Natural Ventilation in Buildings

Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

by
Tommy Kleiven

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doktor Ingeniør

at

Norwegian University of Science and Technology

Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art
Department of Architectural Design, History and Technology

March 2003

URN:NBN:no-7242
URN:NBN:no-7242
 Preface

Natural ventilation in buildings relies on wind and thermal buoyancy as

driving forces. Humankind has used these driving forces throughout
history to create the desired thermal environment and to transport away
undesired contaminants. From the first primitive living quarters with the
fireplace in the centre of a tent or a cabin, the technique we take
advantage of to control and adjust our indoor climate has grown ever more
sophisticated. This technique has in the 20th century been dominated by
mechanical ventilation and air conditioning. These technologies have
developed into systems of great complexity with an increasing number of
components, need for space, and use of energy. Despite this, many of the
mechanical systems do not manage to deliver the desired indoor climate.
Because of this contradiction, the focus has again been put on simpler,
more robust and less energy consuming solutions.

The driving pressures derived from wind and thermal buoyancy are low
compared to those produced by fans in mechanical ventilation systems. It
is therefore necessary to minimise the resistance in the airflow path
through the building. Thus, the building itself, with its envelope, rooms,
corridors and stairways, rather than the ducts familiar from mechanical
ventilation systems, is used as air path. A natural ventilation concept is
therefore highly integrated in the building body and will consequently
have influence on building design and architecture. Le Corbusier’s
perhaps most famous dictum was “a house is a machine for living in.” In
the context of natural ventilation it can be said that the building in itself is
a machine, and not a structure to put a machine into.

This work examines the relationship between building design and natural
ventilation. The work tries in the first instance to seek out the architectural
consequences of natural ventilation, and in the next instance to find out to
what extent the natural airflow has a potential of being a design criterion,
a contributing parameter in the design of buildings. The primary goal of
this study is to offer a better understanding of the architectural
presuppositions for utilisation of natural ventilation, and from that suggest
some architectural possibilities associated with the utilisation of natural
driving forces. The target group of this thesis is primarily architects in
general and researchers within the field, but also other actors in the
building industry, e.g. consultants, contractors and building owners, may
find this study of interest.

URN:NBN:no-7242
URN:NBN:no-7242
 Contents
Abstract 6
1 Introduction 7
1.1 Research field 8
1.2 Research questions 13
1.3 Focus 15
1.4 Research approach 16
1.5 Outline of the dissertation 22

2 Principles and elements of natural ventilation 27

2.1 The purpose of ventilation 30
2.2 Natural driving forces 36
2.3 Natural ventilation principles 41
2.4 Local and central supply and exhaust paths 44
2.5 Combination of natural and mechanical ventilation 46
2.6 Characteristic elements of natural ventilation 52
3 Case studies and architectural aspects 71
3.1 Classification of natural ventilation concepts 72
3.2 Selection of case study buildings 76
3.3 Checklist for architectural aspects 79

4 Natural ventilation in a high-rise building 83

4.1 Description of the GSW case study building 85
4.2 Architectural consequences of natural ventilation in GSW 98
4.3 Experiences of the design team 117
4.4 Summary and conclusions 121
5 Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building 127
5.1 Description of the B&O case study building 128
5.2 Architectural consequences of natural ventilation in B&O 141
5.3 Experiences of the design team 158
5.4 Summary and conclusions 160
6 Natural ventilation in a low-rise building 167
6.1 Description of the Mediå School case study building 168
6.2 Architectural consequences of natural ventilation in Mediå School 177
6.3 Experiences of the design team 190
6.4 Summary and conclusions 192
7 Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation 197
7.1 Possibilities related to the façade 200
7.2 Possibilities related to the roof 216
7.3 Possibilities related to the plan and the section 224
7.4 Possibilities related to the interior spaces 235

8 Conclusions and reflections 257

8.1 Findings regarding the architectural consequences of natural ventilation 258
8.2 Findings regarding the architectural possibilities of natural ventilation 265
8.3 Design team experiences and implications for future designs 267
8.4 Further research and development 270
Literature 271
Appendix: Sub-case buildings 281
Acknowledgements 304

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Abstract

This thesis, “Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts,

consequences and possibilities”, is the result of a PhD study financed by
Hydro Aluminium/Wicona, The Research Council of Norway and the
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). The work
was carried out at the Department of Architectural Design, History and
Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art at NTNU in the period
January 2000 to March 2003.

