VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

SRM NAGAR, KATTANKULATHUR – 603 203

PHYSICS PRACTICALS MANUAL 
BS 8161 ­ PHYSICS LABORATORY

(First semester B.E/B.Tech. students for the Academic Year 2017-2018)

Prepared by

Dr.H.Krishnan, Dr.M.Anbuchezhiyan Dr.K.Thiruppathi,

Mrs. D. Praveena, Mrs.S.Gandhimathi,
Mrs. Nithya Balaji, Mrs. R. Sasireka, Mrs. Ramya Rajan.M.P and
Dr.S.Murugavel

Department of Physics

(Private circulation only)

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VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SRM NAGAR, KATTANKULATHUR – 603 203

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Instructions to the students

The following instructions must be followed by the students in their laboratory classes.

1. Students are expected to be punctual to the lab classes. If they are late, they will be considered
absent for that particular session.
2. Students should strictly maintain the dress code.
3. Students must bring their observation note, record note (completed with previous experiment)
and the calculator to every lab class without fail.
4. Students are advised to come with full preparation for their lab sessions by
(i) Reading the detailed procedure of the experiment from the laboratory manual.
(ii) Completion of observation note book (i.e.) Aim, Apparatus required, Formula (with
description), least count calculation, diagrams and the tabular column should be written in the
observation note before entering into the laboratory.
5. Data entry in the observation note book must be by pen only.
6. Students must get attestations immediately for their observed readings.
7. Students should complete their calculations for their experiments and get it corrected on the
same day of that experiment.
8. Students who miss observation, record note they have to do the experiment once again and get
it corrected.
9. Class assessment marks for each experiment is based only on their performance in the
laboratory.
10. Record note has to be completed then and there and get corrected when the students are
coming for the next lab class.
11. Students must strictly maintain silence during lab classes.
12. If any of the students is absent for the lab class for genuine reasons, he/she will be permitted to
do the experiment during the repetition class only.
13. Students are advised to perform their experiments under safety care.
14. If any student is found causing damage to the lab equipments, he/she shall replace the same
with a new.

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CONTENTS

PAGE
S. No EXPERIMENTS NO.

1 Determination of rigidity modulus – Torsion pendulum. 2

Determination of Young’s modulus by non-uniform bending

2 7
method.

a) Determination of wavelength, and particle size using Laser.

3 14
b) Determination of acceptance angle in an optical fiber.

4 Determination of wavelength of mercury spectrum – 22

Spectrometer grating

5 Determination of Band Gap of a semiconductor.. 28

- Data of physical constants & standard values

Annexure 31
- Viva Questions and Answers

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Fig.1.1. Torsional Pendulum

To find the time period of oscillations

Length of suspension wire l = ………..cm

Time for 10 oscillations

Position of equal masses Time period
Trial 1 Trail 2 Mean

Unit second second second second

Without masses To =

Masses at closest
distance.
d1 = ……… x 10-2 m T1 =

Masses at maximum
distance.
d2 =……….x 10-2 m T2 =

   

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1. DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS –TORSIONAL PENDULUM

AIM

To determine the moment of inertia of a given disc by Torsional oscillations and The
rigidity modulus of the material of the suspension wire.

APPARATUS

Torsional pendulum, Stop clock, Meter scale, Two symmetrical mass, Screw gauge.

PRINCIPLE

The suspension wire is twisted by the circular disc fixed at the bottom of the wire and the
wire undergoes shearing strainwhich leads to torsional oscillations. The angular acceleration
of the disc is proportional to its angular displacement and is always directed towards its mean
position and the motion of the disc is simple harmonic.

FORMULA

Moment of inertia of the circular disc,

I = kg.m2

Rigidity modulus of the wire,

n = N/ m2

Symbol Explanation unit

m mass of one cylinder placed on the disc(100 gm) kg

Closest distance ( minimum) between suspension wire and the centre
d1 m
of mass of the cylinder
Farthest distance ( maximum) between suspension wire and the
d2 m
centre of mass of the cylinder
T0 Period of oscillation without any mass on the disc s
Period of oscillation when equal masses are placed on the disc at a
T1 s
distance d1
Period of oscillation when equal masses are placed on the disc at a
T2 s
distance d2
l length of the suspension wire m
r Radius of the wire m

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LEAST COUNT OF THE SCREW GAUGE:

Distance moved by the head scale on the pitch scale.

