
We always find them very hospitable.

Learner example:
First of all, the families you will be staying with are exceptionally hospitable, always willing to
show you round in the local area.

hospitality /ˌhɒs.pɪˈtæl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: hospitality
Adjectives: hospitable

NOUN [U]

when people are friendly and welcoming to guests and visitors

Dictionary example:
The local people showed me great hospitality.

Learner example:
Our members were ever so pleased with the families and your kind hospitality.

297
 host /həʊst/

NOUN [C]

a host of sth
a large number of people or things
Dictionary example:
I've got a whole host of questions to ask you.

Learner example:
In this day and age, we can buy Nike clothes, H[ead & Shoulders] shampoos and a host of other
products in the UK as well as other places in the world.

VERB [T]

If a place hosts an event, people there arrange it and it happens there.

Dictionary example:
The town hosts an annual jazz festival.

Learner example:
Dear Sir/Madam, I am writing on behalf of my town which has been short-listed to host an
international conference next year.

hostile /ˈhɒs.taɪl/

Word family:
Nouns: hostility
Adjectives: hostile

ADJECTIVE

UNFRIENDLY

unfriendly and not liking or agreeing with something

Dictionary example:
Some politicians were very hostile to the idea.

Learner example:
She is not hostile or aggressive.

DIFFICULT

unpleasant or not suitable for living or growing

Dictionary examples:
a hostile climate
They live and work in very hostile conditions.

298
 Learner example:
However, they do not realize that they have to survive in a hostile environment, living in unsafe
and unhealthy slums.

hot /hɒt/

ADJECTIVE (hotter, hottest)

a hot issue/topic
a subject which people discuss and have strong feelings about
Dictionary example:
The legalization of drugs is a hot topic.

Learner example:
Whether to compete or to cooperate has become a hot issue in today's society, both in public and
private.

EXCITING

INFORMAL exciting or interesting

Dictionary example:
Hollywood's hottest new actress

Learner example:
That would mean that Bill Gates is the hottest celebrity on earth, but he is not.

hour /aʊər/

Word family:
Nouns: hour
Adjectives: hourly
Adverbs: hourly

NOUN [C]

all hours
very late at night, until early morning, or almost all the time
Dictionary example:
Our neighbours are up till all hours every night, playing loud music.

Learner example:
This causes traffic jams at all hours of the day.

299
 hourly /ˈaʊə.li/

Word family:
Nouns: hour
Adjectives: hourly
Adverbs: hourly

ADVERB

once every hour

Dictionary example:
Trains stop here hourly.

Learner example:
This train runs hourly and takes about 90 minutes to Kassel which is the second stop.

housing /ˈhaʊ.zɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: house, housing
Verbs: house

NOUN [U]

buildings for people to live in

Dictionary example:
a shortage of local housing

Learner example:
The problems with housing can be improved by building more council houses, which can be
bought at lower prices, or giving subsidies to first [time] buyers.

how /haʊ/

ADVERB

how come INFORMAL

used to ask why or how something has happened

Dictionary example:
How come you didn't go to the party?

Learner example:
Off the record: How come that your reporter can print such lies when knowing they are perhaps
hurting certain people in this important matter?

300
 How dare she/you, etc.
used to express anger about something someone has done
Dictionary example:
How dare you talk to me like that!

Learner example:
How dare you call that high standards?!

how far
used to talk about how true something is
Dictionary example:
How far do politicians represent the views of ordinary people?

Learner example:
How far and to what extent would the characteristics we are born with influence our future
development in life?

humanity /hjuːˈmæn.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: humanity
Adjectives: humanitarian

NOUN [U]

ALL PEOPLE

all people
Dictionary example:
The massacre was a crime against humanity.

Learner example:
All humanity enjoys the numerous advances in modern technology and [in] our day, life [has
become] more interesting and eas[ier].

humorous /ˈhjuː.mər.əs/

Word family:
Nouns: humour
Adjectives: humorous

ADJECTIVE

funny, or making you laugh

Dictionary example:
a humorous book

301
 Learner example:
To be more specific, the articles will include events taken from our college life, written in a
humorous, chatty way.

hunger /ˈhʌŋ.gər/

Word family:
Nouns: hunger
Adjectives: hungry

NOUN

WISH

[NO PLURAL] a strong wish for something

Dictionary example:
a hunger for success/knowledge

Learner example:
The most important factor when learning English is the hunger for knowledge, the hunger for the
unknown.

hunt /hʌnt/

Word family:
Nouns: hunting, hunt
Verbs: hunt

NOUN

[C USUALLY NO PLURAL] a search for something or someone

Dictionary examples:
After a long hunt we finally found a house we liked.
The hunt for the injured climber continued throughout the night.

Learner example:
What is more, it helps to face problems which could occur during the hunt for a "lifetime" job.

hygiene /ˈhaɪ.dʒiːn/

Word family:
Nouns: hygiene
Adjectives: hygienic

NOUN [U]

the process of keeping things clean, especially to prevent disease

302
 Dictionary examples:
health and hygiene regulations
dental/personal hygiene

Learner example:
The ones that need medical services at home have hardly [got] anyone, and no one has helped
them with personal hygiene.

hysterical /hɪˈster.ɪ.kəl/

ADJECTIVE

If someone is hysterical, they cannot control their feelings or behaviour because

they are extremely frightened, angry, excited, etc.
Dictionary examples:
Calm down, you're becoming/getting hysterical.
The police were accused of hysterical over-reaction.
hysterical laughter

Learner example:
The actor playing the part of Amadeus is Tom Hulce, whose hysterical laughter always seems to
put him in embar[r]assing situations.

303
 I

iceberg /ˈaɪs.bɜːɡ/

NOUN [C]

ICE

a very large piece of ice that floats in the sea

Dictionary example:
The ship hit an iceberg.

Learner example:
Another animal you cannot miss is the Humboldt p[e]nguin - you can see thousands of them over
an iceberg.

idea /aɪˈdɪə/

NOUN

AIM

[NO PLURAL] the aim or purpose of something

Dictionary example:
The idea is to give local people a chance to voice their opinions.

Learner example:
This was the idea behind this new product: although made in New Zealand, the new product
would have its name, packag[ing], marketing and advertising support in keeping with the Russian
traditions.

idealistic /aɪˌdɪəˈlɪs.tɪk/

Word family:
Adjectives: ideal, idealistic
Adverbs: ideally

ADJECTIVE

believing that it is possible to achieve very good things, even when others do not
think this is likely

304
 Dictionary example:
When I was young and idealistic, I believed it was possible to change the world.

Learner example:
Carolina has conquered the world, not only through her impressive results but through her
appearance in front of the cameras, her idealistic ideas and her constantly happy mood.

idol /ˈaɪ.dəl/

NOUN [C]

PERSON

someone that you admire and respect very much

Dictionary example:
apop/sporting idol

Learner example:
As they are children's heroes, we can be pretty sure children will be demanding the same things
their idols wear.

ill /ɪl/

Word family:
Nouns: illness
Adjectives: ill

ADJECTIVE

BAD

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] FORMAL bad

Dictionary examples:
It was an ill-tempered exchange.
He suffered no ill effects from his fall.

Learner example:
Working long hours can have ill effects on the health.

illustrate /ˈɪl.ə.streɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: illustration
Verbs: illustrate

305
VERB [T]

DIAGRAM

to give information through diagrams, lists of numbers, etc.

Dictionary example:
This process is illustrated in the diagram below.

Learner example:
The table illustrates the employment status of graduates from [UK] universities in 2001.

EXPLAIN

to give more information or examples to explain or prove something

Dictionary examples:
The lecturer illustrated his point with a diagram on the blackboard.
This latest conflict further illustrates the weakness of the UN.
The exhibition will illustrate how life evolved from water.

Learner example:
Some topics that illustrate cultural ways of thinking and that have been explored by this
programme are abortion (it is illegal in Brazil), colour prejudice, sexual harassment,
homosexuali[ty].

illustration /ˌɪl.əˈstreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: illustration
Verbs: illustrate

NOUN [C or U]

PICTURE

a picture in a book, magazine, etc. or the process of illustrating something

Dictionary examples:
a full-page illustration
colour/black and white illustrations

Learner example:
When you read about that period of time in history books and see pictures and illustrations, you
can almost "feel" the atmosphere and sense the power the Monarc[h]y po[ssess]ed at the time.

306
 imaginary /ɪˈmædʒ.ɪn.ər.i/

Word family:
Nouns: imagination
Verbs: imagine
Adjectives: imaginary, imaginative

ADJECTIVE

not real but imagined in your mind

Dictionary example:
The story takes place in an imaginary world.

Learner example:
Mickey Mouse [...] describes stories that can happen to humans whereas Spong[e] Bob lives in an
imaginary world underwater.

imaginative /ɪˈmædʒ.ɪn.ə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: imagination
Verbs: imagine
Adjectives: imaginary, imaginative

ADJECTIVE

THING

Something which is imaginative is new or clever and often unusual.

Dictionary example:
an imaginative use of colour

Learner example:
Her imaginative stories are very popular with children of all ages.

PERSON

Someone who is imaginative is able to create new and interesting ideas or things.
Dictionary example:
a highly imaginative poet

Learner example:
She is a very imaginative girl and she always invents new games for our children, so that they have
never felt bored in her presence.

307
 imitate /ˈɪm.ɪ.teɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: imitation
Verbs: imitate

VERB [T]

to copy the way someone or something looks, sounds, or behaves

Dictionary example:
She tried to imitate the way the models walked.

Learner example:
We try to imitate the British way of preparing or organising championships and races, and that's
the reason [for] the British influence in Spanish motorsports.

immediate /ɪˈmiː.di.ət/

Word family:
Adjectives: immediate
Adverbs: immediately

ADJECTIVE

CLOSEST

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] closest to something or someone

Dictionary examples:
There are few facilities in the immediate area.
His immediate family have been informed.

Learner example:
In the first place, there are beautiful landscapes in the immediate vicinity of both hotels.

immediately /ɪˈmiː.di.ət.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: immediate
Adverbs: immediately

ADVERB

NEXT TO

next to something, or close to something in time

308
 Dictionary examples:
Milton Street is on the left, immediately after the bank.
They moved in immediately before Christmas.
We heard a loud crash from the room immediately above us.

Learner example:
You should go on up to the end of the street, as my flat is the last on the right[-hand] side,
immediately before the crossroads.

immense /ɪˈmens/

Word family:
Adjectives: immense
Adverbs: immensely

ADJECTIVE

extremely big
Dictionary examples:
immense pressure/value
Health care costs the country an immense amount of money.

Learner example:
Jobs in the computer and telecommunications industry have gained immense respect in the past
ten years.

immensely /ɪˈmens.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: immense
Adverbs: immensely

ADVERB

extremely
Dictionary example:
immensely powerful/popular

Learner example:
People who were previously nothing more than peasants grew immensely rich, while the former
aristocracy of land owners lost its dominat[ing] position.

309
 impact /ˈɪm.pækt/

VERB

to affect something or someone

Dictionary example:
Rising interest rates are sure to impact on the housing market.

Learner example:
Those extra calories, the fat and salt in our food and the decrease in vitamin rich food impacts on
our health.

imperfect /ɪmˈpɜː.fɪkt/

Word family:
Adjectives: perfect, imperfect
Adverbs: perfectly

ADJECTIVE

not perfect and with some mistakes

Dictionary example:
an imperfect solution

Learner example:
It goes without saying that native speakers are the best to talk to when learning the language (of
course, if they don't mind your practising your imperfect English on them.)

impersonal /ɪmˈpɜː.sən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: person, personality
Adjectives: personal, impersonal
Adverbs: personally

ADJECTIVE

not being friendly towards people or showing any interest in them

Dictionary example:
a cold and impersonal letter

Learner example:
To sum up, the only thing we can do is to find out a way to survive in such an impersonal working
environment and create a more friendly and intimate atmosphere as before.

310
 implication /ˌɪm.plɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: implication
Verbs: imply
Adjectives: implicit

NOUN

EFFECT

[C] a result or effect that seems likely in the future

Dictionary examples:
financial/health implications
This scheme has serious implications for the local economy.

Learner example:
Any government must be fully aware of [the] wider implications [for the] economy and [the]
wellbeing of its citizens.

import

NOUN /ˈɪm.pɔːt/

PRODUCT

[C] a product which is imported from another country

Dictionary examples:
Japanese/American imports
cheap imports from Asia

Learner example:
Furthermore, cheap imports from the newly industrialised countries ha[ve] also contributed to the
increase in car ownership.

impose /ɪmˈpəʊz/

VERB [T]

RULE/TAX, ETC.

to officially force a rule, tax, punishment, etc. to be obeyed or received

Dictionary examples:
Very high taxes have recently been imposed on cigarettes.
Judges are imposing increasingly heavy fines for minor driving offences.
The council has imposed a ban on alcohol in the city parks.

311
 Learner example:
[An]other advantage is that local governments could receive more money as they impose a fine or
ask for a congestion charge.

BELIEF

to force someone to accept something, especially a belief or way of living

Dictionary examples:
I don't want them to impose their religious beliefs on my children.
We must impose some kind of order on the way this office is run.

Learner example:
Above all, never allow others to impose their ideas on you.

imprison /ɪmˈprɪz.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: prison, prisoner, imprisonment
Verbs: imprison

VERB [T]

to put someone in prison or keep them as a prisoner

Dictionary example:
Taylor was imprisoned in 2005 for burglary.

Learner example:
DMX was a criminal and was imprisoned.

improvement /ɪmˈpruːv.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: improvement
Verbs: improve
Adjectives: improved

NOUN

room for improvement

If there is room for improvement, something can be made better.
Dictionary example:
His work isn't bad but there's still some room for improvement.

Learner example:
She is Polish, aged 29 and can speak English pretty well, but there is still room for improvement,
that's why she wants to spend a year in England, looking after children in an English-speaking
family.

312
 in /ɪn/

PREPOSITION

in turn
as a result of something that is part of a series of events
Dictionary example:
This could result in the loss of certain species of fish and this in turn poses a serious threat to the
fishing communities along the river banks.

Learner example:
This, in turn, enabled them to find jobs and become financially independent from their husbands.

in accordance with sth

in the way described by a rule, law, or wish
Dictionary example:
Both companies have insisted that they were acting in accordance with the law.

Learner example:
Although they do not earn much money in this profession, they try to do their best and judge in
accordance with the law which they also have to interpret.

in aid of sb/sth
in order to collect money for a group of people who need it
Dictionary example:
a concert in aid of famine relief

Learner example:
It w[ould] be an honour for us students at the centre if you could attend our sport[s] function in
aid of stress[ed] out kids and present the pri[z]es.

in association with
working together with
Dictionary example:
The event was organized in association with the Sports Council.

Learner example:
This service, which will be [provided] in association with Foster Loft, will be available at the end of
2005.

in bulk
in large amounts
Dictionary example:
to buy in bulk

Learner example:
I suggest that you buy food in bulk so that you not only save money but also save time.

313
in common with sb/sth
in the same way as someone or something
Dictionary example:
In common with many working mothers, she feels guilty about leaving her children.

Learner example:
In common with many city d[we]llers, I do not think this is a wise decision and it could have
negative effects on the city re[s]idents' daily lives.

in demand
wanted or needed in large numbers
Dictionary example:
Good teachers are always in demand.

Learner example:
Nevertheless, people will always use cars and vehicles, so petrol will always be in demand.

in the event of sth FORMAL

if something happens
Dictionary example:
An airbag could save your life in the event of an accident.

Learner example:
In the event of bad weather, it would be wise to plan an alternative to the boat trip, for example a
visit of Buckingham Palace or the Houses of Parliament.

in any event
whatever happens
Dictionary example:
I'm not sure if I'm coming on Friday, but in any event, I'll see you next week.

Learner example:
In any event, it is incumbent upon all of us to carefully plan our travel matters, so as to take
advantage of their several benefits.

be in the public eye

to be famous and often featured in the media
Dictionary example:
Her new role means that she will be in the public eye.

Learner example:
But being famous also means that you are always in the public eye, which is a major drawback.

in sb's favour
If something is in your favour, it helps you to win or succeed.
Dictionary example:
Both sides have strong arguments in their favour.

314
 Learner example:
Unfortunately the weather conditions were not in our favour, but the rain only lasted a few
minutes and did not look at all like a downpour.

in the form of sth

the particular way in which something appears or exists
Dictionary examples:
The novel is written in the form of a series of letters.
The medicine comes in the form of a liquid or pills.

Learner example:
For all this, I can only say that I want my money back immediately, or [some] compensation in the
form of a real trip to a real country.

in your heart
used to say what you really think
Dictionary example:
In his heart he felt they were wrong.

Learner example:
It is all because it was followed by a big mistake, when I focussed on [the] German language and
thought is was my dream. I have to admit that it was only a [sensi]ble decision, because deep in
my heart I knew I want[ed] to learn English.

in the hope of/that

because you want something good to happen
Dictionary examples:
She went to Paris in the hope of improving her French.
They wrote to the Prime Minister in the hope that he would help.

Learner example:
Not only would I want to travel back to understand Hitler's incredible success, but also in the hope
of thwarting his plans.

be in sb's interest(s)
to help someone and give them an advantage
Dictionary example:
It may not be in your interests to change jobs so soon.

Learner example:
It is in my interests to meet new people and I find it easy to go and talk to people I do not know.

in the light of sth

If something is done or happens in the light of facts, it is done or happens
because of those facts.
Dictionary example:
The drug has been withdrawn in the light of new research.

315
 Learner example:
In the light of this news, we took this issue as a class project and investigated it by interviewing
residents.

in moderation
If you do something in moderation, you do not do it too much.
Dictionary example:
I only drink alcohol in moderation now.

Learner example:
While shopping can make one feel good and even has its positive impact on the retail economy, I
think it should be done in moderation.

be in two minds
to have difficulty making a decision
Dictionary example:
I'm in two minds about accepting his offer.

Learner example:
If you are in two minds about having to share your room with someone else, there you can easily
rent a studio apartment close to the college, which is situated in the centre of the city.

in a nutshell
something that you say when you are describing something using as few words as
possible
Dictionary example:
The answer, in a nutshell, is yes.

Learner example:
To put it in a nutshell, they all provide good food at reasonable prices.

be in position
If someone or something is in position, they are in the place that they should be
in.
Dictionary example:
The police were all in position.

Learner example:
Remember to stay calm when you are in the car with the instructor, wear your seatbelt and check
that all your mir[r]ors are in position.

in the region of sth

approximately
Dictionary example:
It probably cost somewhere in the region of £900.

316
 Learner example:
I am willing [to] pay rent in the region of £1000 to £1200 monthly.

in respect of sth FORMAL

relating to a particular thing

Dictionary example:
I include payment in respect of your invoice of May 13th.

Learner example:
Instead of that, we should have more English grammar lessons - some of our English students are
very interested in them, especially in respect of their exam this year.

in reverse
in the opposite order or way
Dictionary example:
Do the same steps but this time in reverse.

Learner example:
They want to see what they are not like, how they would not react and this, in reverse, helps them
[to] find themselves.

in no time
very soon
Dictionary example:
We'll be home in no time.

Learner example:
Team work is very important for us and you will make many friends in no time.

in tune
singing or playing the right notes
Dictionary example:
Try to stay in tune.

Learner example:
The public was singing in tune with Jag, hands were raised and bodies were slowly [sway]ing.

in turn
as a result of something that is part of a series of events
Dictionary example:
This could result in the loss of certain species of fish and this in turn poses a serious threat to the
fishing communities along the river banks.

Learner example:
This, in turn, enabled them to find jobs and become financially independent from their husbands.

in vain
without any success

317
 Dictionary example:
I tried in vain to start a conversation.

Learner example:
We looked in vain for the guide through three London parks.

in no way/not in any way

not at all
Dictionary example:
This is in no way your fault.

Learner example:
This magazine will be loved by students as it will help them learn English in the best way and in
no way will students find it boring.

in a sense
thinking about something in a particular way
Dictionary example:
In a sense, he's right.

Learner example:
In a sense this is correct, since you have to leave your natural environment to visit a place where
no human being is meant to survive.

in short
in a few words
Dictionary example:
In short, we need more staff.

Learner example:
In short, ancient Chinese poems, mainly [from the] Jang D[yna]sty, constitute [the] background for
Chinese culture and set a touchstone for judgement in our life.

in store
going to happen soon
Dictionary examples:
You never know what's in store for you.
There's a bit of a shock in store for him when he gets home tonight!

Learner example:
Nobody knows what the future will have in store!

318
 inability /ˌɪnəˈbɪl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: ability, disability, inability
Verbs: enable
Adjectives: able, disabled, unable

NOUN [NO PLURAL]

when you are unable to do something

Dictionary example:
I'm depressed by the police's inability to reduce street crime.

Learner example:
They were sick and tired of the government's inability to break the vicious circle of the crisis.

inaccuracy /ɪnˈæk.jə.rə.si/

Word family:
Nouns: accuracy, inaccuracy
Adjectives: accurate, inaccurate
Adverbs: accurately

NOUN [C or U]

something such as a statement or number that is not correct

Dictionary example:
The report contained many inaccuracies.

Learner example:
Apart from these inaccuracies, the group members have a lot of complaints.

inadequate /ɪnˈæd.ɪ.kwət/

Word family:
Adjectives: adequate, inadequate
Adverbs: adequately

ADJECTIVE

NOT GOOD

not good enough or too low in quality

Dictionary example:
Our equipment is totally inadequate for a job like this.

Learner example:
First of all, I found the seats inadequate and my seat belt was broken.

319
 NOT ENOUGH

not enough
Dictionary example:
inadequate funds

Learner example:
So, the inadequate number of computers could not cover students' needs.

inappropriate /ˌɪn.əˈprəʊ.pri.ət/

Word family:
Adjectives: appropriate, inappropriate
Adverbs: appropriately, inappropriately

ADJECTIVE

not suitable
Dictionary examples:
inappropriate behaviour
It would be inappropriate for me to comment, without knowing the facts.

Learner example:
Secondly, [the] music was completely inappropriate to young people, because the band was
chosen by the previous principal of our college.

inappropriately /ˌɪn.əˈprəʊ.pri.ət.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: appropriate, inappropriate
Adverbs: appropriately, inappropriately

ADVERB

in a way that is not suitable

Dictionary example:
The meeting was inappropriately handled and an argument broke out.

Learner example:
For instance, the refreshment tent was inappropriately located, making it difficult for the
participants to reach it.

320
 incapable /ɪnˈkeɪ.pə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: capability
Adjectives: capable, incapable

ADJECTIVE

incapable of sth/doing sth

not able to do something or to feel a particular emotion
Dictionary examples:
I think she's incapable of love.
He's incapable of controlling his temper.

Learner example:
Earl has lost most of his eyesi[ght] and he is incapable of assembling the planes without my help.

incidentally /ɪn.sɪˈden.təl.i/

ADVERB

used when you add related but less important information to what has just been
said or when you suddenly introduce a new subject
Dictionary example:
Incidentally, talking of Stephen, have you met Stephen's girlfriend?

Learner example:
Incidentally, there is another big Turkish Bath in Ginarah.

inclined /ɪnˈklaɪnd/

Word family:
Nouns: inclination
Adjectives: inclined

ADJECTIVE [NEVER BEFORE NOUN]

be inclined to think/believe/agree, etc.

to have an opinion, but not a strong opinion
Dictionary example:
I'm inclined to agree with you.

Learner example:
I am inclined to believe that the Open Day will reassure all the local residents that our college is
one of major importance and our students creative and intelligent people.

321
 inclusion /ɪnˈkluː.ʒən/

Word family:
Nouns: inclusion
Verbs: include
Adjectives: inclusive

NOUN [C or U]

when you include someone or something, especially in a group, amount, or event

Dictionary example:
Her self-portrait was chosen for inclusion in the exhibition.

Learner example:
In basketball, for instance, changes in the most important competitions, such as the inclusion of
foreign players, have given players the opportunity to be succes[s]ful not only in their country but
also worldwide.

inclusive /ɪnˈkluː.sɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: inclusion
Verbs: include
Adjectives: inclusive

ADJECTIVE

An inclusive price or amount includes everything.

Dictionary example:
Prices are inclusive of flights and accommodation.

Learner example:
When considering the rent, inclusive or exclusive [of] bill[s] will make a big difference.

inconvenience /ˌɪn.kənˈviː.ni.ənts/

NOUN [C or U]

when something is inconvenient, or something that is inconvenient

Dictionary examples:
The Director apologized for any inconvenience caused.
Having to wait for ten minutes was a minor inconvenience.

Learner example:
I am sorry for any inconvenience these requirements may cause to you.

322
 increase

Word family:
Nouns: increase
Verbs: increase
Adverbs: increasingly

NOUN [C or U] /ˈɪn.kriːs/

on the increase
If something is on the increase, it is happening more often.
Dictionary example:
Violent crime is on the increase.

Learner example:
[The] number of motorists is on the increase everywhere in the world.

incredibly /ɪnˈkred.ə.bli/

Word family:
Nouns: credibility
Adjectives: incredible
Adverbs: incredibly

ADVERB

DIFFICULT TO BELIEVE

in a way that is difficult to believe

Dictionary example:
Incredibly, no one was hurt.

Learner example:
Incredibly, and against all my expectations, everything started going wrong from the very
begin[n]ing.

index /ˈɪn.deks/

NOUN [C]

an alphabetical list, such as one printed at the back of a book showing which page
a subject, name, etc. is found on
Dictionary example:
Try looking up 'heart disease' in the index.

323
 Learner example:
The negative point of the book was its lack of an index.

indicate /ˈɪn.dɪ.keɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: indication, indicator
Verbs: indicate

VERB [T]

SHOW

to show that something exists or is likely to be true

Dictionary examples:
Recent evidence indicates that the skeleton is about 3 million years old.
Exploratory investigations have indicated large amounts of oil below the sea bed.

Learner example:
In fact, the study also indicates that time spent on watching TV has surged, especially during the
last decade.

indication /ˌɪn.dɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: indication, indicator
Verbs: indicate

NOUN [C or U]

EXIST

a sign showing that something exists or is likely to be true

Dictionary example:
There are strong indications that the case will be referred to the Court of Appeal.

Learner example:
Unfortunately, after the equipment was installed and plug[g]ed into [the] mains, black smoke
came out of the back, which in my opinion is an indication of a failure of some sort.

324
 indirect /ˌɪn.daɪˈrekt/

Word family:
Nouns: direction, directions, director
Verbs: direct
Adjectives: direct, indirect
Adverbs: directly, indirectly

ADJECTIVE

NOT CONNECTED

not directly caused by or connected with something

Dictionary example:
Indirect effects of the fighting include disease and food shortages.

Learner example:
At school, children should follow many rules. For example, they should finish their homework
[and] respect other students' opinion[s]. From these experience[s], children can experience social
life in indirect ways, and can learn how to be good members of society.

indirectly /ˌɪn.daɪˈrekt.li/

Word family:
Nouns: direction, directions, director
Verbs: direct
Adjectives: direct, indirect
Adverbs: directly, indirectly

ADVERB

in a way that is not direct

Dictionary example:
She still controls the company indirectly, through her son.

Learner example:
This indirectly improves the quality of life and people will feel re-energised.

individually /ˌɪn.dɪˈvɪd.ju.ə.li/

Word family:
Nouns: individual, individuality
Adjectives: individual
Adverbs: individually

ADVERB

separately rather than with others

325
 Dictionary examples:
I spoke to them all individually.
The sweets are individually wrapped.

Learner example:
This has the additional advantage that students can work individually on what seems to be most
necessary for them.

industrialization /ɪnˌdʌs.tri.ə.laɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: industry, industrialization
Adjectives: industrial, industrialized, industrious

NOUN [U] (ALSO UK industrialisation)

the process of developing industries in a country
Dictionary example:
Japan's rapid industrialization

Learner example:
With industrialization and economic development, Hong Kong people's standards of living have
also improve[d] dramatically.

industrialized /ɪnˈdʌs.tri.ə.laɪzd/

Word family:
Nouns: industry, industrialization
Adjectives: industrial, industrialized, industrious

ADJECTIVE (ALSO UK industrialised)

Industrialized countries have a lot of industry.
Dictionary example:
the industrialized nations

Learner example:
The role of women has changed during the past 100 years but there are still a lot of changes
needed not only in developing countries but also in industrialized countries like Germany.

inedible /ɪˈned.ə.bl
̩ ̩
/

Word family:
Adjectives: edible, inedible

326
ADJECTIVE

not suitable for eating

Dictionary example:
The meat was inedible.

Learner example:
The fruit was rotten, the sandwich inedible.

inefficient /ˌɪn.ɪˈfɪʃ.ənt/

Word family:
Nouns: efficiency
Adjectives: efficient, inefficient
Adverbs: efficiently

ADJECTIVE

Inefficient people or things waste time, money or effort, and do not achieve as
much as they should.
Dictionary example:
an inefficient heating system

Learner example:
The conditions in the coaches are poor with the leg room only for small children, the safety belts
broken, and an inefficient air-conditioner.

inevitable /ɪˈnev.ɪ.tə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Adjectives: inevitable
Adverbs: inevitably

ADJECTIVE

certain to happen and unable to be avoided or prevented

Dictionary example:
The accident was the inevitable consequence/result/outcome of carelessness.

Learner example:
Strikes always cause some problems but sometimes they are inevitable.

327
 inevitably /ɪˈnev.ɪ.tə.bli/

Word family:
Adjectives: inevitable
Adverbs: inevitably

ADVERB

in a way that cannot be avoided

Dictionary example:
Their arguments inevitably end in tears.

Learner example:
Should you, my humble reader, happen to reach fame and fortune, try never to forget that
appearing always as an ordinary human being would inevitably grant you more empathy from the
people surro[u]nding you.

infect /ɪnˈfekt/

Word family:
Nouns: infection
Verbs: infect
Adjectives: infectious

VERB [T]

DISEASE

to give someone a disease

Dictionary example:
Thousands of people were infected with the virus.

Learner example:
It was only a small clinic, that refused to give attention to a group of young people all infected
with AIDS.

COMPUTER

If a computer virus infects a computer, it harms it

Dictionary example:
My computer was infected by a virus.

Learner example:
With CLEAN-MAIL, you can protect your computers from getting infected with viruses effectively:
virus-mails are deleted before they even arrive at your mailbox.

328
 inferior /ɪnˈfɪə.ri.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: inferior, inferiority
Adjectives: inferior

ADJECTIVE

not good, or not so good as someone or something else

Dictionary examples:
I've never felt inferior to anyone.
They're selling inferior products at inflated prices.

Learner example:
Young girls often feel inferior to boys in the same class.

influential /ˌɪn.fluˈen.ʃəl/

Word family:
Nouns: influence
Verbs: influence
Adjectives: influential

ADJECTIVE

having a lot of influence

Dictionary example:
an influential figure in modern jazz

Learner example:
Although not being directly involved in global politics anymore, he is still a very powerful and
influential person.

informally /ɪnˈfɔː.məl.i/

Word family:
Adjectives: formal, informal
Adverbs: formally, informally

ADVERB

in an informal way
Dictionary example:
It's an outdoor party, so dress informally.

Learner example:
We dress casually and very informally and you often see body piercings and tat[t]oos being
displayed around the place.

329
 informative /ɪnˈfɔː.mə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: information
Verbs: inform, misinform
Adjectives: informative

ADJECTIVE

containing a lot of useful facts

Dictionary example:
a very informative lecture

Learner example:
There were presentations from many different industries, some of them very informative and
entertaining.

infrastructure /ˈɪn.frəˌstrʌk.tʃər/

NOUN [C USUALLY NO PLURAL]

the basic systems and services, such as transport and power supplies, that a
country or organization uses in order to work effectively
Dictionary example:
The war has badly damaged the country's infrastructure.

Learner example:
It is very easy to build homes but at the same time forgetting to upgrade the infrastructure and
facilities.

initiative /ɪˈnɪʃ.ə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: initial, initiative
Verbs: initiate
Adjectives: initial
Adverbs: initially

NOUN

NEW ACTION

[C] a plan or activity that is done to solve a problem or improve a situation

Dictionary examples:
a new government initiative to reduce crime
The peace initiative was welcomed by both sides.

330
 Learner example:
Any government as well as grass root initiative will have an effect on pollution problems, but
firstly, we need to change our society's overall mentality.

ABILITY

[U] the ability to make decisions and do things without needing to be told what to
do
Dictionary examples:
We need someone who can work on their own initiative.
I shouldn't always have to tell you what to do - use your initiative.
She showed a lot of initiative.

Learner example:
It is difficult to judge whether you [show] more initiative than the others or not.

take the initiative

to be the first person to do something that solves a problem or improves a
situation
Dictionary example:
Jackson had taken the initiative and prepared a report.

Learner example:
I took the initiative to contact Sue Wilton, who is the manager of the restaurant "El Plato".

injustice /ɪnˈdʒʌs.tɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: justice, injustice
Adjectives: just

NOUN [C or U]

a situation or action in which people are treated unfairly

Dictionary examples:
the fight against racial injustice
the injustices of the legal system

Learner example:
Adults enjoy the stories too, because it somehow reflects the society that we live in, and how
justice is always [on] the stronger side than injustice.

331
 innocence /ˈɪn.ə.sənts/

Word family:
Nouns: innocence
Adjectives: innocent
Adverbs: innocently

NOUN [U]

NOT GUILTY

when someone is not guilty of a crime

Dictionary examples:
She pleaded her innocence, but no one believed her.
She fought to prove her son's innocence.

Learner example:
They were released after seven years in jail and were determined to prove their innocence and find
the real murderer.

innovation /ˌɪn.əˈveɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: innovation
Adjectives: innovative

NOUN [C or U]

a new idea or method that is being tried for the first time, or the use of such ideas
or methods
Dictionary example:
the latest innovations in education

Learner example:
There was a barrage of creativity and innovation rarely seen in human history.

innovative /ˈɪn.ə.və.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: innovation
Adjectives: innovative

ADJECTIVE

using new methods or ideas

Dictionary example:
an innovative approach to programme making

332
 Learner example:
Problems like this will probably app[ea]r again and again but we have to beli[e]ve that they can be
solved in an innovative way.

insane /ɪnˈseɪn/

Word family:
Adjectives: insane, sane

ADJECTIVE

STUPID

INFORMAL very silly or stupid

Dictionary example:
an insane decision

Learner example:
It was an insane idea to accom[m]odate me so far away from the school (approximately four
miles).

insecure /ˌɪn.sɪˈkjʊər/

Word family:
Nouns: security, insecurity
Adjectives: secure, insecure

ADJECTIVE

WORRIED

having no confidence in yourself and what you can do

Dictionary example:
a shy, insecure teenager

Learner example:
People felt insecure and nervous, their morale went down.

insensitive /ɪnˈsen.sə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: sensitivity
Adjectives: sensitive, insensitive

333
ADJECTIVE

PEOPLE

not noticing or not caring about other people's feelings

Dictionary examples:
an insensitive remark
He was completely insensitive to Maria's feelings.

Learner example:
This way of thinking is very important because a person who spends a lot of time alone can
become self-centred and insensitive to others.

insert /ɪnˈsɜːt/

VERB [T] FORMAL

PUT INTO

to put something into something else

Dictionary example:
Insert the coin in the slot.

Learner example:
You just insert the CD-ROM; [the] rest will [happen] automatically.

ADD TO WRITING

to add something to the middle of a document or piece of writing

Dictionary example:
He inserted a new paragraph.

Learner example:
In the future it will be possible to buy paintings via the internet. The prices will be inserted under
each painting.

inside

NOUN [C USUALLY NO PLURAL] /ˈɪn.saɪd/

know sth inside out

to know everything about something
Dictionary example:
He knows the system inside out.

334
 Learner example:
The participants got to know Britain inside out and they are happy with the knowledge they
gained.

insight /ˈɪn.saɪt/

NOUN [C or U]

the ability to understand what something is really like, or an example of this

Dictionary examples:
The book gives a fascinating insight into the world of art.
This new research provides many insights into customer behaviour.
Children sometimes show remarkable insight when it comes to adult problems.

Learner example:
Special courses were offered, which provided deep insights in[to] fascinating topics - they were
great fun.

insignificant /ˌɪn.sɪgˈnɪf.ɪ.kənt/

Word family:
Nouns: significance
Adjectives: significant, insignificant
Adverbs: significantly

ADJECTIVE

not important or large enough to consider or worry about

Dictionary example:
insignificant differences

Learner example:
Second, the "sudden downpour of rain" you reported and which "ruined" the show was actually a
short and insignificant one that only lasted a few minutes.

insist /ɪnˈsɪst/

VERB [I]

insist on sth PHRASAL VERB

to keep doing something, even if it annoys other people or people think it is not
good for you

335
 Dictionary examples:
She insists on cooking all her own meals.
Frank insisted on doing all the work himself.

Learner example:
Young people often insist on doing everything on their own and consider advice almost an attack
on their personal opinion.

inspect /ɪnˈspekt/

Word family:
Nouns: inspector, inspection
Verbs: inspect

VERB [T]

to look at something or someone carefully in order to discover information,

especially about their quality or condition
Dictionary examples:
After the crash, both drivers got out and inspected their cars for damage.
She held the bank note up to the light and inspected it carefully.

Learner example:
I invite you to inspect our facilities [so] that you can persuade yourself about the lack of
equipment.

inspection /ɪnˈspek.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: inspector, inspection
Verbs: inspect

NOUN [C or U]

OFFICIAL

an official visit to a building or organization to check that everything is correct and

legal
Dictionary example:
Fire officers carried out an inspection of the building.

Learner example:
The location was just fine but I suggest that you make an inspection. You would then see what I
mean... The rooms were very dirty, there was no lift in the hotel and service was poor.

336
 installation /ˌɪn.stəˈleɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: installation
Verbs: install

NOUN

EQUIPMENT

[U] the process of putting new equipment into position

Dictionary example:
Do you have to pay extra for installation?

Learner example:
Last but not least, students asked for the installation of a beverage machine - that would be really
convenient for them.

SOFTWARE

[U] the process of putting a computer program onto a computer

Dictionary example:
the installation of new software

Learner example:
Personally, I beli[e]ve that the installation of the Japanese Word version could considerably
improve the efficiency of my work.

instance /ˈɪnt.stənts/

NOUN

EXAMPLE

[C] an example of a particular type of event, situation, or behaviour

Dictionary example:
There have been several instances of violence in the school.

Learner example:
There may be instances when the situation is exactly [the] opposite, but in this case, it was the
way that my friend's sister was brought up that triumphed.

instruct /ɪnˈstrʌkt/

Word family:
Nouns: instruction, instructor
Verbs: instruct

337
VERB [T]

ORDER

to officially tell someone to do something

Dictionary example:
Staff are instructed not to use the telephones for personal calls.

Learner example:
When workers began to threaten [to] strike, about twenty days ago, people were instructed on
how to tackle such an occurrence - you know, we are well organised and like to have emergency
plans for any danger.

instrument /ˈɪnt.strə.mənt/

NOUN [C]

TOOL

a tool that is used for doing something

Dictionary example:
scientific instruments

Learner example:
You can also see Roman medical instruments and tools, for example a pioneer axe and different
knives.

insufficient /ˌɪn.səˈfɪʃ.ənt/

Word family:
Adjectives: sufficient, insufficient, self-sufficient
Adverbs: sufficiently

ADJECTIVE

not enough
Dictionary examples:
insufficient information
Her income is insufficient to support a family.

Learner example:
In contrast to your brochure, we did not have any special [entertainment] at the hotel and the
dinner was insufficient in terms of not only its quality but also the quantity.

338
 integral /ˈɪn.tɪ.grəl/

ADJECTIVE

necessary and important as part of something

Dictionary example:
The Internet has become an integral part of modern life.

Learner example:
Over the last few years, computers have become an integral part of our lives.

integrate /ˈɪn.tɪ.greɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: integration
Verbs: integrate

VERB [I or T]

to become part of a group or society, or to help someone do this

Dictionary example:
After a few weeks of training he was fully integrated into the team.

Learner example:
I am [a] determined, spont[ane]ous person and I have the ability to integrate well.

integration /ˌɪn.tɪˈgreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: integration
Verbs: integrate

NOUN [U]

when things or people are mixed, joined or combined

Dictionary example:
cultural integration

Learner example:
This may be explained by the increasing number of exchanges in the European Union, and the
stronger economic integration of European Countries.

339
 intend /ɪnˈtend/

Word family:
Nouns: intention, intent
Verbs: intend
Adjectives: intent

VERB [T]

be intended for
to be made, designed, or provided for a particular person or purpose
Dictionary examples:
The book is intended for anyone who wants to learn more about the Internet.
The course is intended for intermediate-level students.

Learner example:
The course is intended for business people who don't have English as their mother toungue.

intense /ɪnˈtens/

Word family:
Nouns: intensity
Verbs: intensify
Adjectives: intense
Adverbs: intensely

ADJECTIVE

EXTREME

extreme or very strong

Dictionary example:
intense heat/pain

Learner example:
Most of the rooms we stayed in did not have air-condition[ing], which caused many sleepless
nights [for] the majority of us due to the intense heat.

intensively /ɪnˈten.sɪv.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: intensive
Adverbs: intensively

ADVERB

in way that involves a lot of work in a short period of time

340
 Dictionary example:
I spent three weeks working intensively on my thesis.

Learner example:
The canteen gets very busy and noisy at lunchtimes, but we all enjoy chatting to our friend after
intensively studying in the classes.

interaction /ˌɪnt.əˈræk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: interaction
Verbs: interact
Adjectives: interactive

NOUN [C]

the activity of talking and doing things with other people, or the way you do this
Dictionary example:
Our work involves a lot of interaction with the customers.

Learner example:
The interaction between the different groups in the Big Brother house is also very entertaining.

interactive /ˌɪn.təˈræk.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: interaction
Verbs: interact
Adjectives: interactive

ADJECTIVE

COMMUNICATION

involving communication between people

Dictionary example:
interactive teaching methods

Learner example:
Our special special temporary membership offer is just right for people who want to enjoy their
holidays in a more social and interactive way.

341
 interest /ˈɪn.trəst/

Word family:
Nouns: interest
Adjectives: interested, interesting, uninterested, uninteresting
Adverbs: interestingly

NOUN

MONEY CHARGED

[U] money which is charged by a bank or other financial organization for borrowing
money
Dictionary example:
Interest charges on an overdraft are usually quite high.

Learner example:
Extremely high interest rates and high unemployment were a fatal combination for many families.

MONEY EARNED

[U] money that you earn from keeping your money in an account in a bank or other
financial organization
Dictionary example:
You should put the money in a savings account where it will earn interest.

be in sb's interest(s)
to help someone and give them an advantage
Dictionary example:
It may not be in your interests to change jobs so soon.

Learner example:
It is in my interests to meet new people and I find it easy to go and talk to people I do not know.

interestingly /ˈɪn.trə.stɪŋ.li/

Word family:
Nouns: interest
Adjectives: interested, interesting, uninterested, uninteresting
Adverbs: interestingly

ADVERB

used to introduce information that you think is surprising and interesting

Dictionary example:
Interestingly, he never actually said that he was innocent.

342
 Learner example:
Russians today prefer fast food due to a rapid lifestyle. Interestingly, this refers only to lunch
time; about 80% of Russians will prefer eating [a] traditional Russian meal for dinner.

interfere /ˌɪnt.əˈfɪər/

Word family:
Nouns: interference
Verbs: interfere

VERB [I]

CAUSE PROBLEMS

to prevent something from working effectively or from developing successfully

Dictionary example:
I try not to let my dancing classes interfere with my schoolwork.

Learner example:
We realise this activity would interfere with our visit to the Science Museum, but we, in exchange,
would gladly give [up] our free time [o]n Wednesday to perform the programme completely.

interference /ˌɪn.təˈfɪə.rənts/

Word family:
Nouns: interference
Verbs: interfere

NOUN [U]

SITUATION

when someone tries to interfere in a situation

Dictionary example:
There have been claims of too much political interference in education.

Learner example:
The famous have all their gestures watched and judged. How can anyone live with so much
interference?

internally /ɪnˈtɜː.nəl.i/

Word family:
Adjectives: internal
Adverbs: internally

343
ADVERB

inside a person, object, organization, place or country

Dictionary example:
This medicine is for external use only and should not be taken internally.

Learner example:
I am actually very interested in taking the course, because recently I have change[d] my job and
one of my functions is to create a page on the intranet to share information about the company
internally.

interpret /ɪnˈtɜː.prət/

Word family:
Nouns: interpretation, misinterpretation
Verbs: interpret, misinterpret

VERB

DECIDE MEANING

[T] to decide what the intended meaning of something is

Dictionary examples:
It's difficult to interpret these statistics without knowing how they were obtained.
A jury should not interpret the silence of a defendant as a sign of guilt.

Learner example:
Musicians try to interpret it, but admittedly they will never find the whole meaning of it.

introduction /ˌɪn.trəˈdʌk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: introduction
Verbs: introduce

NOUN

FIRST EXPERIENCE

[NO PLURAL] the first time someone experiences something

Dictionary example:
It was our first introduction to great poetry.

Learner example:
In 1998 it was the first introduction to home internet access and as we can see from the chart,
less than 10% of people had one at home.

344
 invade /ɪnˈveɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: invasion
Verbs: invade

VERB

PLACE

[T] to enter a place in large numbers

Dictionary example:
Every summer the town is invaded by tourists.

Learner example:
As tourists invade us in large hoards, the menace of destroying the green values of our land
appears.

invaluable /ɪnˈvæl.ju.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: value
Verbs: value
Adjectives: valuable, invaluable

ADJECTIVE

extremely useful
Dictionary example:
Her contacts in government proved invaluable to the company.

Learner example:
16 June, 2004 Dear Mr. Alcott, I would like to thank you for [the] organisation of the event which
allowed me to obtain invaluable information on up-to-date labour market trends and career
opportunities.

invite /ɪnˈvaɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: invitation
Verbs: invite

VERB [T]

ASK OFFICIALLY

to formally ask someone to do something

345
 Dictionary example:
I was invited to appear on television.

Learner example:
We invite your newspaper to reconsider its position, hoping that the council will think about our
proposals.

irritate /ˈɪr.ɪ.teɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: irritation
Verbs: irritate
Adjectives: irritated, irritating, irritable

VERB [T]

to annoy someone
Dictionary example:
His comments really irritated me.

Learner example:
Children get h[y]peractive and irritate other passengers.

isolated /ˈaɪs.ə.leɪ.tɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: isolation
Adjectives: isolated

ADJECTIVE

FAR AWAY

a long way from other places

Dictionary example:
an isolated village in the mountains

Learner example:
You might get lost in an isolated region without anyone to help you.

ALONE

alone and not having help or support from other people

Dictionary example:
Kazuo felt very isolated at his new school.

Learner example:
Before you even know it, you'll feel isolated and alone because other people will have forgotten
about you.

346
 isolation /ˌaɪ.səlˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: isolation
Adjectives: isolated

NOUN

SEPARATE

[U] the state of being separate from other people, places, or things

Dictionary example:
the country's economic isolation from the rest of the world

Learner example:
Due to the isolation, the country had to feed itself with everything which was needed.

issue /ˈɪʃ.uː/

NOUN [C]

take issue (with sb/sth)

to disagree with what someone says or writes
Dictionary example:
I would take issue with you on that.

Learner example:
On behalf of the staff who worked for this event, I would like to take issue with the report's
inaccuracies and unfair remarks.

itinerary /aɪˈtɪn.ər.ər.i/

NOUN [C]

a list of places that you plan to visit on a journey

Dictionary example:
The President's itinerary includes visits to Boston and New York.

Learner example:
Finally, although the itinerary involved a visit to St. Andrews, for some unknown reasons we never
went there and I was really disappointed.

347
 J

jam /dʒæm/

NOUN

BLOCK

[C] something that is stuck in a machine or that prevents the parts of a machine
from moving
Dictionary example:
The photocopier has a paper jam.

VERB

STUCK

[I or T] to get stuck or make something get stuck

Dictionary examples:
The machine keeps jamming.
Dirt has jammed the engine.

Learner example:
I understand the request for a new printer could be considered expensive, but it would benefit the
office in the long run by diminishing the waste of paper and toner due to the paper jamming the
printer.

jargon /ˈdʒɑː.gən/

NOUN [U]

words and phrases used by particular groups of people that are difficult for other
people to understand
Dictionary example:
legal jargon

Learner example:
Although you communicate with your colleagues in the afternoon, if you only get 'jargon' there
and see your friends from your own country every day without speaking in English, it certainly
doesn't help you improve your ability.

348
 jealousy /ˈdʒel.ə.si/

Word family:
Nouns: jealousy
Adjectives: jealous
Adverbs: jealously

NOUN [U]

a feeling of unhappiness or anger because you want what someone else has or
fear that someone will take what you have
Dictionary examples:
He broke his brother's new bike in a fit of jealousy.
Jealousy can ruin relationships.

Learner example:
What is more, the most successful colleagues generated some jealousy and incomprehension [in]
the others.

joint /dʒɔɪnt/

Word family:
Verbs: join
Adjectives: joint
Adverbs: jointly

NOUN [C]

PLACE

INFORMAL a place where something is sold, especially a restaurant or bar

Dictionary example:
a pizza joint

Learner example:
The following day a visit was scheduled to "a typical English restaurant" which turned out to be a
hamburger joint.

jointly /ˈdʒɔɪnt.li/

Word family:
Verbs: join
Adjectives: joint
Adverbs: jointly

ADVERB

in a shared way

349
 Dictionary example:
The Channel Tunnel was jointly funded by the French and British.

Learner example:
Avesta is now jointly owned by Swedes and Englishmen after merging with British Steel.

joke /dʒəʊk/

NOUN [C]

be a joke INFORMAL

to not be serious or not deserve respect

Dictionary example:
The investigation was a joke.

Learner example:
Talking about restaurants, your "typical English restaurant" was a joke.

crack a joke
to tell a joke
Dictionary example:
He seemed very relaxed, laughing and cracking jokes.

Learner example:
Many members will get the chance to show their talent and we will get to crack some jokes too!

journal /ˈdʒɜː.nəl/

NOUN [C]

MAGAZINE

a magazine containing articles about a particular subject

Dictionary example:
a medical journal

Learner example:
What I miss, however, in our library are the books and journals devoted to science.

judge /dʒʌdʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: judge, judgment
Verbs: judge

350
VERB

COMPETITION

[I or T] to officially decide who will be the winner of a competition

Dictionary example:
I've been asked to judge the art competition.

Learner example:
If you don't object, we would like to see you judging the competition and giving pr[ize]s to the
winners.

junk /dʒʌŋk/

NOUN [U] INFORMAL

old things which have little value

Dictionary example:
His car is just a heap of junk.

Learner example:
I would also like to get rid of the junk in the other bedroom.

junk mail /ˈdʒʌŋkˌmeɪl/

NOUN [U]

letters or emails sent by companies to advertise their goods and services

Dictionary example:
Most of these letters are junk mail.

Learner example:
I collect the post which is usually junk mail.

jury /ˈdʒʊə.ri/

NOUN [C + SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB]

COMPETITION

a group of people who decide the winner of a competition

Dictionary example:
The jury must now decide.

351
 Learner example:
People who think they are talented enough to sing and appear on TV apply for the show and go to
auditions to sing their heart out in front of a jury.

just /dʒʌst/

Word family:
Nouns: justice, injustice
Adjectives: just

ADVERB

it's just as well

used to say that it is lucky that something happened
Dictionary example:
It's just as well we brought an umbrella.

Learner example:
It is just as well that my friends had cars to give me a lift to the school.

I/you/we, etc. will just have to do sth

used to say that there is nothing else someone can do
Dictionary example:
You'll just have to wait.

Learner example:
We will just have to wait and see.....

ADJECTIVE

fair or morally right

Dictionary example:
a just society

Learner example:
He is really involved in what he is doing and does not fear [facing] the difficulties if it is to defend
a just cause.

justified /ˈdʒʌs.tɪ.faɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: justification
Verbs: justify
Adjectives: justifiable, justified, unjustified

352
ADJECTIVE

fair or having a good reason

Dictionary examples:
justified criticism
He's perfectly justified in asking for a salary increase.

Learner example:
Finally, I would strongly recommend that steps are taken to remedy matters and feel we are
justified in requesting partial compensation.

juvenile /ˈdʒuː.vən.aɪl/

ADJECTIVE

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] by, for, or relating to young people

Dictionary example:
juvenile crime

Learner example:
Among many aspects of crime, researchers have been keenly studying juvenile crime.

353
 K

keen /kiːn/

ADJECTIVE

VERY GOOD

very good or well developed

Dictionary example:
a keen sense of smell

Learner example:
Furthermore, she has a keen sense of humour and does not mind a practical joke, which is an
advantage with children.

keep /kiːp/

Word family:
Nouns: keeper
Verbs: keep

VERB (kept, kept)

keep track
to continue to know about someone or something
Dictionary examples:
He changes jobs so often I can’t keep track any more.
Be sure to keep track of the time so you won't be late.

Learner example:
Trying to keep track of these changes by translating them would be an inappropriate task.

keep your word

to do what you said you would do
Dictionary example:
He agreed to come and I'm sure he'll keep his word.

Learner example:
It turned out that the company that had been hired to organize it did not keep their word.

354
keep sb going
to provide what someone needs for a short period of time
Dictionary example:
Dinner is at eight, but I had an apple to keep me going.

Learner example:
Because of health concerns, advertisements lately show the people in Holland how important it is
to have a good breakfast and that it will keep you going the whole day.

PROVIDE MONEY

[T] to provide enough money for someone to live

Dictionary example:
I can't keep a family on that salary.

Learner example:
The economy ha[d] been developed and people could earn money in order to keep the family.

keep your cool

to remain calm
Dictionary example:
You did well to keep your cool in all that panic.

Learner example:
Whatever the problem is, keep your cool, don't panic.

keep an eye out for sb/sth

to watch carefully for someone or something to appear
Dictionary example:
Keep an eye out for the delivery van.

