Third Edition

LECTURE

REVIEW FOR EXAM #1

• A. J. Clark School of Engineering •Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

10 by
Dr. Ibrahim A. Assakkaf
SPRING 2003
Chapters ENES 220 – Mechanics of Materials
1, 2, and 3 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Maryland, College Park

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 1

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Review: Statics

„ Equations of Equilibrium
– Rigid Body
F2
F2

z F1
y
k j

i
x

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 2
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Review: Statics

„ Equations of Equilibrium
– For a rigid body to be in equilibrium, both
the resultant force R and a resultant
moments (couples) C must vanish.
– These two conditions can be expressed
mathematically in vector form as
r r
R = ∑ Fx i + ∑ Fy j + ∑ Fz k =0
r r
C = ∑ M x i + ∑ M y j + ∑ M z k =0

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 3

Review: Statics
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„ Equations of Equilibrium
– The two conditions can also be expressed
in scalar form as

∑F = 0 x ∑F y =0 ∑F = 0
z

∑M = 0 x ∑M y =0 ∑M = 0z

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 4

Review: Statics
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„ Equilibrium in Two Dimensions

– The term “two dimensional” is used to
describe problems in which the forces
under consideration are contained in a
plane (say the xy-plane)
y

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 5

Review: Statics
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ Equilibrium in Two Dimensions

– For two-dimensional problems, since a
force in the xy-plane has no z-component
and produces no moments about the x- or
y-axes, hence
r r
R = ∑ Fx i + ∑ Fy j = 0
r r
C = ∑ M zk = 0

3
LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 6

Review: Statics
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„ Equilibrium in Two Dimensions

– In scalar form, these conditions can be
expressed as

∑F x =0 ∑F y =0
∑M A =0

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 7

Review: Statics
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„ Cartesian Vector Representation of A

Force
z
F F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
Fz y
Fy

x
Fx

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 8

Review: Statics
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ Cartesian Vector Representation of A

Force in Two Dimensions
r
F = Fx i + Fy j
= F cosθi + F sin θj
F sin θ F

θ
F cos θ

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 9

Review: Vector Operations

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ Dot or Scalar Product

– The dot or scalar product or two
intersecting vectors is defined as the
product of the magnitudes of the vectors
and the cosine of the angle between them.
A • B = AB cos θ A
θ
B

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 10

Review: Vector Operations

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ Cross or Vector Product

C C = A × B = (AB sin θ) e C

B
eC A×B=-B×A
θ
A r r
i j k
r
A × B = Ax Ay Az = C
Bx By Bz

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 11

Review: Vector Operations

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ Example 3
– If A = -3.75i – 2.50j + 1.50k and
B = 32i + 44j + 64 k
determine the magnitude and direction of
the vector C = A × B

i j k
r r r
C = A × B = − 3.75 − 2.5 1.5
32 44 64

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 12

Review: Vector Operations

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ Example 3 (cont’d)
i j k
r r r
C = A × B = − 3.75 − 2.5 1.5
32 44 64
= [- 2.5(64) - 1.5(44)]i - [- 3.75(64) - 1.5(32)]j
+ [- 3.75(44) - (-2.5)32]
= −226i + 288 j − 85k

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 13

Review: Vector Operations

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ Example 3 (cont’d)
r
C = C = (−226) 2 + (288) + (−85) 2 = 376
2

C − 226
θ x = cos −1 rx = cos −1 = 126.9 0
C 376
C 288
θ yx = cos −1 ry = cos −1 = 40.0 0
C 376
C − 85.0
θ zx = cos −1 rz = cos −1 = 103.10
C 376

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 14
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Introduction

„ Objectives
Mechanics of Materials
answers two questions:
Is the material strong enough?
Is the material stiff enough?

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 15

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Introduction

„ Objectives
– If the material is not strong enough, your
design will break.
– If the material isn’t stiff enough, your
design probably won’t function the way it’s
intended to.