Pitch =
Number of rotations given to the head scale.

Pitch
Least count (LC) =
Total number of divisions on the head scale

Pitch = 5 mm/ 5 = 1 mm
LC = 1 mm/ 100 = 0.01 mm.

To find the radius (r) of the specimen using screw gauge

LC = 0.01 mm Z.E = …..div

Z.C =……mm

Observed Correct
HSR= HSC x
S. No. PSR HSC Reading = PSR Reading = OR
LC
+ HSR + ZC
Unit mm div mm mm mm

Mean (d) =-------------------------- x 10-3 m

Radius of the specimen wire (r) = d/2 = ……. x 10-3 m

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PROCEDURE

• When the suspension wire is twisted by the circular disc fixed at the bottom of the wire,
the wire undergoes shearing strain. This is called torsion. Because of this torsion, the
disc executes oscillation called torsional oscillation.
• The Torsional pendulum consists of a circular disc suspended by a thin suspended wire,
as shown in Fig. (1.1), whose rigidity modulus is to be noted. The top end of the wire is
fixed by a chuck. The circular disc is attached to the other end of the wire.

Calculation of T0

• Adjust the wire so that its length is fixed value say 50 cm. Make a vertical
chalk mark on the disc when it is rest as a reference. By making a small
twist to the circular disc, set up Torsional oscillations. After the first few
oscillations, just as the mark on the disc passes the equilibrium positions, a
stop clock is started. The time taken for 10 complete oscillations is noted. The
experiments are repeated for second trial and mean value is calculated. The
mean value of the period is noted as T0.

Calculation of T1

• The two identical cylindrical masses are placed at equal distance on either
side of the central chuck as close as possible. The distance d1 is measured
between the wire and the centre of the cylindrical mass. By twisting the disc,
the time taken for 10 complete oscillations is noted. The mean value of the
time period is noted as T1.

Calculation of T2
• The identical masses are arranged symmetrically as far away from the
axis of the rotation as possible. The distance d2 is measured between the
centre of the cylindrical mass of the time taken for 10 complete oscillations is
calculated in the same manner as that of the calculation of T0 and T1.

Calculation of Moment Of Inertia and Rigidity Modulus

• The mean value of the radius and length of the wire is measured accurately by
a screw gauge and meter scale respectively. The moment of the inertia of
the circular disc and the rigidity modulus of the suspension wire are
calculated by substituting the values in the equations respectively.
• Moment of Inertia can also be determined theoretically I = MR2, where M=
Mass of the Disc, R= radius of the Disc.

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CALCULATION

Mean radius of the wire r= m

Length of the wire l = m

Mass of the identical cylinder m= kg

Closest distance between suspension wire & the centre of symmetrical mass d1 = m

Farthest distance between suspension wire& the centre of symmetrical mass d2 = m

Period of oscillations (without masses) T0 = sec

Period of oscillations with masses at ‘d1’ distance T1 = sec

Period of oscillations with masses at ‘d2’ distance T2 = sec

The moment of inertia of the circular disc,

I= kg.m2

I= kg/m2

Rigidity modulus of them wire,

η= N/ m2

η= N/m2

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RESULT

(i) Moment of inertia of the circular disc I = _______ kg m²

(ii) Rigidity modulus of the given wire η = N/m2

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Figure 2.1 Young’s modulus of the material – Non-uniform bending

 
DETERMINATION OF LEAST COUNT OF TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

Least count = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

20 MSD = 1 cm
Value of 1 MSD = cm = 0.05 cm
Number of Vernier Scale Division = 50
50 VSD = 49 MSD
1 VSD = MSD = x 0.05 = 0.049
LC = 0.05 – 0.049 = 0.001 cm
LC = 0.001 cm
To find depression ‘y’

Distance between two knife edges (l) = _____ x 10 -2 m

TR = MSR + (VSC x LC)

M = -------------------- x 10-3 kg L.C = 0.001 cm

Microscope Readings
Loading Unloading Depression
S.No Load Y for M
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR Mean kg

Unit x 10-3kg cm div cm cm div cm cm cm

1 W
2 W+50
3 W+100
4 W+150
5 W+200
Mean (y) = ------- x 10-2 m

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2. YOUNG’S MODULUS OF THE MATERIAL – NON-UNIFORM BENDING

AIM
To determine the young’s modulus of the material of a uniform bar by non uniform bending method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Traveling microscope, Weight hanger with slotted weights, Two knife edges, Pin, Wooden bar,
Vernier caliper, Screw gauge.