Learner example:
Although individually we try to deliver the best care possible for our individual patients, we do
keep an ear or an eye out for the other members of the team that day.

keep pace with sb/sth

to move or develop at the same speed as someone or something else
Dictionary example:
We have to keep pace with the changing times.

Learner example:
It was first published a century ago and what amazes people most is that [it] keeps pace with the
development of the country without leaving out references to our history and tradition.

keep sb posted
to make certain that someone always knows what is happening
Dictionary example:
Keep me posted on anything that happens while I'm away.

355
 Learner example:
We will keep our members posted on the best eating places in town.

keep a low profile

to try not to be noticed
Dictionary example:
She has kept a low profile since the divorce.

Learner example:
Finally, I believe that the best way to handle these issues is to try to keep a low profile at all times
and to remain indifferent to gossip.

key /kiː/

ADJECTIVE

be key to sth
to be very important in influencing or achieving something
Dictionary example:
Early diagnosis is key to your chances of surviving.

Learner example:
Distribution is key to achiev[ing] economic growth and the positioning of domestic and imported
goods.

kick /kɪk/

VERB [I or T]

kick in PHRASAL VERB

to start to be effective or to happen

Dictionary example:
The new tax rate kicks in next month.

Learner example:
It is at this time that the hormones start to kick in resulting in most of them having to suffer the
side effects.

kick off PHRASAL VERB

When a football match or other event kicks off, it starts.

Dictionary example:
What time does the match kick off?

356
 kick sb out PHRASAL VERB

to force someone to leave a place or organization

Dictionary example:
His wife kicked him out.

Learner example:
He will kick you out of his house without thanking you.

kill /kɪl/

Word family:
Nouns: killer, killing
Verbs: kill

VERB [T]

CAUSE PAIN

INFORMAL to cause you a lot of pain or effort

Dictionary examples:
My feet are killing me.
It wouldn't kill you to tidy up occasionally.

Learner example:
I didn't have enough room to move and the seat belt was broken so when we finally arrived [in]
Edinburgh my back was killing me.

king /kɪŋ/

NOUN [C]

BEST PERSON

the best or most important person in a particular activity

Dictionary example:
He's the new king of pop music.

Learner example:
He is the king of football, which is not at all an exag[g]eration, even though he is retired now.

knob /nɒb/

NOUN [C]

a round handle, or a round button on a machine

357
 Dictionary examples:
a door knob
Turn the black knob to switch on the radio.

Learner example:
It's so obvious that when we turn a knob on or when we switch on something [and] there is no
electricity, we are at a loss!

know /nəʊ/

Word family:
Nouns: knowledge, unknown
Verbs: know
Adjectives: known, unknown, knowledgeable
Adverbs: knowingly

VERB (knew, known)

before you know it

very soon
Dictionary example:
We'll be there before you know it.

Learner example:
It is a bit dark inside and especially in winter, it is dark before you know it.

know sth inside out

to know everything about something
Dictionary example:
He knows the system inside out.

Learner example:
The participants got to know Britain inside out and they are happy with the knowledge they
gained.

know what you are talking about

to understand a subject because of your experience
Dictionary example:
He doesn't know what he's talking about - he's never even been to Africa.

Learner example:
I beli[e]ve that you don't really know what you're talking about.

358
 knowledgeable /ˈnɒl.ɪdʒ.ə.bl/

Word family:
Nouns: knowledge, unknown
Verbs: know
Adjectives: known, unknown, knowledgeable
Adverbs: knowingly

ADJECTIVE

knowing a lot
Dictionary example:
He's very knowledgeable about art.

Learner example:
The teaching staff are largely responsible for the quality of the classes, as they're very
knowledgeable and patient; being able to find them after classes, though, was impossible.

known /nəʊn/

Word family:
Nouns: knowledge, unknown
Verbs: know
Adjectives: known, unknown, knowledgeable
Adverbs: knowingly

ADJECTIVE

be known to do sth
if something or someone is known to do something, people know that it is true or
happens
Dictionary examples:
He is known to dislike opera.
Her car was known to break down frequently.

Learner example:
Firstly, the development of technology is known to cause ob[e]sity.

359
 L

label /ˈleɪ.bəl/

VERB [T] (-ll- or US USUALLY -l-)

INFORMATION

to fix a small piece of paper or other material to something which gives

information about it
Dictionary examples:
All food has to be labelled with 'best before' or 'use by' dates.
The parcel was clearly labelled 'Fragile'.

Learner example:
Moreover, the book shelves are clearly labelled and the books are in alphabetical order.

labour /ˈleɪ.bər/

NOUN

WORK

[U] work, especially the type of work that needs a lot of physical effort

Dictionary examples:
The car parts themselves are not expensive, it's the labour that costs the money.
manual labour

Learner example:
My contribution towards this project is that I will provide two of my trucks and labour for the
transportation of garbage within the community to the dumping sites.

WORKERS

[U] workers, especially people who do practical work with their hands

Dictionary examples:
skilled/unskilled labour
casual labour

Learner example:
This is seen in some AIDS programme[s] by developed countries to developing countries where
many poor people including women and children benefit from skilled labour from abroad.

360
 the labour market
the number of people who are available and willing to work
Dictionary example:
More women have entered the labour market in recent years.

Learner example:
WELCOME TO THE JUNGLE best suits [the] situation of a young Pole entering the labour market.

lack /læk/

VERB [T]

be lacking in sth
to not have a quality
Dictionary example:
He's totally lacking in charm of any sort.

Learner example:
On the other hand, Japanese children are lacking in creativity and originality.

ladder /ˈlæd.ər/

NOUN [C]

STAGES

a series of increasingly important jobs or stages in a particular type of work or

process
Dictionary examples:
a first step on the employment ladder
He moved rapidly up the corporate ladder.

Learner example:
Far too often it is not "the key" but "the missing link", preventing us from taking the next step on
the career ladder.

land /lænd/

Word family:
Nouns: land, landing
Verbs: land

361
VERB

land in/on, etc.

If an object or person lands somewhere, they fall to the ground there.
Dictionary examples:
The ball landed in the neighbour's garden.
She landed flat on her back.

Learner example:
Then, when your booking form landed on my door mat, I decided to take matters into my own
hands and to pay a visit to this conference.

landmark /ˈlænd.mɑːk/

NOUN [C]

BUILDING

a building that you can easily recognize, especially one that helps you to know
where you are
Dictionary example:
a historic landmark

Learner example:
What they enjoyed most was the bus tour of London, on Tuesday, as it was a chance for them to
see all the famous landmarks without walking.

language /ˈlæŋ.gwɪdʒ/

NOUN

TYPE OF WORDS

[U] words of a particular type, especially the words used by people in a particular
job or academic field
Dictionary examples:
legal language
the language of business

Learner example:
English has become the language of science, so it seems, even though some of the papers,
studies and publications are hard to read and understand.

COMPUTERS

[C or U] a system of instructions that is used to write computer programs

362
 Dictionary example:
I'm not familiar with that language.

Learner example:
Students must have knowledge of at least one programming language, preferably Visual C++.

foul language
very rude and offensive words
Dictionary example:
There was a lot of foul language in the movie.

Learner example:
It is the responsibility of the parents not to fight or use any foul language in front of the kids, as
they may learn and use it in front of others.

strong language
words that some people might consider to be offensive
Dictionary example:
The movie contains strong language.

Learner example:
But what I do see is local kids standing by the corner, chat[t]ing, smoking fags and using strong
language.

large /lɑːdʒ/

Word family:
Adjectives: large
Adverbs: largely

ADJECTIVE

by and large
in general
Dictionary example:
By and large, people have welcomed the changes.

Learner example:
By and large, it is clear that we all enjoy some kind of sport.

last /lɑːst/

Word family:
Nouns: last
Adjectives: last
Adverbs: last, lastly

363
VERB [I]

BE ENOUGH

to be enough for a period of time

Dictionary examples:
I've only got £30 to last me till the end of the month.
We've got enough food to last another week.

Learner example:
Until now half of the Filipinos in the Philippines who [devote] themselves to farming are still on [a]
hand to mouth existence, having just enough food to last until the next harvest.

launch /lɔːntʃ/

VERB [T]

SEND

to send a spacecraft or bomb into the sky, or a ship into the water
Dictionary examples:
A spokesman for the dockyard said they hoped to launch the first submarine within two years.
to launch a missile

Learner example:
Could our grandparents or grandparents' parents imagine that one day, we would be able to
launch rockets, to have satellites in the sky?

NOUN [C]

START OF ACTIVITY

the start of an important plan or activity or the process of making a new product
or service available
Dictionary examples:
The launch of their new campaign began today with a press conference.
How much champagne will we need for the launch?
Illness prevented her attending the launch party for her latest novel.

Learner example:
As for the natural resources, it is not very effective as nothing has changed since the launch of the
campaign.

LEAVE LAND

the launching of a spacecraft, ship, or weapon

Dictionary example:
The launch of the space shuttle was delayed for 24 hours because of bad weather.

364
 Learner example:
Since I was [a] young boy I was constantly imag[in]ing that I was able to travel through time and
be an eye-witness to some of mankind['s] most [significant] moments - the birth of Christ, the
discovery of America, [and] even up to recent events such as the launch of the fi[r]st space shuttle.

law /lɔː/

Word family:
Nouns: law, lawyer

NOUN

by law
If you have to do something by law, it is illegal not to do it.
Dictionary example:
They have to provide a contract by law.

Learner example:
Swedish organisations and [companies] are forced by law to put forward programmes for
employing more women and improv[ing] their conditions.

lawn /lɔːn/

NOUN [C]

an area of grass that is cut

Dictionary example:
Will you mow the lawn at the weekend?

Learner example:
Please find enclosed a map of Brighton. Concerning the house, I ask you to mow the lawn
regularly and to water the flowers and the green plants every day.

lay /leɪ/

VERB [T] (laid, laid)

lay sth down/in/on, etc.

to put something down somewhere carefully
Dictionary examples:
She laid the baby on the bed.
He laid the tray down on the table.
She laid aside her book and went to answer the phone.

365
 Learner example:
Veterans lay flowers on the graves of those who'd died during the War.

layout /ˈleɪ.aʊt/

NOUN [C]

the way that something is arranged

Dictionary examples:
Pay attention to the layout of your report.
Do you like the layout of the kitchen?

Learner example:
Concerning the layout of the new centre, I think that the changes you proposed to the size and
location of the coffee bar will be of invaluable help.

leader /ˈliː.dər/

Word family:
Nouns: lead, leader, leadership
Verbs: lead, mislead
Adjectives: lead, leading, misleading

NOUN [C]

WINNER

someone or something that is winning during a race or other situation where

people are competing
Dictionary examples:
He's fallen two laps behind the leaders.
Microsoft is a world leader in software design.

Learner example:
The work experience with SuNatCo must, [without] doubt, positively affect your future career, as
our firm is a world leader in the sphere of communications.

leadership /ˈliː.də.ʃɪp/

Word family:
Nouns: lead, leader, leadership
Verbs: lead, mislead
Adjectives: lead, leading, misleading

366
NOUN [U]

JOB

the job of being in control of a group, country, or situation

Dictionary examples:
The group flourished under her firm leadership.
R&M gained market leadership by selling products that were of superior quality.

Learner example:
Apart from his char[i]smatic leadership and his pioneering spirit, Eleftherios Venizelos was very
close to people who were impoverished and deeply disappointed at that time.

the leadership
the people in control of a group, country, or situation
Dictionary examples:
There is growing discontent with the leadership.
The election for the leadership of the council will take place on Tuesday.

Learner example:
His reappearance is when he wins the leadership of the Social Democratic Party and when a few
months later he becomes Prime-Minster.

QUALITY

the set of characteristics that make a good leader

Dictionary examples:
What the company lacks is leadership.
He lacks leadership qualities/skills.

Learner example:
I also have strong leadership skills and I can lead a team, if necessary.

least /liːst/

PRONOUN

at the very least

not less than, and probably much more than
Dictionary examples:
At the very least, you should apologize.
We should earn £500 at the very least.

Learner example:
Thus, I trust you will agree that at the very least I deserve a letter of explanation from you and a
substantial refund of my money.

367
 to say the least
used to emphasize that you could have said something in a much stronger way
Dictionary example:
We were surprised, to say the least.

Learner example:
You get slightly bored, to say the least.

leave /liːv/

VERB (left, left)

leave sb doing sth

If you leave something or someone doing something, you allow them to continue
doing it, or they continue doing it when you go away.
Dictionary example:
I left the children watching television.

Learner example:
She also has the tendency to leave the children doing what they want, sometimes without realising
the consequen[c]es.

left-wing /ˌleftˈwɪŋ/

ADJECTIVE

relating to the belief that wealth and power should be shared equally
Dictionary example:
He is interested in left-wing politics.

Learner example:
Women's politics are usually followed by the left-wing parties in Austria.

legal /ˈliː.gəl/

Word family:
Adjectives: illegal, legal
Adverbs: illegally, legally

ADJECTIVE

legal action
a legal process in a court

368
 Dictionary example:
They are planning to take legal action against the company.

Learner example:
If we do not get a satisfactory answer to this letter, apologising and offering the compensation
that the students deserve, we will have no other option but to take legal action.

legend /ˈledʒ.ənd/

Word family:
Nouns: legend
Adjectives: legendary

NOUN

FAME

[C] a famous person

Dictionary examples:
a living legend
Jazz legend, Ella Fitzgerald, once sang in this bar.

Learner example:
The audience at the London Palladium was much more quiet, partly because we were in a theatre,
partly because everyone was spe[e]chless in front of such a living legend.

legendary /ˈledʒ.ən.dri/

Word family:
Nouns: legend
Adjectives: legendary

ADJECTIVE

FAMOUS

famous for being excellent

Dictionary examples:
the legendary guitarist Jimi Hendrix
He became editor of the legendary Irish journal, 'The Bell'.

Learner example:
If I went back to the beginning of [the] 70s, then I would probably have [had] a chance to work
with Bill Gates and his 'legendary crew'.

OLD

from a legend

369
 Dictionary example:
a legendary Greek hero

Learner example:
The last article concerned Hercules, the legendary hero.

length /leŋkθ/

Word family:
Nouns: length
Verbs: lengthen
Adjectives: lengthy

NOUN [C or U]

BOOK, ETC.

the amount of writing in a book or document

Dictionary examples:
He's written books of various lengths on the subject.
All of your essays will be about the same length.

lengthen /ˈleŋ.θən/

Word family:
Nouns: length
Verbs: lengthen
Adjectives: lengthy

VERB [I or T]

to become longer or to make something longer

Dictionary example:
There are plans to lengthen the school day.

Learner example:
Furthermore, I suggest [...] that you lengthen the stay in Cambridge which was definitely too
short.

lengthy /ˈleŋk.θi/

Word family:
Nouns: length
Verbs: lengthen
Adjectives: lengthy

370
ADJECTIVE

continuing for a long time

Dictionary examples:
a lengthy discussion/process
Many airline passengers face lengthy delays because of the strike.

Learner example:
It is worth watch[ing] because it is a really lovely story and you can gain a lot of optimism from it
by realising that problems are not always as big as they seem to be, but as it is a soap opera it is
extremely lengthy.

less /les/

Word family:
Verbs: lessen
Adverbs: less

ADVERB

I/he, etc. couldn't care less INFORMAL

used to emphasize that someone is not interested in or worried about something

or someone
Dictionary example:
I couldn't care less what people think.

Learner example:
There was hunger, there was poverty and the king couldn't care less about his people['s] well-
being.

lessen /ˈles.ən/

Word family:
Verbs: lessen
Adverbs: less

VERB [I or T]

to become less or to make something less

Dictionary examples:
Exercise and a healthy diet lessen the chance of heart disease.
Strengthen the legs and it lessens the strain on the knees.

Learner example:
Should you give back the students' money and take into consideration our complaints, I am sure
that you will lessen our disappointment.

371
 let /let/

VERB (letting, let, let)

let alone
used to emphasize that something is more impossible than another thing
Dictionary example:
You couldn't trust her to look after your dog, let alone your child.

Learner example:
We are surrounded by amazing pieces of technology which we do not fully understand, let alone
use to their full capacity.

level /ˈlev.əl/

NOUN [C]

RANK

a position within a system in which people are arranged according to their

importance
Dictionary example:
These are subjects for discussion at management level.

Learner example:
But there is one big problem if the women can reach the upper management level: those women
won't have any children.

liability /ˌlaɪ.əˈbɪl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: liability
Adjectives: liable

NOUN

RESPONSIBILITY

[U] when you are legally responsible for something

Dictionary example:
They have admitted liability for the damage caused.

Learner example:
As soon as I had noticed it, I went to complain to the coach driver and he just disclaimed liability.

372
 TROUBLE

[NO PLURAL] someone or something that is likely to cause you a lot of trouble

Dictionary example:
Wherever we go she upsets someone - she's a real liability.

Learner example:
It destroys the individual, brings shame to his family, and [he becomes] a liability instead of an
asset to his society.

liable /ˈlaɪ.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: liability
Adjectives: liable

ADJECTIVE

RESPONSIBLE

legally responsible
Dictionary example:
Corporate officials are liable for the safety of their employees.

Learner example:
As per our terms and conditions you are liable to pay for any damages occur[r]ed during the move
and that is why we paid more money or premium to your Company than the others.

liberal /ˈlɪb.ər.əl/

ADJECTIVE

SOCIETY

accepting beliefs and behaviour that are new or different from your own
Dictionary examples:
a liberal society/attitude
Her parents were far more liberal than mine.

Learner example:
In a liberal society everything depends on a mixture of wise legislation and responsible individual
behavio[u]r.

POLITICS

Liberal political ideas emphasize the need to make new laws as society changes
and the need for government to provide social services.

373
 Dictionary example:
They are one of a group of liberal parties in the European Union.

Learner example:
He studied law in Paris and got involved in politics as a member of the liberal party during the
first years of the last Century.

liberation /ˌlɪb.əˈreɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: liberty, liberation

NOUN [C or U]

when something or someone is released or made free

Dictionary examples:
the liberation of France from Nazi occupation
Leaving school was such a liberation for me.

Learner example:
Moreover, with the liberation of Greece, he was appointed as the First Governor of the new state.

liberty /ˈlɪb.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: liberty, liberation

NOUN [U]

take the liberty of doing sth

to do something that will have an effect on someone else, without asking their
permission
Dictionary example:
I took the liberty of booking theatre seats for us.

Learner example:
I have taken the liberty of listing some of my ideas and suggestions and hope they will be of
interest to you.

374
 lie1 /laɪ/

VERB [I] (lying, lay, lain)

lie ahead PHRASAL VERB

If an event or situation that will cause problems lies ahead, it will happen in the
future.
Dictionary example:
He's under no illusions about the difficulties that lie ahead for the industry.

Learner example:
They help prepare our children for what lies ahead of them.

life /laɪf/ (PLURAL lives)

NOUN

for life
for the whole of someone's life
Dictionary example:
I will have to take this medicine for life.

Learner example:
A wedding opens a new life when the two parties commit to each other for life.

light /laɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: light, lighter, lighting
Verbs: light
Adjectives: light
Adverbs: lightly

NOUN

in the light of sth

If something is done or happens in the light of facts, it is done or happens
because of those facts.
Dictionary example:
The drug has been withdrawn in the light of new research.

375
 Learner example:
In the light of this news, we took this issue as a class project and investigated it by interviewing
residents.

lightly /ˈlaɪt.li/

Word family:
Nouns: light, lighter, lighting
Verbs: light
Adjectives: light
Adverbs: lightly

ADVERB

NOT MUCH

not much
Dictionary example:
lightly cooked vegetables

like /laɪk/

Word family:
Verbs: dislike, like

PREPOSITION

like crazy INFORMAL

doing something a lot or in a fast way

Dictionary example:
We worked like crazy to get everything finished.

Learner example:
My heart was beating like crazy and when the ski-boat started its journey along the blue waves of
the sea...

likely /ˈlaɪ.kli/

Word family:
Nouns: likelihood
Adjectives: likely, unlikely

ADVERB

probably

376
 Dictionary example:
She'll most likely come without him.

Learner example:
You will most likely not get there before 2.30. Welcome!

limitation /ˌlɪm.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: limit, limitation
Verbs: limit
Adjectives: limited, unlimited

NOUN

RULE

[C or U] a rule or situation that limits something

Dictionary example:
You can't write everything you want because of space limitations.

Learner example:
The only thing that is crucial now is that ministries of culture and tourism should set strict
limitations about building and constructing in order not to [destroy] the stunning views of our
beautiful country.

limitations
things that someone or something is not good at doing
Dictionary example:
Both films show her limitations as an actress.

Learner example:
I would like to be a super-woman but I will have to live with my limitations.

line /laɪn/

NOUN [C]

PRODUCT

a type of product that a company sells

Dictionary example:
They're advertising a new line in garden furniture.

Learner example:
If, on [the] one hand, the changing market is forcing us to [remove] some product lines, on the
other [it] is giving us new opportunities, as is the case for handhelds.

377
 a fine/thin line
If there is a fine line between one thing and another, they are very similar. You
often say this when one thing is acceptable and the other is not.
Dictionary example:
There's a thin line between courage and foolishness.

Learner example:
It took me 6 months to realise that there is a fine line between telling off and psychological abuse.

VERB [T]

line sb/sth up PHRASAL VERB

to plan for something to happen

Dictionary example:
What future projects have you lined up?

Learner example:
Nonetheless, we are also eager to help out in other projects that you have lined up.

linguistic /lɪŋˈgwɪs.tɪk/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

relating to language or linguistics

Dictionary example:
I'm particularly interested in the linguistic development of young children.

Learner example:
Firstly, the claim that only one hour per day was required in order to obtain linguistic fluency is an
unrealistic assumption.

listener /ˈlɪs.ən.ər/

NOUN [C]

someone who listens

Dictionary examples:
The new radio station already has twelve million listeners.
She's a good listener.

Learner example:
She is a good listener, as well as quite talkative.

378
 literacy /ˈlɪt.ər.ə.si/

NOUN [U]

the ability to read and write

Dictionary example:
Adult literacy is low in this area.

Learner example:
School on the one hand has been a place to learn the important basi[c]s, like literacy and
numeracy.

little /ˈlɪt.l
̩/

ADVERB

NOT ENOUGH

not much or not enough

Dictionary examples:
a little-known fact
Little did he know what lay in store for him.

Learner example:
Little did I know that I would be even more confused afterwards.

loan /ləʊn/

NOUN [C]

on loan
If something is on loan, someone is borrowing it.
Dictionary example:
Both paintings are on loan from the city museum.

Learner example:
For example, you can always take out on loan any video you like from our cent[re].

location /ləʊˈkeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: location
Verbs: locate, relocate

379
NOUN [C]

on location
If a film or television programme is made on location, it is made at a place suitable
to the story.
Dictionary example:
The movie was shot on location in Kenya.

Learner example:
We can't help mentioning the nice shots on location.

log /lɒg/

NOUN [C]

a thick piece of tree trunk or branch, especially one cut for burning on a fire
Dictionary example:
Let's put another log on the fire.

Learner example:
People used to cook with fire logs [but] they don't do it any more.

logic /ˈlɒdʒ.ɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: logic
Adjectives: logical
Adverbs: logically

NOUN [U]

the use of reason, or the science of using reason

Dictionary examples:
I fail to see the logic behind his argument.
If prices go up, wages will go up too - that's just logic.
There's no logic in the decision to reduce staff when orders are the highest for years.

Learner example:
It lacked any logic or interest for me.

380
 loneliness /ˈləʊn.li.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: loneliness
Adjectives: lonely

NOUN [U]

the state of being lonely

Dictionary example:
I wasn't prepared for the loneliness of living in a small village.

Learner example:
Frankenstein is a book that explores the feelings of loneliness and solitude, and the consequences
that this has on human relationships.

long /lɒŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: longing
Verbs: long

ADVERB

for long
for a long time
Dictionary example:
Have you been waiting for long?

Learner example:
There're departures every half an hour to the city centre, so you won't have to wait for long.

long ago
If something happened long ago, it happened a great amount of time ago.
Dictionary examples:
I think we met once, long ago.
It was not long ago that I last saw him.

Learner example:
Not so long ago, you could ring each Dutch doorbell of your choice at 6 pm and you'd f[i]nd the
whole family gathered around the kitchen table, having their supper.

381
 long-time /ˈlɒŋ.taɪm/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

describes someone who has been in a particular position for a long period
Dictionary example:
A long-time friend of the chairman said she had expected the resignation.

Learner example:
I have now known her for 13 years both as a student and on a familiar level, since I am a long-
time friend [of] her husband's.

look /lʊk/

Word family:
Nouns: look
Verbs: look, overlook

VERB

look on the bright side

to find good things in a bad situation
Dictionary example:
Look on the bright side - no one was badly hurt.

Learner example:
I am quite self-confident and I usually look on the bright side, as I am not keen on pessimistic
thoughts.

NOUN

FASHION

[NO PLURAL] a style or fashion

Dictionary example:
thenew look for the summer

Learner example:
Shopping [...] gives you a feeling of being in another world, a world where dreams can come true
- dreams of becoming more beautiful by buying new clothes and accessories for the new look you
have always wanted.

382
 lose /luːz/ (lost, lost)

Word family:
Nouns: loss
Verbs: lose
Adjectives: lost

VERB

MONEY

to make less money than you spend

Dictionary examples:
He lost a lot of money on the house sale.
Her company lost over £2 million last year.

Learner example:
The reported information about the income was completely wrong; in fact, the target figure we
had set has been fully reached and this obviously means that the hospital didn't lose any money.

lose your head

to stop being calm in a difficult situation
Dictionary example:
I saw the fire and I lost my head.

Learner example:
She has never lost her head in dangerous s[i]tuations and she always knows what to do.

loss /lɒs/

Word family:
Nouns: loss
Verbs: lose
Adjectives: lost

NOUN

MONEY

[C] when a business spends more money than it earns

Dictionary example:
The company announced a pre-tax loss of three million pounds.

Learner example:
It suffered a major loss over a period of 15 years, roughly from 1978 to 1994.

383
 lost /lɒst/

Word family:
Nouns: loss
Verbs: lose
Adjectives: lost

ADJECTIVE

be lost without sb/sth

INFORMAL to be unable to live or work without someone or something
Dictionary example:
She's lost without her computer.

Learner example:
It showed us how we would be lost without this transportation system.

NEW SITUATION

not knowing what to do in a new situation

Dictionary example:
It was his first day in the office and he seemed a bit lost.

Learner example:
I would recommend a visit [to] a restaurant or the theatre the first evening. I can imagine that
some of the guests felt a bit lost.

lounge /laʊndʒ/

NOUN [C]

a room in a hotel, theatre, airport, etc. where people can relax or wait
Dictionary example:
Drinks were served in the lounge.

Learner example:
In the central lounge you'll find an automatic bus ticket machine.

low /ləʊ/

Word family:
Verbs: lower
Adjectives: low

384
ADJECTIVE

NOT IMPORTANT

not important or powerful

Dictionary examples:
He held a low rank in the army.
New furniture is a very low priority at the moment.

Learner example:
Luminaries claim that the team spirit and the sense of competition have vanished, and it has been
proven that exercise has a low priority compared to other recreational activities.

UNHAPPY

unhappy and without energy

Dictionary example:
Illness of any sort can leave you feeling low.

Learner example:
She never feels low and I am in high spirits being with her because she has got a sense of
humour.

keep a low profile

to try not to be noticed
Dictionary example:
She has kept a low profile since the divorce.

Learner example:
Finally, I believe that the best way to handle these issues is to try to keep a low profile at all times
and to remain indifferent to gossip.

luck /lʌk/

Word family:
Nouns: luck
Adjectives: lucky, unlucky
Adverbs: luckily

NOUN [U]

be in luck INFORMAL

to be lucky or to be able to have or do what you want

Dictionary example:
"Do you have any tuna sandwiches?" "You're in luck - there's one left."

385
 Learner example:
I was in luck, because my friend, who lived in the same area, had his private car and gave me a lift
every day.

luxurious /lʌkˈʃʊə.ri.əs/

Word family:
Nouns: luxury
Adjectives: luxurious

ADJECTIVE

very comfortable and expensive

Dictionary examples:
They have a very luxurious house.
luxurious fabrics

Learner example:
As far as the hotel is concerned, I feel that it wasn't a luxurious one.

luxury /ˈlʌk.ʃər.i/

Word family:
Nouns: luxury
Adjectives: luxurious

NOUN

EXPENSIVE THING

[C] something expensive which is pleasant to have but is not necessary

Dictionary examples:
luxuries, such as champagne and chocolate
I like to buy myself little luxuries from time to time.

Learner example:
At the time, [the] majority [of] consumers had no money to spend on luxuries.

386
 M

machinery /məˈʃiː.nə.ri/

Word family:
Nouns: machine, machinery

NOUN [U]

machines, often large machines

Dictionary example:
industrial/farm machinery

Learner example:
The use of heavy machinery is more and more frequent and consequently the amount of petrol
used [is higher].

magistrate /ˈmædʒ.ɪ.streɪt/

NOUN [C]

a type of judge who deals with less serious crimes

Dictionary example:
The case will be heard by a magistrate.

Learner example:
In public life women have reached positions as magistrates, coun[cillo]rs and ministers.

magnetic /mægˈnet.ɪk/

ADJECTIVE

METAL

with the power of a magnet

Dictionary example:
a magnetic field

387
 Learner example:
The worst of all is that even little children of the age of nine or ten years old now have their own
mobile phone which makes them totally irresponsible and especially affected [by] the magnetic
energy the phone has, which is very harmful to children.

PERSONALITY

having a character that attracts people to you

Dictionary example:
He has a magnetic personality.

Learner example:
Ivan has a magnetic personality, which draws people to him.

magnificently /mægˈnɪf.ɪ.sənt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: magnificent
Adverbs: magnificently

ADVERB

extremely well
Dictionary example:
I thought she coped magnificently.

Learner example:
This small drawback did not affect either the dance display or the horse show, which were both
performed magnificently.

make /meɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: maker
Verbs: make

VERB [T] (made, made)

make time
to leave enough time to do something although you are busy
Dictionary examples:
You have to make time to do your homework.
He never made enough time for family life.

Learner example:
I'm terribly sorry for not being able to make time to pick you up when you arrive.

388
SUITABLE

to have the necessary qualities to become something

Dictionary examples:
He would make a really nice dad.
I wouldn't make a very good lawyer.
It's a very exciting story - it would make a great film.

Learner example:
That is why I think I would make a good judge.

make it
to be successful
Dictionary example:
Very few actors actually make it.

Learner example:
People who belong to this social [group] are much more determined to "make it" in life.

make ends meet

to have just enough money to pay for the things that you need
Dictionary example:
I've taken a second job in the evenings just to make ends meet.

Learner example:
Most students support themselves and barely make ends meet every month.

make an exception
to not treat someone or something according to the usual rules
Dictionary example:
They don't usually take cheques, but they said they'd make an exception in my case.

Learner example:
Unfortunately, they were not flexible enough to make an exception, but on the other hand we
know about the problem now and can avoid it in the future.

make yourself at home

to behave in a relaxed way in a place, as if it was your own home
Dictionary example:
Take off your coat and make yourself at home.

Learner example:
Please relax and make yourself at home and help yourself.

make a note of sth

to write down information about something
Dictionary example:
Let me make a note of your phone number.

389
 Learner example:
After talking to other members, I have made a note of the main problems they considered the
most urgent to be solved.

make a point of doing sth

to be certain that you always do a particular thing
Dictionary example:
He made a point of learning all the names of his staff.

Learner example:
I was not expecting to meet him that night, because I thought he would be busy and not have
time to talk to anyone, but being so special as he is, he made a point of talking to everybody.

make yourself understood

to say something to someone in a way that they understand
Dictionary example:
I had a little difficulty making myself understood.

Learner example:
(Find enclosed a paper slip on which I have written a destination, number of tickets, etc., in the
German language - use it just in case you can't make yourselves understood.)

mammal /ˈmæm.əl/

NOUN [C]

an animal that feeds its babies on milk from its body

Dictionary example:
Dolphins and other sea mammals are being harmed by waste in the oceans.

Learner example:
To admire some of the sea mammals, like the dol[ph]ins and the whales, the best possible spot
would be a small, isolated Aegean isle.

manage /ˈmæn.ɪdʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: management, manager
Verbs: manage

VERB

USE TIME/MONEY

[T] to use or organize your time or money

390
 Dictionary example:
He's no good at managing his money.

Learner example:
London is the third most expensive city in the world after Tok[yo] and N.Y, so you will have to
manage your money quite carefully.

mansion /ˈmæn.tʃən/

NOUN [C]

a very large expensive house

Dictionary example:
The street is lined with enormous mansions where the rich and famous live.

Learner example:
Do you want to live in a grand mansion, an expensive flat or even a castle?

many /ˈmen.i/

DETERMINER; PRONOUN

as many as
used before a number or amount to show that the number or amount is large
Dictionary example:
As many as 6,000 people may have been infected with the disease.

Learner example:
As many as 90% of them went to [the] cinema on a regular basis in 1990, with the peak of [a] 95%
attendance rate taking place in 1996.

march /mɑːtʃ/

NOUN [C]

an organized walk by a group to show that they disagree with something

Dictionary example:
She's going on a march on Saturday in protest over the closure of the hospital.

Learner example:
There were protest marches and doctors, nurses, and the population forced the government to
find a solution to the problem.

391
VERB [I]

SHOW DISAGREEMENT

to walk through a public place as a group to show that you disagree with
something
Dictionary example:
Around twenty thousand people marched through the city today to protest against the proposed
new law.

Learner example:
This was a time of rupture, a scream for freedom, for love, and for peace. Young boys and girls
marched against war and at the same time killed themselves with drugs.

SOLDIERS' WALK

When soldiers march, they walk together with regular steps.

Dictionary example:
The soldiers marched 90 miles in three days.

Learner example:
Even when the Romans marched against Greece, the Greek people could[n't] unite against their
new and powerful enemy and that's why they were conquered.

mark /mɑːk/

NOUN [C]

SYMBOL

a symbol which is used for giving information

Dictionary examples:
I've put a mark on the map where I think we should go for a picnic.
What do those marks in the middle of the road mean?

Learner example:
As you walk through the valley, always following the red marks on the path, you will run into
many interesting views: from climbers climbing the walls of the valley to waterfalls coming from
the top of it.

VERB

DAMAGE/MAKE DIRTY

[T] to leave an area of dirt or damage on something

Dictionary example:
Make sure you don't mark the paintwork while you're moving the furniture around.

392
 market /ˈmɑː.kɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: market, marketing

NOUN [C]

BUYING GROUP

all the people who want to buy a particular product, or the area where they live
Dictionary examples:
Is there a market for second-hand jewellery?
Spain is our largest market.
They've increased their share of the market by 10% over the past year.

Learner example:
We had been researching the market for a year.

the labour market

the number of people who are available and willing to work
Dictionary example:
More women have entered the labour market in recent years.

Learner example:
WELCOME TO THE JUNGLE best suits [the] situation of a young Pole entering the labour market.

masculine /ˈmæs.kjə.lɪn/

ADJECTIVE

having qualities that are typical of men

Dictionary example:
a masculine appearance/voice

Learner example:
Life, nowadays is so hard for women: they have to cope with so many things every day, from their
children to their job, not to mention housework, and the result [of] that is that women are more
and more stressed, "masculine" I dare to say, and less and less "feminine".

mass /mæs/

Word family:
Nouns: mass
Adjectives: massive, mass

393
ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

having an effect on or involving a large number of people

Dictionary examples:
They hope the new movie will appeal to a mass audience.
weapons of mass destruction
Opposition groups plan to stage mass demonstrations all over the country.

Learner example:
Television was a major step forward in the media world which combined the best of all the major
mechanisms of mass communication.

master /ˈmɑː.stər/

NOUN [C]

Master's (degree)
a higher university qualification
Dictionary example:
to study for a Master's degree

Learner example:
I have recently done [a] Master's Degree in International Business and of course used my laptop.

mat /mæt/

NOUN [C]

a piece of thick material that you put on the floor, often in order to protect it
Dictionary example:
There's a mat by the door for you to wipe your feet on.

Learner example:
Last but not least, many Japanese style hotels and restaurants now have square holes in tatami
(straw mat) rooms so that foreign visitors can comfortably stretch their legs under the low table
without having to be seated on folded legs like Zen monks!

match /mætʃ/

VERB

BE AS GOOD AS

[T] to be as good as someone or something else

394
 Dictionary example:
It would be difficult to match the service this airline gives to its customers.

Learner example:
In all these ways that your establishment failed to match the claims made for it in your publicity,
we feel entitled to a full refund and I therefore urge you to improve the facilities of your museum
or withdraw the advertisement to avoid further complaints.

material /məˈtɪə.ri.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: material, materialism, materialist
Adjectives: materialist, materialistic

NOUN

INFORMATION

[U] the facts or ideas in a piece of writing

Dictionary example:
I'm collecting material for an article that I'm writing.

Learner example:
They are mainly interested in gathering material and data.

matter /ˈmæt.ər/

NOUN

a matter of course
If something happens as a matter of course, it always happens as part of the
normal process or system.
Dictionary example:
Babies were tested for the disease as a matter of course.

Learner example:
The transform[ation] has succeeded so far and caused enormous changes in ordinary life as a
matter of course, including eating habits.

it's only a matter of time

If you say that it is only a matter of time before something happens, you are sure
it will happen but you do not know when.
Dictionary example:
It's only a matter of time before someone gets killed on this road.

395
 Learner example:
In my opinion it is only a matter of time before it is decided to [put] an end to this country being a
kingdom.

may /meɪ/

MODAL VERB

may as well do sth

If you may as well do something, it will not spoil the situation if you do that thing.
Dictionary example:
If we're not waiting for Karen, we might as well go now.

Learner example:
She turned round quickly, and then paused, seemingly unable to find her words. A few minutes
later, she began hesitantly: "After all, you may as well know.

me /miː/

PRONOUN

take it from me
accept that what I say is true, because I know or have experienced it
Dictionary example:
You could be doing a much less interesting job, take it from me.

Learner example:
As you pro[b]ably already know, Greeks love sport so, take it from me, you won't have difficulty in
finding sports facilities of any kind, wherever you decide to go.

mean /miːn/

Word family:
Nouns: meaning
Verbs: mean
Adjectives: meaningful

VERB [T] (meant, meant)

be meant for sb/sth

to be made or created for someone or something

396
 Dictionary example:
These toys are really meant for babies.

Learner example:
Cities are meant for human activities and not for heavy traffic.

means /miːnz/

NOUN [PLURAL]

by no means; not by any means

used as a way of emphasizing something negative or difficult
Dictionary examples:
I'm not an expert by any means.
This is by no means the end of the matter.

Learner example:
For one thing, the fight against air pollution is by no means an easy mission.

by means of
using
Dictionary example:
She tried to explain by means of sign language.

Learner example:
Another plus of the Voiceover CD is [the] availability of teachers, who can be easily reached by
means of a telephone, but this kind of service is expensive.

measure /ˈmeʒ.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: measurement
Verbs: measure

VERB

BE SIZE

to be a certain size
Dictionary example:
a whale measuring around 60 feet in length.

Learner example:
Both [are] of navy-blue col[ou]r measuring about 32 cm high and 14 cm wide and both have a
white ribbon attached to the handle.

397
 mechanism /ˈmek.ə.nɪz.əm/

Word family:
Nouns: mechanic, mechanism
Adjectives: mechanical

NOUN [C]

PART OF EQUIPMENT

a part of a piece of equipment that does a particular job

Dictionary example:
The clock's winding mechanism had broken.

Learner example:
Most chairs' adjusting mechanism failed to work properly and they are not comfortable to sit on.

SYSTEM

a system for achieving something, or the way that a system works

Dictionary example:
We need a mechanism for resolving this sort of dispute.

Learner example:
The definition of market here not only means a traditional marketplace for goods exchange and
barter, but it extends further to a supply-sell mechanism which domina[te]s the normal liv[es] of
all [in]habitants.

meet /miːt/

Word family:
Nouns: meeting
Verbs: meet

VERB (met, met)

ENOUGH

[T] to be a big enough amount or of a good enough quality for something

Dictionary examples:
We couldn't find a house that met our needs/requirements.
This old building will never meet the new fire regulations.

Learner example:
Finally, as regards the Internet centre only two computers were available, which did not meet the
needs of a Museum like this.

make ends meet

to have just enough money to pay for the things that you need

398
 Dictionary example:
I've taken a second job in the evenings just to make ends meet.

Learner example:
Most students support themselves and barely make ends meet every month.

membership /ˈmem.bə.ʃɪp/

Word family:
Nouns: member, membership

NOUN

PEOPLE

[C + SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB OR U] the people who belong to a group or an organization

Dictionary example:
Union membership is now over three million and rising.

Learner example:
First of all, we found that our club's membership is actually falling.

memo /ˈmem.əʊ/

NOUN [C] (PLURAL memos)

a written message sent from one member of an organization to another
Dictionary example:
Did you see the memo about expenses?

Learner example:
Dear College Principal, The student committee has received your memo about the proposed
changes to the Sports Centre.

mentality /menˈtæl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: mentality
Adjectives: mental
Adverbs: mentally

NOUN [C]

a person's opinions or way of thinking

Dictionary example:
I can't understand the mentality of people who hunt animals for fun.

399
 Learner example:
This is why the changing mentality of men plays an important role.

merit /ˈmer.ɪt/

NOUN [C or U] FORMAL

good qualities which deserve praise

Dictionary examples:
His ideas have merit.
We debated the merits of using television in the classroom.
Every application has to be judged on its own merits (=judged by considering the qualities of
each).

Learner example:
Nevertheless, everything has its own merits.

mess /mes/

Word family:
Nouns: mess
Adjectives: messy

VERB

mess about/around PHRASAL VERB

PLAY

INFORMAL to spend time playing and doing things with no particular purpose
Dictionary examples:
I was just messing around on the computer.
She'd spent the day with friends, just messing about.

Learner example:
Well, you could do baby-sitting, but if you don't like kids messing around, don't worry, there are
many other jobs.

WASTE TIME

to waste time, often by doing things that are not important

Dictionary example:
Stop messing around and do your homework!

Learner example:
Every day we are informed about young people "causing problems", "trouble" [or] "messing
around".

400
 middle /ˈmɪd.l
̩/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

NOT HIGH OR LOW

neither high nor low in importance, amount or size

Dictionary examples:
middle managers
middle income families

Learner example:
However, women are mostly found in the low and middle income jobs and they are often working
part-time.

might /maɪt/

MODAL VERB

you might like/want to...

used to politely suggest something
Dictionary example:
You might want to try a different approach next time.

Learner example:
You might want to consider requesting your staff to learn a second language such as German,
French or Spanish.

might as well do sth

If you may/might as well do something, it will not spoil the situation if you do that
thing.
Dictionary example:
If we're not waiting for Karen, we might as well go now.

Learner example:
I'm not happy to tell you this but I might as well be frank about it as we both want the visit to be a
delightful as possible to our members.

migration /maɪˈgreɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [C or U]

when people go to another place to live or find work, or when an animal or bird
moves to another place, usually when the season changes

401
 Dictionary examples:
There was a mass migration of poor farmers into the cities.
The butterflies come to Mexico during their annual migration.

Learner example:
There is also migration, people from little villages in the interior migrate to the coast.

mild /maɪld/

ADJECTIVE

SLIGHT

not violent, severe or extreme

Dictionary examples:
She can't accept even mild criticism of her work.
He has suffered a mild heart attack - nothing too serious.
a mild form of pneumonia

Learner example:
Music has either a strong or a mild impact (depending [on] the person) on our lives.

mile /maɪl/

NOUN [C]

miles
a very long distance
Dictionary examples:
We drove for miles along dusty roads.
Her cottage is miles from the nearest village.

Learner example:
And then, when it seems as if you have walked for miles, you enter the magnificent Forum
Romanum.

military /ˈmɪl.ɪ.tri/

NOUN

the military
! a country's army, navy, and air force

402
 Dictionary example:
The military has opposed any cuts in defense spending.

Learner example:
Until the 1970s, fencing was a sport restricted to the military.

mind /maɪnd/

NOUN [C]

put/set sb's mind at ease/at rest

to say something to someone to stop them worrying
Dictionary example:
I was really worried about the tests, but talking to the doctor put my mind at rest.

Learner example:
I hope my letter will put your mind at rest.

put your mind to sth

to give your full attention to something and try very hard to do it
Dictionary example:
You could win if you put your mind to it.

Learner example:
With all the technology available, the task is actually quite simple if you put your mind to it.

be in two minds
to have difficulty making a decision
Dictionary example:
I'm in two minds about accepting his offer.

Learner example:
If you are in two minds about having to share your room with someone else, there you can easily
rent a studio apartment close to the college, which is situated in the centre of the city.

come to mind
If an idea comes to mind, you think of it.
Dictionary example:
I was thinking about who might be suitable for this job, and your name came to mind.

Learner example:
Positives did come from that crisis - more efficient engines, lighter vehicles and lead-free petrol
are just some of the examples that come to mind.

403
 miner /ˈmaɪ.nər/

Word family:
Nouns: mine, miner, mining

NOUN [C]

someone who works in a mine

Dictionary example:
a coal miner

Learner example:
We are used to strikes in our country so when we heard that the miners had refused to work we
did not despair.

mingle /ˈmɪŋ.gl
̩/

VERB

TALK

[I] to meet and talk to a lot of people at a party or similar event

Dictionary example:
The party will be a good opportunity to mingle with the other students.

Learner example:
If you have some time and money to spend go on holiday to an English-speaking country and try
to mingle with the locals.

minimal /ˈmɪn.ɪ.məl/

Word family:
Nouns: minimum
Verbs: minimize
Adjectives: minimum, minimal

ADJECTIVE

very small in amount

Dictionary example:
Damage to the building was minimal.

Learner example:
Bigger car parks would be built near the MRT station so that people may park their cars at the car
park having to pay a minimal rate and use the train to bring them to their workplace.

404
 minimize /ˈmɪn.ɪ.maɪz/

Word family:
Nouns: minimum
Verbs: minimize
Adjectives: minimum, minimal

VERB [T] (ALSO UK minimise)

to make the amount of something that is unpleasant or not wanted as small as
possible
Dictionary example:
Airport staff are trying to minimize the inconvenience caused to passengers.

Learner example:
Try to minimize your working time and spend more time with other people.

mining /ˈmaɪ.nɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: mine, miner, mining

NOUN [U]

the industry or activity of removing substances such as coal or metal from the
ground by digging
Dictionary example:
coal/salt mining

Learner example:
My company deals mostly with the mining, processing and benefic[i]ation of magnesite ore. Most
of our final products are sold abroad.

ministry /ˈmɪn.ɪ.stri/

Word family:
Nouns: minister, ministry

NOUN [C]

a government department which is responsible for a particular subject

Dictionary examples:
the Ministry of Defence/Agriculture
a Foreign Ministry spokesman

405
 Learner example:
According to a majority of students, it's quite economical for them to go to state schools since the
Turkish Ministry of Education gives them scholarships.

minority /maɪˈnɒr.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: minority
Adjectives: minor

NOUN

RACE

[C] a group of people whose race is different from the race of most of the people
where they live
Dictionary examples:
ethnic/religious minorities
The plan was designed to help women and minorities overcome discrimination in the workplace.

Learner example:
The novel reveals very clearly to the reader how minorities are exploited and scorned by society.

misbehave /ˌmɪs.bɪˈheɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: behaviour
Verbs: behave, misbehave

VERB [I]

to behave badly
Dictionary example:
If you misbehave, you will be punished - it's as simple as that.

Learner example:
Firstly, an apology is due to all nearby residents whose lives were disturbed by a few somewhat
misbehaving students.

misfortune /mɪsˈfɔː.tʃuːn/

Word family:
Nouns: fortune, misfortune
Adjectives: fortunate, unfortunate
Adverbs: fortunately, unfortunately

406
NOUN [C or U]

bad luck, or an unlucky event

Dictionary example:
He had the misfortune to fall in love with a married woman.

Learner example:
But try not to wear black because they believe it brings bad luck and misfortune.

misinform /ˌmɪs.ɪnˈfɔːm/

Word family:
Nouns: information
Verbs: inform, misinform
Adjectives: informative

VERB [T OFTEN PASSIVE]

to give someone false information

Dictionary example:
I'm afraid you've been misinformed about your exam results.

Learner example:
From the article, I got the impression that your reporter was misinformed about certain facts
which are crucial for a better [understanding] of the event.

mislead /mɪsˈliːd/

Word family:
Nouns: lead, leader, leadership
Verbs: lead, mislead
Adjectives: lead, leading, misleading

VERB [T] (misled)

to make someone believe something that is untrue by giving them information
that is wrong or not complete
Dictionary example:
She claims the public was misled by the government.

Learner example:
As a member of the charity organisation, I was very much upset by the report, as it was totally
against the fact[s], which would certainly mislead the readers.

407
 miss /mɪs/

Word family:
Verbs: miss
Adjectives: missing

NOUN

give sth a miss

to not do an activity
Dictionary example:
I think I'll give aerobics a miss this evening.

Learner example:
For this reason, I don't encourage you to buy the Spanish version of these CDs. I think you should
give it a miss. Kind regards

mistaken /mɪˈsteɪ.kən/

Word family:
Nouns: mistake
Adjectives: mistaken

ADJECTIVE

If you are mistaken, or you have a mistaken belief, you are wrong about
something.
Dictionary example:
If you think you can behave like that, you are mistaken.

Learner example:
First of all, you mentioned in the article that we promised 45 stalls for that day, but you are
completely mistaken as we announced only 35.

misuse

Word family:
Nouns: use, user, misuse, usefulness
Verbs: use, misuse
Adjectives: useful, useless

VERB [T] /ˌmɪsˈjuːz/

to use something in the wrong way or for the wrong purpose
Dictionary example:
He misused his position to obtain money dishonestly.

408
 Learner example:
By doing this the money won't be misused because we won't have to build a new indoor court that
will not be used at all times.

NOUN [C or U] /ˌmɪsˈjuːs/
the use of something in the wrong way or for the wrong purpose
Dictionary example:
They accused him of the misuse of power.

Learner example:
Can we disregard the consequences there may be of the misuse of the above innovations of
technology?

mode /məʊd/

NOUN [C]

a way of doing something

Dictionary example:
a mode of transport

Learner example:
In conclusion, I think that both modes of education play a great role in educating children to be
good members of society.

moderate

Word family:
Nouns: moderation
Verbs: moderate
Adjectives: moderate
Adverbs: moderately

ADJECTIVE /ˈmɒd.ər.ət/
average in size or amount and not too much
Dictionary examples:
a moderate increase in salaries
moderate growth
Eating a moderate amount of fat is healthy.

Learner example:
A moderate increase in cinema attendance was noted until the year 1996.

409
 moderation /ˌmɒd.ərˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: moderation
Verbs: moderate
Adjectives: moderate
Adverbs: moderately

NOUN

in moderation
If you do something in moderation, you do not do it too much.
Dictionary example:
I only drink alcohol in moderation.

Learner example:
While shopping can make one feel good and even has its positive impact on the retail economy, I
think it should be done in moderation.

modest /ˈmɒd.ɪst/

Word family:
Adjectives: modest
Adverbs: modestly

ADJECTIVE

NOT PROUD

If you are modest, you do not talk in a proud way about your skills or successes.
Dictionary example:
He's very modest about his achievements.

Learner example:
Earning a lot she is still very modest and does not show any signs of vanity at all.

modestly /ˈmɒd.ɪst.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: modest
Adverbs: modestly

ADVERB

BY SMALL AMOUNT

by a modest amount

410
 Dictionary example:
At just £9, the DVD is very modestly priced.

modification /ˌmɒd.ɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: modification
Verbs: modify

NOUN [C or U]

a small change to something

Dictionary example:
We've made a few modifications to the system.

Learner example:
Although I am very happy with the current design of my house I may make some modifications in
the future.

modify /ˈmɒd.ɪ.faɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: modification
Verbs: modify

VERB [T]

to change something in order to improve it

Dictionary example:
The plans will have to be modified to reduce costs.

Learner example:
To sum up, the Work Experience in Britain Programme should be modified as it was a far cry from
what we ha[d] been led to expect.

monitor /ˈmɒn.ɪ.tər/

VERB [T]

to watch something carefully and record your results

Dictionary examples:
to monitor progress
The new findings suggest that women ought to monitor their cholesterol levels.

411
 Learner example:
Their life is being monitored and broadcast throughout the country, and every week the audience
decide who has to leave.

monotonous /məˈnɒt.ən.əs/

ADJECTIVE

If something is monotonous, it is boring because it stays the same.

Dictionary examples:
a monotonous voice
monotonous work

Learner example:
The voice of the speaker is monotonous and lacks any rhythm or modulation, intrinsic parts of
any language without which proper acquisition of it is impossible.

moral /ˈmɒr.əl/

Word family:
Adjectives: immoral, moral
Adverbs: morally

ADJECTIVE

GOOD BEHAVIOUR

behaving in ways considered by most people to be correct and honest

Dictionary example:
She's a very moral woman.

Learner example:
He couldn't tolerate anybody disturbing childrens' lives for the sake of money, because he was a
very moral man.

most /məʊst/

Word family:
Adverbs: most, mostly

ADVERB

for the most part

mostly or usually

412
 Dictionary example:
I enjoyed it for the most part.

Learner example:
First of all, for the most part, people have to use computers in their jobs.

motivate /ˈməʊ.tɪ.veɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: motivation, motive
Verbs: motivate
Adjectives: motivated

VERB [T]

ENTHUSIASTIC

to make someone enthusiastic about doing something

Dictionary example:
Teaching is all about motivating people to learn.

Learner example:
There are a lot of tools that can be used to motivate people and it is the Human Resources
department who should take care of using them properly.