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 16
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Internal Forces for Axially

Loaded Members
„ Analysis of Internal Forces
F2 F3 F4
F1

Assume that F1 = 2 k, F3 = 5 k, and F4 = 8 k

Then
→ + ∑ − F1 − F2 − F3 + F4 = 0; ⇒ F2 = F4 − F1 − F3
or F2 = 8 − 2 − 5 = 1 k

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 17

Internal Forces for Axially

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Loaded Members
„ Analysis of Internal Forces
– What is the internal force developed on
plane a-a and b-b?
a b
1k 5k 8k
2k

a b
2k 1k
Ra-a
Ra −a = 3k

9
LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 18

Internal Forces for Axially

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Loaded Members
„ Analysis of Internal Forces
a b
1k 5k 8k
2k

a b

Rb −b = 8k
2k 1k 5k
Rb-b

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 19

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Axial Loading: Normal Stress

„ Stress
– Stress is the intensity of internal force.
– It can also be defined as force per unit
area, or intensity of the forces distributed
over a given section.

Force (1)
Stress =
Area

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 20
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Axial Loading: Normal Stress

„ Normal Stress
F = magnitude of the force F
A = area of the cross sectional area of the
eye bar.
„ Units of Stress
SI System U.S. Customary Units
1 kPa = 103Pa = 103 N/m2 lb/in2 = psi
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2 Kip/in2 = ksi = 1000 psi
1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 N/m2

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 21

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Shearing Stress

„ Illustration of Shearing Stress P

P

V P
τ avg = = V
As As
P P

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 22

Stresses on an Inclined Plane in

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an Axially Loaded Member

„ Illustration
P

Inclined Area, An
Original Area, A θ

P
F

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 23

Design Loads, Working Stresses,

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and Factor of Safety (FS)

„ Factor of Safety
– The factor of safety (FS) can be defined as
the ratio of the ultimate stress of the
material to the allowable stress

ultimate stress
FS =
allowable stress

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 24
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Displacement, Deformation, and

Strain
„ Strain
– Two general types of strain: φ = γxy
• Axial (normal) Strain
• Shearing Strain
δs
L δ
L
θ

Normal Strain Shearing Strain

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 25

Displacement, Deformation, and

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Strain
„ Average Axial Strain

δn δn
ε avg = L
L
„ True Axial Strain
∆δ n dδ n
ε ( p ) = lim =
∆L →0 ∆L dL

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 26
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Displacement, Deformation, and

Strain
„ Average Shearing Strain

γ avg = tan φ φ = γxy

Since δs is vary small,

sin φ = tan φ = φ, therefore, δs

δs L
γ avg = θ
L

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 27

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Displacement, Deformation, and

Strain
„ Example
A rigid steel plate A is supported by three
rods as shown. There is no strain in the
rods before the load P is applied. After P
is applied, the axial strain in rod C is 900µ
in/in. Determine
(a) The axial strain in rods B.
(b) The axial strain in rods B if there is a 0.006-in
clearance in the connections between A and
B before the load is applied.

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 28

Displacement, Deformation, and

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Strain
„ Example (cont’d)

72"
B C 42"
B

A
P

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 29

Displacement, Deformation, and

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Strain
„ Example (cont’d) "
72
B C 42"
B

δC
εC = ⇒ δ C = ε C LC = 900 ×10 −6 (72) = 0.0648 in
LC
δB 0.0648
a) εB = = = 0.001543 = 1543µ
LB 42
δB 0.0648 − 0.006
a) εB = = = 0.001400 = 1400µ
LB 42

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 30

Stress-Strain-Temperature
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Relationships
„ General Stress-Strain Diagram

P
σ= Rupture
A L

δ
δ
ε=
L P

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 31

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Stress-Strain-Temperature
Relationships
„ Modulus of Elasticity, E
– The initial portion of the stress-strain curve
(diagram) is a straight line. The equation
for this straight line is called the modulus of
elasticity or Young’s Modulus E

σ
σ = Eε
σ=Eε
ε

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 32

Stress-Strain-Temperature
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Relationships
„ Shear Modulus of Elasticity, G
– The shear modulus is similar to the
modulus of elasticity. However it is applied
to shear stress-strain.