PRINCIPLE

When a beam symmetrically supported on two knife edge is loaded at its centre, the bent beam would
not form an arc of circle. This type of bending is called non uniform bending. The maximum depression is
produced at its mid point.

FORMULA

The Young’s Modulus of the beam,

 
4

  Unit
Symbol Explanation
  Load applied kg
M
  l Distance between the two knife edges m
b Breadth of the beam (meter scale) m
  Thickness of the beam (meter scale)
d m
  y Depression produced for ‘M’ kg of load m

  g Acceleration due to gravity ms-2

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To find the thickness (d) of the beam using screw gauge

LC = 0.01 mm Z.E = ….. div

Z.C = …… mm

Observed Reading Correct Reading

S. No. PSR HSC HSR = HSC x LC
= PSR +HSR = OR + ZC
Unit mm div mm mm mm

Mean (d) = ------------------------- x10-3 m

To find the breadth (b) of the beam using Vernier Calipers

LC = 0.01 cm Z.E = ….. div

Z.C = …… cm

Observed Reading Correct Reading

S. No. MSR VSC VSR = VSC x LC
= MSR +VSR = OR +ZC
Unit cm div cm cm cm

Mean (b) =-------------------------- x10-2 m

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PROCEDURE

The weight of the hanger is taken as the dead load ‘w’. The wooden bar is brought to elastic mood
by loading and unloading it, a number of times with slotted weights. With the dead load w suspended from
the midpoint, the microscope is adjusted such that the horizontal cross-wire coincides with the image of the
tip of the pin. The reading in the vertical scale is taken.

The experiment is repeated by adding weights in steps of 50 gm each. Every time the microscope is
adjusted and the vertical scale reading is taken. Then the load is decreased in the same steps and the
readings are taken. From the readings, the mean depression of the mid-point for a given load can be found.
The length of the wooden bar between the knife edges is measured (l).

The wooden bar is removed and its mean breadth ‘b’ and mean thickness ‘d’are determined with a
Vernier caliper and a screw gauge respectively.

From the observations, Young modulus of the material of the beam is calculated by using the given
formula.

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CALCULATION

Acceleration due to gravity g= 9.8 ms-2

Distance between the two knife edges l = ………. m

Breadth of the beam b= ………… m

Thickness of the beam d = ………….. m

Depression produced for ‘M’ kg of load y = ………….. m

Load to calculate depression M = ………….. kg

The Young’s modulus of the given material of the beam

 
4

RESULT

The Young’s Modulus of the given wooden bar

E = …………… newton/meter2

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Figure 3.1 Laser Grating Experiment

Determination of wavelength of laser

Distance between the grating and the screen (D) = …….cm

Number of lines in grating per metre (N) = 1 x 105 lines / metre

Readings of the diffracted image

Order of diffraction n

Distance of different Mean

S.No Orders from the tan θ θ tan sin
central spot λ  
2
Left side Right side

Unit cm cm cm (nm)

1 1 x1 = x1 =

2 2 x2 = x2 =

3 3 x3 = x3 =

4 4 x4 = x4=

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3. (a) DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF THE GIVEN LASER

AIM:

To determine the wavelength of the given laser using grating.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Diode laser, grating, screen and scale.

PRINCIPLE

The laser light is exposed to the grating and diffraction takes place.

FORMULA

(1) Wavelength of the given laser

λ   meter 

Symbol Explanation Unit

θ Angle of diffraction degree
N Order of diffraction -
N Number of lines per meter in the grating lines/m

PROCEDURE:

Diode laser is kept horizontally and switched on (care should be taken). The grating is
held normal to the laser beam. This is done by adjusting the grating in such a way that the reflected
laser beam coincides with the beam coming out of the laser. As shown in the Fig.3.1 After
adjusting for normal incidence, the laser light is exposed to the grating and it is diffracted by it. On
the other side of the grating on the screen, the diffracted laser spots are seen. The distances of
different orders from the centre spot (x) are measured. The distance between the grating and screen
(D) is measured. Using the formula ‘θ’ is calculated. The wavelength of the laser light source is
calculated using the given formula.
θ
λ = metre

The number of lines in the grating is assumed as ≈ 1 x 105 lines per metre.