CAUSE

to cause someone to behave in a particular way

Dictionary example:
Some people are motivated by greed.

Learner example:
Most of us are motivated by fear.

motivation /ˌməʊ.tɪˈveɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: motivation, motive
Verbs: motivate
Adjectives: motivated

NOUN

REASON

[C] the need or reason for doing something

Dictionary example:
What was the motivation for the attack?

413
 Learner example:
Although money is the main motivation, for many people, to work I have come across many
people who ha[ve] worked volunt[ari]ly or [for] less money to gain relev[a]nt experience.

mouth /maʊθ/

NOUN [C]

mouth of a river
where a river goes into the sea
Dictionary example:
It is a small village, by the mouth of a river.

Learner example:
The mouth of the river with a [narrow] exit to the sea, provided an extra ex[c]itement because of
the pressure of the water when joining the sea.

move /muːv/

Word family:
Nouns: movement
Verbs: move, remove
Adjectives: moving

VERB

move on PHRASAL VERB

NEW PLACE

to leave the place where you are and go somewhere else

Dictionary example:
After three days in Madrid we thought we'd move on.

Learner example:
We will drive on to a waterfall [nearby], where we [can] take some pictures and afterwards move
on to the restaurant for dinner.

NEW SUBJECT

to change from one subject to another when you are talking or writing
Dictionary example:
Let's move on to the next topic.

Learner example:
Let's move on to the way of teaching and the subjects.

414
 NEW ACTIVITY

to start doing a new activity

Dictionary example:
I'd done the same job for ten years and felt it was time to move on.

Learner example:
We have to wait for our turn to use one of the comput[e]rs, and tend to have a chat with the
colleagues in the mean[time] instead of moving on to another thing.

NOUN [C]

ACTION

an action taken to achieve something

Dictionary examples:
Buying those shares was a good move.
It was a good career move.
The latest policies are clearly a move towards democracy.

Learner example:
I have also come to [the] conclusion that showing [the] canteen [in the film] would not be a good
move because it is very noisy.

CHANGE OF PLACE

when you go to live or work in a different place

Dictionary example:
We've had four moves in three years.

movement /ˈmuːv.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: movement
Verbs: move, remove
Adjectives: moving

NOUN

GROUP

[C] a group of people with the same beliefs who work together to achieve
something
Dictionary examples:
the women's movement
the labour movement

415
 Learner example:
Obviously what started some time ago as a feminist movement has now grown to the level of
independence, economically and most important, socially.

much /mʌtʃ/

DETERMINER; PRONOUN (more, most)

A LOT OF

FORMAL a lot of
Dictionary examples:
Much of the evidence was unreliable.
Much work remains to be done.

Learner example:
Much of the influence that people [come under] to change [their] eating habits comes from TV,
[e]specially advertisements.

not much of a sth

used when you want to say that a person or thing is not a very good example of
something
Dictionary examples:
I'm not much of a cook.
It's not much of a job, but it pays the bills.

Learner example:
I'm not much of a royalist but I think she's the symbol of everything that's Danish.

multiple /ˈmʌl.tɪ.pl
̩/

ADJECTIVE

with several things or parts

Dictionary examples:
multiple injuries
We made multiple copies of the report.

Learner example:
The report contains multiple errors and gives the reader a totally incorrect view of the event.

416
 mundane /mʌnˈdeɪn/

ADJECTIVE

ordinary, or not interesting

Dictionary example:
a mundane task/life

Learner example:
Lastly, it would be a good idea to travel to an island and to escape just a while from your
mundane routine.

municipal /mjuːˈnɪs.ɪ.pəl/

ADJECTIVE

relating or belonging to the government of a town or city

Dictionary examples:
municipal tennis courts
a municipal council/election

Learner example:
Another problem is that the municipal authority in the location proposed has a very negative
attitude towards companies of [our] kind, imposing very high taxes.

music /ˈmjuː.zɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: music, musical, musician
Adjectives: musical
Adverbs: musically

NOUN [U]

face the music

to accept punishment or criticism for something bad that you have done
Dictionary example:
At the end of the day I had to go home and face the music.

Learner example:
Teenagers who live with their parents have to face the music about the long bills their parents
receive monthly!

417
 musical /ˈmjuː.zɪ.kəl/

Word family:
Nouns: music, musical, musician
Adjectives: musical
Adverbs: musically

ADJECTIVE

ABILITY

good at playing music

Dictionary example:
She comes from a very musical family.

Learner example:
[These] people are very musical and, therefore, you will find folk songs and even unique dances.

mustard /ˈmʌs.təd/

NOUN [U]

a thick, spicy yellow or brown sauce often eaten in small amounts with meat
Dictionary example:
a teaspoon of mustard

Learner example:
You just ask for what you want put in it - ham, eggs, salad, chicken, mustard, etc.

mutual /ˈmjuː.tʃu.əl/

ADJECTIVE

OPINION

When two or more people have a mutual feeling, they have the same opinion about
each other.
Dictionary examples:
mutual admiration/respect
He doesn't like her, and I suspect the feeling's mutual.

Learner example:
It will hugely contribute to better understanding between the parties as well as add to a mutual
respect and trust.

418
 FRIEND/INTEREST

When two or more people have a mutual friend or interest, they have the same
one.
Dictionary example:
Andrew and Jean were introduced to each other by a mutual friend.

Learner example:
They need someone who would help their dead, but still living, bodies look good and they find a
victim - their mutual lover (Bruce Willis).

myself /maɪˈself/

PRONOUN

(all) to myself
for my use only
Dictionary examples:
I'll have the flat all to myself this weekend.
I need a couple of hours to myself.

Learner example:
This is because if I live[d] in a triple-storey [house], I would get a room all to myself.

mysteriously /mɪˈstɪə.ri.əs.li/

Word family:
Nouns: mystery
Adjectives: mysterious
Adverbs: mysteriously

ADVERB

in a way that is mysterious

Dictionary examples:
"Perhaps, and perhaps not," she said mysteriously.
Mysteriously, the light came on, although no one was near the switch.

Learner example:
Mysteriously, their character always dies tragically or goes abroad and [is] never seen again.

419
myth /mɪθ/

NOUN

FALSE IDEA

[C] an idea that is not true but is believed by many people

Dictionary example:
It's a myth that men are better drivers than women.

Learner example:
There is this myth that when you are on [holiday] you should spend your whole time at the beach,
practically doing nothing.

420
 N

naive /naɪˈiːv/

ADJECTIVE

If someone is naive, they believe things too easily and do not have enough
experience of the world.
Dictionary example:
I was much younger then, and very naive.

Learner example:
It might sound a bit idealistic and naive, but I think this concept of communication will make the
world a better place.

naked /ˈneɪ.kɪd/

ADJECTIVE

NOT HIDDEN

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] A naked feeling or quality is not hidden, although it is bad.

Dictionary example:
naked aggression

Learner example:
This programme presents the naked truth about Brazil, this so called "Tropical Paradise".

namely /ˈneɪm.li/

Word family:
Nouns: name
Verbs: name
Adverbs: namely

ADVERB

used when you are going to give more detail about something you have just said
Dictionary example:
She learned an important lesson from failing that exam, namely that nothing is ever certain.

421
 Learner example:
This network is used by the four most used means of transport in our city (namely, bus, car,
bicycle and motorcycle) and has been plagued by problems such as potholes, poor drainage and
poor use (or lack!) of traffic signs.

nap /næp/

NOUN [C]

a short sleep
Dictionary example:
He likes to have/take a nap after lunch.

Learner example:
He usually takes a nap after lunch and at night goes to bed about 10.00 p.m.

narrow /ˈnær.əʊ/

Word family:
Verbs: narrow
Adjectives: narrow
Adverbs: narrowly

VERB

MAKE SMALLER

to become less wide or to make something less wide

Dictionary examples:
The road has been narrowed to one lane.
His eyes narrowed angrily.

Learner example:
Driving as well as parking has become a difficult task in Copenhagen City as the City Council [has]
over the last [few] years deliberately cut down the numbers of parking places, raised the fees and
narrowed the roads and streets.

narrow-minded /ˌnær.əʊˈmaɪn.dɪd/

ADJECTIVE

not willing to accept new ideas or opinions different from your own
Dictionary example:
My family are very narrow-minded.

422
 Learner example:
He is a bit narrow-minded and at first he'll drive you crazy but once you get to know him, he'll be
good company.

natural /ˈnætʃ.ər.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: nature
Adjectives: natural, unnatural
Adverbs: naturally

ADJECTIVE

FROM BIRTH

If you have a natural characteristic, it is something you have been born with.
Dictionary examples:
a natural talent
She's a natural athlete/blonde.

Learner example:
Also my natural talent for entertaining people together with my past experience should be very
useful working at [the] new theme park.

naturally /ˈnætʃ.ər.əl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: nature
Adjectives: natural, unnatural
Adverbs: naturally

ADVERB

LIFE

happening or existing as part of nature and not made or done by people

Dictionary examples:
A healthy body will be able to fight off the illness naturally without the use of medicine.
He has naturally blonde hair.

Learner example:
Sometimes people say women are naturally stronger tha[n] men.

423
 nature /ˈneɪ.tʃər/

Word family:
Nouns: nature
Adjectives: natural, unnatural
Adverbs: naturally

NOUN

TYPE

[NO PLURAL] FORMAL type

Dictionary examples:
What exactly is the nature of your business?
I don't like hunting and things of that nature.

Learner example:
He claims that he did not improve his English because of the nature of the job.

near /nɪər/

PREPOSITION

nowhere near
not close in distance, time, amount or quality
Dictionary examples:
The house was nowhere near the sea.
It's nowhere near time for us to leave yet.
I'm nowhere near finishing the book - I'm only half-way through it.
He's nowhere near as tall as his sister.

Learner example:
Although people are well aware of the current situation in Switzerland, they prefer looking at
other countries and comparing us to them (we are nowhere near as fat as them).

anywhere near sth

used in questions and negatives to mean 'close to being or doing something'
Dictionary example:
The house isn't anywhere near ready.

Learner example:
We could not have gone anywhere near 5000 miles because all our minibuses were broken down -
we even stayed in one place for 8 days.

424
 nearly /ˈnɪə.li/

ADVERB

not nearly (as/so)

a lot less
Dictionary examples:
It's not nearly as expensive as I thought.
There are not nearly enough jobs to go round.

Learner example:
However this is not nearly enough, since we are restricted when it comes to us[ing] nuclear power
[and] there is always a constant search for other energy sources.

neatly /ˈniːt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: neat
Adverbs: neatly

ADVERB

in a tidy way
Dictionary examples:
neatly dressed
a neatly folded pile of clothes

Learner example:
The performers are all neatly dressed.

necessity /nəˈses.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: necessity
Adjectives: necessary, unnecessary
Adverbs: necessarily, unnecessarily

NOUN

NEED

[U] the need for something

Dictionary examples:
There's no financial necessity for her to work.
Sewing is something I do out of necessity, not for pleasure.

425
 Learner example:
Therefore, the most important lesson to learn is to acknowledge the necessity of education and
the str[uggle] to make it happen.

SOMETHING NEEDED

[C] something you need

Dictionary example:
Most people seem to consider a car a necessity, not a luxury.

Learner example:
Mobile phones first appeared as a necessity in worldwide communications because, as the
different business domains began to expand, the need [for] information and detailed facts about
numerous aspects have emerged.

neck /nek/

NOUN [C]

be a pain in the neck INFORMAL

to be annoying
Dictionary example:
My brother can be a real pain in the neck sometimes.

Learner example:
He's adorable although sometimes he can really be a pain in the neck (don't tell him I wrote this.)

needless /ˈniːd.ləs/

Word family:
Nouns: need
Verbs: need
Adjectives: needless

ADJECTIVE

needless to say
as you would expect
Dictionary example:
Needless to say, it rained the whole time we were there.

Learner example:
Needless to say, bribes are a frequent occur[r]ence.

426
 neglect /nɪˈglekt/

Word family:
Nouns: negligence
Verbs: neglect
Adjectives: negligent

VERB [T]

NOT GIVE ATTENTION

to not give enough care or attention to something or someone

Dictionary examples:
to neglect your appearance
Some of these kids have been badly neglected in the past.

Learner example:
Is sport neglected by young people nowadays?

NOUN [U]

when you do not give enough care or attention to something or someone

Dictionary example:
to suffer years of neglect

Learner example:
First of all, concerning the coaches, all I can say is that they were in a complete state of neglect.

negotiate /nɪˈgəʊ.ʃi.eɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: negotiation
Verbs: negotiate

VERB

[I or T] to try to make or change an agreement by discussion

Dictionary example:
to negotiate with employers about working conditions

Learner example:
You should also negotiate the best terms for our client.

negotiation /nɪˌgəʊ.ʃiˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: negotiation
Verbs: negotiate

427
NOUN [C]

when people try to make or change an agreement by discussion

Dictionary example:
Peace negotiations are due to start.

Learner example:
The classes on different subjects connected with the practice of our work equipted us with
essential techniques in business negotiations.

nerve /nɜːv/

Word family:
Nouns: nerves, nerve, nervousness
Adjectives: nervous
Adverbs: nervously

NOUN

nerves
worry or anxiety about something that is going to happen
Dictionary examples:
I sometimes suffer from nerves when I'm speaking in public.
I need something to calm my nerves.

Learner example:
You might feel you need it to calm your nerves, but for obvious reasons (the law) it is better not
to.

get on sb's nerves

to annoy someone, especially by doing something again and again
Dictionary example:
Please stop making that noise! It really gets on my nerves.

Learner example:
My neighbour is always quarrel[l]ing with his wife. It['s] getting on my nerves!

nervousness /ˈnɜː.vəs.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: nerves, nerve, nervousness
Adjectives: nervous
Adverbs: nervously

NOUN [U]

the state of being nervous

428
 Dictionary example:
Her nervousness was obvious when she spoke.

Learner example:
Remember, by and large, failures are sparked off by nervousness.

network /ˈnet.wɜːk/

NOUN [C]

PEOPLE

a group of people who know each other or who work together

Dictionary example:
a large network of friends

Learner example:
It is quite easy to build a network of friends worldwide when travelling abroad.

COMPANY

a large television or radio company that broadcasts programs in many areas

Dictionary example:
She worked for the network for more than 10 years.

Learner example:
So the Swiss television network decided to produce a Swiss soap opera.

PEOPLE

a group of people who know each other or who work together

Dictionary example:
a large network of friends

Learner example:
It is quite easy to build a network of friends worldwide when traveling abroad.

networking /ˈnet.wɜː.kɪŋ/

NOUN [U]

the activity of meeting and contacting people who might be useful to know,
especially for your job
Dictionary example:
I often go to networking events.

429
 Learner example:
I am sure there are many other benefits working can bring to us, apart from the enjoyment,
networking, etc. that I have mentioned above, and of course the money it makes.

neutral /ˈnjuː.trəl/

ADJECTIVE

INDEPENDENT

independent and not supporting any side in an argument, fight, or competition

Dictionary examples:
neutral ground/territory
He decided to remain/stay neutral on the issue.

Learner example:
Thus, its main advantage is that the information you get is not provided by a company or
something like that but by a neutral person.

COLOUR

Neutral colours are not strong or bright.

Dictionary example:
Try neutral creams and greys.

Learner example:
Throughout the house the carpets are brand new and lovely neutral colours.

never-ending /ˌnev.ərˈend.ɪŋ/

ADJECTIVE

If something is never-ending, it continues for ever.

Dictionary example:
The housework in this place is just never-ending.

Learner example:
We are often forced to study till about thirty years of age, and it really appears to be [a] never-
ending story.

430
 new /njuː/

Word family:
Nouns: news
Adjectives: new
Adverbs: newly

ADJECTIVE

new blood
new people in an organization who will provide new ideas and energy
Dictionary example:
We need some new blood in the organization.

Learner example:
It will give new opportunities to new generations and thus will [provide] new blood in the
differe[n]t organisations.

news /njuːz/

Word family:
Nouns: news
Adjectives: new
Adverbs: newly

NOUN [U]

be bad/good news for sb

to affect someone badly/well
Dictionary example:
This weather is bad news for farmers.

Learner example:
Focusing now on Kavanagh Catering Services, it could be said that for them price is [the] main
variable - obviously this [is] good news for students.

newsletter /ˈnjuːzˌlet.ər/

NOUN [C]

a regular report with information for people who belong to an organization or who
are interested in a particular subject
Dictionary example:
a monthly newsletter about business and the environment

431
 Learner example:
And if you decide to use our newsletter service, you'll always be up-to-date.

next /nekst/

ADJECTIVE

the next best thing

the thing that is best, if you cannot have or do the thing you really want
Dictionary example:
Coaching football is the next best thing to playing.

Learner example:
For many working people, there is hardly time to cook and prepare your dinner, so the next best
thing is to rush into a Macdonalds' or Burger King.

nickname /ˈnɪk.neɪm/

NOUN [C]

a name used informally instead of your real name

Dictionary example:
His behaviour has earned him the nickname 'Mad Dog'.

Learner example:
In school I had the nickname the Joker, because I had the abil[i]ty to make other people la[ugh].

night /naɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: midnight, night

NOUN [C or U]

a sleepless night
a night when you are not able to sleep
Dictionary example:
He'd spent a sleepless night worrying about his exam.

Learner example:
Most of the rooms we stayed in did not have air-condition[ing], which caused many sleepless
nights to the majority of us due to the intense heat.

432
 no /nəʊ/

DETERMINER

no doubt
used to say that something is very likely
Dictionary example:
No doubt she'll spend the money on new clothes.

Learner example:
No doubt I will find the skills acquired [on] the course, especially speaking skills, most useful in
my future contacts with clients from English-speaking countries.

no ... whatsoever
none at all
Dictionary example:
There's no evidence whatsoever that she was involved.

Learner example:
Moreover, the hotel we were finally dumped in was situated miles from Edinburgh city centre and
there was no entertainment whatsoever arranged for the evening, even though all the travellers
were more or less stuck there.

noble /ˈnəʊ.bl/

ADJECTIVE

GOOD

honest, brave, and kind

Dictionary examples:
a noble gesture
He was a generous, noble man.

Learner example:
Charity is a very noble way of spending your money and it is defin[i]tely a way in which you would
want to be remembered.

SOCIAL GROUP

belonging to the highest social group of a society

Dictionary example:
She was born into an ancient, noble family.

433
 Learner example:
Capodistrias, coming from a noble family of the Ionian islands played, as a diplomat and mainly
as Russia's Foreign Minister, an important role to the new European structure after the
destr[uction] of Napoleon's Empire (1814).

nominate /ˈnɒm.ɪ.neɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: nomination
Verbs: nominate

VERB [T]

to officially suggest a person for a job or a position in an organization, or to

suggest a person or their work for a prize
Dictionary examples:
Judges are nominated by the governor.
The film was nominated for an Academy Award.
He was nominated as best actor.

Learner example:
Being an Ambassador for Youth bears [a] lot of responsibility, not only because the person must
be [of] outstanding character and well-known, but also because they must behave accordingly and
be able to convey a positive message. After deep consideration, I have decided to nominate
Jovanotti, alias Lorenzo Cherubini.

nomination /ˌnɒm.ɪˈneɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: nomination
Verbs: nominate

NOUN [C or U]

the act of officially suggesting a person for a job or their work for a prize
Dictionary examples:
to seek/win a nomination
He won the Democratic nomination for mayor of Chicago.
She has just received her fourth Oscar nomination.

Learner example:
Please allow me to support this nomination by pointing out some facts.

434
 nonetheless /ˌnʌn.ðəˈles/

ADVERB

despite what has just been said

Dictionary example:
He was extremely rude in meetings. Nonetheless, his arguments found some support.

Learner example:
Nonetheless, all the people from whom I have received letters are satisfied, as well as their
children, who enjoyed the stories and the pony rides very much.

non-existent /ˌnɒn.ɪgˈzɪs.tənt/

Word family:
Nouns: existence
Verbs: exist
Adjectives: existing, non-existent

ADJECTIVE

not existing
Dictionary example:
We knew our chances of success were non-existent.

Learner example:
The rooms weren't very tidy and room service is non-existent.

norm /nɔːm/

Word family:
Nouns: norm, normality
Adjectives: normal, abnormal
Adverbs: normally

NOUN

the norm
the usual way that something happens
Dictionary example:
Short-term job contracts are the norm nowadays.

Learner example:
The graph indicates the norm for children per family in three different countries.

435
 SOCIETY

[C] an accepted way of behaving in a particular society

Dictionary example:
cultural/social norms

Learner example:
Social norms and values, as well as the national regulations, differ from countr[y] to countr[y],
resulting in the different view upon such [an] issue [as] child labour.

normal /ˈnɔː.məl/

Word family:
Nouns: norm, normality
Adjectives: normal, abnormal
Adverbs: normally

ADJECTIVE

return to normal
to go back to a previous condition
Dictionary example:
Life has begun to return to normal now that the war is over.

Learner example:
After exactly ten minutes the electricity was switched on again and our life returned to normal -
what a relief!

not /nɒt/

ADVERB

not a/one
used to emphasize that there is nothing of what you are talking about
Dictionary examples:
Not one person came to hear him talk.
"You haven't heard from Nick, have you?" "Not a word."

Learner example:
Nowadays, I can only see buildings and roads. Not one single tree to refresh yourself from the hot
and tropical sun at midday.

certainly/definitely/hopefully not
used after an adverb in short, negative replies

436
 Dictionary examples:
"She's not exactly poor, is she?" "Certainly not."
"We won't need much money, will we?" "Hopefully not."

Learner example:
That's nice, but do you think that money is all that matters? Definitely not!

notable /ˈnəʊ.tə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: note
Verbs: note
Adjectives: notable
Adverbs: notably

ADJECTIVE

important or interesting
Dictionary example:
With one notable exception, everyone replied to my letter.

Learner example:
A notable exception is the advertising of so-called "slow-food" restaurants, which promote [a]
healthy lifestyle.

notably /ˈnəʊt̬
.ə.bli/

Word family:
Nouns: note
Verbs: note
Adjectives: notable
Adverbs: notably

ADVERB

especially or most importantly

Dictionary example:
They have begun attracting investors, most notably big Japanese financial houses.

Learner example:
As I have already indicated, the content (what they teach you) [is] very good, notably the training
of speaking skills and a number of special courses, for example: How to Negotiate.

437
 note /nəʊt/

Word family:
Nouns: note
Verbs: note
Adjectives: notable
Adverbs: notably

NOUN

make a note of sth

to write down information about something
Dictionary example:
Let me make a note of your phone number.

Learner example:
After talking to other members, I have made a note of the main problems they considered the
most urgent to be solved.

compare notes
If two people compare notes, they tell each other what they think about something
that they have both done.
Dictionary example:
We compared notes about our experiences in China.

Learner example:
In conclusion, regular meetings between parents and school teachers [...] help both parties to
compare notes, acting in the best interest[s] of the children.

take note (of sth)

to pay careful attention to something
Dictionary examples:
Make sure you take note of what she says.
Safety standards are being tightened. Employers, take note.

Learner example:
I thank you for taking note of my view.

FEELING

[NO PLURAL] a particular feeling or mood

Dictionary examples:
a sad/serious/positive note
His speech had just the right note of sympathy.

Learner example:
On a more practical note: I found the information pack I received beforehand insufficient.

438
 nothing /ˈnʌθ.ɪŋ/

PRONOUN

stop at nothing
to be willing to do anything in order to achieve something
Dictionary example:
He will stop at nothing to get what he wants.

Learner example:
They stopped at nothing to get the higher scores, to make themselves noticed, even if that meant
telling some lies to a teacher about a schoolmate.

nothing of the sort/kind

used to emphasize that something is not true
Dictionary examples:
He said that he was a legitimate businessman - in fact, he was nothing of the sort.
It was supposed to be a gourmet meal, but it was nothing of the kind.

Learner example:
Let me reassure you, nothing of the sort is happening at the moment.

notice /ˈnəʊ.tɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: notice
Verbs: notice
Adjectives: noticeable, unnoticed

NOUN

at short notice UK

only a short time before something happens

Dictionary example:
I had to give a speech at very short notice.

Learner example:
The fact that the speech by the famous actor was cancelled at short notice was disappointing.

noticeable /ˈnəʊ.tɪs.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: notice
Verbs: notice
Adjectives: noticeable, unnoticed

439
ADJECTIVE

easy to see or be aware of

Dictionary example:
There was a noticeable difference in his behaviour after the injury.

Learner example:
What was noticeable all over Warsaw were the overfilled garbage cans and litter in the streets that
nobody cleaned up.

noticeably /ˈnəʊ.tɪ.sə.bli/

ADVERB

in a way that is noticeable

Dictionary examples:
He was noticeably reluctant to meet her.
The new results were noticeably better than the last ones.

Learner example:
The teachers' salaries are noticeably the largest part in the charts.

notify /ˈnəʊ.tɪ.faɪ/

VERB [T] FORMAL

to officially tell someone about something

Dictionary examples:
You should notify the police if you are involved in a road accident.
The court notified her that her trial date had been postponed.

Learner example:
You must notify the director if you are not going to sleep in your room.

notion /ˈnəʊ.ʃən/

NOUN [C]

an idea or belief
Dictionary example:
The notion of sharing is unknown to most two-year-olds.

440
 Learner example:
Unfortunately, in ancient Greece, although the notion of the republic and democracy were
invented and quite successfully developed there, not being a noble citizen could be cruelly
disappointing and painful.

notorious /nəʊˈtɔː.ri.əs/

ADJECTIVE

famous for something bad

Dictionary examples:
a notorious criminal
She was notorious for her bad temper.

Learner example:
Apart from this, Bristol is notorious for its poor social policy for the people who are [o]n the
poverty line.

notwithstanding /ˌnɒt.wɪθˈstæn.dɪŋ/

ADVERB; PREPOSITION FORMAL

despite
Dictionary example:
Injuries notwithstanding, he won the semi-final match.

Learner example:
Notwithstanding this zealous kind of complaint, it would appear to me that they had great fun
during the third day when after the English lesson they went to the swimming pool.

now /naʊ/

ADVERB

every now and then

sometimes, but not often
Dictionary example:
We still meet up every now and then.

Learner example:
Each day choose 10 new words and learn them by heart. In a week you will have learned 70 new
words, and in a year 3640, a lot of words. Please, do not forget to repeat them every now and
then.

441
 nowhere /ˈnəʊ.weər/

ADVERB

nowhere near
not close in distance, time, amount or quality
Dictionary examples:
The house was nowhere near the sea.
It's nowhere near time for us to leave yet.
I'm nowhere near finishing the book - I'm only half-way through it.
He's nowhere near as tall as his sister.

Learner example:
Although people are well aware of the current situation in Switzerland, they prefer looking at
other countries and comparing us to them (we are nowhere near as fat as them).

number /ˈnʌm.bər/

Word family:
Nouns: number
Verbs: number, outnumber
Adjectives: innumerable, numerous

VERB [T]

GIVE A NUMBER

to give something a number

Dictionary example:
Each volume was numbered and indexed.

Learner example:
The bus to Finspang is numbered 410 and there is at least one bus departuring for Finspang every
hour.

numerous /ˈnjuː.mə.rəs/

Word family:
Nouns: number
Verbs: number, outnumber
Adjectives: innumerable, numerous

ADJECTIVE

many

442
 Dictionary examples:
We have discussed these plans on numerous occasions.
Shops of this type, once rare, are now numerous.

Learner example:
The fact that my country produces numerous talented skaters is also a factor that helps me enjoy
skating.

nutrition /njuːˈtrɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: nutrition
Adjectives: nutritional, nutritious

NOUN [U]

the food that you eat and the way that it affects your health
Dictionary example:
Good nutrition is essential for growing children.

Learner example:
So, good exercise combined with the right nutrition (low fat, vegetables etc.) [will] alter our lives
and help us feel and appear more relaxed.

nutritional /njuːˈtrɪʃ.ən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: nutrition
Adjectives: nutritional, nutritious

ADJECTIVE

relating to the food that you eat and the way it affects your health
Dictionary example:
These snacks have very little nutritional value.

Learner example:
Today, individuals have less time to prepare homemade food with high nutritional value.

nutritious /njuːˈtrɪʃ.əs/

Word family:
Nouns: nutrition
Adjectives: nutritional, nutritious

443
ADJECTIVE

Nutritious food contains substances that your body needs to stay healthy.
Dictionary example:
a nutritious meal

Learner example:
They seem to have discovered that salads and pasta can be as tasty and nutritious as red meat.

nutshell /ˈnʌt.ʃel/

NOUN

in a nutshell
something that you say when you are describing something using as few words as
possible
Dictionary example:
The answer, in a nutshell, is yes.

Learner example:
To put it in a nutshell, they all provide good food at reasonable prices.

444
 O

obese /əʊˈbiːs/

Word family:
Nouns: obesity
Adjectives: obese

ADJECTIVE

extremely fat
Dictionary example:
Currently, 15% of the population are classified as obese.

Learner example:
Less physical activity and [a] poor diet can lead to being overweight or even obese.

obesity /əʊˈbiːs.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: obesity
Adjectives: obese

NOUN [U]

the state of being extremely fat

Dictionary example:
The government is concerned about childhood obesity.

Learner example:
Many researchers say that obesity and other adult diseases are getting common as we eat more
western food.

object

Word family:
Nouns: objection
Verbs: object

445
NOUN [C] /ˈɒb.dʒɪkt/

the object of sth

the purpose of something
Dictionary examples:
The object of the game is to score more points than the opposing team.
The object of the exercise is to complete the task within the time limit.

Learner example:
First of all, the object of the programme is to provide students [with] opportunities to develop
useful skills through [a] 6-week work experience in Britain.

objectively /əbˈdʒek.tɪv.li/

Word family:
Nouns: object, objective
Adjectives: objective
Adverbs: objectively

ADVERB

in a way that is only influenced by facts and not by feelings

Dictionary example:
This test assesses all candidates objectively.

Learner example:
The articles are objectively written and what is more they are comprehensible to the majority of
people.

obligatory /əˈblɪg.ə.tər.i/

Word family:
Nouns: obligation
Verbs: oblige
Adjectives: obligatory

ADJECTIVE

COMPULSORY

If something is obligatory, you must do it because of a rule or duty.

Dictionary example:
obligatory military service

Learner example:
I think this is a very good way of encouraging people to learn to like exercise without them having
to do it because it is obligatory.

446
 oblige /əˈblaɪdʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: obligation
Verbs: oblige
Adjectives: obligatory

VERB

[I or T] FORMAL to be helpful

Dictionary example:
The manager was only too happy to oblige.

Learner example:
I understand that you attach a great deal of value to the views of your visitors. I am happy to
oblige.

observation /ˌɒb.zəˈveɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: observation, observer
Verbs: observe
Adjectives: observant

NOUN

REMARK

[C] a remark about something that you have noticed

Dictionary example:
He made an interesting observation.

Learner example:
I'd like to make some observations regarding your CDs.

observe /əbˈzɜːv/

Word family:
Nouns: observation, observer
Verbs: observe
Adjectives: observant

VERB [T]

NOTICE

FORMAL to notice something

447
 Dictionary examples:
Jack observed a look of anxiety on his brother's face.
The guards failed to observe who delivered the package.
In all these films one observes that directors are taking a new interest in Native American culture.
Differences in speech styles may be observed between other social groups.

Learner example:
Two trends can be observed: one, "sociological", giving women [a] more and more important role
in our country, and the other, "cultural", still keeping them to three "sacred things" - household,
kids and [the] church.

obsolete /ˈɒb.səl.iːt/

ADJECTIVE

not used now

Dictionary examples:
obsolete equipment
Will books become obsolete because of computers?

Learner example:
The museum's advertisement promises an exciting experience, so students were surprised to find
[so] many obsolete machines of no interest.

obstacle /ˈɒb.stə.kəl/

NOUN [C]

something that makes it hard for you to go somewhere or to succeed at something

Dictionary examples:
to overcome an obstacle
His refusal to talk is the main obstacle to peace.

Learner example:
Nowadays if you are a member of a football club, for example, you have to pay a great amount of
money. This can be an obstacle for a lot of young people.

occasional /əˈkeɪ.ʒən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: occasion
Adjectives: occasional
Adverbs: occasionally

448
ADJECTIVE

not happening or done often or regularly

Dictionary examples:
I play the occasional game of football.
He has the occasional cigar after dinner.

Learner example:
Of course, sometimes, there are theatre performances but I would prefer a permanent theatre to
these occasional performances.

occupation /ˌɒk.jəˈpeɪ.ʃən/

NOUN FORMAL

HOBBY

[C] FORMAL something that you do in your free time

Dictionary example:
He has a few occupations, such as gardening and woodwork.

Learner example:
She made literature classes an engaging activity and fun and turned reading into an absorbing
and fascinating occupation.

occupy /ˈɒk.jʊ.paɪ/

VERB [T]

CONTROL

to move into a place and take control of it

Dictionary example:
The troops eventually occupied most of the island.

Learner example:
It's a show called "Taxa" based on true stor[ies]. It takes you back to 1942, when Denmark was
occupied by Germany.

occurrence /əˈkʌr.ənts/

Word family:
Nouns: occurrence
Verbs: occur

449
NOUN [C]

something that happens or how often it happens

Dictionary examples:
Street fights are an everyday occurrence in this area of the city.
The study compares the occurrence of heart disease in various countries.

Learner example:
When workers began to threaten [a] strike, about twenty days ago, people were instructed on how
to tackle such an occurrence - you know, we are well organised and like to have emergency plans
for any danger.

odds /ɒdz/

NOUN [PLURAL]

PROBABILITY

the probability that a particular thing will or will not happen

Dictionary examples:
If you drive a car all your life, the odds are that you'll have an accident at some point.
There are heavy odds against people succeeding in such a bad economic climate.
What are the odds on him being re-elected?
The odds are stacked against a woman succeeding in the business.

Learner example:
After all, on the battlefield for promotion, men still have a vital interest to set the odds against
women in favour of their own opportunities.

of /ɒv/

PREPOSITION

RELATING TO

about or relating to
Dictionary examples:
Speaking of Elizabeth, here she is.
Let us consider the events of the last five months.
We know very little of her childhood.

Learner example:
Speaking of sightseeing, many thought that visiting other sights - like the Folk Museum - should
not be compulsory.

450
 off /ɒf/

ADVERB

DISTANCE/TIME

far in distance or time

Dictionary examples:
You can see the village off in the distance.
My holidays seem a long way off.
The exams are so far off that I'm not even thinking about them yet.

Learner example:
Allow me to start by saying that one day, which may l[ie] not so far off in the future, people will
visit the buildings which were formerly known as "Educational Institutions" like we visit museums
to gape at the sheer size of the Dinosaurs...

PREPOSITION

off the record

If you say something off the record, you do not want the public to know about it.
Dictionary example:
Off the record, ministers are saying the president must resign.

Learner example:
Off the record, how come that your reporter can print such lies when knowing they are perhaps
hurting certain people in this important matter?

offer /ˈɒf.ər/

VERB

AGREE TO PAY

[T] to say that you will pay a particular amount of money

Dictionary examples:
I offered him £500 for the car.
Police have offered a $1,000 reward for information.

Learner example:
My company will offer 20 percent more than the minimum wage that exists for the same type of
work in Canada.

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 office /ˈɒf.ɪs/

NOUN

JOB

[U] an important job in an organization

Dictionary examples:
Some people think he has been in office for too long.
She held the office of mayor for eight years.

Learner example:
The former Polish prime minister was a woman - Hanna Suchocka - and she was able to remain in
office for 15 months, in the time when the life expectancy of governments in Poland is about half
a year.

officially /əˈfɪʃ.əl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: officer, official
Adjectives: official
Adverbs: officially

ADVERB

formally and in a way agreed to or arranged by people in positions of authority

Dictionary examples:
The new hospital was officially opened yesterday.
The royal engagement was announced officially this morning.

Learner example:
If I could travel back to any place and time in history, I would choose the day when Wor[l]d War II
was officially declared over.

old /əʊld/

ADJECTIVE

the old days

a period in the past
Dictionary example:
In the old days large families were much more common.

the same old arguments/face/story, etc.

INFORMAL something or someone you have seen or heard many times before

452
 Dictionary examples:
Every day I see the same old faces.
Politicians repeat the same old arguments time and time again.

Learner example:
I think that it is the same old story with media all over the world that they tend to present the
news in [an] exaggerated manner.

omit /əʊˈmɪt/ (-tt-)

Word family:
Nouns: omission
Verbs: omit

VERB [T]

to not include something

Dictionary examples:
She was omitted from the list of contributors to the report.
The Prince's tour conveniently omitted the most deprived areas of the city.

Learner example:
The advertisement had omitted some important facts about the school, like the rare possibility of
taking the exam, the problems with transport, the lack of advertised social activities.

omit to do sth
to not do something
Dictionary example:
She omitted to mention where she was going.

Learner example:
Thus, no-one else could fill the gap if they omit to teach their children basic principles of living
[in] society.

on /ɒn/

PREPOSITION

be on a committee/panel, etc.
to be a member of a group or organization
Dictionary examples:
She's on the playgroup committee.
How many people are on your staff?
She's a researcher on a women's magazine.

453
 Learner example:
As a student on the committee w[h]ich organises this, I have to say that there have been some
problems with the experience, and also that some changes should be made in order to make a
better programme.

on the basis of sth

having something as a reason
Dictionary example:
Marks are awarded on the basis of progress and performance.

Learner example:
On the basis of the points mentioned above, it is a foregone conclusion that young people do not
face any severe problems.

be on the ball INFORMAL

to be quick to understand and react to things

Dictionary example:
She's over ninety, but she's still on the ball.

Learner example:
When you're at Sants station, you'll need to be on the ball to find the tube.

on air
on television or radio
Dictionary example:
The radio station is on air from 6.00 a.m.

Learner example:
It is on air at 8.30 p.m. every Thursday and Saturday.

on the grounds of/that

because of a particular reason
Dictionary examples:
You cannot discriminate on the grounds of religion.
I refused on the grounds that it was too risky.

Learner example:
I am convinced that it is better than Southside College on the grounds that a great mass of
students are satisfied.

on hold
If a plan or activity is on hold, it will not be done until a later time.
Dictionary example:
The project is on hold until we get more money.

Learner example:
What's more, it might, intentional[l]y or not, raise awareness on issues that might have been put
on hold by authorities, such as the legalization of soft drugs.

454
on hold
waiting to speak to someone on the telephone
Dictionary example:
His secretary put me on hold.

Learner example:
The day after, I called your office and after being put on hold, the person answering the phone
was unwilling to come up with a proper reply.

on the horizon
likely to happen soon
Dictionary example:
Economic recovery is on the horizon.

Learner example:
Often this is justified as [a] result of society being collective[ly] afraid that a shortage of fuel is on
the horizon.

on the increase
If something is on the increase, it is happening more often.
Dictionary example:
Violent crime is on the increase.

Learner example:
[The] number of motorists is on the increase everywhere in the world.

on loan
If something is on loan, someone is borrowing it.
Dictionary example:
Both paintings are on loan from the city museum.

Learner example:
For example, you can always take out on loan any video you like from our cent[re].

on location
If a film or television programme is made on location, it is made at a place suitable
to the story.
Dictionary example:
The movie was shot on location in Kenya.

Learner example:
We can't help mentioning the nice shots on location.

on the road
driving or travelling, usually over a long distance
Dictionary example:
We'd been on the road for 48 hours.

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 Learner example:
I have experienced sitting behind a steering wheel on the road for many years.

on track
making progress and likely to succeed
Dictionary examples:
A fighter from Edinburgh is on track to become world heavyweight boxing champion.
We've got a lot of work to do but we're on the right track.

Learner example:
The sales teams are well on track and bringing [in] new customers every day.

on show
being shown to the public
Dictionary example:
Her designs are currently on show at the Museum of Modern Art.

Learner example:
One of the facilit[ies] that really make[s] a difference is the Art Gallery, with its great exhibition on
show, as well as the Art Library.

on site
inside a factory, office building, etc.
Dictionary examples:
There are two restaurants on site.
They provide on-site childcare facilities for employees.

Learner example:
A small period of training on site is required a few days before the beginning of the job itself and
how many interesting people you will meet!

once /wʌnts/

ADVERB

at once
at the same time
Dictionary example:
They all started talking at once.

Learner example:
The study centre is really small and all the students talk at once.

all at once
suddenly

456
 Dictionary example:
All at once he stood up and walked out of the room.

Learner example:
All at once, everything started to work again.

one /wʌn/

PRONOUN

ANY PERSON

FORMAL any person in general

Dictionary example:
One ought to respect one's parents.

Learner example:
One can learn the beauty of the Greek language by simply reading the headings and will [soon]
find that "The Step" is the best newspaper of all.

oneself /wʌnˈself/

PRONOUN FORMAL

the reflexive form of the pronoun 'one' when it refers to the person speaking or
people in general
Dictionary example:
How else should one protect oneself and one's family?

Learner example:
One must ask oneself: "Why is this happening?"

open /ˈəʊ.pən/

Word family:
Nouns: opening, openness
Verbs: open
Adjectives: open, opening
Adverbs: openly

ADJECTIVE

open to discussion/suggestions, etc.

willing to consider a discussion/suggestions, etc.

457
 Dictionary example:
This is only a proposal. I'm open to suggestions.

Learner example:
He seems open to ideas like this, and I am sure he will not cancel at the last minute!

opening /ˈəʊ.pən.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: opening, openness
Verbs: open
Adjectives: open, opening
Adverbs: openly

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

happening at the beginning of an event or activity

Dictionary examples:
her opening remarks
the opening night

Learner example:
Also we could offer free drinks from our new products [on] the opening night, so we could [get]
their first impressions.

openly /ˈəʊ.pən.li/

Word family:
Nouns: opening, openness
Verbs: open
Adjectives: open, opening
Adverbs: openly

ADVERB

without hiding any of your thoughts or feelings

Dictionary examples:
They were openly dismissive of my suggestions.
He talks quite openly about his feelings.
We discussed our reservations about the contract quite openly.

Learner example:
I do hope that you are willing to cooperate, though I cannot say it openly.

458
 open-minded /ˌəʊ.pənˈmaɪn.dɪd/

ADJECTIVE

willing to consider ideas and opinions that are new or different to your own
Dictionary example:
Luckily, both my parents were very open-minded.

Learner example:
He is also open-minded and very reliable.

operation /ˌɒp.ərˈeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: operation, operator
Verbs: operate

NOUN [C]

PLANNED ACTIVITY

[C] an activity which is planned to achieve something

Dictionary examples:
a military/peacekeeping operation
Following the earthquake, a large-scale rescue operation was launched.
The operation to fly in supplies will begin as soon as possible.

ORGANIZATION

[C] an organization or business

Dictionary example:
a large commercial operation

Learner example:
If I cannot receive any satisfactory reply this month, I will write to the newspaper to expose your
operation.

WORK

[U] the fact of operating or being active

Dictionary examples:
There are several reactors of the type in operation at the moment.
We expect the new scheme for assessing claims to come into operation early next year.

Learner example:
We see computers in operation at work as well as in almost every home.

459
 opinion /əˈpɪn.jən/

NOUN

have a high/low opinion of sb/sth

to think that someone or something is good/bad
Dictionary example:
He has a low opinion of doctors.

Learner example:
He had a very high opinion of this particular course.

opposed /əˈpəʊzd/

Word family:
Nouns: opposite, opposition
Verbs: oppose
Adjectives: opposite, opposed
Adverbs: opposite

ADJECTIVE

be opposed to sth
to disagree with a plan or activity
Dictionary example:
We're not opposed to tax increases.

Learner example:
As you can see, Greendale Park is a very precious place for the majority of the residents, and they
are opposed to the council's plan.

opposite /ˈɒp.ə.zɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: opposite, opposition
Verbs: oppose
Adjectives: opposite, opposed
Adverbs: opposite

ADJECTIVE

the opposite sex

people who are the other sex from you

460
 Dictionary example:
He would never dare to speak to a member of the opposite sex.

Learner example:
This is not only about trying to impress (preferably) a person of the opposite sex, but fashion also
gives you a great chance to express yourself.

opposition /ˌɒp.əˈzɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: opposite, opposition
Verbs: oppose
Adjectives: opposite, opposed
Adverbs: opposite

NOUN [U]

DISAGREEMENT

strong disagreement
Dictionary examples:
There is fierce/strong opposition to the proposed changes.
The unions are in opposition to the government over the issue of privatization.

Learner example:
The students, in an attempt to demonstrate the opposition of the Greek people to the military
regime, occupied their schools for many days.

the opposition
the political parties in a country that are not part of the government
Dictionary example:
The opposition is arguing for a review of the policy.

Learner example:
He was elected MP for a record of 9 times [and] was the leader of EPE for many years, leading the
opposition when Georgios Papandreou, Andreas' father was in power.

opt /ɒpt/

Word family:
Nouns: option
Verbs: opt
Adjectives: optional

VERB [I]

to choose something or to decide to do something

461
 Dictionary examples:
Mike opted for early retirement.
Most people opt to have the operation.

Learner example:
My recommendation today is to take in[to] consideration people's views and opt for the 'Park and
Ride'.

optimist /ˈɒp.tɪm.ɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: optimism, optimist
Adjectives: optimistic

NOUN [C]

someone who always believes that good things will happen

Dictionary example:
She's an optimist.

Learner example:
She is an incurable optimist with a great sense of humour.

option /ˈɒp.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: option
Verbs: opt
Adjectives: optional

NOUN [C]

have no option (but to do sth)

to not have the possibility of doing something else
Dictionary example:
We didn't want to dismiss him, but we had no option.

Learner example:
For example, [on] the first day, Monday, students have the day free with their host parents but
there are some of them who work all day and the students have no option but to stay alone in the
house.

462
 or /ɔːr/

CONJUNCTION

REASON

used to give a reason for something you have said

Dictionary example:
She must love him or she wouldn't have stayed with him all these years.

or two
used to show a very small number, usually one or two
Dictionary example:
I'd like to say a word or two about loyalty.

Learner example:
Many fathers do not realize what they are missing by not demanding the privilege of staying at
home with the child, at least for a month or two.

organ /ˈɔː.gən/

NOUN [C]

BODY

a part of an animal or plant that has a special purpose

Dictionary examples:
an external/internal/reproductive organ
an organ donor/transplant

Learner example:
Now you can replace or heal almost every bone or organ in a human body.

organization (ALSO UK organisation) /ˌɔː.gən.aɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: organization, organizer
Verbs: organize
Adjectives: disorganized, organized

NOUN

ARRANGEMENT

[U] the way that parts of something are arranged

463
 Dictionary example:
I'm trying to improve the organization of my computer files.

Learner example:
He also stressed the importance of timing and organisation of your speech and the procedure of
business meetings.

origin /ˈɒr.ɪ.dʒɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: origin, original
Verbs: originate
Adjectives: original
Adverbs: originally

NOUN [C or U]

COUNTRY/RACE, ETC.

the country, race, or social class of a person's family

Dictionary examples:
He is of North African origin.
What is your of origin?
The president's family was of humble origins.

Learner example:
The rules are very simple, they can be understood by everyone, regardless of age, origin or social
status.

other /ˈʌð.ər/

DETERMINER

or other INFORMAL

used when you cannot or do not want to be exact about the information you are
giving
Dictionary examples:
The event was held in some park or other.
We'll find someone or other to help us.

Learner example:
Maybe you hate the memory of boring literature classes at school, but I'm sure each of you is
interested in some subject or other.

other than
FORMAL different from or except

464
 Dictionary examples:
Holidays other than those in this brochure do not have free places for children.
The form cannot be signed by anyone other than yourself.
There's nothing on TV tonight, other than rubbish.

Learner example:
There are no vegetarian alternatives other than cheese sandwiches, which our members find very
depressi[ng].

other than that

except for the thing you have just said
Dictionary example:
My arm was a bit sore - other than that I was fine.

Learner example:
Curren[t]ly, I only have a small corner in the room whereas my sisters get a bigger portion. This
means I have to keep all my things under the bed. Other than that, I would like a big beautiful
garden because I love nature.

otherwise /ˈʌð.ə.waɪz/

ADVERB

DIFFERENTLY

different to what has just been stated

Dictionary examples:
I'll meet you there at 6 o'clock, unless I hear otherwise.
The police believe he is the thief, but all the evidence suggests otherwise.
Under the law, a person is presumed innocent until proved otherwise.
Marion Morrison, otherwise known as the film star John Wayne, was born in 1907.
I can't meet you on Tuesday - I'm otherwise engaged.

Learner example:
An important event in the history of Greece was the Civil War between the cities of Athens and
Sparti around 400 B.C., otherwise known as [the] Pelopon[n]esian War.

out /aʊt/

ADVERB

NOT ACCURATE

not accurate
Dictionary example:
Your figures are out by £300.

465
 outcome /ˈaʊt.kʌm/

NOUN [C USUALLY NO PLURAL]

the final result of an activity or process

Dictionary example:
It's too early to predict the outcome of the meeting.

Learner example:
In order to ensure a pleasant end-of-term activity and to avoid yet another negative outcome, it is
necessary for us to dispose of a great sum of money.

outgoing /ˌaʊtˈgəʊ.ɪŋ/

ADJECTIVE

FRIENDLY

Someone who is outgoing is friendly, talks a lot, and enjoys meeting people.
Dictionary example:
Anne is very outgoing, but her sister's quite shy.

Learner example:
He is very outgoing, friendly and communicative.

outlook /ˈaʊt.lʊk/

NOUN [NO PLURAL]

FUTURE

the likely future situation

Dictionary examples:
The outlook for the economy is bleak.
The outlook for today is cloudy and dry at first with showers later.

Learner example:
The outlook for all three companies is bright over the next 5 years.

466
 outnumber /ˌaʊtˈnʌm.bər/

Word family:
Nouns: number
Verbs: number, outnumber
Adjectives: innumerable, numerous

VERB [T]

to be larger in number than another group

Dictionary example:
Women now far outnumber men on language courses.

Learner example:
An annual average rate of 10% GDP growth for the past ten years has created more than 7 million
new jobs, which outnumbered the number of new male entrants.

out of /ˈaʊt.əv/

PREPOSITION

out of season
If vegetables or fruit are out of season, they are not usually available at that time.
Dictionary example:
Strawberries are out of season at the moment.

Learner example:
As our place was famous for fresh sea food, I bought crabs and salmon although they were out of
season and expensive.

out of tune
singing or playing the wrong notes
Dictionary example:
The piano is out of tune.

Learner example:
Even if you sing out of tune please call us.

out of the blue

If something happens out of the blue, it is completely unexpected.
Dictionary example:
One day, out of the blue, she announced that she was leaving.

Learner example:
Dear Kim, I was extremely happy when I received your letter out of the blue.

467
 out of action
damaged or hurt and not able to operate or play sports
Dictionary examples:
I'm afraid my car's out of action.
They've got three players out of action.

Learner example:
The air-condition[ing] in my room was out of action and the hotel manager didn't care.

outrage /ˈaʊt.reɪdʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: outrage
Verbs: outrage
Adjectives: outrageous

VERB [T]

to cause someone to feel very angry, shocked, or upset

Dictionary example:
The proposed pay cut outraged the staff.

Learner example:
I was outraged when I was given a copy of an article published in your magazine.

outside

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] /ˈaʊt.saɪd/

DIFFERENT ORGANIZATION

coming from another place or organization

Dictionary example:
The company has called in outside experts.

outweigh /ˌaʊtˈweɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: weight
Verbs: weigh, outweigh
Adjectives: overweight

VERB [T]

to be greater or more important than something else

468
 Dictionary example:
The benefits of this treatment far outweigh the risks.

Learner example:
However, in my opinion the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages and competition is a
natural phenomenon that we should accept.

overcrowded /ˌəʊ.vəˈkraʊ.dɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: crowd
Adjectives: crowded, overcrowded

ADJECTIVE

containing too many people or things

Dictionary example:
an overcrowded classroom/prison

Learner example:
As you arrive about midday, the trams are likely to be overcrowded.

overdo /ˌəʊ.vəˈduː/

Word family:
Verbs: do, overdo

VERB [T] (overdid, overdone)

to do or use too much of something
Dictionary example:
I went to the gym yesterday, but I think I overdid it a bit.

Learner example:
On the other hand, people usually overdo it and prefer making use of the modern technology to
meeting a friend.

overdraft /ˈəʊ.və.drɑːft/

Word family:
Nouns: overdraft
Adjectives: overdrawn

NOUN [C]

If you have an overdraft, you have taken more money out of your bank account
than you had in it.

469
 Dictionary example:
a £250 overdraft

Learner example:
In addition, some young people use credit card[s] to buy luxurious products, which lead[s] to bank
overdrafts.

overdrawn /ˌəʊ.vəˈdrɔːn/

Word family:
Nouns: overdraft
Adjectives: overdrawn

ADJECTIVE

If you are overdrawn, you have taken more money out of your bank account than
you had in it.
Dictionary example:
We've gone £200 overdrawn!

Learner example:
In other words their expenditure [is] much more than their income. They get into debt and [are]
mostly overdrawn.

overestimate /ˌəʊ.vərˈes.tɪ.meɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: estimate
Verbs: estimate, underestimate, overestimate
Adjectives: estimated

VERB [I or T]

to guess or think that something is or will be bigger or better than it really is

Dictionary example:
They overestimated her ability to do the job.

Learner example:
In spite of the progress achieved in promoting the social status of women, one should not
overestimate the significance of these achievements to ordinary women's careers.

470
 overtake /ˌəʊ.vəˈteɪk/ (overtook, overtaken)

VERB

BIGGER

[T] to go past something by being a greater amount or degree

Dictionary examples:
Our US sales have now overtaken our sales in Europe.
We'd planned to hold a meeting tomorrow, but events have overtaken us.

Learner example:
This however was projected to be overtaken by people coming from the 35-49 year old bracket by
2006.

overview /ˈəʊ.və.vjuː/

NOUN [C]

DESCRIPTION

a short description giving the most important facts about something

Dictionary example:
I'll just give you an overview of the job.