τ = Gγ

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 33

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Stress-Strain-Temperature
Relationships
Shear Modulus of Elasticity, G

τ
τ Slope = G =
γ
τ=Gγ

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 34

Stress-Strain-Temperature
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Relationships
„ Poisson’s Ratio
– A material loaded in one direction will
undergo strains perpendicular to the
direction of the load in addition to those
parallel to the load. The ratio of the lateral
or perpendicular strain to the longitudinal
or axial strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
ε lat ε l
ν= = E = 2(1 + ν )G
ε long ε a

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 35

Stress-Strain-Temperature
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Relationships
„ Thermal Strain
– The thermal strain due a temperature
change of ∆T degrees is given by

ε T = α∆T

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 36

Stress-Strain-Temperature
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Relationships
„ Total Strain
– The sum of the normal strain caused by
the loads and the thermal strain is called
the total strain, and it is given by
σ
ε total = ε σ + ε T = + α ∆T
E

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 37

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Rods: Stress Concentrations

Fig. 1. Stress distribution near circular hole in flat bar

under axial loading

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 38
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Rods: Stress Concentrations

Fig. 2. Stress distribution near fillets in flat bar under

axial loading

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 39

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Rods: Stress Concentrations

„ Hole Fig. 3

Discontinuities of cross section may result in σ

K = max
high localized or concentrated stresses. σ ave

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 40

Rods: Stress Concentrations

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ Fillet Fig. 4

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 41

Rods: Stress Concentrations

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ To determine the maximum stress

occurring near discontinuity in a given
member subjected to a given axial load
P, it is only required that the average
stress σave = P/A be computed in the
critical section, and the result be
multiplied by the appropriate value of
the stress-concentration factor K.
„ It is to be noted that this procedure is
valid as long as σmax ≤ σy

21
LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 42
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Deformations of Members under

Axial Loading
„ Uniform Member
– The deflection (deformation),δ, of the
uniform member subjected to axial loading
P is given by

PL
δ= (1)
EA

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 43

Deformations of Members under

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Axial Loading
„ Multiple Loads/Sizes
– The deformation of of various parts of a rod
or uniform member can be given by
n n
Pi Li
δ = ∑δi = ∑ (2)
i =1 i =1 Ei Ai
E1 E2 E3

L1 L2 L3

22
LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 44

Deformations of Members under

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Axial Loading
„ Relative Deformation
– On the other hand, since both ends of bars
AB move, the deformation of AB is
measured by the difference between the
displacements δA and δB of points A and B.
– That is by relative displacement of B with
respect to A, or
PL (3)
δ B/ A = δ B − δ A =
EA

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 45

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Statically Indeterminate
Structures
„ Determinacy of Beams
– For a coplanar (two-dimensional) structure,
there are at most three equilibrium
equations for each part, so that if there is a
total of n parts and r reactions, we have

r = 3n, ⇒ statically determinate

r > 3n, ⇒ statically indeterminate
(4)

23
LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 46
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Statically Indeterminate
Structures
„ Determinacy of Trusses
– For a coplanar (two-dimensional) truss,
there are at most two equilibrium equations
for each joint j, so that if there is a total of b
members and r reactions, we have

b + r = 2 j , ⇒ statically determinate
(5)
b + r > 2 j , ⇒ statically indeterminate

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 47

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Statically Indeterminate Axially

Loaded Members
„ Example 4 (cont’d)
Tube (A2, E2)

Rod (A2, E2) P

End plate
L

24
LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 48
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Statically Indeterminate Axially

Loaded Members
„ Example 4 (cont’d) Tube (A2, E2)

P Rod (A1, E1) P

FBD: FT/2
P FR
FT/2
FT FT
→ + ∑ Fx = 0; P − − − FR = 0
2 2
FR + FT = P

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 49

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Torsional Loading

„ Introduction
Cylindrical members

Fig. 1

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 LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 50
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Torsional Loading

„ Stresses in Circular Shaft due to

Torsion
B C

T T
ρ
Fig. 7

dF = τρ dA

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 51

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Torsional Shearing Strain

„ Shearing Strain
c

γρ ρ
φ
L

Fig. 8

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 52
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Torsional Shearing Strain

„ Shearing Strain
For radius ρ, the shearing strain for circular
shaft is ρφ
γρ = (6)
L
For radius c, the shearing strain for circular
shaft is
cφ (7)
γc =
L

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 53

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Torsional Shearing Strain

„ Polar Moment of Inertia

The integral of equation 12 is called the
polar moment of inertia (polar second
moment of area).
It is given the symbol J. For a solid circular
shaft, the polar moment of inertia is given
by c 4
πc
J = ∫ ρ 2 dA = ∫ ρ 2 (2πρ dρ ) = (13)
0
2