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Figure 3.2. Particle size determination by Laser

Particle size determination

Order of Distance between the Particle Size

Distance between screen
S.No diffraction central bright point and λ
and glass plate (D) d=
n nth fringe Xn
Unit cm cm cm

1
1
2

1
2
2

Mean d =

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PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION USING LASER

AIM

To determine the size of the given micro particles (lycopodium powder) using laser.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Diode laser, fine micro particles having nearly same size, glass plate, screen, metre scale

FORMULA

Particle size (diameter) d is given by

Explanation Units
Symbol
n Order of diffraction -
λ Wavelength of laser light used metre
D Distance between glass plate and the screen. metre
xn Distance between central bright spot and the nth ring metre

PROCEDURE

A glass plate is taken and a fine powder of particle size in the range of micrometer is
sprinkled on the glass plate. This glass plate is kept between laser light and screen. The
experimental is shown in the Fig.3.2. Now laser beam gets diffracted by the particles present in the
glass plate. By adjusting the distance between the glass plate and the screen, (D) a circular fringe
pattern is seen on the screen and the distance between the central bright point and nth fringe xn for
various orders of diffraction is measured.

Using the formula, the particle size is determined. The experiment is repeated for different
D values.

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Figure 3.3. Experimental setup for acceptance angle

To determine acceptance angle

Distance from the Acceptance angle

Radius of the circular
fiber end to circular
S.No image 180
image
‘r’
‘d’

Unit cm mm deg.
1

2
3

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(b) DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTANCE ANGLE IN AN OPTICAL FIBRE

AIM

To determine acceptance angle of an optical fiber.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Laser for optical fiber light source, optical fiber, optical fiber connectors and Numerical
aperture Jig.

PRINCIPLE

The principle behind the transmission of light waves in an optical fiber is total internal
reflection.

FORMULA

Acceptance angle  deg

Symbol Explanation Unit

r Radius of the circular image metre
d Distance from fibre end to circular image metre

PROCEDURE

Using laser, we can find the acceptance angle of the fiber optic cable. The given laser source is
connected to the optical fiber cable. The other end is exposed to the air medium in the dark place.
The emerging light is exposed on a plain paper.

Now, we get illuminated circular patch on the screen.Fig.3.3 shows the experimental setup
for acceptance angle measure. The distance from the fiber end to circular image (d) is measured
using meter scale. The radius of the circular image is also measured. Thus the acceptance angle is
calculated

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CALCULATION

(i) Wavelength of the laser source,

sin
λ    metre  

(ii) The size of the particle,

(iii) Acceptance angle,

 deg

RESULTS
i) Wavelength of the given source λ = ------------------- metre.

ii) The size of the particle d = ___________ m

iii) Acceptance angle θa = ___________ degree.

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Figure 4.1.To set for normal incidence position Figure 4.2. Diffracted ray from grating

DETERMINATION OF LEAST COUNT

2MSD = 1°
1MSD = 1/2° = 0.5° = 30′
LC = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
Number of divisions in vernier scale = 30
30 VSD = 29 MSD
1 VSD = 29/30 x MSD = 29/30′ x30′ =29′
LC = 30′ – 29′
LC = 1′ (One minute)
 

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4. SPECTROMETER - DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF MERCURY
SPECTRUM

AIM

To determine the wavelength of the mercury (Hg) spectrum using the plane transmission grating.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Spectrometer, Sodium vapour lamp, Plane transmission grating, spirit level, Mercury
vapour lamp, and reading lens.

PRINCIPLE

A plane sheet of transparent material on which a large number of equidistant opaque rulings are
made with a diamond point forms grating. The space between the rulings and transparent area
constitute a parallel slit. When light passes through such a grating, diffraction takes place. Angle of
diffraction depends upon the wavelength of the light and number of lines per metre on the grating.
So the number of lines per metre in grating and wavelength of the source can be calculated.