Learner example:
This report will give a brief overview of my experiences from my recent attend[a]nce [on] their
April course.

KNOWLEDGE

knowledge of the general features of something

Dictionary example:
Having spent some time there, she had a good overview of the market.

Learner example:
As my main interest was to get an overview of the current market situation, I was simply
impressed by the variety of companies that you've presented.

overwhelm /ˌəʊ.vəˈwelm/

Word family:
Verbs: overwhelm
Adjectives: overwhelming

471
VERB [T]

If a feeling or situation overwhelms someone, it has an effect that is too strong or

extreme.
Dictionary example:
She was overwhelmed by the excitement of it all.

Learner example:
I am sure the students from the acting classes will be overwhelmed by the grandeur of the 200-
seat theatre.

overwhelming /ˌəʊ.vəˈwel.mɪŋ/

Word family:
Verbs: overwhelm
Adjectives: overwhelming

ADJECTIVE

very strong in effect or large in amount

Dictionary examples:
She felt an overwhelming urge/desire/need to tell someone about what had happened.
She said how much she appreciated the overwhelming generosity of the public in responding to
the appeal.
An overwhelming majority have voted in favour of the proposal.

Learner example:
Therefore, the overwhelming majority of school-leavers annually strive to enter a state institution
of higher education.

overworked /ˌəʊ.vəˈwɜːkt/

Word family:
Nouns: work, worker
Verbs: work
Adjectives: working, overworked

ADJECTIVE

Someone who is overworked has to work too much.

Dictionary example:
We're overworked and underpaid.

Learner example:
People are overworked and often choose fast food for dinner.

472
 ownership /ˈəʊ.nə.ʃɪp/

Word family:
Nouns: owner, ownership
Verbs: own

NOUN [U]

when you own something

Dictionary example:
Do you have any proof of ownership for this car?

Learner example:
As people's disposable income rises, more and more people can now afford cars. Furthermore,
cheap imports from the newly industrialised countries ha[ve] also contributed to the increase in
car ownership.

ozone /ˈəʊ.zəʊn/

NOUN [U]

a form of oxygen that exists high in the atmosphere

Dictionary example:
the ozone layer

Learner example:
There is probably no child who hasn't heard about the holes in the ozone layer or the greenhouse
effect.

473
 P

pace /peɪs/

NOUN

keep pace with sb/sth

to move or develop at the same speed as someone or something else
Dictionary example:
We have to keep pace with the changing times.

Learner example:
It was first published a century ago and what amazes people most is that [it] keeps pace with the
development of the country without leaving out references to our history and tradition.

pain /peɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: pain
Adjectives: painful

NOUN

be a pain in the neck INFORMAL

to be annoying
Dictionary example:
My brother can be a real pain in the neck sometimes.

Learner example:
He's adorable although sometimes he can really be a pain in the neck (don't tell him I wrote this.)

palm /pɑːm/

NOUN [C]

TREE

a palm tree
Dictionary example:
They sat beneath a palm tree.

474
 Learner example:
Santorini was a picturesque island, with many rural areas, sensational deserted beaches with palm
trees.

panel /ˈpæn.əl/

NOUN [C]

PEOPLE

a group of people who are chosen to discuss something or make a decision about
something
Dictionary example:
a panel of experts

Learner example:
We can justify our opinion about the quality by referring to the extremely varied and constructive
social programme, which is also organised by a panel of experts, sociologists and psychologists.

paradise /ˈpær.ə.daɪs/

NOUN

[C or U] a perfect place or situation

Dictionary examples:
a tropical paradise
a shoppers' paradise

Learner example:
Our online-catalogue is a true shopping paradise.

part /pɑːt/

Word family:
Nouns: part
Adjectives: partial
Adverbs: partly, partially

NOUN

for the most part

mostly or usually
Dictionary example:
I enjoyed it for the most part.

475
 Learner example:
First of all, for the most part, people have to use computers in their jobs.

partially /ˈpɑː.ʃəl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: part
Adjectives: partial
Adverbs: partly, partially

ADVERB

not completely
Dictionary example:
partially cooked

Learner example:
Building a parking area outside the city centre would partially solve this problem.

participant /pɑːˈtɪs.ɪ.pənt/

Word family:
Nouns: participant
Verbs: participate

NOUN [C]

someone who is involved in an activity

Dictionary example:
All participants finishing the race will receive a medal.

Learner example:
I was one of the participants who helped a charity organization to raise money for the local
hospital.

particular /pəˈtɪk.jʊ.lər/

Word family:
Adjectives: particular
Adverbs: particularly

ADJECTIVE

NOT EASILY SATISFIED

[NEVER BEFORE NOUN] choosing things carefully and not easily satisfied, or making sure
that things are exactly as you want them to be

476
 Dictionary example:
Teenagers are very particular about the clothes they'll wear.

Learner example:
When I chose you I was very particular about the quality of the service you offer and you
guaranteed professional service.

passion /ˈpæʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: passion
Adjectives: passionate
Adverbs: passionately

NOUN [C or U]

a passion for sth

when you like something very much
Dictionary example:
a passion for football

Learner example:
I always had a passion for writing and for 3 years I wrote many articles in my school magazine.

pastry /ˈpeɪ.stri/

NOUN

MIXTURE

[U] a mixture of flour, fat, and water that is cooked, usually used to cover or
contain other food
Dictionary example:
I made some pastry for the pie.

Learner example:
The most popular sweet dish is called "Apfelstrudel", which is a bit of potato pastry filled with
apples and nuts.

CAKE

[C] a small cake that is made with pastry

Dictionary example:
We had coffee and pastries.

Learner example:
They don't want to miss their sweet pastries and "Sacher tortes", [which] Austria is famous for.

477
 payable /ˈpeɪ.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: pay, payment
Verbs: pay, repay
Adjectives: payable, underpaid, unpaid

ADJECTIVE

TO BE PAID

describes something to be paid

Dictionary example:
Rent is payable monthly.

Learner example:
We were informed by you that there would be nothing extra to be paid but in fact several
admission fees were payable.

FOR PERSON

If a cheque is payable to a person, that person's name is written on the cheque

and the money will be paid to them.
Dictionary example:
Cheques should be made payable to 'Express Enterprises'.

Learner example:
Please make your cheque payable to "Mr. C. ZHANG". I am looking forward to receiving your
answer and the cheque I claimed before the end of this month.

peasant /ˈpez.ənt/

NOUN [C]

a poor person who works on the land, usually in a poor country

Dictionary example:
a peasant farmer

Learner example:
Monteiro made a lot of trips to see and speak with fishermen and peasants.

peer /pɪər/

NOUN [C]

someone who is the same age, or who has the same social position or abilities as
other members of a group

478
 Dictionary example:
Most teenagers want to be accepted by their peers.

Learner example:
It could be a little boring, especially when you are young and all you want is to be with your peers,
stay out [all night], get back early in the morning and sleep until afternoon.

pensioner /ˈpent.ʃən.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: pension, pensioner

NOUN [C]

a person who is receiving a pension

Dictionary example:
Many pensioners are worried about rises in heating costs.

Learner example:
Probably the era of soap operas will end when there [ar]e no more housewives and pensioners to
watch them.

people /ˈpiː.pl
̩/

NOUN

the people
all the ordinary people in a country
Dictionary example:
The rebels have gained the support of the people.

Learner example:
John Paul II is one of the few popes - if not the only one - to have actually been in contact with
the people.

perceive /pəˈsiːv/

Word family:
Nouns: perception
Verbs: perceive
Adjectives: perceptive

479
VERB [T] FORMAL

THINK

to think of something or someone in a particular way

Dictionary example:
The British are often perceived as being very formal.

Learner example:
However, travel[l]ing with parents or other family members is generally perceived as less exciting
and interesting than travel[l]ing with friends.

perfection /pəˈfek.ʃən/

NOUN [U]

when someone or something is perfect

Dictionary examples:
She strives for perfection in everything she does.
chicken legs cooked to perfection

Learner example:
Moreover, he is hard-working and always strives for perfection.

perk /pɜːk/

NOUN [C]

something special in addition to the money you are paid that you are given
because of your job
Dictionary example:
Free child care for preschool children of employees was a popular perk.

Learner example:
The economy nowadays is so technologically driven it is common belief that having a job in the
computer industry means high pay an[d] perks.

permit

Word family:
Nouns: permission
Verbs: permit

480
VERB /pəˈmɪt/ FORMAL SLIGHTLY (-tt-)

MAKE POSSIBLE

[I] to make something possible

Dictionary example:
The match starts at 3 pm, weather permitting.

Learner example:
In my mind there is little to improve in this programme except increasing the [amount] of family
accommodation and - budget permitting - the occasions for weekend trips.

NOUN [C] /ˈpɜː.mɪt/

an official document that allows you to do something
Dictionary examples:
a work permit
You need a permit to park your car here.

Learner example:
I am able to start as soon as possible and due to my grandfather [being] Italian also have d[ual]
na[t]ionality, which means that I don't even need [a] work permit.

personal /ˈpɜː.sən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: person, personality
Adjectives: personal, impersonal
Adverbs: personally

ADJECTIVE

personal hygiene
how clean a person's body, teeth, hair, etc. are
Dictionary example:
Her personal hygiene is not as good as it should be.

Learner example:
The ones that need medical services at home have hardly had anyone, and no one has helped
them with personal hygiene.

personally /ˈpɜː.sən.əl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: person, personality
Adjectives: personal, impersonal
Adverbs: personally

481
ADVERB

take sth personally

to think that someone is criticizing you or to feel that a failure or bad situation is
your fault
Dictionary example:
You mustn't take everything so personally.

Learner example:
She tends to take things too personally, and sometimes she over[r]eacts.

personnel /ˌpɜː.sənˈel/

NOUN

[PLURAL] the people who work for an organization

Dictionary example:
military personnel

Learner example:
We also employ 10000 workers in 10 factories across the country and additional administrative
personnel.

perspective /pəˈspek.tɪv/

NOUN

WAY OF THINKING

[C] the way you think about something

Dictionary example:
Being unemployed has made me see things from a different perspective.

Learner example:
We have performed a class survey and interviewed Fordham residents, who see this issue from a
different perspective.

persuasive /pəˈsweɪ.sɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: persuasion
Verbs: persuade
Adjectives: persuasive

482
ADJECTIVE

able to make people agree to do something

Dictionary example:
It's a very persuasive argument.

Learner example:
The presentation and the enthusiasm of the representatives was very persuasive and appealing.

phenomenon /fɪˈnɒm.ɪ.nən/

Word family:
Nouns: phenomenon
Adjectives: phenomenal

NOUN [C] (phenomena)

something that exists or happens, usually something unusual
Dictionary examples:
storms, lightning, and other natural phenomena
Road rage seems to be a fairly recent phenomenon.

Learner example:
An unexpected phenomenon that someone called "drunkenness tourism" has appeared in the
Mediter[r]anean villages and towns.

philosophy /fɪˈlɒs.ə.fi/

Word family:
Nouns: philosopher, philosophy
Adjectives: philosophical

NOUN

WAY OF THINKING

[C] a way of thinking about what should be done in life

Dictionary example:
My philosophy has always been to give those with ability the chance to progress.

Learner example:
Brighton college has changed its philosophy considerably over the past decades.

483
 picture /ˈpɪk.tʃər/

Word family:
Nouns: picture
Adjectives: picturesque

NOUN

put/keep sb in the picture INFORMAL

to explain to someone what is happening

Dictionary example:
Jim had no idea what was going on till I put him in the picture.

Learner example:
Tell him you are friends of mine. (I will put him in the picture!)

VERB [T]

to imagine something in a particular way

Dictionary example:
The house isn't at all how I had pictured it.

Learner example:
Picture this: one house, one bathroom, one bedroom, approximately 100 cameras, 9 people from
all possible walks of life and no contact with the world outside.

place /pleɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: place, replacement, displacement
Verbs: place, replace, displace, misplace

VERB [T]

place an advertisement/order, etc.

to arrange to have an advertisement/order, etc.
Dictionary example:
She placed an advert for a housekeeper in the local paper.

Learner example:
Place an advertisement on the board near the students' cant[een]. There are always people looking
for flat-sharing.

SITUATION

to cause someone to be in a situation

Dictionary example:
One stupid action has placed us all at risk.

484
 Learner example:
Lack of education placed them in the lowest range of salaries at that time.

planning /ˈplæn.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: plan, planning
Verbs: plan

NOUN [U]

BUILDINGS

control over which buildings are built in an area

Dictionary example:
town planning

Learner example:
Town planning and some income-tax rules are two other prominent factors.

pleasurable /ˈpleʒ.ər.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: pleasure
Verbs: please
Adjectives: pleasant, pleased, unpleasant, pleasurable
Adverbs: pleasantly

ADJECTIVE

enjoyable
Dictionary example:
a pleasurable experience

Learner example:
Not that I would like to be locked up forever without a career or personal growth and just dozens
of children of my own scampering around, but it certainly is pleasurable to drift off dreaming for a
while in those huge castles.

plunge /plʌndʒ/

VERB

BECOME LOWER

[I] to become lower in temperature, value, etc. very suddenly and quickly

485
 Dictionary example:
Temperatures plunged below zero.

Learner example:
Five years later the German trend plunged and the Spanish followed, both reaching marks of 1.3
and 1.2 average children per family respectively.

point /pɔɪnt/

Word family:
Nouns: point
Verbs: point
Adjectives: pointless

NOUN

sb's strong point

something that someone is very good at
Dictionary example:
Cooking is not my strong point.

Learner example:
She's got a lot of strong points, more than weaknesses.

make a point of doing sth

to be certain that you always do a particular thing
Dictionary example:
He made a point of learning all the names of his staff.

Learner example:
I was not expecting to meet him that night, because I thought he would be busy and not have
time to talk to anyone, but being so special as he is, he made a point of talking to everybody.

pointless /ˈpɔɪnt.ləs/

Word family:
Nouns: point
Verbs: point
Adjectives: pointless

ADJECTIVE

Something that is pointless has no purpose.

486
 Dictionary examples:
pointless arguments/conflict
a pointless exercise
It would be pointless to argue with him.

Learner example:
Moreover, people who meet through e-mails and chatrooms can confirm that talking or sending
messages to someone you can't see is pointless and boring.

policy /ˈpɒl.ə.si/

NOUN [C]

AGREEMENT

an agreement that you have with an insurance company

Dictionary example:
Does your policy cover medical costs?

Learner example:
Working in an insurance company often means 'selling the air', but when you see that a person
gets out of a difficult situation just because he or she has an insurance policy, you begin to love
this job.

politically /pəˈlɪt.ɪ.kli/

Word family:
Nouns: politician, politics
Adjectives: political

ADV

in a way that is connected with politics

Dictionary examples:
Politically, she is very experienced.
a politically active group

Learner example:
Nowadays most women have equal chances of education, are permitted to work, sign any
bur[eau]cratic papers with no need of their husbands' countersign[ature], are politically active and
have an important professional career.

487
 pony /ˈpəʊ.ni/

NOUN [C]

a small horse
Dictionary example:
I have a pony.

Learner example:
The forest is inhabited by wild bears, wild ponies, golden eagles and non-poisonous snakes.

poor /pɔːr/

Word family:
Nouns: poor
Adjectives: poor, poorly
Adverbs: poorly

NOUN

the poor
people who are poor
Dictionary example:
She spent her life working with the poor.

Learner example:
It is widely believed that under his management, Greece advanced economically and socially,
made steps forward concerning the relationships with other countries and people, (especially the
poor) loved him, for he made them feel important.

poorly /ˈpɔː.li/

Word family:
Nouns: poor
Adjectives: poor, poorly
Adverbs: poorly

ADVERB

badly
Dictionary example:
poorly educated

Learner example:
On the contrary, to my mind both issues were handled rather poorly.

488
ADJECTIVE

ill
Dictionary example:
Rosie was feeling poorly so I put her to bed.

Learner example:
When a colle[a]gue is absent [due to] feeling poorly, I can automatically do the duties of that
person because we work as a group.

populate /ˈpɒp.jə.leɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: population
Verbs: populate

VERB

be populated
If an area is populated by people or animals, they live in that area.
Dictionary examples:
The countryside is densely/sparsely populated.
The forest was populated by rare and colourful birds.

Learner example:
Hong Kong is a densely populated city.

portable /ˈpɔː.tə.bl
̩/

ADJECTIVE

able to be carried
Dictionary example:
a portable computer

Learner example:
Laptops are indeed a portable office.

portion /ˈpɔː.ʃən/

NOUN [C]

PART

a part or share of something larger

489
 Dictionary examples:
A large/major portion of the company's profit goes straight back into new projects.
I accept my portion of the blame.

Learner example:
Such an event will probably attract publicity (TV, radio, newspapers) and since we are a new
company, we will have the opportunity to become know[n] to a large portion of the population in a
short amount of time.

pose /pəʊz/

VERB

pose a danger/problem/threat, etc.

to cause a problem
Dictionary example:
A lot of these chemicals pose very real threats to our health.

Learner example:
I hope everyone agrees with me that the new types of communication do not pose a threat to
face-to-face communication, but probably [reinforce] it.

BE STILL

[I] to stay in a particular position so that someone can paint or photograph you

Dictionary example:
The two leaders posed for photographs outside the White House.

Learner example:
The tourists are allowed to touch the seals, and the seals are willing to pose for the photographs.

position /pəˈzɪʃ.ən/

NOUN

be in a position to do sth
to be able to do something because of your situation
Dictionary example:
I'm not in a position to talk about this at the moment.

Learner example:
But no one is in a position to know about it yet, since now it is just an option.

490
 be in position
If someone or something is in position, they are in the place that they should be
in.
Dictionary example:
The police were all in position.

Learner example:
Remember to stay calm when you are in the car with the instructor, wear your seatbelt and check
that all your mir[r]ors are in position.

put sb in a difficult position

to cause someone to be in a difficult situation
Dictionary example:
When two of your best friends argue it puts you in a very difficult position.

Learner example:
I know that I will put you in a difficult position with my absence but I must leave.

possess /pəˈzes/

Word family:
Nouns: possession
Verbs: possess
Adjectives: possessive

VERB

[T] FORMAL to have or own something

Dictionary example:
He was found guilty of possessing an illegal weapon.

Learner example:
She was lucky to possess a single nice-looking long dress for special occasions, so there was no
point in wasting time choosing the appropriate dress.

possible /ˈpɒs.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: possibility, impossibility
Adjectives: impossible, possible
Adverbs: possibly

ADJECTIVE

the best/cheapest/worst, etc. possible

the best/cheapest/worst, etc. that can happen or exist

491
 Dictionary example:
We need to complete the work in the shortest possible time.

Learner example:
But I strongly believe that with good will and enough effort from both sides - our clubs members
and you - we will work everything out in the best possible way!

post /pəʊst/

Word family:
Nouns: post
Verbs: post
Adjectives: postal

VERB [T]

keep sb posted
to make certain that someone always knows what is happening
Dictionary example:
Keep me posted on anything that happens while I'm away.

Learner example:
We will keep our members posted on the best eating places in town.

postal /ˈpəʊst.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: post
Verbs: post
Adjectives: postal

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

relating to the system of sending letters and parcels

Dictionary example:
the postal service/system

Learner example:
It's just another strike that has affected our everyday life, and Polish postal services in particular.

posture /ˈpɒs.tʃər/

NOUN [U]

the position of your back, shoulders, etc. when you are standing or sitting

492
 Dictionary example:
She has very good posture.

Learner example:
As for the furniture, replacing old rickety chairs would result in better working conditions and
prevent fatigue, stress, incapa[c]ity for work due to bad posture, therefore speeding up
productivity and doing away with complaints about pain and poor health.

power /paʊər/

Word family:
Nouns: power
Adjectives: powerful
Adverbs: powerfully

NOUN

POLITICS

[U] political control in a country

Dictionary examples:
They have been in power too long.
When did this government come to power?

Learner example:
It happened in the November of 1973 and it is the University students' rebellion against the
outlaw military goverment which had come to power in 1967 after a violent c[oup].

do everything in your power to do sth

to do everything that you are able and allowed to do in order to achieve something
Dictionary example:
I've done everything in my power to help him.

Learner example:
I think of myself as an open-minded and cheerful person and if I get the job I will do everything in
my power to make sure your visitors will have a great time at the theme park.

COUNTRY

[C] a country that has a lot of influence over others

Dictionary example:
a major world power

Learner example:
Unfortunately this trend continues into adulthood and has become so bad that in a world power
like the United States, one in every three people are considered clinically obese.

STRENGTH

[U] strength or force

493
 Dictionary example:
economic/military power

Learner example:
We have enough population and economic power to set up a complete city.

practical /ˈpræk.tɪ.kəl/

Word family:
Adjectives: practical
Adverbs: practically

ADJECTIVE

POSSIBLE

able to be done successfully

Dictionary examples:
a practical solution
The plan is simply not practical.

Learner example:
This is not a very practical solution for the employees.

SUITABLE

suitable or useful for a situation which may involve some difficulty

Dictionary examples:
practical clothes/shoes
Pale carpets just aren't practical if you have kids.

Learner example:
Instead of being practical, our clothes need to be extravagant.

practice /ˈpræk.tɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: practice
Verbs: practise

NOUN

put something into practice

to do something in reality that has been planned or talked about
Dictionary examples:
Next month we will have a chance to put these ideas into practice.
How do you intend to put these proposals into practice?

494
 Learner example:
The doctors cannot really put all their skills into practice.

practise /ˈpræk.tɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: practice
Verbs: practise

VERB [I or T]

WORK

to work as a doctor or a lawyer

Dictionary example:
to practise medicine/law

Learner example:
Many wom[e]n practise law and become judges.

praise /preɪz/

NOUN [U]

words you say to show that you admire someone or something

Dictionary examples:
They deserve praise for their achievements.
Her first novel won a lot of praise from the critics.

Learner example:
This may sound like glowing praise, but Michael really deserves it.

precaution /prɪˈkɔː.ʃən/

NOUN [C]

something that you do to prevent bad things happening in the future

Dictionary examples:
Driving alone at night can be dangerous, so always take precautions.
They called the doctor as a precaution.
He took the precaution of locking the door.

Learner example:
The dancing and the horse shows were indeed cancelled, as a precaution out of fear of the
weather becoming even worse.

495
 precisely /prɪˈsaɪ.sli/

Word family:
Adjectives: precise
Adverbs: precisely

ADVERB

AGREEMENT

used to agree with what someone else says

Dictionary example:
"It's not the shape I dislike, it's the colour." - "Precisely!"

predator /ˈpred.ə.tər/

NOUN [C]

an animal that kills and eats other animals

Dictionary example:
These animals have remarkably few predators.

Learner example:
Ferocious animals, such as tigers, lions and snakes (anacondas) can be seen in these areas, but
for those who are not used to forests, these predators may only become visible once they are
attacked.

pregnancy /ˈpreg.nən.si/

Word family:
Nouns: pregnancy
Adjectives: pregnant

NOUN [C or U]

when a woman is pregnant

Dictionary example:
a teenage pregnancy

Learner example:
The reduced risk of further pregnancies in conjunction with less remuneration for their work
makes these women seem more attractive to employers.

496
 prejudiced /ˈpredʒ.ə.dɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: prejudice
Adjectives: prejudiced

ADJECTIVE

feeling dislike for a group of people or treating them unfairly because they are a
different race, sex, religion, etc.
Dictionary example:
Are the police prejudiced against black people?

Learner example:
Men have been very prejudiced a[gains]t women in this sector, so it has been hard to prove the
opposite.

preliminary /prɪˈlɪm.ɪ.nər.i/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

done or happening in order to prepare for the main event or activity

Dictionary example:
a preliminary discussion/meeting

Learner example:
Picasso would start with a lot of preliminary sketches and then go on to paint his final picture,
where the main figures - a woman and a horse - are screaming in despair.

premises /ˈprem.ɪ.sɪz/

NOUN [PLURAL]

the land and buildings owned by someone, especially by a company or

organization
Dictionary examples:
The company is moving to new premises.
The ice cream is made on the premises.
The security guards escorted the protesters off the premises.

Learner example:
The staff will have more space to work in as our local branch is moving to larger premises, and
better work conditions will be provided to them.

497
 present

Word family:
Nouns: presence, present
Verbs: present
Adjectives: present
Adverbs: presently

VERB [T] /prɪˈzent/

present a danger/difficulty/problem, etc.

to cause a danger/difficulty/problem, etc.
Dictionary examples:
The interview didn't present her with any difficulty.
The final exam may present some problems.

Learner example:
Medical services do not present any serious problem at the moment.

presently /ˈprez.ənt.li/

Word family:
Nouns: presence, present
Verbs: present
Adjectives: present
Adverbs: presently

ADVERB

FORMAL now
Dictionary example:
He's presently living with his parents.

Learner example:
I am presently working as [a] sales assistant in "La Suze," a lingerie shop in the city.

preservation /ˌprez.əˈveɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: preservation
Verbs: preserve

NOUN [U]

when you keep something the same or prevent it from being damaged or
destroyed

498
 Dictionary examples:
the preservation of peace
the preservation of wildlife

Learner example:
I was asked to investigate the current situation in my area, concerning the efforts to cut down on
the use of energy and natural resources, in order to contribute to the preservation of the
environment.

press /pres/

NOUN

good/bad press
praise or criticism from newspapers, magazines, television, etc.
Dictionary example:
She's had a lot of bad press recently.

Learner example:
I also insist that you wr[i]te a note of apology to the organisers, for bad press won't help either the
charity or the hospital.

pressure /ˈpreʃ.ər/

NOUN

LIQUID/GAS

[C or U] the force that a liquid or gas produces when it presses against an area

Dictionary example:
water pressure

Learner example:
The process of hydro-electric power generation is using the water pressure from the reservoir to
generate the power, which is then transported to [a] transformer station through high voltage
cables.

prestige /presˈtiːʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: prestige
Adjectives: prestigious

499
NOUN [U]

when people feel respect and admiration for you, often because you are successful
Dictionary example:
His company has gained international prestige.

Learner example:
Many companies nowadays are organising some cultural or sports events in order to strengthen
the company's prestige.

prestigious /presˈtɪdʒ.əs/

Word family:
Nouns: prestige
Adjectives: prestigious

ADJECTIVE

respected and admired, usually because of being important

Dictionary example:
a prestigious award

Learner example:
The jobs that were prestigious in the past seem to be the opposite now.

presume /prɪˈzjuːm/

Word family:
Nouns: presumption
Verbs: presume
Adverbs: presumably

VERB

[T] to believe something to be true because it is very likely, although you are not
certain
Dictionary examples:
I presume (that) they're not coming, since they haven't replied to the invitation.
You are Dr Smith, I presume?
"Are we walking to the hotel?" "I presume not/so."
The universe is presumed to contain many other planets with some form of life.

Learner example:
I presume the students are keen on doing some exercise or even competitive sports.

500
 price /praɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: price
Verbs: price
Adjectives: priceless

NOUN

RESULT

[NO PLURAL] the unpleasant results that you must accept or experience for getting or
doing something
Dictionary example:
Suspension from the club was ahigh/small price to payfor his mistake.

Learner example:
What really characterizes Michael is his love for life, his continuous joy, which sometimes can
become rather annoying, but this is just a small price to pay for all his success.

VERB [T OFTEN PASSIVE]

to say what the price of something is

Dictionary examples:
The car is priced at £28 000.
There is a lack of reasonably priced housing for rent.

Learner example:
Both games are priced at approximately £30.

priceless /ˈpraɪs.ləs/

Word family:
Nouns: price
Verbs: price
Adjectives: priceless

ADJECTIVE

IMPORTANT

very important or useful

Dictionary example:
A trip round the world is a priceless opportunity.

Learner example:
It would [be] sad if not unfair for my friend to [miss] this unique and priceless opportunity.

501
 primitive /ˈprɪm.ɪ.tɪv/

ADJECTIVE

NOT DEVELOPED

relating to human society at a very early stage of development, with people living
in a simple way without machines or a writing system
Dictionary examples:
primitive man
primitive societies

Learner example:
Young people nowadays are more exposed to the world news, whereas primitive societies were
rather isolated and ha[d] nothing to [do] with [the] outside world.

BASIC

DISAPPROVING very basic or old-fashioned

Dictionary example:
The conditions at the campsite were rather primitive.

Learner example:
Students will not appreciate their primitive meals at any cost, even a low one.

principle /ˈprɪnt.sɪ.pl
̩/

NOUN

IDEA

[C] a basic idea or rule that explains or controls how something happens or works

Dictionary examples:
the principles of the criminal justice system
The country is run on socialist principles.
The organization works on the principle that all members have the same rights.

Learner example:
Many laws in our legislation have been created according to his principles and beliefs.

print /prɪnt/

Word family:
Nouns: printer, print
Verbs: print

502
NOUN

PICTURE

[C] a copy of a picture made using photography or by pressing paper onto a design
covered in ink
Dictionary example:
a print of Van Gogh's 'Sunflowers'

Learner example:
MI5 operates two computers, one for word processing and another for scanning and reproducing
prints, drawings and photos.

prior /praɪər/

ADJECTIVE

BEFORE

existing or happening before something else

Dictionary example:
The course requires no prior knowledge of Spanish.

Learner example:
Referring to our prior correspondence I would like to inform you that I accept your friendly offer
for being once again your interpreter on your one-week-tour through our country.

prior to sth
before a particular time or event
Dictionary example:
the weeks prior to her death

Learner example:
I'd like to tell you about my expectations prior to the conference.

privatize /ˈpraɪ.və.taɪz/

Word family:
Nouns: privacy
Verbs: privatize
Adjectives: private
Adverbs: privately

VERB [T] (ALSO UK privatise)

If an industry or organization owned by the government is privatized, it is sold to
private companies.

503
 Dictionary example:
The government plans to privatize many aspects of health care.

Learner example:
The companies were privatised or closed down.

privilege /ˈprɪv.əl.ɪdʒ/

Word family:
Nouns: privilege
Adjectives: privileged

NOUN

ADVANTAGE

[C or U] an advantage that only one person or group has, usually because of their
position or because they are rich
Dictionary example:
She was born into a life of privilege.

Learner example:
There are only a few things that have been worrying me a bit: firstly I would like to enjoy the
privilege of having my own parking [place].

OPPORTUNITY

[C] an opportunity to do something special or enjoyable

Dictionary example:
I had the privilege of meeting the Queen.

Learner example:
I have attended several events in benefit of The Foundation but this one was particular[l]y special
and memorable as I had the pleasure and the privilege of meeting Elton again - it is really a great
privilege to be friendly with someone so special as he is.

privileged /ˈprɪv.əl.ɪdʒd/

Word family:
Nouns: privilege
Adjectives: privileged

ADJECTIVE

ADVANTAGE

having an advantage that only one person or group has, usually because of their
position or because they are rich

504
 Dictionary examples:
a privileged upbringing
As an ambassador, she enjoys a very privileged status.

Learner example:
Today we [are] so privileged, life has become so easy in many ways.

probability /ˌprɒb.əˈbɪl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: probability
Adjectives: probable
Adverbs: probably

NOUN

[C or U] how likely it is that something will happen

Dictionary examples:
What's the probability of winning?
There's a high probability that he'll get the job.

Learner example:
The statistics say that if one woman gets married to one man, the probability that they will get
divorced is 50 percent.

problematic /ˌprɒb.ləˈmæt.ɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: problem
Adjectives: problematic

ADJECTIVE

full of problems or difficulties

Dictionary example:
He has a very problematic relationship with his father.

Learner example:
On the other hand, there were some problematic issues.

proceed /prəʊˈsiːd/

Word family:
Nouns: proceedings
Verbs: proceed

505
VERB [I] FORMAL

CONTINUE

to continue to happen
Dictionary example:
His lawyers have decided not to proceed with the case.

Learner example:
I am not sure which is the best way to proceed with this problem.

produce

Word family:
Nouns: producer, product, production, productivity, reproduction
Verbs: produce, reproduce
Adjectives: productive, unproductive

VERB [T] /prəˈdjuːs/

SHOW

to show or offer something to someone

Dictionary example:
One of the men suddenly produced a gun from his pocket.

Learner example:
Robert had produced a bottle of champagne, which they had em[p]tied to the last drop.

producer /prəˈdjuː.sər/

Word family:
Nouns: producer, product, production, productivity, reproduction
Verbs: produce, reproduce
Adjectives: productive, unproductive

NOUN [C]

GOODS/FOOD

a company, country, or person that makes goods or grows food

Dictionary example:
Australia is one of the world's main producers of wool.

Learner example:
For example, in several countries people who live in the countryside actually are the main
producers of wheat and also the meat that people need in their daily life.

506
 productivity /ˌprɒd.ʌkˈtɪv.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: producer, product, production, productivity, reproduction
Verbs: produce, reproduce
Adjectives: productive, unproductive

NOUN [U]

the rate at which goods are produced or work is done

Dictionary example:
We need to increase productivity by 50%.

Learner example:
Though time-consuming, these staff would need to undergo re-training to be able to achieve the
highest level of productivity, besides getting accustomed to the nick-nacks of the Production
Department.

professional /prəˈfeʃ.ən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: profession, professional
Adjectives: professional, unprofessional

NOUN [C]

TRAINED

someone who does a job that needs special training or education

Dictionary example:
health professionals

Learner example:
Computer skills and knowledge are really important for researchers and media professionals.

profile /ˈprəʊ.faɪl/

NOUN [C]

PUBLIC IMAGE

the amount of public attention that someone or something receives

Dictionary examples:
The firm has a high profile due to the recent media coverage.
The advertising campaign aims to raise the profile of the company.

507
 Learner example:
I believe that this is a great idea, as it will help raise the profile of our club in our college, and
therefore may help increase interest in the club and possibly its membership.

keep a low profile

to try not to be noticed
Dictionary example:
She has kept a low profile since the divorce.

Learner example:
Finally, I believe that the best way to handle these issues is to try to keep a low profile at all times
and to remain indifferent to gossip.

profitable /ˈprɒf.ɪ.tə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: profit
Adjectives: profitable

ADJECTIVE

USEFUL

useful or likely to give you an advantage

Dictionary examples:
a profitable discussion
I made profitable use of my time, mixing with a lot of different people and practising my Spanish.

Learner example:
The 'language-shower', as it is called, can sometimes be more productive, efficient and profitable
in terms of assimilating knowledge than any course given by highly est[eem]ed professors.

programmer /ˈprəʊ.græ.mər/

Word family:
Nouns: program, programming, programmer

NOUN [C]

someone who writes computer programs as a job

Dictionary example:
We employ six programmers on the project.

Learner example:
I'm a 35-year old programmer in a small company.

508
 progression /prəʊˈgreʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: progress, progression
Verbs: progress
Adjectives: progressive

NOUN [C or U]

when something or someone changes to the next stage of development

Dictionary examples:
a logical/natural progression
Drugs can stop the progression of the disease.

Learner example:
Sharing information between people is a crucial point of peoples' education and it can help in
their career progression.

progressive /prəʊˈgres.ɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: progress, progression
Verbs: progress
Adjectives: progressive

ADJECTIVE

GRADUAL

developing or happening gradually

Dictionary examples:
There's been a progressive decline in the standard of living over the past few years.
a progressive disease

Learner example:
It was not a quick change, on the contrary it was a progressive change which was accelerated by
some factors during the last two decades.

projection /prəʊˈdʒek.ʃən/

NOUN

CALCULATION

[C] a calculation or guess about the future based on information that you have

Dictionary example:
government projections of population growth

509
 Learner example:
The line graph shows the Cinema attendance between 1990 and the present, with projections to
2010.

IMAGE

[U] when a film or an image is projected onto a screen or wall

Dictionary example:
the projection of moving images

Learner example:
Talks and slide projection could be interesting for [o]lder people but not so exciting for younger
people, who would prefer some more "active" entertainment like visits to discos, barbecues, quiz
night, karaoke nights, fancy-dress parties and other similar happenings.

prolong /prəʊˈlɒŋ/

Word family:
Verbs: prolong
Adjectives: prolonged

VERB [T]

to make something last longer

Dictionary example:
Eating a good diet can prolong your life.

Learner example:
However, nobody expects the strike to be prolonged for more than a week.

prolonged /prəʊˈlɒŋd/

Word family:
Verbs: prolong
Adjectives: prolonged

ADJECTIVE

continuing for a long time

Dictionary examples:
a prolonged illness
Avoid prolonged exposure to the sun.

Learner example:
What surprised us was the prolonged delay we had to suffer during our departure from Heathrow.

510
 prominent /ˈprɒm.ɪ.nənt/

ADJECTIVE

IMPORTANT

important or famous
Dictionary example:
a prominent figure

Learner example:
It starts with two very important works of Albrecht Durer, one of the most prominent painters of
his time, not only in Germany.

promising /ˈprɒm.ɪ.sɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: promise
Verbs: promise
Adjectives: promising

ADJECTIVE

likely to be very good or successful in the future

Dictionary examples:
a promising student
a promising start to the game

Learner example:
Once a promising football player starts his career he becomes an attractive "thing" to sponsors
and football clubs.

promote /prəˈməʊt/

Word family:
Nouns: promotion
Verbs: promote

VERB [T]

ENCOURAGE

to encourage something to happen or develop

Dictionary examples:
to promote peace
It has long been known that regular exercise promotes all-round good health.
Greenpeace works to promote awareness of the dangers that threaten our planet today.

511
 Learner example:
A notable exception is the advertising of so-called "slow-food" restaurants, which promote [a]
healthy lifestyle.

promotion /prəˈməʊ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: promotion
Verbs: promote

NOUN

ENCOURAGE

[U NO PLURAL] when you encourage something to happen or develop

Dictionary example:
the promotion of a healthy lifestyle

Learner example:
I would like an education more based on the needs of the country, but not only on the economic
ones but also on the spiritual ones, such as the development of a cultural identity, the promotion
of the arts, and the encouragement of an ecologically friendly way of producing wealth for the
country as a whole.

proportion /prəˈpɔː.ʃən/

NOUN

PART OF TOTAL

[C] a part of a total number or amount

Dictionary examples:
Children make up a large proportion of the world's population.
The class consists of men and women in roughly equal proportions.

Learner example:
A significant proportion of the respondents (80%) said that they are not pleased with dangerous
roads and the queues during the rush-hours and they also encounter difficulties in finding a safe
house to rent.

512
 proposition /ˌprɒp.əˈzɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: proposal, proposition
Verbs: propose
Adjectives: proposed

NOUN [C]

an offer or suggestion, usually in business

Dictionary example:
an attractive/interesting proposition

Learner example:
If you will consider this proposition positively, then we w[ould] like to produce a deal for you to
become our only importer in Britain.

prospective /prəˈspek.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: prospect
Adjectives: prospective

ADJECTIVE

prospective buyers/employers/parents, etc.

Prospective buyers, employers, parents, etc., are not yet buyers, employers,
parents, etc., but are expected to be in the future.
Dictionary example:
We hold an open day for prospective students.

Learner example:
The page is useful for prospective students as well as for people who are already studying and
plan to go abroad.

prosperity /prɒsˈper.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: prosperity
Verbs: prosper
Adjectives: prosperous

NOUN [U]

when a person or group of people is successful, usually by earning a lot of money

513
 Dictionary example:
Our nation's prosperity comes from oil.

Learner example:
It is a typical tradition and the rice means prosperity for the couple.

prosperous /ˈprɒs.pər.əs/

Word family:
Nouns: prosperity
Verbs: prosper
Adjectives: prosperous

ADJECTIVE

successful, usually by earning a lot of money

Dictionary example:
He is a prosperous car dealer.

Learner example:
Of course our employees will also benefit from the company becoming more prosperous.

prostitute /ˈprɒs.tɪ.tjuːt/

NOUN [C]

! someone whose job is having sex with people

Dictionary example:
There were a lot of prostitutes working in the area.

Learner example:
Some people say they are prostitutes while others deny it.

protective /prəˈtek.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: protection
Verbs: protect
Adjectives: protective

ADJECTIVE

WANTING TO PROTECT

wanting to protect someone from criticism, hurt, danger, etc. because you like
them

514
 Dictionary examples:
It's easy to be too protective towards/of your children.
She's fiercely protective of the man she married 29 years ago.

Learner example:
She is very protective with children [in] her custody and can get very aggressive to protect them
from strangers or dogs.

protein /ˈprəʊ.tiːn/

NOUN [U]

food such as meat, cheese, fish, or eggs that is necessary for the body to grow
and be strong
Dictionary example:
Nuts and fish both contain protein.

Learner example:
In miso soup, a lot of ingredients which have protein are used, and protein is a useful element to
keep our body healthy.

provider /prəˈvaɪ.dər/

Word family:
Nouns: provider, provision
Verbs: provide

NOUN [C]

someone who provides something

Dictionary examples:
an Internet service provider
The bank is now a major provider of financial services to industry.
Until her illness she was the main provider in the family.

Learner example:
I would like to complain a[bou]t my gas and electricity provider Energy Plus.

provision /prəˈvɪʒ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: provider, provision
Verbs: provide

515
NOUN

[C or U] when something is provided

Dictionary examples:
The provision of good public transport will be essential for developing the area.
Of course there's provision in the plan for population increase.
When designing buildings in this area, you have to make provision against earthquakes.

Learner example:
Following serious complaints from students, I have read through the three proposals given to me
regarding provision of food in the institute.

public /ˈpʌb.lɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: publicity
Adjectives: public
Adverbs: publicly

NOUN

be in the public eye

to be famous and often featured in the media
Dictionary example:
Her new role means that she will be in the public eye.

Learner example:
But being famous also means that you are always in the public eye, which is a major drawback.

publicly /ˈpʌb.lɪ.kli/

Word family:
Nouns: publicity
Adjectives: public
Adverbs: publicly

ADVERB

If something is done publicly, it is done so that everyone can know about it

Dictionary example:
The company publicly apologized and agreed to contribute some money to charity.

Learner example:
It would be a sound opportunity for our singers to perform their new albums and make their work
publicly known.

516
 pulse /pʌls/

NOUN [C]

the regular movement of blood through your body when your heart is beating
Dictionary examples:
She put her fingers on my wrist to take my pulse (=count the number of beats per minute).
My pulse rate is 70.

Learner example:
Nowadays, stressful things are all around you. They have bad effects on your work, private life or
education, as well as sometimes causing you health problems such as high blood pressure, an
irregular pulse, etc.

purely /ˈpjʊə.li/

Word family:
Nouns: purity
Adjectives: pure
Adverbs: purely

ADVERB

only
Dictionary example:
She married him purely for his money.

Learner example:
And we had to arrange our social programme purely by ourselves.

purity /ˈpjʊə.rə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: purity
Adjectives: pure
Adverbs: purely

NOUN [U]

the quality of being pure

Dictionary example:
air purity

Learner example:
The beauty, purity and power of Chinese poems is hard to resist.

517
 pursue /pəˈsjuː/

Word family:
Nouns: pursuit
Verbs: pursue

VERB [T]

If you pursue a plan, activity, or situation, you try to do it or achieve it, usually
over a long period of time.
Dictionary examples:
She decided to pursue a career in television.
We suspect that our boss is pursuing a hidden agenda.

Learner example:
I will be shortly pursuing a degree course in computing and I would like to obtain first the entry
qualification that is required for the degree course.

push /pʊʃ/

Word family:
Nouns: push
Verbs: push
Adjectives: pushy

VERB

ENCOURAGE

[T] to try to make someone do something that they do not want to do

Dictionary example:
My mother pushed me into having ballet lessons.

Learner example:
The biggest help though was my parents who were really understan[ding] and didn't push me too
hard into learning English and that why I succe[e]ded.

NOUN

ENCOURAGEMENT

[C] encouragement to make someone do something

Dictionary example:
I'm sure he'll go, he just needs a little push that's all.

Learner example:
I knew before what I was capable of doing but I really needed a push.

518
 put /pʊt/

VERB [T] (putting, put, put)

put sb in a difficult position

to cause someone to be in a difficult situation
Dictionary example:
When two of your best friends argue it puts you in a very difficult position.

Learner example:
I know that I will put you in a difficult position with my absence but I must leave.

put your mind to sth

to give your full attention to something and try very hard to do it
Dictionary example:
You could win if you put your mind to it.

Learner example:
With all the technology available, the task is actually quite simple if you put your mind to it.

put something into practice

to do something in reality that has been planned or talked about
Dictionary examples:
Next month we will have a chance to put these ideas into practice.
How do you intend to put these proposals into practice?

Learner example:
The doctors cannot really put all their skills into practice.

put a stop to sth

to end something unpleasant
Dictionary example:
We must put a stop to the violence.

Learner example:
Maybe these new activities (video - videogames), which are quite distracti[ng], are at the same
time so addictive that youngsters find it hard to put a stop to it.

puzzle /ˈpʌz.l
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: puzzle
Verbs: puzzle
Adjectives: puzzled

519
VERB

to make someone confused because they do not understand something

Dictionary example:
I was puzzled by what he said.

Learner example:
Dear Fiona, I was really touched by your concern regarding our daily life at the moment but I was
also quite puzzled.

pyramid /ˈpɪr.ə.mɪd/

NOUN [C]

a shape with a square base and four triangular sides that meet to form a point at
the top
Dictionary example:
The stones were shaped into a pyramid.

Learner example:
The King was living in his great palace with a view [of] the biggest pyramid in the village, smaller
ones were [situated] around it.

520
 Q

qualification /ˌkwɒl.ɪ.fəˈkeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: qualification
Verbs: qualify, disqualify
Adjectives: qualified, unqualified

NOUN

COMPETITION

[U] success in getting into a competition

Dictionary example:
England's qualification for the World Cup.

Learner example:
The video tells how particular national teams got through their qualification for finals and then
presents the most interesting games that took place in Italy '92.

question /ˈkwes.tʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: question
Verbs: question
Adjectives: questionable

NOUN

be a question of
used for saying what the most important issue is in a situation
Dictionary example:
Someone needs to be here - it's a question of who would be the best person.

Learner example:
The choice is a question of price.

521
 quote /kwəʊt/

Word family:
Nouns: quotation, quote
Verbs: quote

VERB [I or T]

REPEAT

to repeat the words that someone else has said or written

Dictionary examples:
I was quoting from Marx.
Can I quote you on that?
"If they're flexible, we're flexible", the official was quoted as saying.

Learner example:
Let me quote another sentence: "...carefully selected host families".

GIVE EXAMPLE

to give a fact or example to support what you are saying

Dictionary example:
The minister quoted recent unemployment figures.

Learner example:
We would like to quote some facts to support our points of view.

522
 R

race /reɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: race, racism, racist
Adjectives: racial, racist
Adverbs: racially

NOUN

PEOPLE

[C or U] one of the groups that people are divided into according to physical
characteristics such as colour of skin
Dictionary examples:
people of many different races
Discrimination on grounds of race will not be tolerated.
An increasing number of people in the country are of mixed race.

Learner example:
A student was taught how to lead negotiations with a business partner regardless of their age,
nationality, race and culture.

FOR POWER

[C] a situation in which people compete against each other for power, control or
success
Dictionary example:
the race for governor

Learner example:
The race for sponsors and TV-minutes has begun.

VERB

race along/down/over, etc.

to move somewhere very quickly
Dictionary example:
I raced over to see what was the matter.

Learner example:
Crying, she raced back to William and together they went home.

523
 racially /ˈreɪ.ʃəl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: race, racism, racist
Adjectives: racial, racist
Adverbs: racially

ADVERB

in a way that is connected to someone's race

Dictionary example:
racially motivated attacks

Learner example:
He respects people's values and rights and can easily integrate and assert himself in a multi-
cultural or racially diversified environment.

radiation /ˌreɪ.diˈeɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [U]

a form of energy that comes from a nuclear reaction and that in large amounts can
be very dangerous
Dictionary examples:
dangerously high levels of radiation
radiation sickness

Learner example:
It's true that in the last few years we have actually polluted much of our air with smoke or
radiation from power plants, but we're working on that.

radical /ˈræd.ɪ.kəl/

Word family:
Nouns: radical
Adjectives: radical
Adverbs: radically

ADJECTIVE

CHANGE

A radical change is very big and important.

Dictionary example:
radical reform

524
 Learner example:
Have you ever wondered if tourism can bring radical changes in an area?

radically /ˈræd.ɪ.kli/

Word family:
Nouns: radical
Adjectives: radical
Adverbs: radically

ADVERB

in a way that shows radical change or beliefs

Dictionary examples:
The company has changed radically in recent years.
Barker introduced some radically new ideas.

Learner example:
During the last decades our eating habits have changed radically in Sweden.

raise /reɪz/

VERB [T]

raise your voice

to speak loudly and angrily to someone
Dictionary example:
He never raised his voice at the children.

Learner example:
Not every au-pair family is pleasant. And believe me, mine was giving me hell on earth. [...] After I
returned home I took some time to learn not to freak out when someone raised his voice and
eventually I started to see my time in Germany as a great [lesson in] life.

random /ˈræn.dəm/

Word family:
Adjectives: random
Adverbs: randomly

ADJECTIVE

CHANCE

happening, done or chosen by chance rather than according to a plan

525
 Dictionary examples:
random checks/tests/attacks
We asked a random sample/selection of people what they thought.

Learner example:
I will put my remarks in random order.

at random
chosen by chance
Dictionary example:
Winners will be chosen at random.

Learner example:
The rooms suggested to be [filmed] have not been chosen at random.

randomly /ˈræn.dəm.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: random
Adverbs: randomly

ADVERB

in a random way
Dictionary example:
The books were randomly arranged on the shelves.

Learner example:
It is based on the survey of the Language Institute's students, who were randomly selected.

rank /ræŋk/

NOUN [C or U]

a position in an organization, such as the army, showing someone's importance

Dictionary examples:
senior/high/junior/low rank
He has just been promoted to the rank of captain.

Learner example:
Women were denied [a] higher rank and their job was limited to [mundane] tasks.

VERB [I or T]

to have a position in a list which shows things or people in order of importance, or

to give someone or something a position on such a list

526
 Dictionary examples:
He ranked number one in the world at the start of the competition.
The city's canals now rank among the world's dirtiest.

Learner example:
From being [in] an amat[eu]r league to ranked top 3 in the world is a considerable achiev[e]ment.

rare /reər/

Word family:
Nouns: rarity
Adjectives: rare
Adverbs: rarely

ADJECTIVE

MEAT

If meat is rare, it is still red because it has only been cooked for a short time.
Dictionary example:
a rare steak

rarity /ˈreə.rə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: rarity
Adjectives: rare
Adverbs: rarely

NOUN

be a rarity
to be unusual
Dictionary example:
Genuine enthusiasm is a rarity.

Learner example:
Hot meals were a rarity.
[U] the fact that something is not common

Dictionary example:
Precious stones are valued for their rarity.

Learner example:
Another group of objects would be those that are valuable - or even priceless - because of their
rarity.

527
 rate /reɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: rate, rating

NOUN [C]

SPEED

the speed at which something happens

Dictionary examples:
the patient's heart rate
Our rate of progress is too slow.
The disease was spreading at an alarming rate.

Learner example:
The actual rate of our company's growth demands increasing quality and productivity.

first-/second-/third-rate
very good, bad, or very bad
Dictionary example:
a first-rate hotel

Learner example:
For example, our town is famous for its first-rate tennis team, so he could continue his training in
tennis here and also do other sports like volleyball and baseketball.

VERB [T]

to judge the quality or ability of someone or something

Dictionary example:
How do you rate her as a singer?

Learner example:
We [did] a survey among our members that rated value for money, cost, staff, and the like.

rating /ˈreɪ.tɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: rate, rating

NOUN

a measurement of how good or popular something or someone is

Dictionary example:
A high percentage of Americans gave the President a positive rating.

Learner example:
Overall your rating was excellent!

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 ratio /ˈreɪ.ʃi.əʊ/ (PLURAL ratios)

NOUN [C]

the relationship between two groups or amounts, which expresses how much
bigger one is than the other
Dictionary examples:
The ratio of men to women at the conference was ten to one/10:1.
The school is trying to improve its pupil-teacher ratio.

Learner example:
First, the ratio between cost and the per[ceived] value has become better since 2004, i.e., the
guests are more satisfied now and believe that your service is worth the money.

rational /ˈræʃ.ən.əl/

Word family:
Adjectives: irrational, rational

ADJECTIVE

showing clear thought and reason

Dictionary examples:
He was too upset to be rational.
a rational argument/debate/explanation

Learner example:
Be as rational as you can and you will pass your driving test the first time.

react /riˈækt/

Word family:
Nouns: reaction
Verbs: react

VERB [I]

BAD EFFECT

to become ill because something that you have eaten or used on your body has
had a bad effect on you
Dictionary examples:
My skin reacts to most perfumes.
Many people react to penicillin.

529
 Learner example:
One of her weaknesses is that she reacts [badly to] bird feathers, so it would be nice to find a
family without birds.

read /riːd/

Word family:
Nouns: reader, reading, read, readership
Verbs: read

VERB (read, read)

read up on sth PHRASAL VERB

to read a lot about a particular subject in order to learn about it

Dictionary example:
I've been reading up on American history.

Learner example:
For a long time I have been reading up on ancient Greek philosophy and I have been intrigued by
the way they thought, their logic.

readership /ˈriː.də.ʃɪp/

Word family:
Nouns: reader, reading, read, readership
Verbs: read

NOUN [NO PLURAL]

the number and type of people who read a particular newspaper, magazine, etc
Dictionary example:
These magazines have a very young readership.

Learner example:
The first one is an issue that has become one of the main subjects of the last ten years and affects
the whole world, [so] it will interest your readership.

readiness /ˈred.ɪ.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: readiness
Adjectives: ready
Adverbs: readily

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NOUN [U]

WILLING

when someone is willing to do something

Dictionary example:
They expressed a readiness to accept our demands.