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 54
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Torsional Shearing Strain

„ Polar Moment of Inertia

The integral of equation 12 is called the
polar moment of inertia (polar second
moment of area).
It is given the symbol J. For a solid circular
shaft, the polar moment of inertia is given
by c 4
πc
J = ∫ ρ 2 dA = ∫ ρ 2 (2πρ dρ ) = (13)
0
2

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 55

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Torsional Shearing Strain

„ Shearing Stress in Terms of Torque and

Polar Moment of Inertia
Tc
τ max = (17a)
J
Tρ (18a)
τρ =
J
τ= shearing stress, T = applied torque
ρ = radius, and J = polar moment on inertia

28
LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 56
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

The angle of twist for a circular uniform
shaft subjected to external torque T is
given by

TL
θ= (22)
GJ

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 57

Torsional Displacements
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

n n
Multiple Torques/Sizes Ti Li
„ θ = ∑θ i = ∑
i =1 i =1 Gi J i

E1 E2 E3

L1 L2 L3

Fig. 12 Circular Shafts

29
LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 58

Torsional Displacements
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

The angle of twist of various parts of a
shaft of uniform member can be given by
n n
Ti Li
θ = ∑θ i = ∑ (24)
i =1 i =1 Gi J i

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 59

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Torsional Displacements

„ Angle of Twist in the Elastic Range

If the properties (T, G, or J) of the shaft are
functions of the length of the shaft, then
L
T
θ =∫ dx (25)
0
GJ

30
 LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 60
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Stresses in Oblique Planes

„ Other Stresses Induced By Torsion

Fig. 16
y
t y A
(c)
n x
τn t dA
y
τ yx
τx y dA cos α

α σn dA (a)
α

τ xy τ xy
α
x x
τyx dA sin α τ yx (b)

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 61

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Stresses in Oblique Planes

„ Other Stresses Induced By Torsion

t y
+ ∑F =0 n
t
τn t dA
τ nt dA − τ xy (dA cos α ) cos α + τ yx (dA sin α )sin α = 0
τx y dA cos α

From which α σn dA
α
τ nt = τ xy (cos 2 α − sin 2 α ) = τ xy cos 2α (29)

τyx dA sin α
Fig. 16c

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 LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 62
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Stresses in Oblique Planes

„ Other Stresses Induced By Torsion

t y
+ ∑F =0 n
t τn t dA
σ n dA − τ xy (dA cos α )sin α − τ yx (dA sin α ) cos α = 0

τx y dA cos α
From which α σn dA
α
σ n = 2τ xy sin α cos α = τ xy sin 2α (31)

τyx dA sin α
Fig. 16c

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 63

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Stresses in Oblique Planes

„ Maximum Normal Stress due to Torsion

on Circular Shaft
The maximum compressive normal stress
σmax can be computed from
Tmax c
σ max = τ max = (32)
J

32
LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 64
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Power Transmission

„ Power Transmission by Torsional Shaft

– But ω = 2π f, where f = frequency. The unit
of frequency is 1/s and is called hertz (Hz).
– If this is the case, then the power is given
by Power = 2πfT
or (37)
Power
T=
2πf

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 65

ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Power Transmission

„ Power Transmission by Torsional Shaft

– Units of Power

SI US Customary

watt (1 N·m/s) hp (33,000 ft·lb/min)

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 66
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Power Transmission

„ Power Transmission by Torsional Shaft

– Some useful relations

1 −1 1
1 rpm = s = Hz
60 60
1 hp = 550 ft ⋅ lb/s = 6600 in ⋅ lb/s

rpm = revolution per minute

LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 67

Summary
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

„ Axially Loaded Versus Torsionally

Loaded Members

Axial Torsion

P Tρ
Stress σ= τρ =
A J
PL TL
Deformation δ= θ=
EA GJ

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LECTURE 10. REVIEW FOR EXAM I (CH. 1, 2, AND 3) Slide No. 68
ENES 220 ©Assakkaf

Summary

„ Strain
– Two general types of strain: φ = γxy
• Axial (normal) Strain
• Shearing Strain
δs
L δ
L
θ

Normal Strain Shearing Strain

35