FORMULA 

The wavelength of the spectral lines of mercury spectrum

Symbol Explanation Unit

θ Angle of diffraction deg
N Number of lines/ metre lines/ metre
n Order of spectrum no unit

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To determine the wavelength(λ) of the prominent lines of the mercury spectrum

Least count = 1’ Order of the spectrum n = 1

N= ……………………………….lines/meter TR = MSR + (VSC x LC)

Readings for diffracted image

Difference between
Vernier A and Mean
Left Side Right side Vernier B angle
Mean of
2θ diffraction
Spectral Vernier A Vernier B Vernier A Vernier B 2θ 2θ
lines (A1) (B1) (A2) (B2) =A1∼A2 =B1∼B2
θ
(colours)
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR

deg. div. deg. deg. div. deg. deg. div. deg. deg. div. deg. deg. deg. deg. deg. meter

Violet

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Blue

Green
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Yellow

Red

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PROCEDURE

(i) Normal Incidence

Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The grating is mounted on the grating
table with its ruled surface facing the collimator the slit is illuminated by a source of light
(sodium vapour lamp). The slit is made to coincide with the vertical cross wires. The vernier
scales are adjusted to read 0˚ and 180˚ for the direct ray. The telescope is rotated through an
angle of 90˚ and fixed. The grating table is adjusted until the image coincides with the vertical
cross wire. Both the grating table and the telescope are fixed at this position as shown in Fig.4.1.
Now rotate the vernier table through 45˚ in the same direction in which the telescope has been
previously rotated. The light from the collimator incident normally on the grating. The telescope
is released and is brought on the line with the direct image of the slit. Now the grating is said to
be in normal incidence position
.

(iii) Determination of Wavelength (λ) of the Source

The sodium vapour lamp is replaced by mercury vapour lamp. The diffracted images of the
first order are seen on either side of the central direct image as shown in Fig.4.2. The readings are
tabulated by coincide the vertical cross wire with the first order on the either side of the
central direct image prominent lines namely violet, blue, bluish green, green, yellow, red of the
mercury spectrum. The difference between the readings give 2θ, from this θ can be found. The
wavelength of each spectral line is calculated using the equation, λ = sinθ / Nn metre.

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CALCULATION

Order of the spectrum n = 1

1. The wavelength of the spectral lines of mercury spectrum,

Wavelength for violet,

λv =……………….Å

Wavelength for blue

λB =……………….Å

Wavelength for green

λG=……………… Å

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Wavelength for yellow

λY=……………………….Å
Wavelength for red

λR =……………….Å

RESULT

(i) Wavelength of various spectral lines

Colour of the wavelength Å

S.No
spectrum
1 Violet
2 Blue
3 Green
4 Yellow
5 Red

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Fig.5.1. Circuit for band gap determination

Fig.5.2. Variation of current with inverse temperature in a reverse biased pn -diode

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5. DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

AIM

To determine the band gap energy of a semiconductor by varying the temperature

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Semiconductor diode, Heating arrangement to heat the diode, Ammeter, Voltmeter,

thermometer.

PRINCIPLE

For a semiconductor diode at 0K the valence band is completely filled and the
conduction band is empty and it behaves as an insulator. If the temperature is increased,
some of the valence electrons gains thermal energy greater than the forbidden energy
(Eg) and it moves to conduction band, which constitutes some current to flow through
the semiconductor diode.

FORMULA

Band gap energy Eg = 0.198 x Slope eV

Slope = log Is / (1000/T)

Symbol Explanation Unit

Is Saturation current μA

T Absolute temperature kelvin

PROCEDURE

• The circuit is given as shown in Fig.(5.1)

• The semiconductor diode and the thermometer is immersed in the water or oil
bath, in such a way that the thermometer is kept nearby the diode.
• The power supply is kept constant (2Volts).
• The heating mantle is switched ON and the oil bath is heated up to 70°C.
• Now the heating mantle is switched OFF and the oil bath is allowed to cool
slowly.
• For every five degree fall of temperature the micro ammeter the reading Is is noted.

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Temperature Temperature Is Log Is

S.No 1000 /T

°C K K-1 x 10 -6 A
unit

10

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• A graph is plotted taking 1000/T along x axis and log Is along negative y axis
(Fig.1.2), (Since Is in the order of micro-ampere, log Is value will come in
negative).
• A straight line obtained as shown in model graph
• By finding the slope of the straight line, the band gap energy can be calculated
using the given formula.

CALCULATION

Eg= 0.198 x Slope eV

Eg = 0.198 x log Is / (1000/ T) eV

E
g= eV

RESULT

The band gap energy of the given diode is Eg= eV.