Learner example:
Usually, the clients appreciate his readiness to use their language and this has often been a
significant factor in closing a deal.

readjust /ˌriː.əˈdʒʌst/

Word family:
Nouns: adjustment
Verbs: adjust, readjust

VERB

SMALL CHANGE

[T] to move something slightly or make a small change to something

Dictionary example:
He readjusted his tie.

Learner example:
Because the air conditioning was not working properly or because your unfriendly coach driver
refused to readjust it, I got [a]cold [from] that day.

realistically /ˌrɪəˈlɪs.tɪk.li/

Word family:
Nouns: reality
Adjectives: real, realistic, unrealistic, unreal
Adverbs: really, realistically

ADVERB

SEEM REAL

in a way that shows things and people as they really are, or that makes them seem
real
Dictionary example:
The characters are portrayed very realistically.

Learner example:
It was realistically captured in the TV reports you have seen.

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 realization /ˌrɪ.ə.laɪˈzeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: realization
Verbs: realize

NOUN (ALSO UK realisation)

NOTICING

[NO PLURAL] when you notice or understand something that you did not notice or
understand before
Dictionary example:
There is a growing realization that education has benefits at many levels.

Learner example:
I suppose it is only when one starts to think about it that the realization comes about the fact that
fashion is part of our everyday life.

realize (ALSO UK realise) /ˈrɪə.laɪz/

Word family:
Nouns: realization
Verbs: realize

VERB [I or T]

realize an ambition/dream/goal, etc.

to achieve something that you have wanted for a long time
Dictionary example:
He had realized all his ambitions by the age of 30.

Learner example:
It's rather difficult for people to be able to realize their ambition.

rear /rɪər/

NOUN

the rear
the back part of something
Dictionary examples:
First class accommodation is towards the rear of the train.
We walked round to the rear of the house.

532
 Learner example:
The damage seems to be at the rear of the fridge where the motor is situated.

VERB

[T] If you rear children or young animals, you care for them until they are adults.

Dictionary example:
In these waters they breed and rear their young.

Learner example:
But still the main role of the wom[a]n is to rear her children and be a good assistant to her
husband and take care of her home.

reassure /ˌriː.əˈʃʊər/

Word family:
Nouns: assurance, reassurance, self-assurance
Verbs: assure, reassure
Adjectives: reassuring, self-assured

VERB [T]

to say something to stop someone from worrying

Dictionary example:
He reassured me that I would be paid soon.

Learner example:
Making my own decisions gives me much stress because I am always so scared of the results and I
need to be reassured that I am doing the right thing all the time.

reassuring /ˌriː.əˈʃʊə.rɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: assurance, reassurance, self-assurance
Verbs: assure, reassure
Adjectives: reassuring, self-assured

ADJECTIVE

making you feel less worried

Dictionary example:
a reassuring smile/voice

Learner example:
It was a reassuring feeling.

533
 rebellion /rɪˈbel.i.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: rebel, rebellion
Verbs: rebel
Adjectives: rebellious

NOUN [C or U]

! when people fight against the government in their country

Dictionary example:
Government troops defeated an armed rebellion in the south.

Learner example:
The rebellion of the students not only led to the freedom of Greece but it also inspired the local
people and the people worldwide to fight for their freedom.

rebellious /rɪˈbel.i.əs/

Word family:
Nouns: rebel, rebellion
Verbs: rebel
Adjectives: rebellious

ADJECTIVE

refusing to obey rules because you do not like authority

Dictionary example:
a rebellious teenager

Learner example:
"It was impossible for me to become submissive - I must have been rebellious from my very
birth", she recalls.

receive /rɪˈsiːv/

Word family:
Nouns: receipt, reception, receptionist
Verbs: receive
Adjectives: receptive

VERB [T]

REACT

to react to a suggestion or piece of work in a particular way

Dictionary example:
His first book was not well received.

534
 Learner example:
The English lessons in the mornings were well received but I wonder if it is possible to get more
variety?

reception /rɪˈsep.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: receipt, reception, receptionist
Verbs: receive
Adjectives: receptive

NOUN

REACTION

[NO PLURAL] the way people react to something or someone

Dictionary example:
We were given a very warm reception.

Learner example:
Although we were given a very nice reception, problems began to appear already at the start.

recharge /ˌriːˈtʃɑːdʒ/

VERB [T]

to fill a battery with electricity so that it can work again

Dictionary example:
You can recharge these batteries.

Learner example:
After buying your mobile phone, it is important to know that it can't be used for an unlimited
time. It will have to be recharged and, in the end, it will let you down when most needed.

recognize (ALSO UK recognise) /ˈrek.əg.naɪz/

Word family:
Nouns: recognition
Verbs: recognize

VERB [T]

SHOW RESPECT

to officially show respect for someone for an achievement

535
 Dictionary example:
He was recognized by the governor for his work with teenagers.

Learner example:
To sum up, Peter Smith deserves to be recognised for his efforts.

reconsider /ˌriː.kənˈsɪd.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: consideration
Verbs: consider, reconsider
Adjectives: considerate, inconsiderate

VERB [I or T]

to think again about a decision or opinion and decide if you want to change it
Dictionary example:
We've been asked to reconsider the proposal.

Learner example:
We invite your newspaper to reconsider its position, hoping that the council will think about our
proposals.

reconstruct /ˌriː.kənˈstrʌkt/

Word family:
Nouns: construction, reconstruction
Verbs: construct, reconstruct
Adjectives: constructive

VERB [T]

BUILD AGAIN

to build something again after it has been damaged or destroyed

Dictionary example:
They reconstructed the palace exactly as it had been.

Learner example:
Dear Sir, The student committee greatly appreciate your efforts to resolve our current problems,
in particular improving and reconstructing our sports centre.

536
 reconstruction /ˌriː.kənˈstrʌk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: construction, reconstruction
Verbs: construct, reconstruct
Adjectives: constructive

NOUN [C or U]

BUILD AGAIN

when you build something again after it has been damaged or destroyed
Dictionary example:
The reconstruction of the city took decades.

Learner example:
The classrooms are in need [of] immediate reconstruction.

record

Word family:
Nouns: record, recording
Verbs: record

VERB /rɪˈkɔːd/

SHOW MEASUREMENT

[T] If a device records a measurement, it shows that measurement.

Dictionary example:
The thermometer recorded a temperature of 30 degrees Celsius.

NOUN /ˈrek.ɔːd/

put/set the record straight

to tell people the true facts about a situation
Dictionary example:
I know they thought Alex was lying, and I wanted to put the record straight.

Learner example:
I hope that my letter will set the record straight and that the public shall be informed about the
true events of that day.

off the record

If you say something off the record, you do not want the public to know about it.
Dictionary example:
Off the record, ministers are saying the president must resign.

537
 Learner example:
Off the record, how come that your reporter can print such lies when knowing they are perhaps
hurting certain people in this important matter?

recover /rɪˈkʌv.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: recovery
Verbs: recover

VERB

GET BACK

[T] to get something back that has been lost or stolen

Dictionary example:
Police recovered the stolen money.

Learner example:
Moreover it might become virtually impossible to recover the money from that investment.

recovery /rɪˈkʌv.ər.i/

Word family:
Nouns: recovery
Verbs: recover

NOUN

SITUATION

[U NO PLURAL] when a system or situation returns to the way it was before something
bad happened
Dictionary examples:
economic recovery
The housing industry has made a remarkable recovery.

Learner example:
We are still waiting for the recovery in our economy but the political transformation and economic
reforms are very painful for our society.

recreate /ˌriː.kriˈeɪt/

VERB [T]

to make something exist or happen again

538
 Dictionary example:
They plan to recreate a typical English village in Japan.

Learner example:
We want people whose skills with a laser high-accuracy enamel paint brush could only be
surpassed by the skill of those men in our past who wielded the original weapons we are now
recreating.

recruit /rɪˈkruːt/

Word family:
Nouns: recruit, recruitment
Verbs: recruit

VERB

to try to persuade someone to work for a company or to join an organization

Dictionary example:

Learner example:
Secondly, the coach driver was quite a rude person and, as far as I am concerned, it would be a
good idea to pay more attention when recruiting your staff.

recruitment /rɪˈkruːt.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: recruit, recruitment
Verbs: recruit

NOUN [U]

the process of finding people to work for a company or become a new member of
an organization
Dictionary example:
The recession has forced a lot of companies to cut down on staff recruitment.

Learner example:
This is mainly due to the recent recruitment of office personn[e]l in our department.

rectangle /ˈrek.tæŋ.gl/

Word family:
Nouns: rectangle
Adjectives: rectangular

539
NOUN [C]

a shape with four 90° angles and four sides, with opposite sides of equal length
and two sides longer than the other two
Dictionary example:
The garden is in the shape of a rectangle.

rectify /ˈrek.tɪ.faɪ/

VERB [T] FORMAL

to correct something or change it so that it is acceptable

Dictionary example:
The government has promised to rectify the situation.

Learner example:
I also hope as far as the article is con[c]erned that you will kindly rectify the defamatory
information revealed in the statement.

redevelop /ˌriː.dɪˈvel.əp/

Word family:
Nouns: development, developer, redevelopment
Verbs: develop, redevelop
Adjectives: developed, developing, underdeveloped, undeveloped

VERB [T]

to make a place more modern by improving old buildings or building new ones
Dictionary example:
There are plans to redevelop the city's waterfront area.

Learner example:
Most of the coastal villages lose their traditional element - their value - and they become
redeveloped in order to be in accord with the growing need to attract people.

redevelopment /ˌriː.dɪˈvel.əp.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: development, developer, redevelopment
Verbs: develop, redevelop
Adjectives: developed, developing, underdeveloped, undeveloped

540
NOUN [C or U]

when a place is made more modern by improving old buildings or building new
ones
Dictionary example:
There has been a lot of redevelopment in this area.

Learner example:
I would like to invite other people to support this proposal and to try to explain [to] the opposition
how nice our city centre would be after the proposed redevelopment.

redundancy /rɪˈdʌn.dən.si/

Word family:
Nouns: redundancy
Adjectives: redundant

NOUN

[C or U] when your employer makes you stop working because there is not enough
work
Dictionary example:
There have been a lot of redundancies in the mining industry.

Learner example:
Some people seems to be afraid of that prospect and reluctant to use the Net, because they think
it means the end of any relationship between people and it can lead to redundancies.

refer /rɪˈfɜːr/

Word family:
Nouns: referee, reference
Verbs: refer

VERB (-rr-)

refer to sb/sth PHRASAL VERB

RELATE TO

If writing or information refers to someone or something, it relates to that person

or thing.
Dictionary example:
The sales figures refer to UK sales only.

541
 Learner example:
Ancient Greece was divided into two groups. The contrast between those two groups was getting
bigger and bigger and it ended up [as] a destructive war - destructive doesn't refer only to deaths
and city damage but also to the corruption of morals.

reference /ˈref.ər.ənts/

Word family:
Nouns: referee, reference
Verbs: refer

NOUN

MENTIONING

[C or U] when you briefly talk or write about someone or something

Dictionary examples:
In his book, he makes several references to his time in France.
She made no reference to her marital problems.

Learner example:
Finally, your article makes reference to "a sudden downpour of rain" which was actually a small
shower which lasted no more than five minutes.

READING

[U] when you read something in order to get information

Dictionary example:
Please keep this handout for future reference.

Learner example:
Can you also provide us [with] the list [of all] 300 hotels for our reference.

reflect /rɪˈflekt/

Word family:
Nouns: reflection
Verbs: reflect

VERB

THINK

[I] to think in a serious and careful way

Dictionary examples:
In prison, he had plenty of time to reflect on the crimes he had committed.
I need some time to reflect.

542
 Learner example:
As I mentioned, there were several points which you can reflect on.

reflection /rɪˈflek.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: reflection
Verbs: reflect

NOUN

a reflection of sth
something that is a sign or result of a particular situation
Dictionary example:
The fact that soldiers are on the streets is a reflection of how terrified the government is.

Learner example:
Is it really a reflection of the way we live?

refresh /rɪˈfreʃ/

Word family:
Nouns: refreshments
Verbs: refresh
Adjectives: refreshing

VERB

[T] to make you feel less hot or tired

Dictionary example:
A cool drink should refresh you.

Learner example:
The bar is open from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m. When you are in my house, refresh yourself, help yourself
from the fridge, feel at your ease, and then call me by phone.
[I or T] to make something more up-to-date or to make it look newer or more
attractive
Dictionary examples:
Old furniture can be refreshed with a coat of paint.
Wait a minute - I need to refresh my memory on this.

Learner example:
The magazine is totally up-to-date with extreme question papers in which the reader has the
opportunity to test or refresh his/her knowledge.

543
 refreshing /rɪˈfreʃ.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: refreshments
Verbs: refresh
Adjectives: refreshing

ADJECTIVE

DIFFERENT

different and interesting

Dictionary examples:
a refreshing change
It's refreshing to see a film that's so original.

Learner example:
Once you master the language quite well, listening to a news broadcast is a refreshing challenge
that may require some serious concentration on your behalf.

FEEL BETTER

making you feel less hot or tired

Dictionary example:
a refreshing shower/swim

Learner example:
Last summer, I got a chance to visit there, and my breath was taken away by its soft sand,
refreshing breeze, flocks of seagulls and poetic sunsets.

refund

VERB [T] /riːˈfʌnd/

to give back money that someone has paid to you
Dictionary example:
They refunded the cost of our tickets.

Learner example:
For all these reasons, I'm sure you realise that I deserve at the very minimum to be refunded all
the money I spent on the Trip and unless this is forthcoming I shall take the matter a step further.

refusal /rɪˈfjuː.zəl/

Word family:
Nouns: refusal
Verbs: refuse

544
NOUN [C or U]

when someone refuses to do or accept something

Dictionary examples:
Her refusal to cooperate didn't help her case.
What shocked me was his complete refusal to admit his mistake.

Learner example:
The refusal of students [to use] the college canteen led to a demonstration that was held at the
main entrance.

regard /rɪˈgɑːd/

Word family:
Verbs: regard
Adverbs: regardless

NOUN [U] FORMAL

RESPECT

respect or admiration for someone

Dictionary example:
I have the greatest regard for her.

Learner example:
She is held in high regard by other employees.

regardless /rɪˈgɑːd.ləs/

Word family:
Verbs: regard
Adverbs: regardless

ADVERB

regardless of
without being affected or influenced by anything else that happens or exists
Dictionary example:
This job is open to all, regardless of previous experience.

Learner example:
People listen to music regardless of their age group or their social status.

545
 region /ˈriː.dʒən/

Word family:
Nouns: region
Adjectives: regional

NOUN [C]

in the region of sth

approximately
Dictionary example:
It probably cost somewhere in the region of £900.

Learner example:
I am willing [to] pay rent in the region of £1000 to £1200 monthly.

register /ˈredʒ.ɪ.stər/

Word family:
Nouns: registration, register
Verbs: register

NOUN

LANGUAGE STYLE

[C or U] the style of language, grammar, and words used in particular situations

Dictionary example:
a formal/informal register

regulate /ˈreg.jə.leɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: regulation
Verbs: regulate

VERB [T]

ACTIVITY/PROCESS

to control an activity or process, especially by using rules

Dictionary example:
laws regulating advertising

Learner example:
I think in the near future we will find a way to regulate and control the internet and prevent
criminals from using it.

546
 SPEED/TEMPERATURE

to control the speed, temperature, etc. of something

Dictionary example:
Babies find it difficult to regulate their body temperature.

Learner example:
I expressed a wish to the driver to regulate the temperature, but he was extremely rude to me as
well as to other pass[e]ngers.

regulation /ˌreg.jʊˈleɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: regulation
Verbs: regulate

NOUN

CONTROL

[U] when a process or activity is controlled

Dictionary example:
government regulation of interest rates

Learner example:
Proper regulation of program contents, monitoring children's time watching television and using
television as a media to promote other leisure activities are factors which could reduce but at the
same time make [more] efficient the time spent in front of the television.

rehearse /rɪˈhɜːs/

Word family:
Nouns: rehearsal
Verbs: rehearse

VERB [I or T]

to practise a play, dance, etc. in order to prepare for a performance

Dictionary example:
We usually rehearse on Wednesdays.

Learner example:
I can't count how many nights I spent studying and studying for difficult exams, rehearsing for
presentation[s] and so on.

547
 reign /reɪn/

NOUN

[C] a period of time when a king or queen rules a country

Dictionary example:
the reign of Henry VIII

Learner example:
If I had the incredible opportunity to travel back in time and place, I would probably choose to go
to Egypt during the reign of the Pharaohs to gain an insight [into] how this magical place really
was so long ago.

reinforce /ˌriː.ɪnˈfɔːs/

VERB [T]

OPINION

to make an existing opinion, feeling or idea stronger

Dictionary example:
His behaviour merely reinforced my dislike of him.

Learner example:
The first unfavourable impression was reinforced the moment we arrived at the hotel.

relate /rɪˈleɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: relation, relationship, relative
Verbs: relate
Adjectives: related, relative, unrelated
Adverbs: relatively

VERB

relate to sb/sth PHRASAL VERB

to be connected to, or to be about someone or something

Dictionary example:
Please provide all information relating to the claim.

Learner example:
And, finally, relating to your concern about the costs of the changes, we think that opening the
Centre to the public would surely provide the required funds without having to impose a fee on
the students, which would probably result in a radical decrease of their use of the facilities.

548
 relate to sb PHRASAL VERB

to understand how someone feels

Dictionary example:
Most teenagers find it hard to relate to their parents.

Learner example:
A soap opera should always be dramatic and not produced too "polished" or "clean" because then
people would see it more as a movie, and people never relate as much to a character in a movie as
they do to a character played by a good, down-to-earth actor who is apparently struggling as
much as everybody [else].

relative /ˈrel.ə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: relation, relationship, relative
Verbs: relate
Adjectives: related, relative, unrelated
Adverbs: relatively

ADJECTIVE FORMAL

MEASURED

being judged or measured in comparison with something else

Dictionary examples:
the relative prosperity of the West
We weighed up the relative advantages of driving there or going by train.

Learner example:
In order to get myself clear let me tell you that as an individual, I consider myself a dreamer and
in the transition from my late teens to my relative maturity I've considered the words of Hesse in
his novel "Gertrude": "The difference between our youth and maturity is that in the first stage we
are selfish in all our feelings and actions, while in maturity our top priority is everyon[e] else but
[ourselves]..."

relax /rɪˈlæks/

Word family:
Nouns: relaxation
Verbs: relax
Adjectives: relaxed, relaxing

549
VERB [I or T]

LESS STIFF

If a part of your body relaxes, it becomes less stiff, and if you relax it, you make it
become less stiff.
Dictionary example:
Try these exercises to relax your neck muscles.

release /rɪˈliːs/

VERB [T]

INFORMATION

to let the public have news or information about something

Dictionary examples:
Police have not released the dead woman's name.
The minister has released a statement explaining the reasons for his resignation.

Learner example:
The article made some valid points, such as the contradictory studies being released on a regular
basis being the foundation of much confusion and that we should eat what we want, with a little
commonsense of course,.

SUBSTANCE

to let a substance flow out from somewhere

Dictionary example:
Dangerous chemicals were accidentally released into the river.

Learner example:
The gases released encourage the greenhouse effect, and it is possible to see a heavy smog
floating over the city [on] some winter days.

NOUN

MAKING FREE

[U NO PLURAL] when someone is allowed to leave prison, etc.

Dictionary example:
Her early release from prison led to a demonstration.

AREA/ATMOSPHERE

[U] when a substance is allowed to spread into the area or atmosphere around it

Dictionary example:
the release of toxic waste

550
 Learner example:
In such a way we can minimise the impact of [the] deadly release of radio-active materials.

relevance /ˈrel.ə.vənts/

Word family:
Nouns: relevance
Adjectives: relevant

NOUN [U]

the degree to which something is related or useful to what is happening or being

talked about
Dictionary example:
This point has no relevance to the discussion.

Learner example:
One may agree with what has been said or not, but nobody can deny the relevance of the issue, as
our future society depends on our present educational system.

reliability /rɪˌlaɪ.əˈbɪl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: reliability, reliance, self-reliance
Verbs: rely
Adjectives: reliable, unreliable, reliant, self-reliant

NOUN [U]

how reliable something is

Dictionary example:
I can't vouch for the reliability of these figures.

Learner example:
Our customers appreciate in particular the reliability of our products and most of them are
prepared to pay a premium price for a high-quality product.

relocate /ˌriː.ləʊˈkeɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: location
Verbs: locate, relocate

VERB [I or T]

to move to another place

551
 Dictionary example:
The company relocated to Tokyo.

Learner example:
Well, as you know I was looking for a new job and for that reason I had to relocate to London in
November.

reluctant /rɪˈlʌk.tənt/

Word family:
Adjectives: reluctant
Adverbs: reluctantly

ADJECTIVE

not wanting to do something

Dictionary example:
Many victims of crime are reluctant to go to the police.

Learner example:
However, Spanish husbands are very reluctant to share the housework.

reluctantly /rɪˈlʌk.tənt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: reluctant
Adverbs: reluctantly

ADVERB

in a reluctant way
Dictionary example:
She reluctantly agreed to step down as managing director.

Learner example:
Reluctantly I am forced to mention that my interpreter's fee should be at least doubled.

remarkably /rɪˈmɑː.kəb.li/

Word family:
Nouns: remark
Verbs: remark
Adjectives: remarkable
Adverbs: remarkably

552
ADVERB

in a way that makes you feel surprised

Dictionary example:
She has remarkably good skin for her age.

Learner example:
As for your flight attendants, who are always friendly and remarkably helpful, it would be
excellent if they were able to speak other languages apart from English.

reminder /rɪˈmaɪn.dər/

Word family:
Nouns: reminder
Verbs: remind

NOUN [C]

something that makes you remember something else

Dictionary example:
If he forgot to pay his rent, his landlady would send him a reminder.

Learner example:
"Time is precious" is not interpreted as "carpe diem", but rather as a constant reminder of all our
duties, that should be done in as little time as possible to prove ourselves effective.

render /ˈren.dər/

VERB [T] FORMAL

GIVE

to give someone a decision, opinion, help, etc

Dictionary example:
payment for services rendered

Learner example:
Finally, the students have only a 5% discount for the services rendered by the arts centre in
contrast to the fact that we agreed initially that a 10% discount would be more adequate.

renewable /rɪˈnjuː.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: renewal
Verbs: renew
Adjectives: renewable

553
ADJECTIVE

ENERGY

A renewable form of energy can be produced as quickly as it is used.

Dictionary example:
a renewable energy source such as wind power

Learner example:
But the use of renewable energy sources is always a challenge.

renewal /rɪˈnjuː.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: renewal
Verbs: renew
Adjectives: renewable

NOUN [C or U]

AGREEMENT

when you renew an agreement, contract, etc.

Dictionary example:
Their licence is up for renewal.

Learner example:
I suggest we negotiate a new agreement next year, when the current agreement will be due for
renewal.

renovate /ˈren.ə.veɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: renovation
Verbs: renovate

VERB [T]

to repair and decorate a building that is old and in bad condition

Dictionary example:
He has a business renovating old buildings.

Learner example:
We should also renovate the library and extend the opening hours.

554
 renovation /ˌren.əˈveɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: renovation
Verbs: renovate

NOUN [U]

the act of repairing and decorating a building that is old and in bad condition
Dictionary example:
They spent all their savings on the renovation of an old cottage.

Learner example:
Dear Principal, In response to your memo, I am writing to provide you with some suggestions
concerning the renovation of [the]Sports Centre, on behalf of the member of the student
committee.

reorganize /ˌriːˈɔː.gən.aɪz/

VERB [I or T] (ALSO UK reorganise)

to organize something again in order to improve it
Dictionary example:
He's completely reorganized his schedule for the week.

Learner example:
We must focus our programme more [on] cultural exchange and less [o]n work; the students
gained very little in this six weeks [so] we must reorganise this to improve the experience.

repeatedly /rɪˈpiː.tɪd.li/

Word family:
Nouns: repetition
Verbs: repeat
Adjectives: repeated, repetitive
Adverbs: repeatedly

ADVERB

many times
Dictionary examples:
He telephoned repeatedly, begging her to return.
The European Union has repeatedly stressed the importance of language learning.

Learner example:
Once you pick up the new words and learn something, you need to say it repeatedly otherwise you
will easily forget [it].

555
 repetitive /rɪˈpet.ə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: repetition
Verbs: repeat
Adjectives: repeated, repetitive
Adverbs: repeatedly

ADJECTIVE

doing or saying the same thing several times, especially in a way that is boring
Dictionary example:
a repetitive job

Learner example:
My grandparents used to say to my mum: "How can you wear it?! It hardly covers your b[o]ttom!
When I was young..." (This is the beginning of a sentence when it starts to be little bit boring and
extremely repetitive!)

replacement /rɪˈpleɪs.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: place, replacement, displacement
Verbs: place, replace, displace, misplace

NOUN

PROCESS

[U] the process of replacing something with something else

Dictionary examples:
the replacement of existing computer equipment
replacement windows

Learner example:
But by using much larger desks, we will be able to use the equipment more efficiently and this will
reduce the cost for the replacement of broken equipment.

reproduce /ˌriːprəˈdjuːs/

Word family:
Nouns: producer, product, production, productivity, reproduction
Verbs: produce, reproduce
Adjectives: productive, unproductive

556
VERB

COPY

to make a copy of something

Dictionary example:
The diagram is reproduced by permission of the original author.

Learner example:
MI5 operates two computers, one for word processing and another for scanning and reproducing
prints, drawings and photos.

REPEAT

to repeat something so that it is the same as before

Dictionary examples:
The new design unfortunately reproduced some of the problems of the earlier model.
We were unable to reproduce the results of our earlier research.

Learner example:
I overcame this by listening to tapes and by trying to reproduce the native speaker's sounds and
stresses.

reproduction /ˌriː.prəˈdʌk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: producer, product, production, productivity, reproduction
Verbs: produce, reproduce
Adjectives: productive, unproductive

NOUN

COPY

a copy of something, especially a painting

Dictionary example:
The picture is a reproduction of a Manet.

Learner example:
It would be great if the park provided some flight simulators and a reproduction of a space shuttle
(so that people get a feeling of how it is to be an astronaut).

reptile /ˈrep.taɪl/

NOUN [C]

an animal which produces eggs and uses the heat of the sun to keep its blood
warm

557
 Dictionary example:
Tom liked the reptiles, especially the snakes and the lizards.

Learner example:
Even though the northern part of Italy has undergone rapid industrialisation, there remain large
areas of wild uninhabited ground where a great number of wild animals (birds, reptiles, large
mammals) can live.

republic /rɪˈpʌb.lɪk/

NOUN [C]

a country with no king or queen but with an elected government

Dictionary example:
France is a republic.

Learner example:
Unfortunately in ancient Greece, although the notion of the republic and democracy were invented
and quite successfully developed there, not being a noble citizen could be cruelly disappointing
and painful.

reputable /ˈrep.jə.tə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: reputation
Adjectives: reputable

ADJECTIVE

known to be good and honest

Dictionary example:
a reputable organization

Learner example:
I believe such a reputable company [as] you[rs] will not refuse to accept the responsibilities and
prompt action will be taken in due course.

resemble /rɪˈzem.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: resemblance
Verbs: resemble

VERB [T]

to look like or be like someone or something

558
 Dictionary examples:
She resembles her father.
After the earthquake, the city resembled a battlefield.

Learner example:
However, the most representative Romanian resorts resemble the ones in the Alps and maybe
even exceed them in the respect of popularity among all walks of life and affordability.

resident /ˈrez.ɪ.dənt/

Word family:
Nouns: resident, residence
Adjectives: residential, resident

ADJECTIVE

living in a place
Dictionary example:
She has been resident in Britain for most of her life.

Learner example:
My name is ANA AMURRIO, born in Spain (Madrid) twenty four years ago, and resident in your
country since July of [this] year.

resist /rɪˈzɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: resistance
Verbs: resist
Adjectives: irresistible

VERB

FIGHT

[T] to fight against something or someone that is attacking you

Dictionary example:
British troops resisted the attack for two days.

Learner example:
The Turkish ci[v]ilization was poorer than [the] Greek ci[v]ilisation and that is one more reason
why [the] Greeks had to resist and fight their enemies.

559
 resolve /rɪˈzɒlv/

Word family:
Nouns: resolution, resolve
Verbs: resolve

VERB [T]

to solve or end a problem or difficulty

Dictionary example:
an attempt to resolve the dispute

Learner example:
The student committee greatly appreciate your efforts to resolve our current problems, in
particular improving and reconstructing our sports centre.

respect /rɪˈspekt/

Word family:
Nouns: respect, disrespect
Verbs: respect
Adjectives: respectable, respected, disrespectful, respectful
Adverbs: respectfully

NOUN

in respect of sth FORMAL

relating to a particular thing

Dictionary example:
I include payment in respect of your invoice of May 13th.

Learner example:
Instead of that, we should have more English grammar lessons - some of our English students are
very interested in them, especially in respect of their exam this year.

respectful /rɪˈspekt.fəl/

Word family:
Nouns: respect, disrespect
Verbs: respect
Adjectives: respectable, respected, disrespectful, respectful
Adverbs: respectfully

ADJECTIVE

showing respect for someone or something

560
 Dictionary example:
They treated us in a very respectful manner.

Learner example:
Were I not respectful of your work, I would say that your reporter did not attend this event and
just imagined it.

respective /rɪˈspek.tɪv/

Word family:
Adjectives: respective
Adverbs: irrespective, respectively

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

relating to each of the people or things that you have just talked about
Dictionary example:
members of staff and their respective partners

Learner example:
Relatives and friends of the respective families were very successful in being guides for some
hours.

respectively /rɪˈspek.tɪv.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: respective
Adverbs: irrespective, respectively

ADVERB

in a way that relates to each of the people or things that you have just talked
about
Dictionary example:
They scored 10 and 17 points, respectively.

Learner example:
Not only [did] we reach our target figure but also, 85% of the revenue generated went to the
hospital, and only 10% and 5% were for entertainment costs and administration costs,
respectively.

restart /ˌriːˈstɑːt/

Word family:
Nouns: start
Verbs: start, restart

561
VERB [T]

to start something again that had stopped

Dictionary example:
They want to restart the talks.

Learner example:
On the other hand, acco[r]ding to our recent survey, the company is getting [into a] better
situation than it was beginning of this year and wants to restart trading with us.
If you restart a computer, you turn it off and then on again.
Dictionary example:
Try restarting your computer.

restless /ˈrest.ləs/

Word family:
Nouns: rest
Verbs: rest
Adjectives: restless

ADJECTIVE

NOT STILL

unable to be still or relax because you are bored or nervous

Dictionary example:
The audience was getting restless.

Learner example:
The children that travel become very restless when they cannot see any movies or are not offered
any games or any other entertainment from the staff.

restore /rɪˈstɔːr/

VERB [T]

MAKE EXIST

to make something good exist again

Dictionary examples:
Three wins in a row helped restore the team's confidence.
Peace has now been restored in the region.

Learner example:
It would also restore our confidence in our paper if the correct version of events were printed,
together with your statement of apology.

562
 restrain /rɪˈstreɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: restraint
Verbs: restrain

VERB [T]

to stop someone doing something, sometimes by using force

Dictionary examples:
He became violent and had to be physically restrained.
I had to restrain myself from shouting at him.

Learner example:
Were the people aware of the variety of our social programme, they would have undoubtedly
restrained themselves from belittling our college.

restrict /rɪˈstrɪkt/

Word family:
Nouns: restriction
Verbs: restrict
Adjectives: restricted, restrictive

VERB [T]

to limit something
Dictionary examples:
They've brought in new laws to restrict the sale of cigarettes.
The government has restricted freedom of movement into and out of the country.
I restrict myself to one cup of coffee a day.

Learner example:
We must try to restrict the use of water in agriculture.

restricted /rɪˈstrɪk.tɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: restriction
Verbs: restrict
Adjectives: restricted, restrictive

ADJECTIVE

controlled or limited
Dictionary example:
They do good food but the choice is fairly restricted.

563
 Learner example:
The main problem with buses and the underground is their restricted opening hours and also the
fact they don't [go] absolutely everywhere in the city.

restriction /rɪˈstrɪk.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: restriction
Verbs: restrict
Adjectives: restricted, restrictive

NOUN [C or U]

LIMIT

a situation or event that limits what people can do

Dictionary example:
For the first time, I could do exactly what I wanted, without any restrictions.

Learner example:
When people travel on their own, they can do what they want, without restrictions or limitations
from their family.

resume /rɪˈzjuːm/ FORMAL

VERB [I or T]

If an activity resumes, or if you resume it, it starts again after a pause.

Dictionary examples:
The talks are due to resume today.
Normal services will be resumed in the spring.
He stopped to take a sip of water and then resumed speaking.

Learner example:
I hope our two companies can resume their excellent cooperation in the future and I am looking
forward to using one of your aircraft again.

retail /ˈriː.teɪl/

Word family:
Nouns: retail, retailer

NOUN [U]

when products are sold to customers from shops

564
 Dictionary example:
jobs in retail

Learner example:
Multinational companies like Walmart, Tesco, GSK, etc. have their retail outlets and manufacturing
capacity all over the globe.

rethink /ˌriːˈθɪŋk/

Word family:
Nouns: thinker
Verbs: think, rethink
Adjectives: unthinkable

VERB [I or T] (rethought)
to change what you think about something or what you plan to do
Dictionary example:
We need to rethink our strategy.

Learner example:
The first time I failed due to my nervousness. After this first failure I started to rethink my
strategy.

return /rɪˈtɜːn/

VERB

DO THE SAME

[T] to react to something that someone does or says by doing or saying the same

Dictionary examples:
I returned his smile.
I must return Michael's call.

Learner example:
I still can't understand why she never returned my calls.

return to normal
to go back to a previous condition
Dictionary example:
Life has begun to return to normal now that the war is over.

Learner example:
After exactly ten minutes the electricity was switched on again and our life returned to normal -
what a relief!

565
 revenue /ˈrev.ən.juː/

NOUN [U] (ALSO revenues)

large amounts of money received by a government as tax, or by a company
Dictionary example:
Revenue was up in the last quarter.

Learner example:
People like them need to compete for time as travelling via public transport may mean a loss of
revenue.

reverse /rɪˈvɜːs/

Word family:
Nouns: reversal, reverse
Verbs: reverse
Adjectives: irreversible, reversible

VERB

CHANGE

[T] to change a situation or change the order of things so that it becomes the
opposite
Dictionary examples:
Now that you have a job and I don't, our situations are reversed.
It is unlikely that the judge will reverse his decision.
Let's reverse the order - I'll give the first talk and you go second.

Learner example:
This trend should be reversed in the near future.

NOUN [U]

in reverse
in the opposite order or way
Dictionary example:
Do the same steps but this time in reverse.

Learner example:
They want to see what they are not like, how they would not react and this, in reverse, helps them
[to] find themselves.

566
 review /rɪˈvjuː/

VERB [T]

CONSIDER

to consider something again in order to decide if changes should be made

Dictionary examples:
The courts will review her case.
The committee is reviewing the current arrangement.

Learner example:
On the other hand I would like to ask you kindly to review my conditions of employment and to
take in consideration my expenses, which I think would be more than correct.

rewarding /rɪˈwɔːd.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: reward
Verbs: reward
Adjectives: rewarding

ADJECTIVE

making you feel satisfied that you have done something well or done something
helpful
Dictionary examples:
a rewarding experience
Teaching is hard work but it's very rewarding.

Learner example:
I led a workshop with children, which was a very rewarding experience, and performed for people
of all ages and backgrounds.

rich /rɪtʃ/

Word family:
Nouns: riches, richness
Verbs: enrich
Adjectives: rich

NOUN

the rich
people who are rich

567
 Dictionary example:
These ski resorts are for the rich.

Learner example:
What did the rich do all day?

richness /ˈrɪtʃ.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: riches, richness
Verbs: enrich
Adjectives: rich

NOUN [U]

the interesting or impressive quality of something that shows how strong or varied
it is
Dictionary example:
I was amazed by the richness of their traditions.

Learner example:
Cultures of Mexico: You will be able to discover the richness and variety of Mexican ancient
cultures: - Mexica - Maya - Olmeca - Tolteca - Zapoteca - Chichimeca.

rid /rɪd/

ADJECTIVE

get rid of sb
to make someone leave
Dictionary example:
We finally got rid of my little sister by telling her scary stories.

Learner example:
Improving your English on your own (or a self-guide [on] how to get rid of your English teacher!)

right /raɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: right
Adjectives: right
Adverbs: right, rightly

568
NOUN

have a/no right to do sth

to have, or not have, a good reason for something
Dictionary examples:
He has a right to be angry.
She had no right to speak to me like that.

Learner example:
Finally, you have no right to say that we "did not reach our target figure" since the whole event
was considered to be a success by many people.

riot /raɪət/

NOUN [C]

angry, violent behaviour by a crowd of people

Dictionary examples:
a race riot
Riots started in several cities.

Learner example:
A riot started in the city but the police managed to stop it before anyone got seriously hurt.

rip /rɪp/ (-pp-)

VERB [I or T]

rip sth out/off/from, etc.

to remove something by pulling it away quickly
Dictionary example:
Hedges had been ripped out to make larger fields.

Learner example:
One leg was completely ripped off, while the other is just managing to hold on.

rip-off /ˈrɪp.ɒf/

NOUN [C] INFORMAL

when someone is cheated by being made to pay too much for something
Dictionary example:
The food there is a real rip-off.

569
 Learner example:
What is more, I am sure students won't feel like it is a rip-off because prices are really reasonable.

rise /raɪz/

NOUN [C]

PAY

an increase in the amount of money you earn

Dictionary example:
a pay rise

Learner example:
The reason is not only that we cannot manage to affor[d] a pay rise for each of you but also we
would like to organise two language courses in the USA.

risk /rɪsk/

Word family:
Nouns: risk
Verbs: risk
Adjectives: risky

NOUN

SOMETHING BAD

[C] something bad that might happen

Dictionary example:
There are more health risks when older women get pregnant.

Learner example:
Personally, I will continue using my mobile phone, no matter what the health risks are, and I will
probably encourage my children to have one with them when they go places [further] away than
our home or garden, in case something happens.

rival /ˈraɪ.vəl/

Word family:
Nouns: rival, rivalry
Verbs: rival

NOUN [C]

someone or something that is competing with another person or thing

570
 Dictionary example:
business/political rivals

Learner example:
Around 60% of our international rivals had their stands there, usually with 2-3 staff members
always kept busy by [the] public.

river /ˈrɪv.ər/

NOUN [C]

mouth of a river
where a river goes into the sea
Dictionary example:
It is a small village, by the mouth of a river.

Learner example:
The mouth of the river with a [narrow] exit to the sea, provided an extra ex[c]itement because of
the pressure of the water when joining the sea.

road /rəʊd/

NOUN [C or U]

on the road
driving or travelling, usually over a long distance
Dictionary example:
We'd been on the road for 48 hours.

Learner example:
I have experienced sitting behind a steering wheel on the road for many years.

rocky /ˈrɒk.i/

Word family:
Nouns: rock
Adjectives: rocky

ADJECTIVE

WITH ROCKS

with lots of rocks

571
 Dictionary example:
a rocky beach

Learner example:
The walk around the lake is an extraordinary experience - seeing the majesty of the rocky
mountains around the blue surface, which reflects the lights as a mirror, is unforget[t]able.

role model /ˈrəʊlˌmɒd.əl/

NOUN [C]

someone you try to behave like because you admire them

Dictionary example:
Jane is such a good role model for her younger sister.

Learner example:
Pele was voted Athlete of the Century for his outstanding performance and for being such a
positive role model for other athletes and youth in general.

room /ruːm/

NOUN

room for improvement

If there is room for improvement, something can be made better.
Dictionary example:
His work isn't bad but there's still some room for improvement.

Learner example:
She is Polish, aged 29 and can speak English pretty well, but there is still room for improvement,
that's why she wants to spend a year in England, looking after children in an English-speaking
family.

root /ruːt/

NOUN [C]

the root of sth

the cause of something, usually something bad
Dictionary examples:
We must get to the root of this problem.
Money is said to be the root of all evil.

572
 Learner example:
Unfortunately none of us has ever tried to find the root of this problem but the influences that it
has on the environment are obvious.

rough /rʌf/

Word family:
Adjectives: rough
Adverbs: roughly

ADJECTIVE

DANGEROUS

dangerous or violent
Dictionary examples:
a rough part of town
Hockey can be quite a rough game.

Learner example:
I like him as a football player because he plays fair, not rough.

rubbish /ˈrʌb.ɪʃ/

NOUN [U]

NONSENSE

something that is nonsense or wrong

Dictionary example:
Ignore him, he's talking rubbish.

Learner example:
For example, the advertisement where the worker eats only "Mars" and can work hard after it. It's
rubbish.

rudely /ˈruːd.li/

Word family:
Nouns: rudeness
Adjectives: rude
Adverbs: rudely

ADVERB

in a rude way

573
 Dictionary example:
He rudely pushed past us.

Learner example:
When I made a[n] attempt to speak to the conductor, I was rudely told off and told to stay seated
for the rest of the journey.

rudeness /ˈruːd.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: rudeness
Adjectives: rude
Adverbs: rudely

NOUN [U]

the quality of being rude

Dictionary example:
I was shocked by her rudeness.

Learner example:
Many complaints were made about the rudeness of the reception [staff].

ruin /ˈruː.ɪn/

NOUN

be/lie in ruins
to be in a very bad state
Dictionary example:
The war left one million people dead and the country in ruins.

Learner example:
When my grandparents were young, Germany lay in ruins.

rule /ruːl/

Word family:
Nouns: rule, ruler, ruling
Verbs: rule

574
NOUN

a rule of thumb
a way of calculating something, which is not exact but which will help you to be
correct enough
Dictionary example:
As a rule of thumb, you need one egg for every 125g flour.

Learner example:
As a rule of thumb, one third of the people working in central Copenhagen [go] by car, one third
by public transport, and one third by bike.

VERB

CONTROL

to be in control of somewhere, usually a country

Dictionary examples:
They were ruled for many years by a dictator.
the ruling party

Learner example:
Cleopatra was the seventh queen of Egypt and ruled until 63 B.C. whe[n] she died.

ruler /ˈruː.lər/

Word family:
Nouns: rule, ruler, ruling
Verbs: rule

NOUN [C]

LEADER

the leader of a country

Dictionary example:
He was the ruler of the country for over 20 years.

Learner example:
Versailles in France and the time of Louis XIV as the ruler would be my place and time I would
choose to visit.

run /rʌn/

Word family:
Nouns: run, runner, running
Verbs: run

575
VERB (running, ran, run)

WORKING

[I or T] If a piece of equipment is running, it is switched on and working, and if you

run it, you switch it on and make it work.
Dictionary example:
The engine is running more smoothly now.

Learner example:
We could start a campaign where people are reminded not to leave their car, lorry or bus engines
running for more than one minute if stationary.

PUBLISH

[T] to publish something in a newspaper or magazine

Dictionary example:
All the papers are running this story on the front page.

Learner example:
If we run a story on "HIV Symptoms" we could have a very succes[s]ful first issue.

running /ˈrʌn.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: run, runner, running
Verbs: run

ADJECTIVE

running water
If a place has running water, it has a working water system.
Dictionary example:
They bought an old house with no electricity or running water.

Learner example:
It is hilarious to think that at the same time people in [the] north of Europe were still living a
primitive and uncivilized life not even able to invent an axe, the Romans managed to install
running water in their huge houses.

runway /ˈrʌn.weɪ/

NOUN [C]

a large road that aircraft use to land on or to start flying from

576
 Dictionary example:
The runway was covered with snow.

Learner example:
The problem hit the headlines when a small Soviet aircraft missed the runway and touched down
on a road exploding in two pieces and damaging many cars and the people sitting inside.

rush /rʌʃ/

VERB

FORCE ACTION

[T] to make someone do something more quickly than they want to do it

Dictionary examples:
I refuse to be rushed into making a decision.
Don't try to rush him - he needs time to think about it.

Learner example:
It has always been very busy but these days people seem to have a harder time facing the fact that
not everything can be rushed.

577
 S

sack /sæk/

NOUN

BAG

[C] a large bag made of paper, plastic, or cloth and used to carry or store things

Dictionary example:
sacks of coal

Learner example:
The worst thing was with rubbish which wasn't collected. People in estates, special groups, used
big bags and sacks to gather it.

sacred /ˈseɪ.krɪd/

ADJECTIVE

HOLY

relating to a religion or considered to be holy

Dictionary examples:
sacred music
a sacred object

Learner example:
It is a volcanic island which has been enshrined as a sacred place.

sacrifice /ˈsæk.rɪ.faɪs/

NOUN [C or U]

something valuable that you give up in order to achieve something or help

someone, or the act of giving it up
Dictionary examples:
We had to make sacrifices in order to pay for our children's education.
They cared for their disabled son for 27 years, at great personal sacrifice.

578
 Learner example:
It's a small sacrifice but I think that it will serve him [well] in the long run.

VERB

[T] to give up something that is valuable to you in order to achieve something or

help someone
Dictionary example:
Many women sacrifice interesting careers for their family.

Learner example:
We are very proud of our low costs [...], a pleasing fact primarily based upon a large number of
volunteers who sacrifice their spare time in our organisation.

safe /seɪf/

Word family:
Nouns: safety
Adjectives: safe, unsafe
Adverbs: safely

ADJECTIVE

WITHOUT RISK

not involving much risk

Dictionary examples:
Salmon is a safe option - most people like it.
He told us that these shares were a safe investment.

Learner example:
On the other hand, I could have chosen to stay in my town and start [at] the University. It would be
the recommended and most appropriate choice. I would get my degree and start a normal and
safe career.

safe to say
If it is safe to say something, you are sure it is correct.
Dictionary example:
I think it's safe to say that he'll be the next president.

Learner example:
It is probably safe to say that there are no good books about engineering written in Portuguese so
my teachers always use books written in English.

a safe place; somewhere safe

a place where something will not be lost or stolen
Dictionary example:
It's very valuable so put it somewhere safe.

579
 Learner example:
Don't show off your money but keep it in a safe place.

in safe hands
being cared for or dealt with by someone skilled
Dictionary example:
The project is in safe hands - Jan has lots of experience.

Learner example:
He has also been trained as a lifeguard so the residents of your hotel would probably be in safe
hands.

safety /ˈseɪf.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: safety
Adjectives: safe, unsafe
Adverbs: safely

NOUN [U]

HOW SAFE

how safe something is

Dictionary example:
Safety at the factory has been improved.

Learner example:
Safety regulations: Ten years ago, regulations on working did not exist.

saint /seɪnt/

NOUN [C]

a dead person who has been officially respected by the Christian church for living
their life in a holy way
Dictionary example:
Catherine of Siena was made a saint in 1461.

Learner example:
They were originally a mixture of a pagan and a religious feast related to [the] worshipping of two
saints: St Antony in Lisbon and St. John in Porto.

580
 same /seɪm/

ADJECTIVE

the same old arguments/face/story, etc.

INFORMAL something or someone you have seen or heard many times before
Dictionary examples:
Every day I see the same old faces.
Politicians repeat the same old arguments time and time again.

Learner example:
I think that it is the same old story with media all over the world that they tend to present the
news in [an] exaggerated manner.

in the same way

similarly
Dictionary example:
In the same way, there are many citizens who feel unprotected by the police.

Learner example:
In the same way, grandmothers may be shocked when seeing their little children wearing
extravagant clothes or really short skirts.

PRONOUN

all/just the same

despite what has just been said
Dictionary example:
He doesn't earn much. All the same, he ought to pay for some of his own drinks.

Learner example:
I'm afraid 300 parking spaces will not suffice. All the same, I would recommend parking in the city
centre, for commercial reasons.

satisfactorily /ˌsæt.ɪsˈfæk.tər.əl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: dissatisfaction, satisfaction
Verbs: satisfy
Adjectives: dissatisfied, satisfactory, satisfied, unsatisfactory
Adverbs: satisfactorily

ADVERB

in a satisfactory way

581
 Dictionary example:
I'm sure these problems can be satisfactorily resolved.

Learner example:
The main problem is finding the most accurate meaning of some words, phrasal verbs, idioms etc.
Dictionaries can do the job satisfactorily but the problem inside is left unsolved.

satisfied /ˈsæt.ɪs.faɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: dissatisfaction, satisfaction
Verbs: satisfy
Adjectives: dissatisfied, satisfactory, satisfied, unsatisfactory
Adverbs: satisfactorily

ADJECTIVE

be satisfied that
If you are satisfied that something is true, you believe it.
Dictionary example:
The judge was satisfied that she was telling the truth.

Learner example:
I suppose that is only because they are satisfied that other nations than the British can strike.

satisfy /ˈsæt.ɪs.faɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: dissatisfaction, satisfaction
Verbs: satisfy
Adjectives: dissatisfied, satisfactory, satisfied, unsatisfactory
Adverbs: satisfactorily

VERB [T]

satisfy conditions/needs/requirements, etc.

to have or provide something that is needed or wanted
Dictionary example:
She satisfies all the requirements for the job.

Learner example:
In general, the conference satisfied my needs.

582
 save /seɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: savings, saving
Verbs: save

VERB

save sb (from) doing sth

to help someone avoid having to do something
Dictionary example:
We'll eat in a restaurant - it'll save you having to cook.

Learner example:
Building a new supermarket along with a multi-storey car park will save city dwellers from having
to travel to the sub[u]rbs to buy what they need.

saving /ˈseɪ.vɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: savings, saving
Verbs: save

NOUN [C]

LESS MONEY

when you use or spend less money than you would usually have to
Dictionary example:
a saving of £20.

Learner example:
I know that it sounds as if the company had to spend a lot of money on retraining, but in the long
term this will be a saving.

say /seɪ/

VERB [T] (said, said)

say sth to yourself

to think something but not speak
Dictionary example:
"I hope she likes me," he said to himself.

583
 Learner example:
I remember saying to myself that "this little boy will survive" and after that I felt totally cool and
calm and did what had to be done.

easier said than done

used to say that something seems like a good idea but it would be difficult to do
Dictionary example:
I want to ask her out, but it's easier said than done.

Learner example:
I know it's easier said than done but you have to try.

to say the least

used to emphasize that you could have said something in a much stronger way
Dictionary example:
We were surprised, to say the least.

Learner example:
You get slightly bored, to say the least.

needless to say
as you would expect
Dictionary example:
Needless to say, it rained the whole time we were there.

Learner example:
Needless to say, bribes are a frequent occur[r]ence.

safe to say
If it is safe to say something, you are sure it is correct.
Dictionary example:
I think it's safe to say that he'll be the next president.

Learner example:
It is probably safe to say that there are no good books about engineering written in Portuguese so
my teachers always use books written in English.

scan /skæn/

VERB [T] (scanning, scanned)

COMPUTER

to use a piece of equipment that copies words or pictures from paper into a
computer

584
 Dictionary example:
to scan photos into a computer

Learner example:
Instead of drawing some of our customers document[s] we will just scan them.

READ

(ALSO scan through) to quickly read a piece of writing to understand the main
meaning or to find a particular piece of information
Dictionary example:
I scanned the travel brochures looking for a cheap holiday.

Learner example:
So, I suggest that you buy a newspaper called "The Loot", sit down with a strong cup of coffee and
scan it.

scar /skɑːr/

NOUN [C]

MIND

damage done to a person's mind by a very unpleasant event or situation

Dictionary example:
a psychological scar

Learner example:
A person who [has been] affluent since childhood might be said to not have the emotional scars of
experiencing poverty during childhood and might be able to look at the world, and to the life as
an adult, in a positive and constructive way.

scarce /skeəs/

Word family:
Nouns: scarcity
Adjectives: scarce
Adverbs: scarcely

ADJECTIVE

rare or not available in large amounts

Dictionary example:
scarce resources

Learner example:
In the context of Singapore, where land is scarce and widening or building of more roads is just
not feasible, we have no choice but to choose what is best for everyone.

585
 scare /skeər/

Word family:
Verbs: scare
Adjectives: scared, scary

VERB [T]

FRIGHTEN

to frighten a person or animal

Dictionary example:
Sudden, loud noises scare me.

Learner example:
You may think that Universal Video has gone mad: re-editing those old-fashioned horror movies
that couldn't even scare your 6-year-old sister!

scenic /ˈsiː.nɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: scene, scenery
Adjectives: scenic

ADJECTIVE

having views of the attractive, natural things in the countryside

Dictionary examples:
a scenic route
an area of great scenic beauty

Learner example:
France is an area of great scenic beauty, famous for its excellent cooking and wine.

scholar /ˈskɒl.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: scholar, scholarship

NOUN [C]

someone who has studied a subject and knows a lot about it

Dictionary examples:
a classics/history scholar
Dr Miles was a distinguished scholar of Russian history.

586
 Learner example:
In the old days a scholar could spend years of his life in search of specific information, which now
can be easily and inexpensi[ve]ly found at the click of a button!

scholarship /ˈskɒl.ə.ʃɪp/

Word family:
Nouns: scholar, scholarship

NOUN

[C] an amount of money given to a person by an organization to pay for their

education, usually at a college or university
Dictionary example:
She got a scholarship to the college.

Learner example:
In addition, is there any scholarship or financial support provided for students to apply [for]?

scope /skəʊp/

NOUN [U]

AMOUNT

how much a subject or situation relates to

Dictionary example:
Do we know the full scope of the problem yet?

Learner example:
The scope of this article exceeds the problem of the abuse of females.

scratch /skrætʃ/

NOUN [C]

from scratch
If you do something from scratch, you do it from the beginning.
Dictionary example:
We didn't have any furniture of our own so we had to start from scratch.

Learner example:
That means you don't have to start from scratch with your teacher.

587
 search /sɜːtʃ/

VERB

FIND ANSWER

[I] to try to find an answer to a problem

Dictionary example:
Doctors are still searching for a cure.

Learner example:
The governments are therefore searching for solutions to compensate [for] the lack of financial
resources.

season /ˈsiː.zən/

Word family:
Nouns: season
Adjectives: seasonal

NOUN [C]

out of season
If vegetables or fruit are out of season, they are not usually available at that time.
Dictionary example:
Strawberries are out of season at the moment.

Learner example:
As our place was famous for fresh sea food, I bought crabs and salmon although they were out of
season and expensive.

secretary /ˈsek.rə.tri/

NOUN [C]

COMMITTEE

the member of a committee who keeps records of meetings and deals with
correspondence
Dictionary example:
I'm secretary of the tennis club this year.

Learner example:
From: Secretary of the Social Club To: Mr. Ford, Museum Director

588
 sector /ˈsek.tər/

NOUN [C]

one part of a country's economy

Dictionary examples:
In the financial sector, banks and insurance companies have both lost a lot of money.
The new government's policy is to transfer state industries from the public sector to the private
sector.

Learner example:
Our software solutions are oriented towards the corporate sector where we are recognized as
market leaders in this field.

secure /sɪˈkjʊər/

Word family:
Nouns: security, insecurity
Adjectives: secure, insecure

ADJECTIVE

COMPUTER

designed to make sure that only the person who knows it can get onto a computer
system, website, etc.
Dictionary example:
You will be issued with a secure password.

Learner example:
If you decided to work with our superb Direct Net, you would get a secure password which you
have to change at your first log in and an electronic card which produces every minute a new
combination.

security /sɪˈkjʊə.rə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: security, insecurity
Adjectives: secure, insecure

NOUN [U]

SAFE SITUATION

when something is not likely to fail or be lost

589
 Dictionary examples:
If it's a choice between higher pay and job security, I'd prefer to keep my job.
I'm on a temporary contract and have little financial security.

Learner example:
They are the people who are already regarded as high class, but the reason for this prediction is
that they have job security which has become a big issue in Korea after IMF, as well as [a] high
salary.

see /siː/ (seeing, saw, seen)

VERB

I'll/we'll see
used to say that you will make a decision about something later
Dictionary example:
"Dad, can I have a guitar?" "We'll see."

Learner example:
I'm sure I'd love to have four of them, but there's always the financial aspect. I'm just nineteen, I'll
see...

HAPPEN

[T] to be the time or place where something happens

Dictionary example:
This decade has seen huge technological advances.

Learner example:
But the reason which has driven the strike is [that] the whole country has seen a cut in the
subsidies give[n] to unemployed people.

you see
used when you are giving an explanation about something
Dictionary examples:
I didn't know she was Welsh, you see.
You see, it was already late by that time.

Learner example:
Family matters had to stay in the family, you see.

wait and see

to wait to discover what will happen
Dictionary example:
We'll wait and see what she says.

590
 Learner example:
We will just have to wait and see.....

seemingly /ˈsiː.mɪŋ.li/

Word family:
Verbs: seem
Adverbs: seemingly

ADVERB

appearing to be something without really being that thing

Dictionary example:
a seemingly harmless comment

Learner example:
You also claim that we did not reach our target figure - a statement seemingly based on pure
assumption - which is completely incorrect.

selective /səˈlek.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: selection
Verbs: select
Adjectives: selective

ADJECTIVE

intentionally choosing some things or people and not others

Dictionary examples:
As a teacher she was very selective, accepting only a small number of highly talented pupils.
He seemed to have a very selective recall of past events.

Learner example:
At the same time, this makes us extremely selective when it comes to the people we want working
with us.

self /self/

NOUN [C or U] (PLURAL selves)

your characteristics, including your personality, your abilities, etc.
Dictionary examples:
our sense of self
his real/true self

591
 Learner example:
True recognition and happiness can't be derived from television or front covers but only from
one's true self.

self-catering /ˌselfˈkeɪ.tər.ɪŋ/

ADJECTIVE

describes a holiday or place in which you have a kitchen so that you can cook
meals for yourself
Dictionary example:
We decided to stay in self-catering accommodation rather than in a hotel.

Learner example:
It is situated in London so it seems to me that it would give you the opportunity to learn more
about everyday English life. Moreover, the accommodation is top quality, as there are single
rooms, and self-catering facilities.

self-centred /ˌselfˈsen.təd/

ADJECTIVE

interested only in yourself

Dictionary example:
Stop being so self-centred!

Learner example:
This way of thinking is very important because a person who spends a lot of time alone can
become self-centred and insensitive to others.

self-conscious /ˌselfˈkɒn.ʃəs/

Word family:
Nouns: consciousness
Adjectives: conscious, unconscious, self-conscious
Adverbs: subconsciously, unconsciously

ADJECTIVE

nervous or uncomfortably aware of yourself and what people think about you or
your actions
Dictionary example:
He looked uncomfortable, like a self-conscious adolescent who's gone to the wrong party.

592
 Learner example:
Video equipment however is something we have been wanting for a long time, for the following
reasons: [...] - to enhance interpretation of body language as well as spoken language; this aspect
is often neglected but of major importance; - to record and play back the students while speaking
a monologue or discussing among a group: this enhances their fluency and makes them less self-
conscious and thus more confident while expressing themselves in a foreign language; - last but
not least: to make learning more fun and thus attract more students.

self-esteem /ˌself.ɪˈstiːm/

NOUN [U]

confidence in yourself and a belief in your qualities and abilities

Dictionary example:
She suffers from low self-esteem.

Learner example:
I think that the lack of self-esteem among men underlies the whole situation.

selfishness /ˈsel.fɪʃ.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: selfishness
Adjectives: selfish

NOUN [U]

the quality of being selfish

Dictionary example:
I was appalled by his selfishness.

Learner example:
It seems to me that everywhere in the world, people are not necessarily aware of the fact that
planet Earth is [the] most precious gift we have. Greed and selfishness are also very common in
Switzerland, even if this country might be already a few steps further [forward] than others.

semi-detached /ˌsem.ɪ.dɪˈtætʃt/

ADJECTIVE

A semi-detached house has one wall that is joined to another house.

Dictionary example:
We live in a semi-detached house.

593
 Learner example:
When I was in London I lived in a semi-detached house as well.

sensational /senˈseɪ.ʃən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: sensation
Adjectives: sensational

ADJECTIVE

SHOCKING

done in a way that is intended to shock people

Dictionary example:
sensational journalism

Learner example:
I think that the journalists desired sensational news far too much and they exaggerated.

sense /sents/

Word family:
Nouns: nonsense, sense, sensibility
Verbs: sense
Adjectives: sensible, senseless
Adverbs: sensibly

NOUN

in a sense
thinking about something in a particular way
Dictionary example:
In a sense, he's right.

Learner example:
In a sense this is correct, since you have to leave your natural environment to visit a place where
no human being is meant to survive.

594
 sensibly /ˈsent.sə.bli/

Word family:
Nouns: nonsense, sense, sensibility
Verbs: sense
Adjectives: sensible, senseless
Adverbs: sensibly

ADVERB

in a sensible way
Dictionary examples:
She behaved very sensibly about it.
They very sensibly decided to stay at home.

Learner example:
As time goes [by], these kids quite don't understand the importance of using money sensibly and
saving money.

sensitivity /ˌsent.sɪˈtɪv.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: sensitivity
Adjectives: sensitive, insensitive

NOUN [C]

KIND

the ability to understand how other people are feeling and to be helpful and kind
to them
Dictionary example:
The police showed great sensitivity in their handling of the case.

Learner example:
It is written with sensitivity, honest[y], sincerity and objectiveness.

EASILY UPSET

the quality of being easily upset by things that people say or do

Dictionary example:
I should have warned you about her sensitivity to criticism.

Learner example:
One of her weaknesses would be her great sensitivity.

595
 sequence /ˈsiː.kwəns/

NOUN

FILM

a part of a film or video game that shows one thing that happens
Dictionary example:
I particularly enjoyed the dream sequence.

Learner example:
However, the rest of the game is not as [polished] as the opening sequence: indeed, it seems that
the developers simply re-used the graphical engine of the prequel, without even revamping it: the
result is truly disappointing.

serial /ˈsɪə.ri.əl/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

! describes a person who repeatedly commits the same serious crime, often using
the same method, or a serious crime that is committed repeatedly by one person
Dictionary examples:
She wrote a thriller about a brutal serial killer.
a serial rapist
serial murders/killings

Learner example:
These pictures have never been broadcast because too many important people are involved in
these serial killings.

NOUN [C]

a story in a magazine or on television or radio that is told in separate parts over a

period of time
Dictionary example:
I'm watching a serial set in Yorkshire.

Learner example:
As I have already mentioned the quality of the English language used is exceptional and I would
like to congratulate all the pe[ople] that take part in the serial.

596
 serve /sɜːv/

Word family:
Nouns: servant, service
Verbs: serve
Adjectives: self-service

VERB

BE USEFUL

[I] to be useful as something

Dictionary examples:
It's a very entertaining film but it also serves an educational purpose.
The spare bedroom also serves as a study.
He hopes his son's death will serve to warn others about the dangers of owning a gun.
Nothing serves to explain the violent fighting we have seen recently.

Learner example:
As for replanting, it will serve to rejuvenate our forests around Agrinio.

WORK

[I or T] to do work that helps society, for example in an organization such as the

army or the government
Dictionary examples:
to serve in the army
to serve on a committee/jury
He served as mayor for 5 years.
He always wanted to serve his country.

Learner example:
Women in the former GDR [ha]d the same rights and had to fulfill nearly the same duties (except
the duty to serve in the army) as men.

service /ˈsɜː.vɪs/

Word family:
Nouns: servant, service
Verbs: serve
Adjectives: self-service

NOUN

WORK

[U] the time you spend working for an organization

Dictionary example:
He retired last week after 25 years' service.

597
 Learner example:
In my mind he is the perfect candidate, because due to his long service in the U.S. Army, where
superiors are obliged to take care of their subordinates, he was in contact with young people from
all kinds of ethnic [backgrounds] and social classes.

set /set/

Word family:
Nouns: setting
Verbs: set

VERB (setting, set, set)

LEVEL

to decide the level of something

Dictionary example:
The interest rate has been set at 5%.

Learner example:
In addition to all this, I must point out that our agreement regarding the student discount on all
tickets was set at 10%, not 5%, as you mentioned on your handout.

set foot in/on sth

to go into a place or onto a piece of land
Dictionary example:
He told me never to set foot in his house again.

Learner example:
I dream of being the first one to set foot on a white sandy beach, to admire a new kind of
vegetation: cranberry bushes, sweet potatoes, wild turkeys, a different climate; how scary and
exciting at the same time!

ADJECTIVE

be all set
to be ready
Dictionary example:
We were all set to go when the phone rang.

Learner example:
So, there you go. I'm all set!

598
 setback /ˈset.bæk/

NOUN [C]

a problem that makes something happen later or more slowly than it should
Dictionary example:
The project has suffered a series of setbacks this year.

Learner example:
A strong bond between you and your friends, with whom you can have discussions about personal
setbacks, is another very vital point.

settle /ˈset.l
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: settlement
Verbs: settle

VERB

ARGUMENT

[T] If you settle an argument, you solve the problem and stop arguing.

Dictionary examples:
My father and I have agreed finally to settle our differences.
It took months to settle the dispute/strike.

Learner example:
Caroline and her husband had had an argument last week, but as he was going to be away for a
few days, they had finally settled their differences.

SNOW/DUST, ETC.

[I] to move to a lower level and stay there

Dictionary examples:
The house had been empty for years, and dust had settled on all the surfaces.
Do you think the snow will settle?
The contents of this packet may settle.

Learner example:
Whenever I have cleaned my shel[ve]s you can just watch the dust settle on [them].

settlement /ˈset.l.mənt/

Word family:
Nouns: settlement
Verbs: settle

599
NOUN [C]

AGREEMENT

an official agreement that finishes an argument

Dictionary example:
a peace settlement

Learner example:
All employees working for the public transport went on strike a week ago, and there is no
settlement in sight.

sewing /ˈsəʊ.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: sewing
Verbs: sew

NOUN [U]

the activity of joining pieces of cloth together or repairing them with a needle and
thread
Dictionary example:
I'm not very good at sewing.

Learner example:
I especially cherish the idea of finding myself in Camelot being a lady in waiting [to] Queen
Guinevere - to spend my days reading, sewing, embroidering, learning about far off places and
discoveries, adventures and the latest gossip from the court.

sex /seks/

Word family:
Nouns: sex
Adjectives: sexual, sexy

NOUN [U]

the opposite sex

people who are the other sex from you
Dictionary example:
He would never dare to speak to a member of the opposite sex.

Learner example:
This is not only about trying to impress (preferably) a person of the opposite sex, but fashion also
gives you a great chance to express yourself.

600
 sexual /ˈsek.ʃʊ.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: sex
Adjectives: sexual, sexy

ADJECTIVE

MALE OR FEMALE

! relating to being male or female

Dictionary examples:
Sexual equality will not be achieved until there is more provision for childcare.
Some steps have been taken towards ending sexual discrimination.

Learner example:
But we must not forget that there is still sexual discrimination when women apply for jobs higher
up in [a] hierarchy.

shabby /ˈʃæb.i/

ADJECTIVE

UNTIDY

looking untidy and in bad condition

Dictionary example:
shabby clothes/furniture

Learner example:
With neither lift nor room service provided our guests had to stay in dirty and shabby rooms on
the 4th floor.

shade /ʃeɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: shade, shadow

NOUN

a shade
a small amount
Dictionary example:
He's perhaps a shade taller.

Learner example:
Their salaries are, even when the same job is done, mostly a shade under a man's salary.

601
 shake /ʃeɪk/

Word family:
Verbs: shake
Adjectives: shaken

VERB (shook, shaken)

shake up sth or shake sth up PHRASAL VERB

to cause large changes in something

Dictionary example:
Technological changes have shaken up many industries.

Learner example:
I believe that their aim is to shake up public opinion in the most impressive way they can.

shame /ʃeɪm/

Word family:
Nouns: shame
Adjectives: ashamed, shameful

NOUN

BAD FEELING

[U] when you feel embarrassed and guilty about something bad that you have done

Dictionary examples:
He said he felt no shame for what he had done.
The children hung their heads in shame.
You can't go dressed like that - have you no shame ?
In some societies, if a woman leaves her husband, it brings shame on her and her family.

Learner example:
It destroys the individual, brings shame to his family, and [is] a liability instead of an asset to his
society.

shameful /ˈʃeɪm.fəl/

Word family:
Nouns: shame
Adjectives: ashamed, shameful

ADJECTIVE

Something shameful is bad and should make you feel embarrassed and guilty.

602
 Dictionary example:
shameful scenes

Learner example:
What a shameful way of wasting natural resources!

share /ʃeər/

VERB [I or T]

share your problems/thoughts/ideas, etc.

to tell someone your problems/thoughts, etc.
Dictionary example:
Would you like to share your thoughts with the group, Donald?

Learner example:
I have received your letter asking for my opinion about the Conference and have decided to write
and share some of my thoughts.

sharp /ʃɑːp/

Word family:
Verbs: sharpen
Adjectives: sharp
Adverbs: sharply, sharp

ADJECTIVE

CLEAR

A sharp image is very clear.

Dictionary example:
a photograph in sharp focus

Learner example:
Quite the opposite, FFIX features beautiful pre-rendered 3D landscapes, along with real time
characters: words are useless for describing such an achievement: the colo[u]rs are vivid, sharp,
the animations are smooth...

ADVERB

SUDDENLY

suddenly or immediately
Dictionary example:
After the library, turn sharp left/right.

603
 Learner example:
At the bus-stop you have to go straight on through the one-way street, then turn sharp left until
you reach the staggered junction, [w]here you will see a taxi [rank].

EXACTLY

exactly at the stated time

Dictionary example:
The performance will begin at 7.30 sharp.

Learner example:
You have to wake him up at 8.00 AM sharp.

shed /ʃed/

VERB (shedding, shed, shed)

shed tears
to cry
Dictionary example:
I shed a few tears when he left.

Learner example:
She was too preoc[c]upied to talk to anybody and she had shed so many tears that she could cry
no more.

sheer /ʃɪər/

ADJECTIVE

EXTREME

used to emphasize how strong a feeling or quality is

Dictionary examples:
a look of sheer delight/joy
sheer determination/hard work

Learner example:
My mind was filled with nothing else but the sheer joy about soon becom[ing] a[c]quainted with
something entirely new and completely unfamiliar plus the eager anti[c]ipation about meeting my
host-family.

LARGE

used to emphasize the large size or amount of something

604
 Dictionary example:
The delays are due to the sheer volume of traffic.

Learner example:
Allow me to start by saying that one day, which may not [lie] so far off in the future, people will
visit the buildings which were formerly known as "Educational Institutions" like we visit museums
[today] to gape at the sheer size of the Dinosaurs...

shield /ʃiːld/

VERB [T]

to protect someone or something from something dangerous or unpleasant

Dictionary example:
to shield your eyes from the sun

Learner example:
On the other hand, children raised by wealthy families are believed to be so "well-pampered" that
they are shielded from the harshness of real problems - such as poverty or malnutrition.

shift /ʃɪft/

VERB

CHANGE

[I or T] to change an idea, attitude, etc.

Dictionary examples:
We are trying to shift the emphasis from curing illness to preventing it.
Media attention has shifted recently onto environmental issues.

Learner example:
Since the 1990s, though, the situation has shifted.

MOVE STH

[T] to move something to another place

Dictionary example:
We need to shift all these boxes into the other room.

Learner example:
We are very pleased with the idea of shifting the changing rooms and sauna [to] by the pool and
having the coffee bar extended where the changing rooms and sauna are at present.

605
NOUN

CHANGE

a change in something
Dictionary example:
There has been a dramatic shift in public opinion on this matter.

Learner example:
Proposal: Improving Zurich's transport and housing facilities Census results of the last three
decades have shown a shift in families' preferences on where to live.

shine /ʃaɪn/

Word family:
Verbs: shine
Adjectives: shiny

VERB (shone or shined, shone or shined)

REFLECT

[I or T] If a surface shines, it reflects light, and if you shine it, you make it reflect
light.
Dictionary example:
She polished her shoes until they shone.

Learner example:
I was so glad to see that little key shining in that box.

shoot /ʃuːt/

Word family:
Nouns: shooting
Verbs: shoot

VERB (shot, shot)

FILM

[T] to use a camera to record a film or take a photograph

Dictionary examples:
We shot four reels of film in Egypt.
The film was shot on location in Southern India.

Learner example:
Britney's was shot in a studio and she, hypothetically, was [o]n Mars.

606
 short /ʃɔːt/

Word family:
Nouns: shortage, short
Verbs: shorten
Adjectives: short
Adverbs: shortly, short

ADJECTIVE

at short notice UK

only a short time before something happens

Dictionary example:
I had to give a speech at very short notice.

Learner example:
The fact that the speech by the famous actor was cancelled at short notice was disappointing.

NOUN

in short
in a few words
Dictionary example:
In short, we need more staff.

Learner example:
In short, ancient Chinese poems, mainly [from the] Jang D[yna]sty, constitute [the] background for
Chinese culture and set a touchstone for judgement in our life.

ADVERB

to cut a long story short

to mention only the final result or point of something without going into other
details
Dictionary example:
To cut a long story short, he never played baseball again.

Learner example:
Well, to cut a long story short, let's say tuition yes, facilities no.

shortcoming /ˈʃɔːtˌkʌm.ɪŋ/

NOUN [C]

a fault

607
 Dictionary example:
I like him despite his shortcomings.

Learner example:
However, there were a few shortcomings I would like to mention.

shorten /ˈʃɔː.tən/

Word family:
Nouns: shortage, short
Verbs: shorten
Adjectives: short
Adverbs: shortly, short

VERB [I or T]

to become shorter or to make something shorter

Dictionary example:
Smoking shortens your life.

Learner example:
Maybe we could shorten the free day to half a day and make use of the other half to bring them
out for some sightseeing and familiarisation.

show /ʃəʊ/

VERB (showed, shown)

EASY TO SEE

[I or T] to be easy or possible to see, or to make something easy or possible to see

Dictionary examples:
The sadness really shows on her face.
Light-coloured carpets show the dirt.

Learner example:
Their hair was turning grey and their faces showed [the] first wrinkles.

NOUN [C]

on show
being shown to the public
Dictionary example:
Her designs are currently on show at the Museum of Modern Art.

608
 Learner example:
One of the facilit[ies] that really make[s] a difference is the Art Gallery, with its great exhibition on
show, as well as the Art Library.

shuttle /ˈʃʌt.l/

NOUN [C]

a bus, train, plane, etc. which travels regularly between two places, usually a short
distance
Dictionary examples:
the London-Glasgow shuttle
There's a shuttle service between the airport and the city centre.

Learner example:
I am convinced that a centre with less traffic and more pedestrianised areas will attract more other
people. Especially if there is a parking opportunity outside of the centre with well-o[r]ganised
shuttle buses to the centre.

shyness /ˈʃaɪ.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: shyness
Adjectives: shy

NOUN [U]

the state of being shy

Dictionary example:
When I met the Queen, I was overcome with shyness.

Learner example:
Some of them were encouraged by their work-fellows to overcome their initial shyness.

side /saɪd/

NOUN

look on the bright side

to find good things in a bad situation
Dictionary example:
Look on the bright side - no one was badly hurt.

609
 Learner example:
I am quite self-confident and I usually look on the bright side, as I am not keen on pessimistic
thoughts.

side effect /ˈsaɪd.ɪ.fekt/

NOUN [C]

MEDICINE

another effect that a drug has on your body in addition to the main effect for
which the doctor has given you the drug
Dictionary example:
Headaches are one side effect of this drug.

Learner example:
Now, we have come up with something called Phyto essence that is designed to overcome skin
problems effectively without causing any harmful side effects.

significance /sɪgˈnɪf.ɪ.kənts/

Word family:
Nouns: significance
Adjectives: significant, insignificant
Adverbs: significantly

NOUN [U]

the importance or meaning of something

Dictionary examples:
I still don't understand the significance of his remark.
This is a development which has great economic significance for the region.

Learner example:
In spite of the progress achieved in promoting the social status of women, one should not
overestimate the significance of these achievements to ordinary women's careers.

similarly /ˈsɪm.ɪ.lə.li/

Word family:
Nouns: similarity
Adjectives: similar
Adverbs: similarly

610
ADVERB

in a similar way
Dictionary examples:
The children were similarly dressed.
Cars must stop at red traffic lights; similarly, bicycles should stop too.

Learner example:
Business people would like to have a car park in the city cent[re], whereas most residents are
against it, mainly because of the horrible noise made by cars. Similarly, some students, who are
concerned about pollution, prefer the car park to be [o]n the outskirts of the city.

simplicity /sɪmˈplɪs.ɪ.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: simplicity, simplification
Verbs: simplify
Adjectives: simple
Adverbs: simply

NOUN [U]

the quality of being simple

Dictionary examples:
The advantage of the plan is its simplicity.
The examination was simplicity itself.
I admire the simplicity of her designs.

Learner example:
Video facilities are rated as quite good [by] the students, and computer programmes have gained
almost everybody's compl[i]ments for their simplicity and efficacy.

simplify /ˈsɪm.plɪ.faɪ/

Word family:
Nouns: simplicity, simplification
Verbs: simplify
Adjectives: simple
Adverbs: simply

VERB [T]

to make something less complicated and therefore easier to do or understand

Dictionary examples:
the new, simplified tax system
He tried to simplify the story for the younger audience.

611
 Learner example:
The technology has probably simplified life [i]n a way that no one could beli[e]ve was possible
about 20 years ago.

simulation /ˌsɪm.jəˈleɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [C or U]

a model of something that can be used to teach someone how to do something, or

the process of making such a model
Dictionary example:
Students can study a computer simulation of these atomic processes.

Learner example:
Civilisation is one of the best-selling simulation games of all time.

simultaneous /ˌsɪm.əlˈteɪn.i.əs/

Word family:
Adjectives: simultaneous
Adverbs: simultaneously

ADJECTIVE

If two or more things are simultaneous, they happen or exist at the same time.
Dictionary example:
simultaneous translation

Learner example:
The people I most admire are simultaneous interpreter[s].

sincere /sɪnˈsɪər/

Word family:
Nouns: sincerity
Adjectives: sincere
Adverbs: sincerely

ADJECTIVE

HONEST

honest and saying or showing what you really feel or believe

Dictionary example:
He seems to be sincere.

612
 Learner example:
During these years I have also found her to be honest, sincere, hard-working and imagin[a]tive.

sincere apologies/thanks, etc. FORMAL

used to add emphasis when you are expressing a feeling

Dictionary example:
The family wishes to express their sincere thanks to all the staff at the hospital.

Learner example:
Again, sincere gratitude for your kind work.

sincerely /sɪnˈsɪə.li/

Word family:
Nouns: sincerity
Adjectives: sincere
Adverbs: sincerely

ADVERB

EMPHASIS

in a sincere way
Dictionary example:
I sincerely hope that this never happens again.

Learner example:
I sincerely hope that you improve your services.

sip /sɪp/

VERB [I or T] (sipping, sipped)

to drink, taking only a small amount at a time
Dictionary example:
She sipped her champagne.

Learner example:
The reasons for my choice are far from being profound: maybe it is only the desire of going back
to a time when wom[e]n [...] could spend all the time brushing their hair or sipping tea, without
feeling guilty for wasting their time.

613
 site /saɪt/

NOUN [C]

on site
inside a factory, office building, etc.
Dictionary examples:
There are two restaurants on site.
They provide on-site childcare facilities for employees.

Learner example:
A small period of training on site is required a few days before the beginning of the job itself and
how many interesting people you will meet!

skeleton /ˈskel.ə.tən/

NOUN [C]

a skeleton crew/staff/service
the smallest number of people that you need to keep an organization working
Dictionary example:
The Red Cross has withdrawn all but a skeleton staff from the country.

Learner example:
The life-rescuing services are on call and a skeleton staff remains in all hospitals.

sketch /sketʃ/

NOUN [C]

PICTURE

a picture that you draw quickly and with few details

Dictionary example:
He did a quick sketch of the cat.

Learner example:
Picasso would start with a lot of preliminary sketches and then go on to paint his final picture
where the main figures - a woman and a horse - are screaming in despair.

ACTING

a short piece of acting about a funny situation

614
 Dictionary example:
They wrote most of their sketches themselves.

Learner example:
It's a partly live show, but it also contains earlier recorded "sketches", often with funny stunts.

skilful /ˈskɪl.fəl/

Word family:
Nouns: skill
Adjectives: skilful, skilled

ADJECTIVE

DONE WELL

done or made very well

Dictionary example:
skilful use of language

Learner example:
I do hope that my skilful and smart notes will help you to judge the situation properly.

skip /skɪp/

VERB [T]

AVOID

to avoid reading or talking about something by starting to read or talk about the
next thing instead
Dictionary example:
I usually skip the boring bits.

Learner example:
This sharpen[s] your translating skills and your vocabulary (since you can't just skip words you
don't understand even if you get the general idea).

slang /slæŋ/

NOUN [U]

informal language, often language that is only used by people who belong to a
particular group

615
 Dictionary example:
prison slang

Learner example:
That's because communication with natives and not experienced English teachers will probably
make you enrich your idiomatic and slang vocabulary [rather] than your academic vocabulary.

slavery /ˈsleɪ.vər.i/

Word family:
Nouns: slave, slavery

NOUN [U]

the system of owning slaves, or the condition of being a slave

Dictionary example:
They campaigned for the abolition of slavery.

Learner example:
From the condition of slavery, the Greeks passed to life in a fully developed and democratic
country.

sleepless /ˈsliːp.ləs/

Word family:
Nouns: sleep
Verbs: sleep
Adjectives: asleep, sleepy, sleepless

ADJECTIVE

a sleepless night
a night when you are not able to sleep
Dictionary example:
He'd spent a sleepless night worrying about his exam.

Learner example:
Most of the rooms we stayed in did not have air-condition[ing], which caused many sleepless
nights to the majority of us due to the intense heat.

sleepy /ˈsliːp.i/

Word family:
Nouns: sleep
Verbs: sleep
Adjectives: asleep, sleepy, sleepless

616
ADJECTIVE

PLACE

quiet and with little activity

Dictionary example:
a sleepy little town

Learner example:
I don't know much about it because it never got into my remote, sleepy village.

slippery /ˈslɪp.ər.i/

Word family:
Verbs: slip
Adjectives: slippery

ADJECTIVE

smooth and wet and difficult to hold or walk on

Dictionary example:
Be careful - the floor's slippery.

Learner example:
We arrived at the mountain at seven o'clock [in] the morning and because the previous night it
[had been] raining, the rocks were slippery.

slogan /ˈsləʊ.gən/

NOUN [C]

a short phrase that is easy to remember and is used to make people notice
something
Dictionary example:
an advertising slogan

Learner example:
Our slogan is "BE CREATIVE".

slot /slɒt/

NOUN [C]

HOLE

a long, narrow hole that you put something into, especially money

617
 Dictionary example:
Put the coin in the slot.

Learner example:
Instead of inserting a coin, you put your card in a slot and then dial the number.

TIME

a period of time that you allow for something in a plan

Dictionary example:
The programme is being moved to a later slot.

Learner example:
Customers will also be able to choose the date and even the time slot for the delivery.

smart /smɑːt/

ADJECTIVE

TECHNOLOGY

using computers or information stored in electronic form

Dictionary examples:
a smart phone
smart bombs

Learner example:
Some telephones are only operated by "smart cards".

smog /smɒg/

NOUN [U]

air pollution in a city that is a mixture of smoke, gases, and chemicals

Dictionary example:
Smog hung over the city.

Learner example:
This will reduce smog and pollution, which has become an increasing problem for Castlecross.

smooth /smuːð/

Word family:
Adjectives: smooth
Adverbs: smoothly

618
ADJECTIVE

PROCESS

happening without problems or difficulties

Dictionary example:
Her job is to help students make a smooth transition from high school to college.

Learner example:
As far as I am concerned, not only will this create a bad public reputation but it will also disturb
the smooth running of both the hospital and our charity organisation.

smuggle /ˈsmʌg.l/

VERB [T]

to take something into or out of a place in an illegal or secret way

Dictionary example:
He was arrested for smuggling cocaine into Britain.

Learner example:
Somehow they manage to get themselves trapped in a vicious circle of crime, under the influence
of a magician who forces them to smuggle jewels for him.

so /səʊ/

ADVERB

to do so
if you do this, or if this is done
Dictionary examples:
They want to build a completely new school, but to do so would cost far too much.
I would strongly advise you against taking out a loan of this size. To do so would be a great risk
to your business.

Learner example:
It is generally believed that if [a] better education is provided, children are better prepared for
adult life. To do so, money is essential.

even so
used to emphasize that something surprising is true despite what you have just
said
Dictionary example:
Car prices have gone down a lot, but even so, we couldn't afford to buy one.

619
 Learner example:
I'm sure many of [these things] happened due to bad luck, but even so, there are some
arrangements that, I bel[ie]ve, can easily be improved.

so as not to do sth
used for saying what the purpose of an action is
Dictionary example:
He went in very quietly so as not to wake the baby.

Learner example:
Secondly, I think we should plan some other kind of activities in case of bad weather and we
should have more than one bus with us so as not to waste time in case it breaks down.

soak /səʊk/

Word family:
Verbs: soak
Adjectives: soaked, soaking

VERB [I or T]

MAKE WET

If liquid soaks somewhere or soaks something, it makes something very wet.

Dictionary examples:
The rain soaked my clothes.
The ink soaked through the paper onto the table.

Learner example:
The fish tank had been upended causing the fish to drop dead and the water [had] soaked the
fitted carpet.

soaring /ˈsɔːr.ɪŋ/

Word family:
Verbs: soar
Adjectives: soaring

ADJECTIVE

increasing very quickly

Dictionary example:
soaring property prices

Learner example:
This is due to soaring house prices, especially in urban areas.

620
 socialist /ˈsəʊ.ʃəl.ɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: society, socialism, socialist
Verbs: socialize
Adjectives: sociable, social, anti-social

NOUN [C]

someone who supports socialism

Dictionary example:
My parents are socialists.

Learner example:
It was the first time in history that socialists were a majority in the government.

sole /səʊl/

Word family:
Adjectives: sole
Adverbs: solely

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

only or not shared with anyone else

Dictionary examples:
My sole objective is to make the information more widely available.
The sole survivor of the accident was found in the water after six hours.
She has sole responsibility for the project.

Learner example:
Creating a library for this sole purpose would be ideal for our school's language department.

solely /ˈsəʊl.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: sole
Adverbs: solely

ADVERB

only and not involving anyone or anything else

Dictionary examples:
I bought it solely for that purpose.
It seems he's not solely to blame for the accident.
The product's success cannot be explained solely by the popularity of the ads.

621
 Learner example:
In my opinion, everything depends solely on us and taking everyday decisions determines our
future.

solicitor /səˈlɪs.ɪ.tər/

NOUN [C]

in Britain, a lawyer who gives legal advice and help, and who works in the lower
courts of law
Dictionary example:
We got a solicitor to draw up the contract.

Learner example:
If we [do] not hear from you within 10 days we shall be obliged to put the matter in the hands of
our solicitors, which is not what we desire.

solid /ˈsɒl.ɪd/

ADJECTIVE

NOT LIQUID/GAS

not a liquid or a gas

Dictionary examples:
Liquid and solid waste is collected in the tank.
Freeze the mixture for about 3 hours or so until solid.

Learner example:
Of the total amount of electrical power produced in the world, solid fuel is by far the most
important contributor (44%).

solid gold/silver/wood, etc.

gold/silver/wood, etc. with nothing added
Dictionary example:
a solid silver bracelet

Learner example:
The dark marble is easy to keep clean and the solid brass handles look luxur[ious].

622
 solidarity /ˌsɒl.ɪˈdær.ə.ti/

NOUN [U]

agreement and support between people in a group who have similar aims or
beliefs
Dictionary example:
Several lecturers joined the march to show solidarity with their students.

Learner example:
All the people were dancing, singing, laughing and enjoying their time in the company of these
beautiful children from poor African streets, with a great sense of solidarity.

solitude /ˈsɒl.ɪ.tjuːd/

Word family:
Nouns: solitude
Adjectives: solitary

NOUN [U]

being alone
Dictionary example:
He went upstairs to read the letter in solitude.

Learner example:
You'll find true solitude and a place for serious contemplation of life's big questions.

some /sʌm/

DETERMINER

NOT USING NAME

used to refer to a particular person or thing without stating exactly which one
Dictionary examples:
Some lucky person will win more than $1 000 000 in the competition.
Some idiot's locked the door!
There must be some way you can relieve the pain.

Learner example:
Maybe you hate the memory of these boring literature classes at school, but I'm sure each of you
is interested in some subject or other.

623
 something /ˈsʌm.θɪŋ/

PRONOUN

be/have something to do with sth/sb

to be related to something or a cause of something but not in a way which you
know about or understand
Dictionary example:
It might have something to do with the way it's made.

Learner example:
Well, it has something to do with politics, but as you know, I don't understand a word of it
because I don't care about it.

somewhat /ˈsʌm.wɒt/ FORMAL SLIGHTLY

ADVERB

slightly
Dictionary examples:
The resort has changed somewhat over the last few years.
She's somewhat more confident than she used to be.
We were somewhat tired after our long walk.

Learner example:
We found the written article to be somewhat inaccurate, since several facts were mistaken and
others were blown out of proportion.

soon /suːn/

ADVERB

no sooner ... than

used to show that something happens immediately after something else
Dictionary example:
No sooner had we got home than the phone rang.

Learner example:
No sooner had I entered a pub than the waitress smiled warmly at me.

624
 source /sɔːs/

NOUN [C]

PERSON

someone who gives information to the police, newspapers, etc.

Dictionary example:
The story came from a source within government.

Learner example:
For the next report, I advise you to get the correct information from the source.

sow /səʊ/

VERB [T] (sowed, sown, sowed)

to put seeds into the ground
Dictionary example:
to sow seeds/crops

Learner example:
Farmers had to plough, sow and harvest cotton on their own, using their labour and hands.

soya /ˈsɔɪ.ə/

NOUN [U]

a substance made from beans and used to make many foods

Dictionary example:
This milk is made from soya.

Learner example:
[We offer] a huge range of soya products, energy bars, jam and spreads, suitable for diabetic[s],
and a good choice of herbal teas.

spacious /ˈspeɪ.ʃəs/

Word family:
Nouns: space
Adjectives: spacious

ADJECTIVE

large and with a lot of space

625
 Dictionary example:
a spacious apartment/office

Learner example:
The rooms are spacious enough but they are very cold and that means that during the winter we
have to wear many clothes in order to stay warm.

spam /spæm/

NOUN [U]

emails that you do not want, usually advertisements

Dictionary example:
Most of the emails I receive are spam.

spare /speər/

VERB

GIVE

[T] to give time or money to someone

Dictionary examples:
I have to go soon, but I can spare a few minutes.
Can you spare me some change?

Learner example:
Thank you for sparing your time to read my letter and I look forward to the next edition of your
newspaper.

to spare
If you have time, money, etc. to spare, you have more than you need.
Dictionary example:
I arrived at the station with more than an hour to spare.

Learner example:
I even started to do the shopping on the Net, and I think this is the perfect solution for the
busines[s] woman with family and little time to spare.

626
 sparkling /ˈspɑr.klɪŋ/

ADJECTIVE

SPECIAL

special or exciting
Dictionary examples:
a sparkling performance
sparkling conversation

Learner example:
After, [it's] time for lunch with a lot of Champagne (for a more sparkling atmosphere!).

speak /spiːk/ (spoke, spoken)

Word family:
Nouns: speaker, speech
Verbs: speak
Adjectives: speechless

VERB

speak for/on behalf of sb

to express the feelings, opinions, etc. of another person or a group of people
Dictionary example:
I've been chosen to speak on behalf of the whole class.

Learner example:
I am sure that I speak on behalf of the rest of the members of this club.

speciality /ˌspeʃ.iˈæl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: specialist, speciality
Verbs: specialize
Adjectives: special
Adverbs: specially

NOUN [C]

a product, skill, etc. that a person or place is especially known for

Dictionary example:
We tasted a local speciality made from goat's cheese.

627
 Learner example:
But even McDonald's realised there is another trend on the rise - local food and specialities - and
therefor[e] started putting them on the[ir] menu.

specific /spəˈsɪf.ɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: specification
Verbs: specify
Adjectives: specific
Adverbs: specifically

ADJECTIVE

EXACT

exact or containing details

Dictionary example:
Could you be more specific about the problem?

Learner example:
To be more specific, our students discovered that the majority of your exhibits did not function at
all.

specifically /spəˈsɪf.ɪ.kli/

Word family:
Nouns: specification
Verbs: specify
Adjectives: specific
Adverbs: specifically

ADVERB

PARTICULAR PURPOSE

for a particular reason, purpose, etc.

Dictionary examples:
They're designed specifically for children.
She bought it specifically to wear at the wedding.

Learner example:
I specifically chose to travel with you since your travel brochure promised a half-day trip to St.
Andrews, where I was to meet my friend Ann.

EXACTLY

exactly or in detail

628
 Dictionary examples:
I specifically told them that she doesn't eat meat.
The law specifically prohibits acts of this kind.

Learner example:
More specifically, students have to complete numerous questions with very long answers for four
different subjects, and the time available for each subject is three hours.

specification /ˌspes.ɪf.ɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: specification
Verbs: specify
Adjectives: specific
Adverbs: specifically

NOUN [C] FORMAL

a detailed description of how something should be done, made, etc.

Dictionary example:
They are made exactly to the customer's specifications.

Learner example:
Translating technical specifications prepared by no[n]-native speakers can often cause serious
problems.

spectrum /ˈspek.trəm/

NOUN [C] (spectra)

ALL POSSIBILITIES

all the different ideas, opinions, possibilities, etc. that exist

Dictionary example:
He has support from across the whole political spectrum.

Learner example:
At the other [end] of the spectrum of opinions you can find some people who need to park in the
city for business matters, like a local shopkeeper I talked to, who is afraid of losing customers.

speculation /ˌspek.jəˈleɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: speculation
Verbs: speculate

629
NOUN [U]

when people guess about something without having enough information to be

certain
Dictionary example:
She has dismissed the claims as pure speculation.

Learner example:
I seriously urge your organisation to base your reports on hard facts instead of speculation.

speechless /ˈspiːtʃ.ləs/

Word family:
Nouns: speaker, speech
Verbs: speak
Adjectives: speechless

ADJECTIVE

unable to speak because you are so angry, shocked, surprised, etc.

Dictionary example:
I couldn't believe what he was telling me - I was speechless.

Learner example:
Last year, I had the opportunity to visit Chania [again] with my family and I was speechless when I
understood that everything has undergone rapid change, because of tourism.

speed /spiːd/

NOUN

up to speed
having all the most recent information about a subject or activity
Dictionary example:
The course should bring you up to speed with the latest techniques.

Learner example:
Apart [from] this you can keep yourself up to speed with what's happening around the world on
various fronts.

exceed the speed limit

to drive faster than you are allowed to according to the law
Dictionary example:
She was caught exceeding the speed limit.

630
 Learner example:
There are three ground rules you have to follow: stop at stop-signs, don't exceed the speed limit
and don't be in the way of other cars.

sphere /sfɪər/

NOUN [C]

a subject or area of knowledge, work, etc.

Dictionary example:
the political sphere

Learner example:
There is a very big crew, all of them very good in their sphere of work.

spin /spɪn/

VERB [I or T] (spinning, spun)

TURN

If something spins or you spin something, it turns around and around quickly.
Dictionary example:
The car spun across the road.

Learner example:
When the valve of the reservoir is opened, it passes through a pipe and it makes the turbine spin.

spine /spaɪn/

NOUN [C]

the long structure of bones down the centre of your back, which supports your
body
Dictionary example:
She injured her spine in a riding accident.

Learner example:
I had to carry my luggage to my room on the 3rd floor, which was hard as I suffer from a spine
injury.

631
 spirit /ˈspɪr.ɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: spirit
Adjectives: spiritual
Adverbs: spiritually

NOUN

NOT BODY

[C or U] the part of a person which is not their body, which some people believe
continues to exist after they die
Dictionary example:
I believe my spirit will live on after I die.

Learner example:
I would like to tell [José San Martin] that even if he could not reach his goal, without him, we
would still [be] a dependent country. Furthermore, that his spirit was, is and will be in our hearts
and minds.

DRINK

! [C] a strong alcoholic drink, such as whisky or vodka

Dictionary example:
I don't often drink spirits.

Learner example:
There will be [starter]s, meat, fish, desserts... and a lot of Rioja's wine, of course! Champagne and
spirits too.

splendid /ˈsplen.dɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: splendour
Adjectives: splendid

ADJECTIVE

very good or very beautiful, special, etc.

Dictionary examples:
a splendid idea
a splendid view

Learner example:
As far as interviewing sports personalities is concerned, it would be a splendid idea to interview
Gerry Armstrong because he would be able to inform students about football, as he is a very good
player.

632
 split /splɪt/

VERB (splitting, split, split)

SHARE

[T] to share something by dividing it into smaller parts

Dictionary example:
The cost of the wedding will be split between the two families.

Learner example:
Sharing is cheaper since you always split the bills two or more ways and in your own place you
cook your own food.

spoil /spɔɪl/

Word family:
Verbs: spoil
Adjectives: unspoiled

VERB [T] (spoiled or spoilt, spoiled or spoilt)

CHILD

If you spoil a child, you let them have anything they want or do anything they
want, usually making them badly behaved.
Dictionary example:
Her children are completely spoiled.

Learner example:
Few children are more spoiled than Japanese children.

spokesman /ˈspəʊks.mən/

NOUN [C] (PLURAL spokesmen)

a man who is chosen to speak officially for a group or organization
Dictionary example:
He was the spokesman for their organization.

Learner example:
Becoming spokesman or woman for a good cause will lead to more popularity of and more
attention for the cause.

633
 spokesperson /ˈspəʊksˌpɜː.sən/

NOUN [C] (PLURAL spokespeople)

someone who is chosen to speak officially for a group or organization
Dictionary example:
She was the spokesperson for the group.

Learner example:
As the local community spokesperson, my ability to plan, initiate and execute the cleaning of
rivers, within our local community as a start, will be beneficial to the "Protect our river"
requirements.

sponsorship /ˈspɒnt.sə.ʃɪp/

Word family:
Nouns: sponsor, sponsorship
Verbs: sponsor

NOUN [U]

when someone gives money to support something

Dictionary example:
We wanted to set up a youth club, and asked local businesses for sponsorship.

Learner example:
The aim of this proposal is to explain the reason why our company can sponsor our country's
tennis championship and outline the benefits we will gain from this sponsorship.

sporty /ˈspɔː.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: sport
Adjectives: sporty

ADJECTIVE

Sporty people are good at sports.

Dictionary example:
I'm not very sporty.

Learner example:
Our events this summer ha[ve] proved that the sporty young people in the International students'
sports club are both ambitious and know how to have fun.

634
 spread /spred/

VERB (spread, spread)

ARRANGE

[T] (ALSO spread out) to arrange something over a large area, especially something
that was folded
Dictionary examples:
I spread a blanket over his legs.
We spread the map on the floor.
He spread the cards out on the table.
She spread out her towel on the sand and lay down.

Learner example:
She looked at all the diaries that were all spread out around her on the bed.

spring /sprɪŋ/

NOUN

WATER

[C] a place where water comes out of the ground

Dictionary example:
hot springs

Learner example:
Also there is a hot spring beside a river.

spy /spaɪ/

VERB

INFORMATION

[I] to secretly try to discover information about a person, country, etc.

Dictionary example:
He was accused of spying.

Learner example:
Also, some countries have fears about foreigners coming from underdeveloped countries and may
consider some of them as a source of troubles including crimes, spying and maybe terrorism.

635
 squeeze /skwiːz/

VERB [T]

squeeze through/past, etc.

to move somewhere where there is very little space
Dictionary example:
She squeezed through a narrow gap in the wall.

Learner example:
There are [a] huge [number] of workers every morning trying to squeeze through the tiny door.

stability /stəˈbɪl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: stability
Adjectives: stable

NOUN [U]

when something is not likely to change or move

Dictionary example:
political/financial stability

Learner example:
In Yugoslavia sport was an important factor contributing to the overall stability of the federation.

stable /ˈsteɪ.bl/

Word family:
Nouns: stability
Adjectives: stable

ADJECTIVE

SITUATION

not likely to change, become worse, or end suddenly

Dictionary examples:
Prices have remained fairly stable in recent years.
The doctor said his condition was stable.
a stable relationship

Learner example:
That is due to [the] low economic development of this country, which is nowadays relatively
stable.

636
 PERSON

mentally calm and not easily upset

Dictionary example:
He's not a very stable person.

Learner example:
Children with [a] good coping mechanism are emotionally stable in facing their problems.

staggering /ˈstæg.ə.rɪŋ/

Word family:
Verbs: stagger
Adjectives: staggering

ADJECTIVE

very shocking and surprising

Dictionary example:
He earns a staggering amount of money.

Learner example:
However, it is expected to rise to a staggering 98% in 2010.

staircase /ˈsteə.keɪs/

NOUN [C]

a set of stairs and the structure around them

Dictionary example:
a spiral staircase

Learner example:
The second floor can only be accessed by an outside staircase or a pole that runs through the
second floor, like those at fire fighters' stations.

stale /steɪl/

ADJECTIVE

old and not fresh

Dictionary examples:
stale bread
Cake goes stale quickly if it's not covered.

637
 Learner example:
Furthermore, the food was nothing special - the bread for breakfast was stale and the rice for
dinner was cold.

stamina /ˈstæm.ɪ.nə/

NOUN [U]

the physical or mental energy that allows you to do something for a long time
Dictionary example:
Marathon runners need a lot of stamina.

Learner example:
She is a healthy strong girl with stamina.

stand /stænd/

VERB (stood, stood)

NOT BE DESTROYED

[I] if a building stands, it has not been destroyed.

Dictionary example:
After the earthquake not a single building was left standing in the village.

Learner example:
The city was filled of magnificent monuments, some of them still standing today.

stand at sth
to be at a particular level, amount, height, etc.
Dictionary example:
Inflation currently stands at 3 per cent.

Learner example:
It was overtaken by furniture and equipment, which stood at 23 per cent in 2001, but only at 15%
in 1981.

ACCEPT

[T] to be able to accept or deal with a difficult situation

Dictionary examples:
She couldn't stand the pressures of the job.
The pain was more than he could stand.

638
 Learner example:
Finally, last week we had a meeting and we decided to complain about that because nobody could
stand the situation any more.

NOUN

FOR SELLING/SHOWING

[C] a table or small structure from which goods are sold or shown

Dictionary examples:
a hot dog stand
Visit our stand at the trade fair.

Learner example:
It would be extremely beneficial to our company to have a stand there next year.

star /stɑːr/

NOUN [C]

BEST

someone or something that is better than all the others in a group

Dictionary examples:
He is one of our star players.
She was the star of the English class.

Learner example:
He led Brazil to win two more World Cups, and in both of them he was the star player, the black
prince.

two-star/three-star, etc.
used to show how good a restaurant or hotel is
Dictionary example:
a five-star hotel

Learner example:
Also the facilities were great and people started building houses, and the small village became an
attractive town with museums, universities, wonderful beaches, five-star hotels and other
beautiful facilities.

start /stɑːt/

Word family:
Nouns: start
Verbs: start, restart

639
VERB [I or T]

start out PHRASAL VERB

to begin your life, or the part of your life when you work, in a particular way
Dictionary example:
My dad started out as a sales assistant in a shop.

Learner example:
She is a beautiful, talented wom[a]n who started out as a small actress in her own country,
climbing up to become the fully-recognized celebrity that she is now.

NOUN

from start to finish

from the beginning of something to its end
Dictionary example:
I enjoyed the film from start to finish.

Learner example:
I found out that the service itself should last at least one and half hour[s] from start to finish.

for a start
used when you are giving the first in a list of reasons or things
Dictionary example:
I won't be going - I've got too much homework for a start.

Learner example:
So this creates an awareness of the obligation to look after oneself for a start.

starve /stɑːv/

Word family:
Nouns: starvation
Verbs: starve
Adjectives: starving

VERB [I or T]

to become ill or die because you do not have enough food, or to make someone ill
or die because they do not have enough food
Dictionary example:
Many people have starved to death in parts of Africa.

Learner example:
People were starving to death and various crimes took place.

640
 state /steɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: statement
Verbs: state

NOUN [C]

COUNTRY

a country or its government

Dictionary examples:
The drought is worst in the central African states.
Britain is one of the member states of the European Union.
The government was determined to reduce the number of state-owned industries.
Some theatres receive a small amount of funding from the state.

Learner example:
I opted, since I must talk about my country's history, to choose an event not from the [w]hole
history of the Greek nation, but from that of the independent Greek state (kingdom or republic, it
depends [on] the period), which ha[d] a life of about 270-280 years.

state-of-the-art /ˌsteɪt.əv.ðiˈɑːt/

ADJECTIVE

using the newest ideas, designs, and materials

Dictionary example:
It is a computer system that uses state-of-the-art technology.

Learner example:
It is the impressive and simply state-of-the-art graphics that entice the player to spend hours in
front of the screen.

statistic /stəˈtɪs.tɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: statistics, statistic
Adjectives: statistical

NOUN [C]

a fact in the form of a number that shows information about something

Dictionary example:
Statistics show that skin cancer is becoming more common.

641
 Learner example:
Wom[e]n have always been as bright and educated as men - statistics show that in Germany there
are more women entering for exams at the universities than there are men.

statistical /stəˈtɪs.tɪk.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: statistics, statistic
Adjectives: statistical

ADJECTIVE

relating to statistics
Dictionary example:
There is no statistical evidence to support his claims.

Learner example:
I just wondered why your newspaper didn't stick to the statistical figures and the pie chart we
announced on the next day [after] the fund-raising activity.

status /ˈsteɪ.təs/

NOUN [U]

an accepted or official position, especially in a social group

Dictionary examples:
The association works to promote the status of retired people as useful members of the
community.
There has been an increase in applications for refugee status.
The success of her book has given her unexpected celebrity status.
Applicants should have a degree or a qualification of equal status.

Learner example:
Their status and income were shadowed by the state.

status symbol /ˈsteɪ.təsˌsɪm.bəl/

NOUN [C]

something that people want to have because they think it will make people admire
them
Dictionary example:
For him, a big car is an important status symbol.

642
 Learner example:
Jobs now play a very important role as status symbols.

stay /steɪ/

VERB [I]

stay away from sth PHRASAL VERB

to avoid becoming involved in something that will have a bad effect on you
Dictionary example:
Stay away from drugs of any sort.

Learner example:
He started a help-program[me] to help children to stay away from criminality and do something
useful with their lives.

stay on PHRASAL VERB

to continue to be in a place, job or school after other people have left

Dictionary example:
I stayed on an extra year at school.

steady /ˈsted.i/

Word family:
Adjectives: steady
Adverbs: steadily

ADJECTIVE

NOT CHANGING

not changing
Dictionary example:
She drove at a steady speed.

Learner example:
Once on the road, keep a steady speed (not too slow, not too fast) and try to look confident.

643
 steep /stiːp/

ADJECTIVE

LARGE

A steep increase or fall in something is very big and quick.

Dictionary example:
There has been a steep increase/rise in prices.

Learner example:
However, there was a steep increase in 1978 to 1982 when the figure reached about 60 million
tonnes.

stem /stem/

VERB [T] (stemming, stemmed)

stem from sth PHRASAL VERB

to develop as the result of something

Dictionary example:
Her problems stem from childhood.

Learner example:
This educational approach stems from strong family values and religious beliefs.

step /step/

NOUN [C]

step by step
moving slowly from one stage of something to the next
Dictionary example:
I know there's a lot to prepare, but just take things step by step and don't worry.