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DATA OF PHYSICAL CONSTANTS & STANDARD VALUES

 

  S.No. Physical Constants Symbol Value in SI Unit

  1 Velocity of light C 3 x 108 m/s

2 Acceleration due to gravity g 9.8 m/s2
 
3 Planck’s constant h 6.625 x 10-34 Js
 
4 Charge of an electron e 1.69 x 10-19 C
 
5 Avogadro number NA 6.023 x 1026 atoms/ k mole
 
6 Boltzmann constant k 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
 
7 Young’s modulus of the wooden beam E 1 x 1010 Nm-2
  Young’s modulus of the teak
8 E 1.7 x 1010 Nm-2
wooden beam
 
D1 = 5890 Å,
  9 Wavelength of sodium vapour lamp λ
D2 = 5896 Å
 
λv 4047 Å
  λB 4358 Å
  Wavelength of mercury vapour lamp λG 5461 Å
10
  λYI 5770 Å
λR 6234 Å
 

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VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

RIGIDITY MODULUS- TORSIONAL PENDULUM

1. What is torsional pendulum?

A body suspended from a rigid support by mens of a long and thin
elastic wire is called torsional pendulum.

2. What is the type of oscillation?

This is of simple harmonic oscillation type.

3.How will you determine the rigidity of fluids?

As fluids do not have a shape of their own, hence they do not posses rigidity. Hence there
is no question of determining it.

YOUNGS MODULUS NON-UNIFORM BENDING

1. What is young’s modulus?

Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain.

2. What is a beam?

When the lengths of the rod of uniform cross section is very large compared to its breadth
such that the shearing stress over any section of the rod can be neglected, the rod is called beam.
3. How are longitudinal strain and stress produced in your experiment?

Due to depression, the upper or the concave side of the beam becomes smaller than the
lower or the convex side of the beam. As a result, longitudinal strain is produced. The change in
wave length of the beam. These forces will give rise to longitudinal stress.
4. Which dimension- breath, thickness or length of the bar-should be measured very careful
and why?
The thickness of the bar should be measured very carefully since its magnitude is small and
it occurs in the expression ‘E’ in the power of three. An inaccuracy in the measurement of the
thickness will produce the greatest proportional error in ‘E’.

5. Why do you place the beam symmetrically on the knife edges?

To keep the reaction at the knife edges equal in conformity with the theory.

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Valliammai Engineering College, Department of Physics
 

LASER PARAMETERS
1. Define LASER?

The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is
a device which produces a powerful, monochromatic collimated beam of light in which the waves
are coherent.

2. What is meant by active material in laser?

The material in which the population inversion is achieved is called active material.

3. What is semi conductor diode laser?

Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated pn junction diode. It emits laser light
when it is forward biased.

4. What are the characteristic of laser radiation?

Laser radiations have high intensity, high coherence, monochromatic and high directionality
with less divergence.

5. What is stimulated emission?

The process of forced emission of photons caused by incident photons is called stimulated
emission

6. Define acceptance angle

The maximum with which a ray of light can enter through one end of the fiber and still be
totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fiber.

7. What is the principle used in fiber optic communication system?

The principle behind the transmission of light waves in an optical fiber is total internal
reflection

BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

1.Define Fermi level

Fermi level is that state at which the probability of electron occupation is ½ at any
temperature above 0K and also it is the level of maximum energy of the filled states at 0K.

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2.What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? R

Instrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors in pure form. A semiconducting

material in charge carriers originate from impurity atoms added to the material is called
extrinsic semiconductor.

SPECTROMETER GRATING

1. What is the use of collimator and telescope?

A collimator is a device that narrows a beam of particles or waves. A telescope is an

instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation
(such as visible light).

2. What is plane transmission diffraction grating?

A plane transmission diffraction grating is an optically plane parallel glass plate on which
equidistant, extremely close grooves are made by ruling with a diamond point.

3. In our experiment. What class of diffraction does occur and how?

Fraunhofer class of diffraction occurs. Since the spectrometer is focused for parallel rays,
the source and the image are effectively at infinite distances from the grating.

4. How are the commercial gratings are made?

A commercial grating is made by pouring properly diluted cellulose acetate on the actual
grating and drying it to a thin strong film. The film is detached from the original grating and is
mounted between two glass plates. A commercial grating is called replica grating. In our
experiment we use plane type replica grating.

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