Learner example:
The book actually guides you step by step on how you can cope with this fear and defeat it.

stereotype /ˈster.i.əʊ.taɪp/

Word family:
Nouns: stereotype
Adjectives: stereotypical

644
NOUN [C]

a fixed idea that people have about what a particular type of person is like,
especially an idea that is wrong
Dictionary example:
racial stereotypes

Learner example:
It seems commonly accepted that the new ''high-tech'' society has turned us into lazy people,
without aims, targets, even hobbies in our spare time, unless watching videos or playing
computer games. I am a student, I am young and I know a lot of people like me who do not fit in
this stereotype.

stock /stɒk/

VERB [T]

to have something available for people to buy

Dictionary example:
We stock a good range of spices.

Learner example:
Besides, unless you are quite wealthy, you can [only] buy what is in the shops and these tend to
stock only what is in fashion, so it is hard not to be 'in'.

stocking /ˈstɒk.ɪŋ/

NOUN [C]

a very thin piece of clothing that covers a woman's foot and leg
Dictionary example:
a pair of stockings

Learner example:
Try to avoid miniskirts, fishnet stockings and sexy outfits in general, we are "mountain people"
and are not very keen on this kind of fashion!

stock market /ˈstɒkˌmɑː.kɪt/

NOUN [C USUALLY NO PLURAL]

the place where stocks and shares in companies are bought and sold
Dictionary example:
Stock markets around the world are reacting to news of the US president's announcement.

645
 Learner example:
The second unlucky job was office workers whose business was related [to] the stock market in
Korea.

stop /stɒp/

VERB (-pp-)

stop at nothing
to be willing to do anything in order to achieve something
Dictionary example:
He will stop at nothing to get what he wants.

Learner example:
They stopped at nothing to get the higher scores, to make themselves noticed, even if that meant
telling some lies to a teacher about a schoolmate.

NOUN [C]

put a stop to sth

to end something unpleasant
Dictionary example:
We must put a stop to the violence.

Learner example:
Maybe these new activities (video - videogames), which are quite distracti[ng], are at the same
time so addictive that youngsters find it hard to put a stop to it.

store /stɔːr/

Word family:
Nouns: storage
Verbs: store

NOUN [C]

in store
going to happen soon
Dictionary examples:
You never know what's in store for you.
There's a bit of a shock in store for him when he gets home tonight!

Learner example:
Nobody knows what the future will have in store!

646
VERB [T]

store up sth PHRASAL VERB

REMEMBER

to remember things, usually so that you can tell people about them later
Dictionary example:
I've been listening to their conversations and storing it all up for future use.

Learner example:
Although I like people I often make fun of them or tell one of the many jokes stored up in my
hopelessly overloade[d] brain.

stormy /ˈstɔː.mi/

Word family:
Nouns: storm
Adjectives: stormy

ADJECTIVE

ARGUING

A stormy relationship or situation involves a lot of anger and arguments.

Dictionary examples:
a stormy relationship
a stormy meeting/debate

Learner example:
I ha[d] not expected that you w[ould] contact me again (especially after our stormy discussion a
month ago).

story /ˈstɔː.ri/

NOUN [C]

to cut a long story short

to mention only the final result or point of something without going into other
details
Dictionary example:
To cut a long story short, he never played baseball again.

Learner example:
Well, to cut a long story short, let's say tuition yes, facilities no.

647
 straight /streɪt/

ADJECTIVE

get sth straight

to make sure that you completely understand a situation
Dictionary example:
Let me get this straight - am I paying for this?

Learner example:
Next time you should try to get your facts straight.

put/set the record straight

to tell people the true facts about a situation
Dictionary example:
I know they thought Alex was lying, and I wanted to put the record straight.

Learner example:
I hope that my letter will set the record straight and that the public shall be informed about the
true events of that day.

ADVERB

not think straight

If you cannot think straight, you are not thinking clearly about something.
Dictionary example:
I was so tired, I couldn't think straight.

Learner example:
My stress wouldn't let me think straight.

strategic /strəˈtiː.dʒɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: strategy
Adjectives: strategic
Adverbs: strategically

ADJECTIVE

helping to achieve a plan, usually in business, politics, or war

Dictionary examples:
strategic planning
strategic weapons
The new offices are in a strategic location, with easy access to the motorway.

648
 Learner example:
This would prove to be a strategic advantage, given the relatively reduced financial power our
company has currently.

straw /strɔː/

NOUN

[U] the long, dried stems of plants such as wheat, often given to animals for
sleeping on and eating
Dictionary examples:
a straw basket/hat
straw-coloured hair

Learner example:
Last but not least, many Japanese style hotels and restaurants now have square holes in tatami
(straw mat) rooms so that foreign visitors can comfortably stretch their legs under the low table
without having to be seated on folded legs like Zen monks!

the final/last straw

the last in a series of unpleasant events which finally makes you stop accepting a
bad situation
Dictionary example:
Last week he came home drunk at five in the morning, and that was the final straw.

Learner example:
The last straw was that as a result of the unrealised itinerary, I couldn't do what I had planned.

strength /streŋθ/

Word family:
Nouns: strength
Verbs: strengthen
Adjectives: strong
Adverbs: strongly

NOUN

GOOD QUALITIES

[C] a good quality or ability that makes someone or something effective

Dictionary examples:
We all have our strengths and weaknesses.
The great strength of this arrangement is its simplicity.

649
 Learner example:
As everything, education in Spain has its strengths and weaknesses.

BEING BRAVE

[U] when you are brave or determined in difficult situations

Dictionary examples:
I think she showed great strength of character.
He has a great deal of inner strength.

Learner example:
All in all, being famous takes a lot of courage and strength of personality to be able to face fame
and all the risks that come along [with it].

go from strength to strength

to continue to become more successful
Dictionary example:
The business is going from strength to strength.

Learner example:
To sum up, I believe that if the suggestions outlined above are put into action our magazine will
go from strength to strength.

stress /stres/

Word family:
Nouns: stress
Verbs: stress
Adjectives: stressed, stressful

NOUN

IMPORTANCE

[U] special importance that you give to something

Dictionary example:
At school, they laid/put/placed great stress on academic achievement.

Learner example:
On the other hand, I think they should put some more stress on improving their student's writing
skills, even down to basics like grammar, because our sales people have to hand out a lot of
written information as well, which will make us look much better - especially as far as the
English-speaking market is concerned - if the English is flawless.

650
 stretch /stretʃ/

NOUN [C]

a continuous area of land or water

Dictionary examples:
This particular stretch of coast is especially popular with walkers.
Traffic is at a standstill along a five-mile stretch of the M11 just south of Cambridge.
Some very rare birds inhabit this stretch of the river.

Learner example:
There's a stretch of coastline in the south-east of Spain that one could still call "real Spain" not
many years ago.

strike /straɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: striker
Verbs: strike
Adjectives: striking

VERB

strike a balance
to give two things the same amount of attention
Dictionary example:
It's important to strike a balance between spending and saving.

Learner example:
Everything has good and bad sides, the most important thing is to strike a balance.

striker /ˈstraɪ.kər/

Word family:
Nouns: striker
Verbs: strike
Adjectives: striking

NOUN [C]

WORKER

someone who is on strike

Dictionary example:
Managers have threatened to sack the strikers.

651
 Learner example:
There were also people who agreed with the strikers.

strip /strɪp/

NOUN [C]

a long, narrow piece of something

Dictionary example:
a strip of paper

Learner example:
After that workers had to use the most basic tools and [their] hands to produce socks from the
strips of silk.

stroke /strəʊk/

NOUN [C]

SWIMMING

a style of swimming
Dictionary example:
What stroke do you prefer?

Learner example:
Although both may know how to swim, the professional, who was trained in proper strokes and
hydrodynamic[s], will definitely turn out the better swimmer.

stroll /strəʊl/

VERB

stroll along/down/through, etc.

to walk somewhere in a slow and relaxed way
Dictionary example:
They strolled along the beach.

Learner example:
Some of us were a bit upset because they wanted some free time to stroll around the shops or
have a chat over a drink.

NOUN [C]

a slow, relaxed walk somewhere

652
 Dictionary example:
We went for a stroll around the city centre.

Learner example:
In the evening you can take a stroll to a vineyard nearby and authentic country food is available
there.

strong /strɒŋ/

Word family:
Nouns: strength
Verbs: strengthen
Adjectives: strong
Adverbs: strongly

ADJECTIVE

strong language
words that some people might consider to be offensive
Dictionary example:
The movie contains strong language.

Learner example:
But what I do see is local kids standing by the corner, chat[t]ing, smoking fags and using strong
language.

sb's strong point

something that someone is very good at
Dictionary example:
Cooking is not my strong point.

Learner example:
She's got a lot of strong points, more than weaknesses.

stuck /stʌk/

Word family:
Verbs: stick
Adjectives: sticky, stuck

ADJECTIVE [NEVER BEFORE NOUN]

NOT CONTINUE

not able to continue reading, answering questions, etc. because something is too
difficult

653
 Dictionary example:
I keep getting stuck on difficult words.

Learner example:
I have got stuck so many times. However, whenever I got stuck, I [said] to myself that nobody
could speak a foreign language fluently from the beginning.

subject

Word family:
Nouns: subject
Verbs: subject
Adjectives: subjective

ADJECTIVE /ˈsʌb.dʒɪkt/

subject to sth
often affected by something, especially something unpleasant
Dictionary example:
Departure times are subject to alteration.

Learner example:
With regard to programme [items] subject to weather conditions - such as the boat trip on River
Thames - please make sure that an alternative programme is foreseen in case of cancellation.

subjective /səbˈdʒek.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: subject
Verbs: subject
Adjectives: subjective

ADJECTIVE

influenced by someone's beliefs or feelings, instead of facts

Dictionary example:
a subjective judgment

Learner example:
I really love my city and country, but I am afraid I'm a little bit subjective.

subsequent /ˈsʌb.sɪ.kwənt/

Word family:
Adjectives: subsequent
Adverbs: subsequently

654
ADJECTIVE

happening after something else

Dictionary example:
The mistakes were corrected in a subsequent edition of the book.

Learner example:
With a rapid economic growth and a subsequent increase in income level, working life in Korea
has changed dramatically.

subsequently /ˈsʌb.sɪ.kwənt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: subsequent
Adverbs: subsequently

ADVERB

after that
Dictionary example:
In 1982 he was arrested and subsequently convicted on drug trafficking charges.

Learner example:
Like nightmarish creatures, the McDonald's have sprung up from the ground in a little over two
decades, and subsequently inundated the Media with adverts for their "food" products.

subsidy /ˈsʌb.sɪ.di/

NOUN [C]

money given by a government or other organization to pay part of the cost of

something
Dictionary example:
housing subsidies for the poor

Learner example:
The rest of the money could be spent on subsidies for home owners and tenants and offering
lo[an]s with a lower interest rate.

substantially /səbˈstæn.ʃəl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: substance
Adjectives: substantial
Adverbs: substantially

655
ADVERB

to a large degree
Dictionary example:
The new rules will substantially change how we do things.

Learner example:
The quality of the individual classes differed substantially.

substitution /ˌsʌb.stɪˈtjuː.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: substitute, substitution
Verbs: substitute

NOUN [C or U]

when you use someone or something instead of another person or thing

Dictionary example:
The coach has made two substitutions in the team.

Learner example:
The gradual substitution of the old bus fleet with a modern one would be a serious effort, [and] it
would demand buckets of money.

subtitles /ˈsʌbˌtaɪ.tl
̩z/

NOUN [PLURAL]

words shown at the bottom of a cinema or television screen to explain what is

being said
Dictionary example:
It's a French film with English subtitles.

Learner example:
Another way of improving language is to project each film with subtitles.

successor /səkˈses.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: successor
Adjectives: successive

656
NOUN [C]

PERSON

someone who has a position or job after someone else

Dictionary example:
He is her most likely successor.

Learner example:
Cleopatra f[e]ll in love with him but he was murdered by his nephew and successor Octavio.

sue /suː/

VERB [I or T] (suing, sued)

to take legal action against someone and try to get money from them because
they have harmed you
Dictionary example:
He's threatening to sue the newspaper for slander.

Learner example:
If you do not pay attention to any of my complaints and if I do not hear from you within 15
working days, I will not hesitate to sue you.

sufficiently /səˈfɪʃ.ənt.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: sufficient, insufficient, self-sufficient
Adverbs: sufficiently

ADVERB

as much as is necessary
Dictionary examples:
McGeechan has not recovered sufficiently to play in the semifinal tomorrow.
The case was sufficiently serious to warrant investigation by the police.

Learner example:
As for me, I like to think that my situation will be better than those who are not educated
sufficiently.

657
 suit /suːt/

Word family:
Nouns: suitability
Verbs: suit
Adjectives: suitable, unsuitable
Adverbs: suitably

VERB [T]

be suited to/for sth

to be right for someone or something
Dictionary example:
These plants are better suited to a warm climate.

Learner example:
In my opinion mixed schools are best suited to [the] current environment.

suitability /ˌsuː.təˈbɪl.ə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: suitability
Verbs: suit
Adjectives: suitable, unsuitable
Adverbs: suitably

NOUN [U]

the state of being suitable

Dictionary example:
Nobody could doubt her suitability for the job.

Learner example:
His suitability for the post mentioned in your advertisement is so obvious that it strikes me [as]
weird why you hesitate.

summarize /ˈsʌm.ər.aɪz/

Word family:
Nouns: summary
Verbs: summarize

VERB [I or T] (ALSO UK summarise)

to describe briefly the main facts or ideas of something
Dictionary example:
I'd like to briefly summarize the arguments for and against.

658
 Learner example:
This report will attempt to summarise the findings, the trends and changes as well as analyse and
explain the reasons for the changes between the periods and evaluate their impact on our lives.

summit /ˈsʌm.ɪt/

NOUN [C]

MOUNTAIN

the top of a mountain

Dictionary example:
The climbers hope to reach the summit before nightfall.

Learner example:
For instance, heliboarding - that is, when a helicopter carries you to the summit of a mountain
and you slide down on your own - is gaining popularity.

superior /suːˈpɪə.ri.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: superior, superiority
Adjectives: superior

ADJECTIVE

BETTER

better than other things

Dictionary examples:
This is clearly the work of a superior artist.
She was chosen for the job because she was the superior candidate.
For all babies, breastfeeding is far superior to bottlefeeding.
The government troops were superior in numbers.

Learner example:
Our service is superior in terms of price, but unfortunately doesn't have some features other
competitors' services have.

NOUN [C]

someone in a higher position than you at work

Dictionary example:
I will have to report this to my superiors.

Learner example:
If you need [a] reference, please call my superior on the following number: 0181/340'72'59.

659
 supervision /ˌsuː.pəˈvɪʒ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: supervision, supervisor
Verbs: supervise

NOUN [U]

when you supervise someone or something

Dictionary examples:
He needs constant supervision.
Students are not allowed to handle these chemicals unless they are under the supervision of a
teacher.

Learner example:
The little one was bui[l]t especially for you, so that you can leave your children under the
supervision of two well-trained lifeguards.

supervisor /ˈsuː.pə.vaɪ.zər/

Word family:
Nouns: supervision, supervisor
Verbs: supervise

NOUN [C]

a person whose job is to supervise someone or something

Dictionary example:
His supervisor told him to work faster.

Learner example:
I held the post of general supervisor in a campus in Oxford two years ago, and now I am working
as a receptionist in a luxurious hotel.

support /səˈpɔːt/

Word family:
Nouns: support, supporter
Verbs: support
Adjectives: supportive

VERB [T]

PROVE

to help to show that something is true

Dictionary example:
There's no evidence to support his story.

660
 Learner example:
All the claims made on your leaflet weren't at all supported by evidence.

supportive /səˈpɔː.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: support, supporter
Verbs: support
Adjectives: supportive

ADJECTIVE

giving help or encouragement

Dictionary example:
a very supportive friend

Learner example:
The sports facilities were perfect, and the people working in the sport centre were very friendly
and supportive.

suppose /səˈpəʊz/

Word family:
Verbs: suppose
Adverbs: supposedly

VERB

LIKELY

[T] to think that something is likely to be true

Dictionary examples:
He found it a lot more difficult to get a job than he supposed it would be.
It is widely supposed (that) the minister will be forced to resign.

Learner example:
It is supposed that this man could have also been a chemist, [as] writings have been found and
recovered with clues to what Da Vinci might have been doing in that field.

suppose/supposing (that)
used to introduce an idea for someone to consider
Dictionary example:
Suppose he phones tonight. What should I say?

Learner example:
Supposing you get the train. If you ring me up straight away when you arrive, I w[ill] pick you up
at the station.

661
 supposedly /səˈpəʊ.zɪd.li/

Word family:
Verbs: suppose
Adverbs: supposedly

ADVERB

used to show that you do not believe that something you have been told is true
Dictionary example:
Well, the tickets are supposedly in the mail.

Learner example:
"The Bride" sets out to kill the first of Bill's assassins, supposedly the most dangerous person in
the world in terms of knives.

sure /ʃɔːr/

Word family:
Verbs: ensure
Adjectives: sure, unsure
Adverbs: surely

ADJECTIVE

a sure thing
something that is certain to happen
Dictionary example:
Death is the one sure thing about life.

Learner example:
There is only one sure thing, we are not able to even imagine what we will be able to do in the
future to get communicated.

be sure to do sth
If you are sure to do something, it is certain that you will do it.
Dictionary example:
He's sure to go back there again.

Learner example:
What she does not know is that her ex-husband has a very serious type of cancer and is sure to
pass away in a few months (that is why he agrees to spend his summer with his son, knowing it
would be the last).

662
 surge /sɜːdʒ/

VERB

to increase very quickly

Dictionary example:
Prices surged on the stock exchange.

Learner example:
Followed by a dip bri[ef]ly afterwards, the value surged to close to 100 million tonnes in 2002.

NOUN [C]

a large increase in something

Dictionary example:
a surge in spending

Learner example:
Also in technology, we have noticed a surge of the newest trends in even the smallest countries.

surgeon /ˈsɜː.dʒən/

NOUN [C]

a doctor who is specially trained to perform medical operations

Dictionary example:
He is a leading surgeon at a London hospital.

Learner example:
I have been a surgeon for almost 20 years now, and I have worked in many different situations.

survey /ˈsɜː.veɪ/

VERB

QUESTION

to ask people questions in order to find out about their opinions or behaviour
Dictionary example:
75% of midwives surveyed were in favour of home births.

Learner example:
However, a small amount of those surveyed (20%) expressed the opinion that they do not have any
problems concerning transport or housing.

663
 EXAMINE

to look at or examine something carefully

Dictionary example:
I got out of the car to survey the damage.

Learner example:
This means that we need a small team to survey the area first, and I am very happy to lead this
team.

suspend /səˈspend/

VERB [T]

STOP

to stop something happening or existing for a short time

Dictionary examples:
The semi-final was suspended because of bad weather.
The ferry service has been suspended for the day because of bad weather.
The President has suspended the constitution and assumed total power.
I'm suspending judgment on the book I'm reading until I've finished it.

Learner example:
At first the electrical and gas power were cut off and the transport was suspended but now
everything is working.

suspicion /səˈspɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: suspect, suspicion
Verbs: suspect
Adjectives: suspicious
Adverbs: suspiciously

NOUN

THINK GUILTY

[C or U] a feeling or belief that someone has committed a crime or done something

wrong
Dictionary examples:
"I'm arresting you on suspicion of illegally possessing drugs," said the police officer.
She is under suspicion of murder.
In this particular case, they are above/beyond suspicion.

664
 Learner example:
Some of us were told to go there and to kill those who [were] under suspicion.

sustainable /səˈsteɪ.nə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: sustainability
Verbs: sustain
Adjectives: sustainable, unsustainable

ADJECTIVE

CONTINUE

able to continue over a period of time

Dictionary example:
sustainable development/growth

Learner example:
This is as you might know the aim of the concept of sustainable development.

ENVIRONMENT

causing little or no damage to the environment and therefore able to continue for
a long time
Dictionary example:
sustainable energy

Learner example:
Being an engineer in the field of renewable and sustainable energy which includes solar energy,
hydropower and wind energy, I can say I am quite [knowledgeable about] the specific problem of
environmental issues and about how to mitigate the serious impacts.

swap /swɒp/

VERB [I or T] (swapping, swapped)

to give something to someone and get something from them in return
Dictionary example:
Would you mind if Dave swapped places with you for a bit?

Learner example:
People come here to swap opinions and news.

665
 T

tactic /ˈtæk.tɪk/

NOUN [C]

a way of doing something that you plan in order to achieve what you want
Dictionary example:
These bomb attacks represent a change of tactics by the terrorists.

Learner example:
One can learn about the way of life of the wise ancient Greeks and study the political system, their
society or even tactics used in battle.

take /teɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: undertaking
Verbs: take, undertake

VERB [T] (took, taken)

take effect
to start to produce results or changes
Dictionary example:
They had to wait ten minutes for the anaesthetic to take effect.

Learner example:
Some factories tried to organize the transport for the employees, but it took effect in small towns
only, where people live with[in] shorter distances.

take your time

to do something without hurrying
Dictionary example:
Take your time choosing - there's no hurry.

Learner example:
If you're going to land at the 'Lugano-Agno' airport, as you told me in your last letter, the first
thing I recommend to you is to be patient and take your time.

take it from me
accept that what I say is true, because I know or have experienced it

666
 Dictionary example:
You could be doing a much less interesting job, take it from me.

Learner example:
As you pro[b]ably already know, Greeks love sport so, take it from me, you won't have difficulty in
finding sports facilities of any kind, wherever you decide to go.

take care of sth/doing sth

to be responsible for dealing with something
Dictionary example:
I did the cooking while Guy took care of the washing up.

Learner example:
As for special requirements, one man and one woman are vegetarians and the woman is allergic
to cats. I hope you are able to take care of that.

take sth on board

to understand or accept an idea or a piece of information
Dictionary example:
Banks need to take on board the views of their customers.

Learner example:
The students feel that if the above suggestions were taken on board, the study centre could be an
excellent support for them in their studies.

take the initiative

to be the first person to do something that solves a problem or improves a
situation
Dictionary example:
Jackson had taken the initiative and prepared a report.

Learner example:
I took the initiative to contact Sue Wilton, who is the manager of the restaurant "El Plato".

take issue (with sb/sth)

to disagree with what someone says or writes
Dictionary example:
I would take issue with you on that.

Learner example:
On behalf of the staff who worked for this event, I would like to take issue with the report's
inaccuracies and unfair remarks.

take the liberty of doing sth

to do something that will have an effect on someone else, without asking their
permission

667
 Dictionary example:
I took the liberty of booking theatre seats for us.

Learner example:
I have taken the liberty of listing some of my ideas and suggestions and hope they will be of
interest to you.

take note (of sth)

to pay careful attention to something
Dictionary examples:
Make sure you take note of what she says.
Safety standards are being tightened. Employers, take note.

Learner example:
I thank you for taking note of my view.

take sth personally

to think that someone is criticizing you or to feel that a failure or bad situation is
your fault
Dictionary example:
You mustn't take everything so personally.

Learner example:
She tends to take things too personally, and sometimes she over[r]eacts.

take sb's word for it

to believe what someone says without any proof
Dictionary example:
Take my word for it - this curry is very hot!

Learner example:
You can take my word for it that she is absolutely capable of carrying out this job - fond of
children, patient, good-natured and competent.

takeover /ˈteɪkˌəʊ.vər/

NOUN [C]

when a company gets control of another company

Dictionary example:
The company was involved in a takeover last year.

Learner example:
Everything has to be cheap and fast and there are mergers and takeovers all the time.

668
 talk /tɔːk/

Word family:
Nouns: talk, talks
Verbs: talk
Adjectives: talkative

VERB [I]

talk business/politics, etc.

to discuss a particular subject
Dictionary example:
I don't like to talk business over lunch.

Learner example:
[Do] not talk politics or sports with him (!)

know what you are talking about

to understand a subject because of your experience
Dictionary example:
He doesn't know what he's talking about - he's never even been to Africa.

Learner example:
I beli[e]ve that you don't really know what you're talking about.

talkative /ˈtɔːk.ə.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: talk, talks
Verbs: talk
Adjectives: talkative

ADJECTIVE

A talkative person talks a lot.

Dictionary example:
My son is very talkative.

Learner example:
I would advise you to film the classrooms, maybe a conversation class, during which students will
be more talkative and less shy.

669
 tank /tæŋk/

NOUN [C]

VEHICLE

! a large, strong military vehicle with a gun on it which moves on wheels inside
large metal belts
Dictionary example:
Tanks rolled into the city at dawn.

Learner example:
They were inside the university and they were transmit[t]ing [o]n a radio frequency when the tanks
invaded from the main entrance.

target /ˈtɑː.gɪt/

NOUN [C]

CRITICISM

[USUALLY NO PLURAL] the person or thing that people are criticizing or blaming for
something
Dictionary example:
Recently she has been the target of a series of obscene phone calls.

Learner example:
People get nervous, the bus driver gets nervous and finally the interpreter becomes the target of
passengers' complaints.

tasteless /ˈteɪst.ləs/

Word family:
Nouns: taste
Verbs: taste
Adjectives: tasty, tasteful, tasteless

ADJECTIVE

FOOD

having no flavour
Dictionary example:
The meat was dry and tasteless.

670
 Learner example:
The canteen's food is tasteless and with almost the same menu every day.

tax /tæks/

VERB [T]

to make someone pay a tax

Dictionary example:
Husbands and wives may be taxed independently/together.

Learner example:
For example, pol[l]uters should be taxed more heavily, [and] they should be fined.

teamwork /ˈtiːm.wɜːk/

NOUN [U]

when a group of people work well together

Dictionary example:
We won't achieve anything without good teamwork.

Learner example:
Nowadays teamwork is a skill that is highly demanded by employers.

tear1 /teər/

VERB [I or T] (tore, torn)

tear sth out of/off/down, etc.

to remove something by pulling it quickly and violently
Dictionary example:
She tore his picture down from the wall.

Learner example:
If you can't bear seeing an ear being torn off from somebody's head, don't watch this video.

671
 tear2 /tɪər/

NOUN [C USUALLY PLURAL]

shed tears
to cry
Dictionary example:
I shed a few tears when he left.

Learner example:
She was too preoc[c]upied to talk to anybody and she had shed so many tears that she could cry
no more.

technically /ˈtek.nɪk.li/

Word family:
Nouns: technique, technician
Adjectives: technical
Adverbs: technically

ADVERB

SCIENCE/INDUSTRY

relating to the knowledge, machines, or methods used in science and industry

Dictionary example:
technically advanced weapons

Learner example:
Everybody has one of these technically engineered marvels and they come in different shapes,
colours, prices and with a lot of configurable options.

technician /tekˈnɪʃ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: technique, technician
Adjectives: technical
Adverbs: technically

NOUN [C]

someone whose job involves practical work with scientific or electrical equipment
Dictionary example:
a lab technician

672
 Learner example:
It could be the fault of the sound technician, although I believe that for the next Activity day we
[should] be provided with better equipment and loudspeakers.

techno /ˈtek.nəʊ/

NOUN [U]

a type of electronic dance music

Dictionary example:
He's really into techno.

Learner example:
As for the music, Red Hot Chilli [P]eppers did a really fine job with "Otherside", while the other
video has the classic techno beat.

technologically /ˌtek.nəˈlɒdʒ.ɪ.kli/

Word family:
Nouns: technology
Adjectives: technological
Adverbs: technologically

ADVERB

in a way that relates to or involves technology

Dictionary example:
Their society was technologically advanced.

Learner example:
The economy nowadays is so technologically driven it is [a] common belief that having a job in the
computer industry means high pay and perks.

tedious /ˈtiː.di.əs/

ADJECTIVE

boring
Dictionary example:
a tedious job

Learner example:
The idea of going to work out to keep fit might be tedious sometimes but the majority of young
people are interested in taking up an activity these days.

673
 tell /tel/ (told, told)

VERB

tell the difference

to notice a difference between two things
Dictionary examples:
I can't tell the difference between an American and a Canadian accent.
This coffee is about half the price of that one and yet you really can't tell the difference.

Learner example:
Not only will their critical sen[s]e atrophy but also they will not be able to tell the difference
between what is right and wrong.

telly /ˈtel.i/

NOUN [C or U]

television
Dictionary example:
I saw her on the telly.

Learner example:
In the end I think it is only a good laugh when there is nothing else on telly.

tendency /ˈten.dən.si/

Word family:
Nouns: tendency
Verbs: tend

NOUN [C]

something that someone often does, or something that often happens

Dictionary examples:
She has a tendency to talk for too long.
There is a growing tendency for companies to employ people on short contracts.

Learner example:
There is a tendency to choose canned and preserved foods instead of fresh ones.

674
 terrific /təˈrɪf.ɪk/

ADJECTIVE

LARGE/SERIOUS

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] very large, great, or serious

Dictionary examples:
a terrific increase in prices
a terrific storm

Learner example:
Furthermore, the rubbish collection was a terrific problem, the smell was awful.

tertiary /ˈtɜː.ʃə.ri/

ADJECTIVE

Tertiary education is education at university or college level.

Dictionary example:
a tertiary institution

Learner example:
Most poor families can only afford [to send] their children up to the secondary education and their
eldest child up to the tertiary level.

texture /ˈteks.tʃər/

NOUN [C or U]

the way that something feels when you touch it

Dictionary example:
wood with a rough texture

Learner example:
At the college they teach you how to make the arrangements, the use of colour, space, movement
and texture.

675
 thankful /ˈθæŋk.fəl/

Word family:
Nouns: thanks
Verbs: thank
Adjectives: thankful
Adverbs: thankfully

ADJECTIVE

pleased or grateful about something

Dictionary example:
We were thankful that none of the children saw the accident.

Learner example:
This revolution led to our freedom and we are thankful to the heroic people of 1821, because if
they didn't start the revolution, we wouldn't be here today.

thankfully /ˈθæŋk.fəl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: thanks
Verbs: thank
Adjectives: thankful
Adverbs: thankfully

ADVERB

used at the beginning of a sentence to show that you are pleased or grateful about
something
Dictionary example:
Thankfully, nobody was hurt.

Learner example:
Thankfully, with the help of the government, a recycling centre was built nearby and so the
rubbish littering the streets, as well as that being taken to the dump, was cut down by 60%.

that /ðæt/

PRONOUN (PLURAL those)

that's that
used to say that something has happened or a decision has been made and there
is nothing more to say or do

676
 Dictionary example:
I won't agree to it and that's that.

Learner example:
That's it and that's that!" as they say in the "Sorbits-advertis[e]ment" Bye!

that is (to say)

used to correct something you have said or give more information about
something
Dictionary example:
Everybody was at the meeting, well everyone except Jeanne, that is.

Learner example:
All in all, the students who participated in this programme were quite happy and had an enjoyable
time there, except for some, that is.

the middle class /ˌmɪd.l

̩ˈklɑːs/

NOUN (ALSO the middle classes)

the social group consisting of well-educated people who have good jobs and are
neither very rich nor very poor
Dictionary example:
These tax increases will affect the middle class badly.

Learner example:
They also show the efforts parents make to keep the family happy, especially when the middle
class in Argentina started to struggle after the economic crisis in 2001.

then /ðen/

ADVERB

every now and then

sometimes, but not often
Dictionary example:
We still meet up every now and then.

Learner example:
Each day choose 10 new words and learn them by heart. In a week you will have learned 70 new
words, and in a year 3640, a lot of words. Please, do not forget to repeat them every now and
then.

677
 therapeutic /ˌθer.əˈpjuː.tɪk/

Word family:
Nouns: therapy, therapist
Adjectives: therapeutic

ADJECTIVE

HEALTH

helping to cure a disease or improve your health

Dictionary example:
the therapeutic benefits of massage

Learner example:
The drink produced, tsikondia, is one of the ne[c]essary drinks for the cold nights of winter. It is
also believed to have therapeutic effects on people's health.

RELAXED

helping you to feel happier and more relaxed

Dictionary example:
I find gardening very therapeutic.

Learner example:
Some people consider shopping therapeutic, much like a hobby.

therapist /ˈθer.ə.pɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: therapy, therapist
Adjectives: therapeutic

NOUN [C]

someone whose job is to treat a particular type of mental or physical illness

Dictionary example:
a speech therapist

Learner example:
Teams [for athletes or swimmers] are built of: coach, physiologist, diet therapist, physiotherapist,
doctor and massage therapist.

thereby /ˌðeəˈbaɪ/

ADVERB FORMAL

as a result of a particular action or event

678
 Dictionary example:
The new dam will improve the water supply and thereby reduce hunger and disease.

Learner example:
By interacting live with people from all over the world, you can use non-native languages on a
daily basis and thereby help developing your foreign language skills.

the upper class /ˌʌp.əˈklɑːs/

NOUN (ALSO the upper classes)

the social group consisting of the people of the highest social class, who are
usually rich
Dictionary example:
The upper class usually send their children to expensive private schools.

Learner example:
I've just chosen to travel south and back in time to be a Roman lady, belonging to the upper class
of course, living an easy life full of pleasure.

the working class /ˌwɜː.kɪŋˈklɑːs/

NOUN (ALSO the working classes)

the social group consisting of people who do not get paid much money and who
often do physical work
Dictionary example:
He sees the prime minister's comments as an attack on the working class.

Learner example:
A member of the working class, for example, was not expected to wear something smart, as he
didn't represent the company.

thing /θɪŋ/

NOUN

all things considered

used for saying that something is true in general if you think about all its aspects
Dictionary example:
The show was a great success, all things considered.

679
 Learner example:
All things considered, it seems like "Kavanagh Catering Services" would be most suitable for the
students.

the next best thing

the thing that is best, if you cannot have or do the thing you really want
Dictionary example:
Coaching football is the next best thing to playing.

Learner example:
For many working people, there is hardly time to cook and prepare your dinner, so the next best
thing is to rush into a Macdonalds' or Burger King.

a sure thing
something that is certain to happen
Dictionary example:
Death is the one sure thing about life.

Learner example:
There is only one sure thing, we are not able to even imagine what we will be able to do in the
future to get communicated.

think /θɪŋk/

Word family:
Nouns: thinker
Verbs: think, rethink
Adjectives: unthinkable

VERB (thought, thought)

not think straight

If you cannot think straight, you are not thinking clearly about something.
Dictionary example:
I was so tired, I couldn't think straight.

Learner example:
My stress wouldn't let me think straight.

think of sb/sth as sth

to have a particular opinion about someone or something
Dictionary example:
They were thought of as slightly eccentric.

Learner example:
Today's youth is thought of as lazy "couch potatoes" and unhealthy "computer-freaks", but this is
only true for the minority of young people.

680
 think twice
to carefully consider whether what you are planning is a good idea
Dictionary example:
I'd think twice about spending so much money on one thing, if I were you.

Learner example:
Now I will think twice before I buy your paper again.

not think twice

to do something immediately, without considering whether it is a good idea
Dictionary example:
When he asked me out, I didn't think twice!

Learner example:
Your advertisement seemed very convincing and as I intended to travel to exotic locations I did
not think twice.

this /ðɪs/

ADVERB

used when describing the size, amount, or state of something or someone

Dictionary examples:
It was only about this high off the ground.
She has never been this late for school before.

thoughtful /ˈθɔːt.fəl/

Word family:
Nouns: thought
Adjectives: thoughtful, thoughtless
Adverbs: thoughtfully

ADJECTIVE

CAREFULLY CONSIDERING

carefully considering things

Dictionary example:
He has a thoughtful approach to his work.

Learner example:
So we have less time to prepare breakfast, lunch or dinner in a more "thoughtful" manner.

681
 threaten /ˈθret.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: threat
Verbs: threaten

VERB

DAMAGE

[T] to be likely to cause harm or damage to something or someone

Dictionary example:
His knee problem is threatening his cycling career.

Learner example:
In addition to air pollution, more noise will take place and as a result, our city residents' health
will be threatened.

thrill /θrɪl/

Word family:
Nouns: thriller, thrill
Verbs: thrill
Adjectives: thrilled, thrilling

NOUN [C]

a strong feeling of excitement and pleasure

Dictionary examples:
It was a big thrill meeting the stars of the show.
the thrill of winning a competition

Learner example:
SURFING Riding the waves can be the thrill of a lifetime.

thrive /θraɪv/

Word family:
Verbs: thrive
Adjectives: thriving

VERB [I]

to grow very well, or to become very healthy or successful

Dictionary examples:
The business is thriving.
He seems to thrive on hard work.

682
 Learner example:
She seems to thrive on criticism and wants to get better at everything she does.

through /θruː/

ADJECTIVE

[ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] A through train goes all the way from one place to another place
without the passenger having to change trains.
Dictionary example:
We caught the through train to Manchester.

Learner example:
Then go to the information desk and ask about the time of departure of through trains to Lodz.

throughout /θruːˈaʊt/

PREPOSITION

EVERYWHERE

in every part of a place

Dictionary example:
The same laws apply throughout much of Europe.

Learner example:
Being the owner of [a] driving licence has become a dream [for the] majority of young, middle-
aged or even elderly people throughout the world.

ADVERB

in every part of a place or during the whole of a period of time

Dictionary example:
The house was painted pink throughout.

Learner example:
Children's stories, however, were one of the most successful parts of the Activity Day and all of
the spectators were on the edge of their seats throughout.

683
 throw /θrəʊ/

VERB [I or T] (threw, thrown)

throw sth in/on, etc.

to put something somewhere quickly and without thinking about it
Dictionary example:
He threw his clothes on the floor and got into bed.

Learner example:
Also we apologise [profuse]ly about the rubbish they throw on the streets.

thumb /θʌm/

NOUN [C]

a rule of thumb
a way of calculating something, which is not exact but which will help you to be
correct enough
Dictionary example:
As a rule of thumb, you need one egg for every 125g flour.

Learner example:
As a rule of thumb, one third of the people working in central Copenhagen [go] by car, one third
by public transport, and one third by bike.

time /taɪm/

Word family:
Nouns: time, timing
Verbs: time

NOUN

for the time being

for now but not permanently
Dictionary examples:
I'm living with my parents for the time being.
Leave the ironing for the time being - I'll do it later.

Learner example:
I think that is all for the time being.

684
about/high time INFORMAL

If it is about time that someone did something, it should have been done sooner
or a long time ago.
Dictionary examples:
It's about time (that) the school improved its meals service.
It is high time for Europe to take responsibility for its own defence.

Learner example:
It's high time [we tried] to stop all the troubles which are around us.

IN A PLACE

[U] the time in a particular place

Dictionary example:
The plane arrives at 20.50, New York time.

Learner example:
My phon[e] number at work is 66291 and at home (after 16.30 local time), 84796.

at times
sometimes
Dictionary example:
At times, I wish I didn't have to go to school.

Learner example:
STUDYING METHODS All teachers at the college are high[ly]-skilled professionals and can be very
demanding at times, but this is [in] your best interest[s].

make time
to leave enough time to do something although you are busy
Dictionary examples:
You have to make time to do your homework.
He never made enough time for family life.

Learner example:
I'm terribly sorry for not being able to make time to pick you up when you arrive.

take your time

to do something without hurrying
Dictionary example:
Take your time choosing - there's no hurry.

Learner example:
If you're going to land at the 'Lugano-Agno' airport, as you told me in your last letter, the first
thing I recommend to you is to be patient and take your time.

behind the times

not fashionable or modern

685
 Dictionary example:
Dad's a bit behind the times.

Learner example:
We [should] improve our equipment. Otherwise we will be behind the times.

in no time
very soon
Dictionary example:
We'll be home in no time.

Learner example:
Team work is very important for us and you will make many friends in no time.

it's only a matter of time

If you say that it is only a matter of time before something happens, you are sure
it will happen but you do not know when.
Dictionary example:
It's only a matter of time before someone gets killed on this road.

Learner example:
In my opinion it is only a matter of time before it is decided to [put] an end to this country being a
kingdom.

time-consuming /ˈtaɪm.kənˌsjuː.mɪŋ/

ADJECTIVE

needing a lot of time

Dictionary example:
The legal process was time-consuming and expensive.

Learner example:
SMSs are too short and inconvenient to threat[en] face-to-face communication. They can only
transfer a small amount of information and typing them is time-consuming.

tip /tɪp/

NOUN [C]

END

the end of something long and narrow

686
 Dictionary examples:
the tips of your fingers
the tip of a pencil

Learner example:
These days there are so many [functions] available [o]n your mobile phone that you won't have to
do much, it's all there at the tip of your finger.

to /tuː/

INFINITIVE MARKER

to say the least

used to emphasize that you could have said something in a much stronger way
Dictionary example:
We were surprised, to say the least.

Learner example:
You get slightly bored, to say the least.

to do so
if you do this, or if this is done
Dictionary examples:
They want to build a completely new school, but to do so would cost far too much.
I would strongly advise you against taking out a loan of this size. To do so would be a great risk
to your business.

Learner example:
It is generally believed that if [a] better education is provided, children are better prepared for
adult life. To do so, money is essential.

to spare
If you have time, money, etc. to spare, you have more than you need.
Dictionary example:
I arrived at the station with more than an hour to spare.

Learner example:
I even started to do the shopping on the Net, and I think this is the perfect solution for the
busines[s] woman with family and little time to spare.

PREPOSITION

to the contrary
saying or showing the opposite
Dictionary example:
She claimed she hadn't been involved, despite evidence to the contrary.

687
 Learner example:
Despite claims to the contrary, young people [are] get[ting] more involved in sport[s] activities.

toast /təʊst/

NOUN

DRINK

[C] a time when people lift their glasses and drink because they want someone to
be successful, happy, etc.
Dictionary example:
At the wedding, there was a toast to the happy couple.

Learner example:
During the wedding meal, it is good manner[s] to propose a toast to the bride and the bridegroom
when they come to your table.

tobacco /təˈbæk.əʊ/

NOUN [U]

dried leaves that are inside cigarettes

Dictionary example:
Twenty-eight per cent of people asked thought that the advertising of tobacco and alcohol should
be banned.

Learner example:
People are becoming more aware also due to the Ministry of Health's propaganda, marketing [a]
healthy diet and exercise plus limiting adverts on alcoholic drinks and tobacco.

token /ˈtəʊ.kən/

NOUN [C]

LOVE/THANKS

something that you give to someone in order to show them love, to thank them,
etc.
Dictionary example:
I gave Helen some chocolates as a token of thanks for all her help.

Learner example:
Nevertheless, you can also prepare a small present as a token of your friendship or affection.

688
 tolerant /ˈtɒl.ər.ənt/

Word family:
Nouns: intolerance, tolerance
Verbs: tolerate
Adjectives: intolerable, intolerant, tolerant

ADJECTIVE

allowing people to do what they want especially when you do not agree with it
Dictionary examples:
a tolerant attitude
I think we're becoming more tolerant of children in public places.

Learner example:
During my stay, I was living with a family that was very generous and tolerant.

toll /təʊl/

NOUN [NO PLURAL]

MONEY

money that you pay to use a bridge, road, etc.

Dictionary example:
You have to cross a toll bridge.

Learner example:
The government can introduce road toll fees on some highly used roads, s[o] that some traffic will
be encouraged to use a different route.

tool /tuːl/

NOUN [C]

SOMETHING HELPFUL

something that helps you to do what needs to be done or you want to do

Dictionary example:
We believe the new law will be an effective tool in fighting poverty.

Learner example:
If you look at fame as a tool for helping others you will soon understand it is worth it.

689
 torture /ˈtɔː.tʃər/

NOUN [U]

BORING/UNPLEASANT

! a very unpleasant experience

Dictionary example:
I had to sit there listening to her for two whole hours - it was torture!

Learner example:
I would be grateful if I could get some of my money back, because the days in Scotland were a
torture to me.

toss /tɒs/

VERB

toss (a coin)
to throw a coin in the air and guess which side will land facing upwards as a way
of deciding something
Dictionary example:
She tossed a coin to decide who would get the prize.

Learner example:
The question was who would be the person [to] do this action so we tossed a coin, and the result
was me.

total /ˈtəʊ.təl/

Word family:
Nouns: total
Adjectives: total
Adverbs: totally

VERB [T] (-ll-)

to add up to a particular amount
Dictionary example:
This is the eighth volume in the series, which totals 21 volumes in all.

Learner example:
And there has been a significant increase in insurance, up by 5%, totalling 8% of the total
expenses.

690
 towards /təˈwɔːdz/

PREPOSITION

POSITION

near to a time or place

Dictionary examples:
Our seats were towards the back of the theatre.
I often get hungry towards the middle of the morning.
We're getting towards winter and it's getting dark earlier.

Learner example:
If I [had] told somebody fifty years ago that women w[ould] have leading political positions
towards the end of the century, he or she would have most probably considered [me] as being
mad.

PURPOSE

for the purpose of buying or achieving something

Dictionary examples:
I'm saving up to buy a car, and Dad has given me some money towards it.
Would you like to make a contribution towards a present for Linda?
The work that students do during the term counts towards their final grade.

Learner example:
I hope that these recommendations will go a long way towards improving your museum and
having satisfied visitors.

trace /treɪs/

VERB [T]

FIND

to find someone or something that was lost

Dictionary examples:
The police are trying to trace the mother of a newborn baby found abandoned outside a hospital.
Attempts to trace the whereabouts of a man seen leaving the scene of the crime have so far been
unsuccessful.
Their missing daughter was finally traced to Manchester.

Learner example:
So you can hire the best people you can find to trace the bad guy and get rid of him.

ORIGIN

to discover the cause or origin of something

691
 Dictionary examples:
The outbreak of food poisoning was traced to some contaminated shellfish.
The practice of giving eggs at Easter can be traced back to festivals in ancient China.
Rivalries between the gangs can be traced back to the 1950s in some black and Hispanic
neighbourhoods.
No one has yet been able to trace the source of the rumour.

Learner example:
It is my firm belief that what is usually refer[r]ed to as "lacking motivation" can always be traced
back to this question of meaning and comradeship.

track /træk/

NOUN

TRAINS

[C or U] the long metal lines which a train travels along

Dictionary examples:
a 10-mile stretch of track
Passengers are requested not to walk across the tracks.

Learner example:
When the train enters a small town in Northern Switzerland, the visitor will be surprised by
hundreds of fan posters and flags along the rail track.

on track
making progress and likely to succeed
Dictionary examples:
A fighter from Edinburgh is on track to become world heavyweight boxing champion.
We've got a lot of work to do but we're on the right track.

Learner example:
The sales teams are well on track and bringing [in] new customers every day.

keep track
to continue to know about someone or something
Dictionary examples:
He changes jobs so often I can’t keep track any more.
Be sure to keep track of the time so you won't be late.

Learner example:
Trying to keep track of these changes by translating them would be an inappropriate task.

692
 trade /treɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: trade, trader
Verbs: trade

NOUN

AREA OF BUSINESS

[C] a particular area of business or industry

Dictionary example:
the building/catering/tourist trade

Learner example:
Having considered the previous factors, I am further convinced that the host country can develop
itself rapidly by enhancing the tourism trade.

trainee /treɪˈniː/

Word family:
Nouns: trainer, training, trainee
Verbs: train

NOUN [C]

someone who is learning how to do something, especially a job

Dictionary example:
a trainee accountant/teacher

Learner example:
I work as a trainee at a big international trader company at Brazil, and there we had some
problems of motivation in [the] workplace, and to resolve the problem we made a lot of changes
and arr[a]ng[e]ments in our company.

tranquil /ˈtræŋ.kwɪl/

Word family:
Nouns: tranquility
Adjectives: tranquil

ADJECTIVE

calm and quiet

Dictionary example:
a tranquil garden

693
 Learner example:
Unfortunately, though, this tranquil paradise has been destroyed year by year, by the
uncontrol[l]ed tourism.

transaction /trænˈzæk.ʃən/

NOUN [C or U]

when someone buys or sells something, or when money is exchanged

Dictionary examples:
a business transaction
Each transaction at the foreign exchange counter seems to take forever.
We need to monitor the transaction of smaller deals.

Learner example:
This new service guarantees you a quick transaction direct from your home.

transformation /ˌtræns.fəˈmeɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: form, formation, transformation
Verbs: form, transform

NOUN [C or U]

a complete change in the appearance or character of something or someone,

especially so that they are improved
Dictionary examples:
Local people have mixed feelings about the planned transformation of their town into a regional
capital.
I'd never seen Carlo in smart evening clothes before - it was quite a transformation.

Learner example:
Big shops [are] also open[ing] and this transformation of the economy is forcing small family
businesses and shops to close.

transmit /trænzˈmɪt/ (-tt-)

Word family:
Nouns: transmission
Verbs: transmit

694
VERB

RADIO/TELEVISION

[I or T] to broadcast something, or to send out or carry signals using radio,

television, etc.
Dictionary examples:
Radio 6 transmits on DAB digital.
The information is transmitted electronically to the central computer.

Learner example:
I hope that my explanation is thorough enough for you to be reassured, but if you want to know
more about this strike and the problems it has caused, I'd suggest that you see the special
programme about it, which will be transmitted on T.V. next Saturday night.

transportation /ˌtræn.spɔːˈteɪ.ʃən/

Word family:
Nouns: transport, transportation
Verbs: transport

NOUN [U]

when people or goods are moved from one place to another

Dictionary example:
transportation costs

Learner example:
There are also a lot of imp[r]ovements in transportation.

travel /ˈtræv.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: traveller
Verbs: travel

NOUN [U]

sb's travels
someone's journey
Dictionary example:
I meet all kinds of interesting people on my travels.

Learner example:
In these travels I learnt a lot because we had to deal with very different people.

695
 trek /trek/

Word family:
Nouns: trekking, trek

NOUN [C]

a long, difficult journey that you make by walking

Dictionary example:
They started out on the long trek across the mountains.

Learner example:
SPECIAL ACTIVITIES include a trek through a dense forest and then climbing a hill which is a
unique experience for everyone. For the bolder there is something more extreme.

trial /traɪəl/

NOUN [C or U]

TEST

a test of something new to find out if it is safe, works correctly, etc.

Dictionary examples:
They're doing clinical trials on a new drug.
They've employed her for a six-month trial period.

Learner example:
At the moment we have [a] special offer which is a free three-month trial period, so you can have
an idea of how the Club works.

trigger /ˈtrɪg.ər/

VERB [T]

to make something begin to happen

Dictionary examples:
Some people find that certain foods trigger their headaches.
The racial killings at the weekend have triggered off a wave of protests.

Learner example:
Motivation is triggered and influenced by many factors.

696
 triumph /ˈtraɪ.ʌmpf/

NOUN

SUCCESS

[C] an important success, achievement, or victory

Dictionary examples:
Barcelona's 3-1 triumph over Manchester United
The book celebrates the hostages' remarkable triumph over appalling adversity.
The signing of the agreement was a personal triumph for the Prime Minister.
It was the Republican Party's third election triumph in a row.
The eradication of smallpox by vaccination was one of medicine's greatest triumphs.

Learner example:
In addition to this the dinner we had on Monday afternoon was a triumph.

troubled /ˈtrʌb.l
̩d/

Word family:
Nouns: trouble
Adjectives: troubled

ADJECTIVE

having problems or difficulties

Dictionary examples:
a troubled expression
The survival package involves selling off the unprofitable parts of the troubled company.
This troubled region has had more than its fair share of wars over the the centuries.
In these troubled times, it makes a change to hear some good news.

Learner example:
But you realize how much you can cope with if only you help each other and stick together in
troubled times.

truly /ˈtruː.li/

Word family:
Nouns: truth
Adjectives: true
Adverbs: truly

697
ADVERB

SINCERELY

used to emphasize that something is sincere or honest

Dictionary examples:
Truly I could not have done this without you.
He truly believes he can cure himself by willpower alone.

Learner example:
It would probably take years to achieve it but in the long run I truly believe it would work, as long
as everyone is willing to [make] an effort.

trust /trʌst/

VERB [T]

I trust (that) FORMAL

used to say that you hope something is true

Dictionary example:
I trust that you had an enjoyable stay.

Learner example:
I trust that the suggestions outlined in this report will receive your serious consideration and meet
with your approval.

trustworthy /ˈtrʌstˌwɜː.ði/

ADJECTIVE

Someone who is trustworthy can be trusted.

Dictionary example:
Bob assured me she was completely trustworthy.

Learner example:
In addition to aforementioned character traits, John could be best described as [a] conscientious,
imaginative, creative, sensible and trustworthy man.

tuition /tjuˈɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [U]

the teaching of one person or of a small group of people

698
 Dictionary example:
French tuition

Learner example:
The high level of the tuition received from a professional trainer definitely pays off.

tune /tjuːn/

NOUN [C]

MUSICAL NOTES

a series of musical notes that are pleasant to listen to

Dictionary examples:
That's a very catchy tune.
He was humming a tune as he dried the dishes.

Learner example:
The music to the 2nd video is more light-hearted, and it has a catchy tune that makes you want to
tap your foot to its r[h]ythm.

out of tune
singing or playing the wrong notes
Dictionary example:
The piano is out of tune.

Learner example:
Even if you sing out of tune please call us.

in tune
singing or playing the right notes
Dictionary example:
Try to stay in tune.

Learner example:
The public was singing in tune with Jag, hands were raised and bodies were slowly [sway]ing.

turn /tɜːn/

Word family:
Nouns: turn, turning
Verbs: turn

699
VERB

turn 16/21, etc.

to become a particular age
Dictionary example:
He turned 18 last May.

Learner example:
One of the best thing[s] when you turn 17 in Britain is that you can start to take driving lessons.

turn a blind eye (to sth)

to choose to ignore something that you know is wrong or illegal
Dictionary example:
Restaurant staff often took food home, and their boss turned a blind eye.

Learner example:
Nevertheless, we can't turn a blind eye to this reality.

in turn
as a result of something that is part of a series of events
Dictionary example:
This could result in the loss of certain species of fish and this in turn poses a serious threat to the
fishing communities along the river banks.

Learner example:
This, in turn, enabled them to find jobs and become financially independent from their husbands.

NOUN

in turn
one after the other
Dictionary examples:
Each of us collects the mail in turn.
He spoke to the three boys in turn.

Learner example:
We had two different teachers in the mornings and in the afternoons in turn.

in turn
as a result of something
Dictionary example:
He took out more loans, which, in turn, led to more debt.

Learner example:
People will study for a range of degrees, which may imply that a lot of new jobs, mainly related to
computers, will gain importance, which, in turn, could result in a better organization of the jobs
and, as a consequence, a reduction in the unemployment rate.

700
 turnover /ˈtɜːnˌəʊ.vər/

NOUN

BUSINESS

[C or U] the amount of business that a company does in a period of time

Dictionary example:
Large supermarkets have a high turnover of inventory.

Learner example:
For instance, clothes shops in Barcelona expect a big turnover in August because of the amount of
tourists that will visit the city.

twice /twaɪs/

ADVERB

think twice
to carefully consider whether what you are planning is a good idea
Dictionary example:
I'd think twice about spending so much money on one thing, if I were you.

Learner example:
Now I will think twice before I buy your paper again.

not think twice

to do something immediately, without considering whether it is a good idea
Dictionary example:
When he asked me out, I didn't think twice!

Learner example:
Your advertisement seemed very convincing and as I intended to travel to exotic locations I did
not think twice.

twist /twɪst/

Word family:
Verbs: twist
Adjectives: twisted

701
VERB

INJURE

[T] If you twist a part of your body, such as your knee, you injure it by turning it
suddenly.
Dictionary example:
I tripped and twisted my ankle.

Learner example:
The worst part is, that we had an older lady within our group who had twisted her an[k]le so she
was somewhat disabled at the time.

NOUN [C]

an unexpected change in a situation or in a story

Dictionary example:
His arrest was just the latest twist in the story of his life.

Learner example:
The plot takes several twists and turns till the conclusion which sums up the contents of the film.

two /tuː/

NUMBER

or two
used to talk about a small number of something
Dictionary example:
I may bring a friend or two.

Learner example:
I also refused to eat any meal a day or two before the test but my mother made me, she said I
needed the energy to be happy and celebrate afterwards.

be in two minds
to have difficulty making a decision
Dictionary example:
I'm in two minds about accepting his offer.

Learner example:
If you are in two minds about having to share your room with someone else, there you can easily
rent a studio apartment close to the college, which is situated in the centre of the city.

702
 type /taɪp/

Word family:
Nouns: type
Adjectives: typical
Adverbs: typically

NOUN [C]

PERSON

someone who has particular qualities or interests

Dictionary example:
He's the outdoor type.

Learner example:
Usually these adults are the hardworking type and save money for the future.

703
 U

ultimate /ˈʌl.tɪ.mət/

Word family:
Adjectives: ultimate
Adverbs: ultimately

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

FINAL

final or most important

Dictionary example:
the ultimate aim/solution

Learner example:
The ultimate aim [when] I joined your tour was to meet one of my friends in St Andrews.

ultimately /ˈʌl.tɪ.mət.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: ultimate
Adverbs: ultimately

ADVERB

FINALLY

finally, after a series of things have happened

Dictionary examples:
Everything will ultimately depend on what is said at the meeting with the directors next week.
Ultimately, of course, he'd like to have his own business but that won't be for some time.

Learner example:
Ultimately, it leads to a lot of d[i]seases and early death.

unaffordable /ʌn.əˈfɔː.də.bl
̩/

Word family:
Verbs: afford
Adjectives: unaffordable

704
ADJECTIVE

too expensive for people to be able to buy

Dictionary example:
Such clothes are unaffordable for most people.

Learner example:
£5 per session is obviously unaffordable for students.

unattractive /ˌʌn.əˈtræk.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: attraction
Verbs: attract
Adjectives: attractive, unattractive

ADJECTIVE

NOT INTERESTING

not interesting or useful

Dictionary example:
an unattractive proposition

Learner example:
In our opinion, despite the friendly atmosphere of our club's meetings we find them very
unattractive and rather "dull".

unavailable /ʌn.əˈveɪ.lə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: availability
Adjectives: available, unavailable

ADJECTIVE

CANNOT DO SOMETHING

not able to talk to someone or meet them, especially because you are doing other
things
Dictionary example:
The manager was unavailable for comment.

Learner example:
Furthermore, a role-model for the younger generation could be the famous tennis player Joe Hill,
who unfortunately is unavailable to give an interview.

705
 unavoidable /ˌʌn.əˈvɔɪ.də.bl
̩/

Word family:
Verbs: avoid
Adjectives: unavoidable
Adverbs: unavoidably

ADJECTIVE

impossible to avoid or prevent

Dictionary example:
an unavoidable delay

Learner example:
Being aware of the two proposals our local government is considering in order to solve the
apparently unavoidable matter of traffic in our beloved city, I feel compelled to offer my views on
such a delicate subject.

uncertainty /ʌnˈsɜː.tən.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: certainty, uncertainty
Adjectives: certain, uncertain
Adverbs: certainly

NOUN [U]

the state of being uncertain

Dictionary example:
There was a lot of uncertainty about whether or not he would attend the event.

Learner example:
The shortages of almost everything we have to face and cope with have made our lives full of
uncertainty and helplessness, but on the other hand they released in some Poles enormous
energy, in the effort to support their families and provide them with food, clothing and fuel.

uncomfortable /ʌnˈkʌmpf.tə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: comfort, discomfort
Verbs: comfort
Adjectives: comfortable, uncomfortable, comforting
Adverbs: comfortably, uncomfortably

706
ADJECTIVE

EMBARRASSED

slightly embarrassed, or making you feel slightly embarrassed

Dictionary example:
an uncomfortable silence

Learner example:
It is interesting how people get embar[r]assed and uncomfortable when they have to face an
English speech.

uncomfortably /ʌnˈkʌmpf.tə.bli/

Word family:
Nouns: comfort, discomfort
Verbs: comfort
Adjectives: comfortable, uncomfortable, comforting
Adverbs: comfortably, uncomfortably

ADVERB

in a way that is not comfortable or pleasant

Dictionary example:
I was warm but not uncomfortably so.

Learner example:
I saw faces I see every day, but in uncomfortably long dresses and with starched white collars, I
saw their effort to look nice, attractive and not to disturb the rules set by the society of their time.

uncommon /ʌnˈkɒm.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: common
Adjectives: common, uncommon
Adverbs: commonly

ADJECTIVE

unusual
Dictionary example:
It's not uncommon for people to become ill when they travel.

Learner example:
NEW TRENDS: Vegetarian food is not uncommon nowadays.

707
 unconventional /ˌʌn.kənˈven.ʃən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: convention
Adjectives: conventional, unconventional

ADJECTIVE

doing things in a way that is different from most people

Dictionary example:
an unconventional lifestyle

Learner example:
CHILDREN'S STORIES This event was successful and satisfied the kids since the heroes were
exhilarating, with amazingly unconventional behaviour.

uncover /ʌnˈkʌv.ər/

Word family:
Nouns: cover, coverage
Verbs: cover, uncover

VERB [T]

to discover something that had been secret or hidden

Dictionary example:
The inspectors uncovered evidence of corruption.

Learner example:
Sitting in a restaurant and discussing provisions of the contract you will find much easier and feel
happier than [just sitting] and look[ing] at [an] enormous number of clauses, trying unsuccessfuly
to uncover what your client really thought when he wrote this or that.

undeniable /ˌʌn.dɪˈnaɪ.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: denial
Verbs: deny
Adjectives: undeniable
Adverbs: undeniably

ADJECTIVE

certainly true
Dictionary example:
an undeniable fact

708
 Learner example:
It is undeniable that he has made a positive contribution to [the] history of my country.

underestimate /ˌʌn.dəˈres.tɪ.meɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: estimate
Verbs: estimate, underestimate, overestimate
Adjectives: estimated

VERB [T]

PERSON

to not understand how powerful or clever someone is

Dictionary example:
I thought it would be an easy game but I had underestimated my opponent.

Learner example:
At the beginning she will ask you many questions about yourself. But don't underestimate Ms
Bates (that's her name).

undergo /ˌʌn.dəˈgəʊ/

VERB [T] (undergoing, underwent, undergone)

to experience something, especially a change or medical treatment
Dictionary examples:
The country is currently undergoing major political change.
He is undergoing surgery for a heart problem.

Learner example:
Nowadays, my country is undergoing a very difficult financial and social situation.

underpaid /ˌʌn.dəˈpeɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: pay, payment
Verbs: pay, repay
Adjectives: payable, underpaid, unpaid

ADJECTIVE

not earning enough for your work

Dictionary example:
Her staff felt they were underpaid.

709
 Learner example:
They claim that they are overworked and underpaid (it's [the] usual reason for striking, isn't it?)

understand /ˌʌn.dəˈstænd/ (understood, understood)

Word family:
Nouns: misunderstanding, understanding
Verbs: misunderstand, understand
Adjectives: understandable, understanding
Adverbs: understandably

VERB [I or T]

I/we understand (that)... FORMAL

used to say that you believe something is true because someone has told you it is
Dictionary example:
I understand that the school is due to close next year.

Learner example:
I understand that the job entails enterta[in]ing people.

make yourself understood

to say something to someone in a way that they understand
Dictionary example:
I had a little difficulty making myself understood.

Learner example:
(Find enclosed a paper slip on which I have written a destination, number of tickets, etc., in the
German language - use it just in case you can't make yourselves understood.)

understandably /ˌʌn.dəˈstæn.də.bli/

Word family:
Nouns: misunderstanding, understanding
Verbs: misunderstand, understand
Adjectives: understandable, understanding
Adverbs: understandably

ADVERB

in a way that is expected in a particular situation

Dictionary example:
She's understandably upset.

710
 Learner example:
Furthermore, the use of the computer system caused long waiting times because everyone wanted
- understandably - to find out more about suitable working opportunities.

undertake /ˌʌn.dəˈteɪk/ (undertook, undertaken)

Word family:
Nouns: undertaking
Verbs: take, undertake

VERB [T]

DO

FORMAL to do or begin to do something, especially something that will take a long

time or be difficult
Dictionary example:
Students are required to undertake simple experiments.

Learner example:
To achieve it the above mentioned steps should be undertaken.

unemployed /ˌʌn.ɪmˈplɔɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: employee, employer, employment, unemployment, unemployed
Verbs: employ
Adjectives: unemployed

NOUN

the unemployed
people who are unemployed
Dictionary example:
We want to get the unemployed back into work.

Learner example:
I am a lawyer and not so long ago I worked in Poznan Unemployment Office where I happened to
use English - not talking to the unemployed of course.

711
 unfold /ʌnˈfəʊld/

VERB

OPEN

[I or T] to become open and flat, or to make something become open and flat

Dictionary example:
I unfolded the map.

Learner example:
Well, you will be if you saw our slide show and talk - members can hardly forget that relaxing
afternoon when we unfolded the sails on the lake and enjoyed the tranquility of the area.

unforeseen /ˌʌnfɔːˈsiːn/

Word family:
Verbs: foresee
Adjectives: foreseeable, unforeseen

ADJECTIVE

not expected
Dictionary example:
The concert was cancelled due to unforeseen circumstances.

Learner example:
Finally, owing to unforeseen circumstances, the half-day visit to St Andrews was cancel[l]ed and I
was told about it only in the late morning, which prevented me from doing what I had planned.

unhelpful /ʌnˈhelp.fʊl/

Word family:
Nouns: helper
Verbs: help
Adjectives: helpful, unhelpful, helpless

ADJECTIVE

NOT IMPROVE

not improving a situation

Dictionary example:
an unhelpful remark

712
 Learner example:
Because of the unhelpful and useless solution from [this] company, called Energy Plus, I am
looking for advice.

unique /jʊˈniːk/

ADJECTIVE

be unique to sb/sth
to exist in only one place, or be connected with only one person or thing
Dictionary example:
It's a method of education that is unique to this school.

Learner example:
I strongly believe that every country needs its local shops with products that are unique to the
particular country, not only because it is very good for local development but also because this
way the world will stay colo[u]rful and interesting.

unit /ˈjuː.nɪt/

NOUN [C]

PEOPLE

a group of people living or working together, especially for a particular purpose

Dictionary examples:
the traditional family unit
an anti-terrorist unit
Dr Nussbaum is director of the Civil Liberties Research Unit at King's College, London.
Both soldiers spent two weeks in training before being allowed to rejoin their unit.

Learner example:
This is very important because once they [have] grown up, they have to be together in the family
unit with their [own] kids.

unite /juːˈnaɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: unity
Verbs: unite
Adjectives: united

713
VERB [I or T]

to join together as a group, or to make people join together as a group

Dictionary example:
We need a leader who can unite the party.

Learner example:
A barbecue would unite all members in a rarely seen way, because we would all be together for a
day or an afternoon which would be enough to make some new friends and get to know the other
members better.

unity /ˈjuː.nə.ti/

Word family:
Nouns: unity
Verbs: unite
Adjectives: united

NOUN [U]

when everyone agrees with each other or wants to stay together

Dictionary examples:
national/party unity
family unity

Learner example:
I would conclude by saying that [some] healthy competition is good, but your main goal has to be
to work together as a group and work towards the achievement of goal[s] - as the saying goes,
"united we stand, divided we fall" and unity is strength.

universally /ˌjuː.nɪˈvɜː.səl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: universe
Adjectives: universal
Adverbs: universally

ADVERB

in a way that involves everyone in the world, or everyone in a particular group

Dictionary examples:
She is universally adored.
Water is one of the most common and universally known substances.

Learner example:
Furthermore fame can [give] people the feeling that they are universally loved.

714
 unjustified /ʌnˈdʒʌs.tɪ.faɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: justification
Verbs: justify
Adjectives: justifiable, justified, unjustified

ADJECTIVE

done without a reason and not deserved

Dictionary example:
unjustified criticism

Learner example:
The location turned out to be far too small and the costs unjustified.

unknown /ʌnˈnəʊn/

Word family:
Nouns: knowledge, unknown
Verbs: know
Adjectives: known, unknown, knowledgeable
Adverbs: knowingly

NOUN

the unknown
things that you have not experienced and know nothing about
Dictionary example:
It's normal to fear the unknown.

Learner example:
The most important factor when learning English is the hunger for knowledge, the hunger for the
unknown.

unload /ʌnˈləʊd/

Word family:
Nouns: load, overload
Verbs: load, unload

VERB

SHIP/AIRCRAFT

[I] If a ship, aircraft, etc. unloads, goods are taken off it.

715
 Dictionary example:
The ship unloaded in Marseilles.

Learner example:
Old fishing boats from everywhere unload their merchandise there.

unmarried /ʌnˈmær.ɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: marriage
Verbs: marry
Adjectives: married, unmarried

ADJECTIVE

not married
Dictionary example:
She lives with her unmarried son.

Learner example:
It has even been proved by research carried out by [a] sociologist that the woman of today prefers
to stay unmarried to keep her own identity.

unnecessarily /ʌnˌnes.əˈser.əl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: necessity
Adjectives: necessary, unnecessary
Adverbs: necessarily, unnecessarily

ADVERB

in a way that is not necessary

Dictionary example:
Of course we don't want to alarm people unnecessarily, but they should be alerted to potential
dangers.

Learner example:
[The] community should understand the reality of the effects [of] using private cars unnecessarily.

unnoticed /ʌnˈnəʊ.tɪst/

Word family:
Nouns: notice
Verbs: notice
Adjectives: noticeable, unnoticed

716
ADJECTIVE

without being seen or noticed

Dictionary example:
We managed to slip away unnoticed.

Learner example:
But by the time we stop and look around us, it is usually too late to say goodbye to things that
were with us, watched us grow and then disappeared, alone and unnoticed.

unpaid /ʌnˈpeɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: pay, payment
Verbs: pay, repay
Adjectives: payable, underpaid, unpaid

ADJECTIVE

NOT PAID

An unpaid debt, tax, etc. has not been paid.

Dictionary example:
They had nearly £20,000 in unpaid debts.

Learner example:
This amount was unpaid by [the] previous owner.

WORK FOR FREE

working without getting any money

Dictionary example:
unpaid work

Learner example:
At the time he was mostly doing unpaid work, living on a low budget and going to painting night-
classes.

unpleasant /ʌnˈplez.ənt/

Word family:
Nouns: pleasure
Verbs: please
Adjectives: pleasant, pleased, unpleasant, pleasurable
Adverbs: pleasantly

717
ADJECTIVE

RUDE

rude and angry

Dictionary example:
The waiter got quite unpleasant with us.

Learner example:
The driver showed rather unpleasant behaviour and his uniform was untidy, while the stewardess
on board was not helpful at all and did not care much about the appalling conditions we had to
suffer [o]n the coach.

unproductive /ˌʌn.prəˈdʌk.tɪv/

Word family:
Nouns: producer, product, production, productivity, reproduction
Verbs: produce, reproduce
Adjectives: productive, unproductive

ADJECTIVE

not producing anything of value

Dictionary examples:
There were months of unproductive bureaucracy.
The meeting was totally unproductive.

Learner example:
Especially if these graduates are unemployed and they can't find a job easily, they would feel
unproductive by staying home.

unprofessional /ˌʌn.prəˈfeʃ.ən.əl/

Word family:
Nouns: profession, professional
Adjectives: professional, unprofessional

ADJECTIVE

not showing the standard of behaviour or skills that are expected of a person in a
skilled job
Dictionary examples:
an unprofessional attitude
Doctor Rivers was charged with unprofessional conduct and improper use of dangerous drugs.

Learner example:
Your reporter was so inattentive and unprofessional that he did not [bother] to check the figures
and mixed up 35 and 45.

718
 unqualified /ʌnˈkwɒl.ɪ.faɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: qualification
Verbs: qualify, disqualify
Adjectives: qualified, unqualified

ADJECTIVE

without the qualifications or knowledge to do something

Dictionary example:
She was totally unqualified to look after children.

Learner example:
Polish schools lag behind the European ones. Moreover, the teachers are sometimes unqualified or
unprepared.

unquestionably /ʌnˈkwes.tʃən.ə.bli/

ADVERB

in a way that is obvious and causes no doubt

Dictionary example:
She is unquestionably the best person for the job.

Learner example:
Although the content of the Conference was unquestionably well prepared, some organisational
problems appeared.

unreal /ʌnˈrɪəl/

Word family:
Nouns: reality
Adjectives: real, realistic, unrealistic, unreal
Adverbs: really, realistically

ADJECTIVE

Something that is unreal seems so strange that it is difficult to believe.

Dictionary example:
For a while I couldn't believe she was dead - it all seemed unreal.

Learner example:
To sum up, the reality of reality shows is that they want to simulate reality and therefore appear to
be credible, a plausible opportun[it]y for the audience to become participant and master at the
same time: the most unreal situation [of] all.

719
 unreasonably /ʌnˈriː.zən.ə.bli/

Word family:
Nouns: reason, reasoning
Adjectives: reasonable, unreasonable
Adverbs: reasonably, unreasonably

ADVERB

in a way that is not fair

Dictionary examples:
I thought the prices were unreasonably high.
He acted unreasonably.

Learner example:
Informing students and residents about the means of transport and reducing the unreasonably
high ticket price are the keys to incite more people use such means.

unrelated /ˌʌn.rɪˈleɪ.tɪd/

Word family:
Nouns: relation, relationship, relative
Verbs: relate
Adjectives: related, relative, unrelated
Adverbs: relatively

ADJECTIVE

having no connection
Dictionary example:
Police said his death was unrelated to the attack.

Learner example:
On top of that, and completely unrelated to these strikes, the medical services in the community
broke down when the doctors and nurses went on a strike on their own.

unsafe /ʌnˈseɪf/

Word family:
Nouns: safety
Adjectives: safe, unsafe
Adverbs: safely

ADJECTIVE

DANGEROUS

dangerous

720
 Dictionary examples:
The building is unsafe.
The water was dirty and unsafe to drink.

Learner example:
It was extremely unsafe as the safety belts were broken.

IN DANGER

If you feel unsafe, you feel that you are in danger.

Dictionary example:
Many women feel unsafe on the streets at night.

Learner example:
It was then that I began to feel unsafe; I thought, if something happens, this mob will become
something truly hard to control, and this idea frightened me for some time.

unsolved /ʌnˈsɒlvd/

Word family:
Nouns: solution
Verbs: solve
Adjectives: unsolved

ADJECTIVE

having no answer or solution

Dictionary example:
an unsolved mystery/murder/crime

Learner example:
Consequently, a lot of problems remained unsolved.

unspoiled /ʌnˈspɔɪlt/

Word family:
Verbs: spoil
Adjectives: unspoiled

ADJECTIVE (ALSO UK unspoilt)

An unspoiled place is beautiful because it has not been changed or damaged by
people.
Dictionary example:
an island with clean, unspoiled beaches

721
 Learner example:
I [hope] that one day this unfriendly place will become once more the peaceful, unspoiled and
beautiful village that enchanted every passenger with its beauty.

unsuccessfully /ˌʌn.səkˈses.fəl.i/

Word family:
Nouns: success
Verbs: succeed
Adjectives: successful, unsuccessful
Adverbs: successfully, unsuccessfully

ADVERB

in a way that is not successful

Dictionary example:
We tried unsuccessfully to climb the wall.

Learner example:
I tried to reach the company several times in the last two months, unsuccessfully.

unthinkable /ʌnˈθɪŋk.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: thinker
Verbs: think, rethink
Adjectives: unthinkable

ADJECTIVE

If something is unthinkable, it is so strange that you cannot imagine it will ever

happen.
Dictionary example:
Thirty years ago a no-smoking restaurant would have been unthinkable.

Learner example:
Nowadays it is simply unthinkable to live without [a] computer.

untouched /ʌnˈtʌtʃt/

Word family:
Nouns: touch
Verbs: touch
Adjectives: untouched

722
ADJECTIVE

not changed or damaged in any way

Dictionary example:
Most of the island remains untouched by tourism.

Learner example:
The starting point is in Lokken, an idyl[l]ic fishing village b[eside] the North Sea, still untouched by
tourism.

untrue /ʌnˈtruː/

ADJECTIVE

false
Dictionary example:
We knew the rumours were untrue.

Learner example:
They realized that almost everything mentioned in your advertisement appeared to be untrue.

unwanted /ʌnˈwɒn.tɪd/

Word family:
Verbs: want
Adjectives: unwanted

ADJECTIVE

not wanted
Dictionary example:
an unwanted gift

Learner example:
Children feel alone, unwanted and become very often latch-key children who come back to a sad
home where nobody is waiting for them.

unwillingly /ʌnˈwɪl.ɪŋ.li/

Word family:
Nouns: willingness, unwillingness
Adjectives: unwilling, willing
Adverbs: willingly, unwillingly

723
ADVERB

in a way that shows that you do not want to do something

Dictionary example:
He unwillingly agreed to take her home.

Learner example:
What was worse, ours broke down on our way to the safari park, so we had to give it a miss
unwillingly.

unwillingness /ʌnˈwɪl.ɪŋ.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: willingness, unwillingness
Adjectives: unwilling, willing
Adverbs: willingly, unwillingly

NOUN [U]

a state of not being willing to do something

Dictionary example:
Both sides have shown unwillingness to negotiate.

Learner example:
In the 70s some women also beg[a]n to wear short skirts, which might be seen as a way to
express their unwillingness to obey certain dress codes or as a symbol of their independence.

unwind /ʌnˈwaɪnd/

Word family:
Verbs: wind, unwind
Adjectives: winding

VERB (unwound)

RELAX

[I] INFORMAL to relax, especially after working

Dictionary example:
Music helps me to unwind.

Learner example:
The houses will be semi-detached to [allow] neighbours to chat and unwind.

724
 up /ʌp/

PREPOSITION

up to speed
having all the most recent information about a subject or activity
Dictionary example:
The course should bring you up to speed with the latest techniques.

Learner example:
Apart [from] this you can keep yourself up to speed with what's happening around the world on
various fronts.

upcoming /ˈʌpˌkʌm.ɪŋ/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

An upcoming event will happen soon.

Dictionary example:
the upcoming elections

Learner example:
This is a good way to keep our members informed about upcoming events.

upper-class /ˌʌp.əˈklɑːs/

ADJECTIVE

belonging to or relating to the upper class

Dictionary example:
He spoke with a distinctly upper-class accent.

Learner example:
Talking about fashion, one always tends to think of glamorous designer dresses, catwalks in Paris,
Rome or New York, and upper-class societies, able to spend huge amounts of money on luxurious
clothing.

upward /ˈʌp.wəd/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

moving towards a higher place or level

725
 Dictionary examples:
an upward glance
an upward trend in sales

Learner example:
The third age group, 35-49 year olds, has also been experiencing an upward trend regarding [the]
percentage of the group attending [the] cinema at least once a year.

upwards /ˈʌp.wədz/

ADVERB

HIGHER LEVEL

towards a higher position, level or value

Dictionary example:
The cost of completion has been revised upwards again due to inflation.

Learner example:
In evaporation the water drops from seas are carried upwards and form clouds.

urge /ɜːdʒ/

VERB [T]

urge sb to do sth
to try to persuade someone to do something
Dictionary example:
His parents urged him to go to university.

Learner example:
Finally, on behalf of the charity organisation, I urge you to print a new article, apologising and
correcting the inaccuracies already published.

usage /ˈjuː.sɪdʒ/

NOUN

WORDS

[C or U] the way that words are used

Dictionary example:
a guide to English grammar and usage

726
 Learner example:
That is why I couldn't solve all my problems with English usage.

AMOUNT

[U] the amount of something that is used, or the way that something is used

Dictionary example:
restrictions on water usage

Learner example:
We have therefore decided that, at our company, we will try to keep our energy usage as low as
possible.

usefulness /ˈjuːs.fəl.nəs/

Word family:
Nouns: use, user, misuse, usefulness
Verbs: use, misuse
Adjectives: useful, useless

NOUN [U]

the quality of being useful

Dictionary example:
He explained the usefulness of having a wi-fi connection.

Learner example:
They came back yesterday and I have interviewed them to find out what they think about the
usefulness of the programme.

utmost /ˈʌt.məʊst/

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN] FORMAL

EMPHASIS

used to emphasize how important or serious something is

Dictionary examples:
a matter of the utmost importance
The situation needs to be handled with the utmost care.

Learner example:
In my opinion, there are features of utmost importance that should be [careful]ly checked.

NOUN

do your utmost
to try as hard as you can to do something

727
 Dictionary example:
We did our utmost to finish the project on time.

Learner example:
In addition, we l[i]ve in a materialistic society where we all do our utmost in order to make ends
meet, but we are never satisfied.

utterly /ˈʌt.ə.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: utter
Adverbs: utterly

ADVERB

completely
Dictionary example:
It's utterly ridiculous.

Learner example:
The information provided in your report about the final goal was utterly wrong.

728
 V

vacancy /ˈveɪ.kən.si/

Word family:
Nouns: vacancy
Adjectives: vacant

NOUN [C]

JOB

a job that is available for someone to do

Dictionary example:
Tell me if you hear of any vacancies for secretaries.

Learner example:
We look forward to meeting you at your ea[r]liest convenience to discuss details, go over our
salary and health package as well as any other questions you might have, before starting the
procedure of finding suitable candidates for the job vacancies.

ROOM

a room that is available in a hotel

Dictionary example:
Do you have any vacancies?

Learner example:
The hotels have no vacancies, the tourists are everywhere.

vague /veɪg/

Word family:
Adjectives: vague
Adverbs: vaguely

ADJECTIVE

NOT CLEAR

not clear or certain

Dictionary examples:
I have a vague idea of where the hotel is.
He was a bit vague about directions.

729
 Learner example:
Do not misunderstand me: I greatly enjoyed the conference but it did not give me the satisfaction
of having even a vague idea of what I would like to do...

vain /veɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: vanity
Adjectives: vain

ADJECTIVE

in vain
without any success
Dictionary example:
I tried in vain to start a conversation.

Learner example:
We looked in vain for the guide through three London parks.

value /ˈvæl.juː/

Word family:
Nouns: value
Verbs: value
Adjectives: valuable, invaluable

NOUN

at face value
If you accept something at face value because of the way it first looks or seems,
you do so without thinking carefully about it.
Dictionary examples:
You can't just accept everything you read in the newspapers at face value.
These results should not be taken at face value - careful analysis is required to assess their full
implications.

Learner example:
People are assessed at face value [by] the type of cars they drive.

730
 variable /ˈveə.ri.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: variation, variety, variable
Verbs: vary
Adjectives: varied, various, variable
Adverbs: invariably

ADJECTIVE

changing often
Dictionary example:
The sound quality on the recording is variable.

Learner example:
By contrast the figure is more variable regarding the other topics.

NOUN [C]

a number, amount, or situation which can change

Dictionary example:
A patient's recovery time depends on so many variables, such as age, weight, and general health.

Learner example:
There are too many variables and happiness may also depend on the soci[al] background of a
person.

vegetation /ˌvedʒ.ɪˈteɪ.ʃən/

NOUN [U]

the plants and trees that grow in a particular area

Dictionary example:
They hacked a path through the dense vegetation.

Learner example:
I dream of being the first one to set foot on a white sandy beach, to admire a new kind of
vegetation: cranberry bushes, sweet potatoes, wild turkeys, a different climate; how scary and
exciting at the same time!

veil /veɪl/

NOUN [C]

a thin piece of material that covers a woman's face

731
 Dictionary example:
She wore a thin veil.

Learner example:
And most brides wear a long veil so grooms can't see their wife's face.

vein /veɪn/

NOUN

[C] one of the tubes in your body that carries blood to the heart

Dictionary example:
the veins in the leg/neck

Learner example:
Do you love the sensation of your blood rushing in your veins, your knees trembling slightly and
your hair standing [to] attention? Well, I do, and dangerous sports are the thing for me.

verify /ˈver.ɪ.faɪ/

VERB [T]

to prove that something is true, or do something to discover if it is true

Dictionary example:
It was impossible to verify her statement.

Learner example:
The Canadian Patent Office Branch will be responsible for verifying if new inventions are truly new
or have already been invented somewhere in the world.

version /ˈvɜː.ʒən/

NOUN [C]

DESCRIPTION

someone's description of what has happened

Dictionary example:
Bates gave his version of events to the police.

Learner example:
For that reason, I have to ask you for a formal apology in print, where you could give the correct
version of events and also change the bad image you gave to the readers of the people of my
organisation.

732
 versus /ˈvɜː.səs/

PREPOSITION

AGAINST

used to say that one team or person is competing against another

Dictionary example:
Tomorrow's game is Newcastle versus Arsenal.

Learner example:
Starting in chronological order you can see the first game - Argentina versus Germany - which
was a revenge for the final competition in the previous World Cup, '88.

COMPARED WITH

used to compare two things or ideas, especially when you have to choose between
them
Dictionary example:
private education versus state education

Learner example:
Mobile phones - fashion versus utility Nowadays, [everywhere] you look, there is someone
speaking [on] a mobile phone.

vertical /ˈvɜː.tɪk.əl/

ADJECTIVE

pointing straight up from a surface

Dictionary example:
a vertical line

Learner example:
The vertical axis shows the percentage of age groups attending the cinema at least once in a year,
while the horizontal axis represents the years from 1990 to 2010.

vest /vest/

NOUN [C]

UNDERWEAR

a piece of underwear that you wear under a shirt

Dictionary example:
You'll need a vest in this weather.

733
 Learner example:
The contents include two [items of male] underwear, size medium, white colour. Also a pair of
white sock[s] and one vest medium size.

vice versa /ˌvaɪsˈvɜː.sə/

ADVERB

used for referring to the opposite of what you have just said
Dictionary example:
Never use indoor lights outside and vice versa.

Learner example:
The piles of cash are not far away from any celebrity and we all know that time equals money and
vice versa.

view /vjuː/

Word family:
Nouns: view, viewer
Verbs: view

NOUN

with a view to doing sth FORMAL

so that you can do something

Dictionary example:
He's doing some improvements on the house with a view to selling it.

Learner example:
The purpose of this report is to assess the success of the latest tour our sports club organised
and make relevant suggestions with a view to enhancing future trips.

viewpoint /ˈvjuː.pɔɪnt/

NOUN [C]

a way of thinking about a situation

Dictionary example:
From his viewpoint the action seemed entirely justified.

Learner example:
As a student, I feel concerned [about] the traffic issue and I asked some people about their
viewpoints on the two proposals.

734
 vine /vaɪn/

NOUN [C]

a plant that grapes grow on

Dictionary example:
The wall was covered in a vine.

Learner example:
After follow[ing] the walking path through the vines at Canon-Fronsac you could climb the Canon
Mountain to have a view all over the region.

virtual /ˈvɜː.tju.əl/

Word family:
Adjectives: virtual
Adverbs: virtually

ADJECTIVE [ALWAYS BEFORE NOUN]

ALMOST

almost a particular thing or quality

Dictionary examples:
Ten years of bad government had brought about the virtual collapse of the country's economy.
War in the region now looks like a virtual certainty.

Learner example:
However the growth of our cities and townships co[up]led with an exponential increase in traffic
and facilities have transformed these areas into virtual no-go zones

visible /ˈvɪz.ə.bl
̩/

Word family:
Nouns: vision
Adjectives: invisible, visible, visual
Adverbs: visibly

ADJECTIVE

OBVIOUS

obvious or noticeable
Dictionary examples:
She is a higly visible environmental spokesperson.
There is a visible improvement in your essay writing.

735
 Learner example:
After about three months I noticed a visible improvement.

vision /ˈvɪʒ.ən/

Word family:
Nouns: vision
Adjectives: invisible, visible, visual
Adverbs: visibly

NOUN

ABILITY TO PLAN

[U] the ability to make plans for the future that are imaginative and wise

Dictionary example:
As a leader, he lacked vision.

Learner example:
A man of vision, Eleftherios Venizelus played a significant role in the history of my country, as in
his time it became, with [few] changes, what it is today.

vocabulary /vəʊˈkæb.jʊ.lər.i/

NOUN

LANGUAGE

[NO PLURAL] all the words that exist in a language, or that are used when discussing a
particular subject
Dictionary example:
Computing has its own specialist vocabulary.

Learner example:
The tuition is well adapted to our needs, I mean a specialized vocabulary and the ability to speak
with our clients from the English-speaking areas in a fluent way even for technical matters.

voice /vɔɪs/

NOUN

raise your voice

to speak loudly and angrily to someone

736
 Dictionary example:
He never raised his voice at the children.

Learner example:
Not every au-pair family is pleasant. And believe me, mine was giving me hell on earth. [...] After I
returned home I took some time to learn not to freak out when someone raised his voice and
eventually I started to see my time in Germany as a great [lesson in] life.

voluntary /ˈvɒl.ən.tər.i/

Word family:
Nouns: volunteer
Verbs: volunteer
Adjectives: voluntary
Adverbs: voluntarily

ADJECTIVE

Voluntary work is done without being paid and usually involves helping people.
Dictionary examples:
She does voluntary work for Doctors Without Borders.
voluntary organizations

Learner example:
I did voluntary work for a whole year in 1998 in Britain.

volunteer /ˌvɒl.ənˈtɪər/

Word family:
Nouns: volunteer
Verbs: volunteer
Adjectives: voluntary
Adverbs: voluntarily

VERB

[I or T] to offer to do something without being asked or told to do it

Dictionary example:
Rob volunteered to look after the kids.

Learner example:
One of my classmates, Maria, has volunteered to talk about the different courses and summer
activities that the school offers.

737
 vote /vəʊt/

Word family:
Nouns: vote, voter
Verbs: vote

NOUN

the vote
when someone is officially allowed to vote
Dictionary example:
In some countries women still don't have the vote.

Learner example:
Women acquired the vote only 70 years ago.

738
 W

wait /weɪt/

VERB [I]

wait and see

to wait to discover what will happen
Dictionary example:
We'll wait and see what she says.

Learner example:
We will just have to wait and see.....

NOT DO SOMETHING

to not do something until something else happens

Dictionary example:
We'll wait till Jane gets here before we start eating.

Learner example:
The wedding will be at midday, but bec[a]use Spanish [people] are the most unpunctual people in
the world, maybe we'll have to wait until half past twelve to start the ceremony.

walk /wɔːk/

Word family:
Nouns: walk, walking, walker
Verbs: walk

NOUN [C]

PATH

a path or route where people can walk for enjoyment

Dictionary example:
There are some lovely walks in the forest.

Learner example:
The walk ends in Valli del Natisone, but from here there are 2 other different routes that can be
chosen.

739
 walker /ˈwɔː.kər/

Word family:
Nouns: walk, walking, walker
Verbs: walk

NOUN [C]

someone who walks for exercise or enjoyment

Dictionary example:
This pub is popular with walkers.

Learner example:
If you are a keen walker and you like unspoilt nature, the walk between Granna and Tranas in the
South [of] Sweden will be the one.

wardrobe /ˈwɔː.drəʊb/

NOUN

CLOTHES

[NO PLURAL] all the clothes that you own

Dictionary example:
She has an extensive wardrobe.

Learner example:
Our wardrobe seemed to have changed from neutral colours which symbolised no freedom of
expression to purple-green outfits that tell you: ".. that's me, if you don't like it, get...".

warrior /ˈwɒr.i.ər/

NOUN [C]

a person who has experience and skill in fighting in a war, especially in the past
Dictionary example:
These warriors used spears made from iron.

Learner example:
It is true that the Vikings were warriors, some would say bloodthirsty as well, but that is
something I will leave to you to judge.

740
 water /ˈwɔː.tər/

NOUN [U]

running water
If a place has running water, it has a working water system.
Dictionary example:
They bought an old house with no electricity or running water.

Learner example:
It is hilarious to think that at the same time people in [the] north of Europe were still living a
primitive and uncivilized life not even able to invent an axe, the Romans managed to install
running water in their huge houses.

wave /weɪv/

VERB [I or T]

MOVE SIDE TO SIDE

(ALSO wave about/around) to move from side to side in the air or make something
move this way
Dictionary examples:
The long grass waved in the breeze.
He started waving his arms about wildly.

Learner example:
I can picture myself standing in front of the "Casa Prosada", waving my arms and cheering with all
the other patriots.

way /weɪ/

NOUN

MANNER

[NO PLURAL] the manner in which someone behaves or thinks, or in which something
happens

741
 Dictionary examples:
Don't be alarmed - it's just his way.
He looked at me in a sinister way.
It's amazing the way she manages to stay so calm.
The way he was shouting, you'd have thought he was badly hurt.
To my way of thinking, they shouldn't be building so many roads.
It's always the way at work - either I've got nothing to do or I'm rushed off my feet!

Learner example:
To my way of thinking, despite all the problems I have mentioned, this company will suc[c]eed.

in no way/not in any way

not at all
Dictionary example:
This is in no way your fault.

Learner example:
This magazine will be loved by students as it will help them learn English in the best way and in
no way will students find it boring.

by way of sth
as a type of something
Dictionary example:
He sent me some flowers by way of apology.

Learner example:
The Academy however provided nothing whatsoever by way of entertainment, though with a
group of interesting young people and a little imagination this should not be a pro[b]lem.

get/have your (own) way

to get what you want, although it might upset other people
Dictionary example:
She always gets her own way in the end.

Learner example:
They are provided with what they desire, and [the] majority of them are used to getting their own
way.

(take) the easy way out

to do what is easiest in a difficult situation
Dictionary example:
I know you don't approve of his working methods, but why not take the easy way out this time
and agree to his request?

Learner example:
On the other hand you cannot survive without your pay-check and to be able to both make a
car[ee]r and have the time to be green, sometimes you just have to take the easy way out.

742
 weak /wiːk/

Word family:
Nouns: weakness
Verbs: weaken
Adjectives: weak

ADJECTIVE

REASON

A weak reason, argument or excuse is one that can easily be proved to be false.
Dictionary example:
He gave the weakest of excuses when asked why he was late.

LIKELY TO FAIL

likely to fail
Dictionary examples:
a weak economy
a weak team

Learner example:
A very difficult aspect currently is our weak economy, we could nearly speak of a recession.

weaken /ˈwiː.kən/

Word family:
Nouns: weakness
Verbs: weaken
Adjectives: weak

VERB [I or T]

LOSE POWER

to become less strong or powerful, or to make someone or something less strong

or powerful
Dictionary example:
A number of factors have weakened the economy.

Learner example:
If we get rid of the factories to save the river, it is obvious that our economy will be weakened.

well /wel/

Word family:
Adjectives: unwell, well

743
ADVERB (better, best)

CONSIDERABLY

used to emphasize some prepositions

Dictionary examples:
The results are well above/below what we expected.
Keep well away from the edge of the cliff.
It cost well over £100.

Learner example:
The hospital received well over 80% of the profits, and that as you can see is much more than just
60%.

may/might as well do sth

If you may/might as well do something, it will not spoil the situation if you do that
thing.
Dictionary example:
If we're not waiting for Karen, we might as well go now.

Learner example:
I might as well go with her and if you like, you can join us too.

it's just as well

used to say that it is lucky that something happened
Dictionary example:
It's just as well we brought an umbrella.

Learner example:
It is just as well that my friends had cars to give me a lift to the school.

ADJECTIVE (better, best)

be all very well

used to show that you do not agree with something or that you are annoyed about
something
Dictionary example:
It's all very well for her to say everything's fine, she doesn't have to live here.

Learner example:
That's all very well for most of the people but according to my desires [i]t's not enough. I envisage
a more sophisticated flat.

744
 well-balanced /ˌwelˈbæl.ənst/

ADJECTIVE

PERSON

Well-balanced people are calm and have good judgment.

Dictionary example:
She's very well-balanced considering her past.

Learner example:
Linda has a good temper, is well-balanced and is able to cope with unforeseen or complicated
situations.

well-being /ˌwelˈbiː.ɪŋ/

NOUN [U]

when someone is healthy, happy, and comfortable

Dictionary example:
I found that yoga increased my sense of well-being.

Learner example:
The beautiful countryside which surrounds the fields can generate a feeling of well-being and
make exercise more pleasant.

well-educated /ˌwelˈedʒ.ʊ.keɪ.tɪd/

ADJECTIVE

having had a good education

Dictionary examples:
We have some very well-educated employees in the department.
Most of our employees are pretty well educated.

Learner example:
Increasing numbers of well-educated young people are compelled to stay at home.

well-equipped /ˌwel.ɪˈkwɪpt/

ADJECTIVE

having plenty of good quality equipment

745
 Dictionary example:
He has a very well-equipped kitchen.

Learner example:
There is a well-equipped gym which is supervised by experienced staff.

well-informed /ˌwel.ɪnˈfɔːmd/

ADJECTIVE

knowing a lot of useful information

Dictionary example:
Some visitors to our museum are very well-informed.

Learner example:
In fact, well-informed teenagers are now aware of the necessity to [do] a sport to stay fit.

well-off /ˌwelˈɒf/

ADJECTIVE

having a lot of money

Dictionary example:
His parents are very well-off.

Learner example:
If you belong to a well-off family then you are considered lucky, but if you are not this, good luck
to you.

well-qualified /ˌwelˈkwɒl.ɪ.faɪd/

ADJECTIVE

having suitable experience or formal qualifications

Dictionary example:
He seems well-qualified for the job.

Learner example:
That is why fore[ig]n employers look for well-qualified Polish specialists.

746
 whatsoever /ˌwɒt.səʊˈev.ər/

ADVERB (ALSO whatever)

no ... whatsoever
none at all
Dictionary example:
There's no evidence whatsoever that she was involved.

Learner example:
Moreover, the hotel we were finally dumped in was situated miles from Edinburgh city centre and
there was no entertainment whatsoever arranged for the evening, even though all the travellers
were more or less stuck there.

when /wen/

CONJUNCTION

when it comes to sth/doing sth

used to introduce a new idea that you want to say something about
Dictionary example:
When it comes to baking cakes, she's an expert.

Learner example:
But when it comes to computers, they just impose some knowledge on students, without any
interaction.

widespread /ˈwaɪd.spred/

ADJECTIVE

affecting or including a lot of places, people, etc.

Dictionary examples:
a widespread problem
widespread support

Learner example:
It is because of widespread use of deep-freezing and preservatives.

747
 will /wɪl/

NOUN

WHAT SOMEONE WANTS

[U] what someone wants to happen

Dictionary examples:
Against their will, they were forced to hold a meeting.
The government has failed to impose its will upon regional communities.

Learner example:
But if you go [and] learn a language against your will, then it's better not to go at all.

win /wɪn/

Word family:
Nouns: winner, win
Verbs: win

NOUN [C]

when someone wins a game, competition or election

Dictionary examples:
It was United's sixth consecutive win this season.
Everyone was predicting a Republican win at the last election and look what happened.

Learner example:
It was a really interesting, ex[c]iting game which ended with a deserving 'One-Nil' win to Scotland.

wisdom /ˈwɪz.dəm/

Word family:
Nouns: wisdom
Adjectives: wise, unwise
Adverbs: wisely

NOUN [U]

conventional wisdom
what most people believe
Dictionary example:
These ideas about childcare go against the conventional wisdom on the subject.

748
 Learner example:
Thus, against conventional wisdom, I think that while a lot of adult problems are caused by money
or the lack of it, it is really the ability to deal with money and to see money as a means rather than
an end.

wisely /ˈwaɪz.li/

Word family:
Nouns: wisdom
Adjectives: wise, unwise
Adverbs: wisely

ADVERB

in a wise way
Dictionary example:
She wisely advised me to wait.

Learner example:
In my opinion, computer learning offers very interesting opportunities, especially to learn new
languages, but such a powerful medium as the computer should be used wisely.

wit /wɪt/

Word family:
Nouns: wit
Adjectives: witty

NOUN [U]

the ability to say things that are funny and clever

Dictionary examples:
a woman of great intelligence and wit
He was known for his dry/sharp wit.

Learner example:
His wit and charm drew many people's attention to the topic and we gained [a] deeper insight
in[to] the tourist industry.

witch /wɪtʃ/

NOUN [C]

in stories, a woman who has magical powers that she uses to do bad or strange
things

749
 Dictionary example:
It was a story about an old witch.

Learner example:
A famous actress and her friend, a librarian, get the 'elixir of eternal youth' from the mysterious
witch (Isabella Rossellini) and then their troubles begin...

with /wɪð/

PREPOSITION

with the aid of sth

using something to help you
Dictionary example:
She can walk with the aid of a stick.

Learner example:
The newest computer can handle data that human brains cannot and therefore all scientific
research [is] carried out with the aid of computers.

with flying colours

with a very high score or with great success
Dictionary example:
He passed the entrance exam with flying colours.

Learner example:
I worked intens[ive]ly on the course and I passed with flying colours.

with a view to doing sth FORMAL

so that you can do something

Dictionary example:
He's doing some improvements on the house with a view to selling it.

Learner example:
The purpose of this report is to assess the success of the latest tour our sports club organised
and make relevant suggestions with a view to enhancing future trips.

withdraw /wɪðˈdrɔː/

Word family:
Nouns: withdrawal
Verbs: withdraw

750
VERB (withdrew, withdrawn)

MONEY

[T] to take money out of a bank account

Dictionary example:
She withdrew $50.

Learner example:
Apart from this, without credit cards I would have to look for a bank to withdraw money, and this
is not very easy for a student.

REMOVE

[T] to remove something, especially because of an official decision

Dictionary examples:
This product has been withdrawn from sale.
He has threatened to withdraw his support.

Learner example:
But the government stepped back, withdrew the proposal and fired three ministers.

within /wɪˈðɪn/

PREPOSITION

INSIDE

inside an area, group, or system

Dictionary examples:
a dispute within the department
There's a pharmacy within the hospital building.

Learner example:
Dear Sir or Madam, I am writing to you, as requested, in order to ensure that the training - whose
purpose is to help the staff improve its communications with the other departments within the
company - is effective and not just a waste of time.

word /wɜːd/

NOUN

give sb your word

to promise someone something
Dictionary example:
Paolo gave me his word that he wouldn't tell anyone.

751
 Learner example:
I give you my word that it will never happen again.

take sb's word for it

to believe what someone says without any proof
Dictionary example:
Take my word for it - this curry is very hot!

Learner example:
You can take my word for it that she is absolutely capable of carrying out this job - fond of
children, patient, good-natured and competent.

keep your word

to do what you said you would do
Dictionary example:
He agreed to come and I'm sure he'll keep his word.

Learner example:
It turned out that the company that had been hired to organize it did not keep their word.

work /wɜːk/

Word family:
Nouns: work, worker
Verbs: work
Adjectives: working, overworked

VERB

can work sth; know how to work sth

to know how to use a machine or piece of equipment
Dictionary example:
Do you know how to work the video camera?

Learner example:
At that time, I also learned how to work the lighting during the play.

workforce /ˈwɜːk.fɔːs/

NOUN [GROUP]

COMPANY

all the people who work for a company or organization

752
 Dictionary example:
We have a highly skilled workforce.

Learner example:
Before giving them rewards, companies need to train their workforce and identify their potential.

workplace /ˈwɜːk.pleɪs/

NOUN [C]

the place where you work

Dictionary example:
We are trying to get rid of bullying in the workplace.

Learner example:
Nowadays, our jobs consume more and more of our time so a good atmosphere at the workplace
is important.

workshop /ˈwɜːk.ʃɒp/

NOUN [C]

when a group of people meet to learn more about something by discussing it and
doing practical exercises
Dictionary example:
a workshop on crime prevention

Learner example:
All in all, I thoroughly enjoyed this event, but I think there ought to be more computers provided
and the numbers of participants to a single workshop should be limited.

world /wɜːld/

NOUN

(have) the best of both worlds

to have the advantages of two different situations
Dictionary example:
Living in the country and working in the city you have the best of both worlds.

Learner example:
Only those that can afford to live in the suburban areas can combine the best of both worlds and
they tend to be rather affluent.

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 worse /wɜːs/

Word family:
Nouns: worse
Verbs: worsen
Adjectives: worse
Adverbs: worse

NOUN [U]

something that is more unpleasant or difficult

Dictionary examples:
By the third month of the expedition they had endured many hardships, but worse was to follow.
"What about the bride's dress - wasn't it appalling?" "I don't know, I've seen worse."

Learner example:
But worse was to come at 19:30 when we went to see one of London's musicals.

worsen /ˈwɜːsən/

Word family:
Nouns: worse
Verbs: worsen
Adjectives: worse
Adverbs: worse

VERB [I or T]

to become worse or to make something become worse

Dictionary example:
His condition suddenly worsened last week.

Learner example:
I believe erecting a car park in the cent[re] could worsen the situation drastically.

worship /ˈwɜː.ʃɪp/

VERB (-pp- or US ALSO -p-)

RELIGION

[T] to have or show a strong feeling of respect and admiration for God or a god

Dictionary example:
In the various regions of India, Hindus worship different gods and observe different religious
festivals.

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 Learner example:
The Revolution was of such importance because Greece became a free country again and the
people were free to talk, worship their God and have Greek schools.

ADMIRE

to love and admire someone or something very much

Dictionary example:
She worshipped her mother.

Learner example:
Firstly, many famous people are considered as idols who are worshipped and imitated, which
might make them believe they are important, especially when they have a certain media presence.

worthless /ˈwɜːθ.ləs/

Word family:
Adjectives: worth, worthless, worthy

ADJECTIVE

NOT IMPORTANT

not important or useful

Dictionary example:
He made me feel stupid and worthless.

Learner example:
One important aspect is, of course, that they will feel worthless.

worthy /ˈwɜː.ði/

Word family:
Adjectives: worth, worthless, worthy

ADJECTIVE

DESERVING RESPECT

FORMAL deserving respect, admiration or support

Dictionary examples:
He is unlikely to succeed in getting his bill through Congress, however worthy it is.
Every year she makes a large donation to a worthy cause.

Learner example:
The performers are all neatly dressed and on the whole, they have all made a worthy effort.

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 write /raɪt/ (wrote, written)

Word family:
Nouns: writer, writing
Verbs: rewrite, write
Adjectives: written

PHRASAL VERB

write sth up or write up sth PHRASAL VERB

to write something on paper or on a computer in a complete or final form, often

using notes you have made
Dictionary example:
Have you written up that report yet?

wrong /rɒŋ/

Word family:
Adjectives: wrong
Adverbs: wrong, wrongly

ADJECTIVE

NOT SUITABLE

not suitable or correct, or not as it should be

Dictionary examples:
She's the wrong person for the job.
She got in with the wrong crowd at university.

Learner example:
Personally I prefer to think that you gave the job to the wrong person.

wrongly /ˈrɒŋ.li/

Word family:
Adjectives: wrong
Adverbs: wrong, wrongly

ADVERB

wrongly accused/convicted/imprisoned, etc.

accused or punished unfairly or illegally
Dictionary example:
She was wrongly convicted of drug smuggling.

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Learner example:
You have also wrongly accused the organisers of spending too much money on organising the
event.

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 Y

yet /jet/

ADVERB

IN THE FUTURE

from now and for a particular period of time in the future

Dictionary examples:
She won't be back for a long time yet.
Our holiday isn't for weeks yet.

Learner example:
It's a fact that everybody knows that living in Poland is not easy now and it won't be for a long
time yet.

as yet
FORMAL until and including this time
Dictionary examples:
We haven't needed extra staff as yet, but may do in the future.
No ambulances had as yet managed to get across the river.

Learner example:
I would like to do something about it, but as I can't imagine building anything near my beautiful
house (because I'm afraid it would destroy its wonderful harmony), I have no idea as yet how to
solve this problem.

you /juː/

PRONOUN

you see
used when you are giving an explanation about something
Dictionary examples:
I didn't know she was Welsh, you see.
You see, it was already late by that time.

Learner example:
Family matters had to stay in the family, you see.

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 youngster /ˈjʌŋ.stər/

Word family:
Nouns: youngster
Adjectives: young

NOUN [C]

a young person, especially an older child

Dictionary example:
He talked to the youngsters about the dangers of drugs.

Learner example:
Like many other nations worldwide, with mastering much more knowledge and skills of
information technology than [the] elder group of people, it is not surprising that Chinese
youngsters learn more than their previous generations did about what is happening around the
world.

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