The study has been conducted in close collaboration with fellow

researchers Bjørn J. Wachenfeldt and Tor Arvid Vik. Chapter 2
“Principles and elements of natural ventilation” is in its entirety written
by the three of us together.

The main objectives of this work have been to identify and investigate the
architectural consequences and possibilities of natural ventilation in office
and school buildings in Northern Europe. Case studies and interviews
with architects and HVAC consultants have been the most central
“research instruments” in achieving this. Three buildings have been
studied in detail. These are the GSW Headquarters in Germany, the B&O
Headquarters in Denmark, and the Mediå Primary School in Norway. In
addition, a larger set of buildings has been used to substantiate the
findings.

The most important findings of this work are that:

 utilisation of natural ventilation in buildings has architectural

consequences as well as possibilities.
 natural ventilation primarily affects the facades, the roof/silhouette
and the layout and organisation of the interior spaces.
 the ventilation principle applied (single-sided, cross- or stack
ventilation) together with the nature of the supply and extract paths,
i.e. whether they are local or central, are of key importance for the
architectural consequences and possibilities.
 designing a naturally ventilated building is more difficult than
designing a similar but mechanically ventilated building. An
interdisciplinary approach from the initial stages of design is
mandatory for achieving successful natural ventilation concepts.

URN:NBN:no-7242
 1 Introduction

This work examines the relationship between building design and the
utilisation of natural ventilation in high-rise, medium-rise and low-rise
buildings. By studying and comparing these three generic building types,
the study explores how the architecture of naturally ventilated buildings of
varying height is affected. This should make it possible to find out if there
are different sets of “rules” for utilisation of natural ventilation for the
three generic building types, and then implicitly if there are differing
architectural consequences and possibilities for the three types. The basic
idea is that natural ventilation is so integrated with the building, in fact is
a part of the building, that it will have significant consequences for the
building design and the architectural expression both in the exterior and in
the interior. Furthermore, the utilisation and characteristics of the two
natural driving forces associated with natural ventilation, thermal
buoyancy and wind, are influenced by the height of the building. As a
consequence, the naturally induced airflow is an important parameter
among all the other parameters contributing to the shaping of a building.
The natural airflow, described by the laws of physics, can thus be
regarded as an important design criterion in the design of naturally
ventilated buildings, constituting a design instrument for the architect and
the consultants.

This chapter describes why and how this study has been conducted. The
chapter starts by describing the research field that has been addressed, in
section 1.1. From this description a set of research questions are
formulated in section 1.2. The focus of the research is described in section
1.3. A description of the research strategy, i.e. an explanation of how the
research questions will be answered, is presented in section 1.4. The
chapter ends with an outline of the dissertation in section 1.5.

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Research field

Why natural ventilation?

Or, the heading could rather have been formulated: why natural
ventilation again? Natural ventilation, relying on wind and thermal
buoyancy as driving forces, is surely not a new phenomenon or invention.
Utilisation of the natural driving forces for the purpose of ventilation has
for several millennia provided the desired thermal comfort and air quality
for both man and animals1.

I thought I heard Buddy Bolden say,

Open up that window, let the foul air get away!
Open up that window, let the foul air out!
That’s what I heard him shout.
Traditional (Banham, 1969).

Figure 1.1 Wind and thermal buoyancy, here illustrated with the wind blowing in a tree
(left) and a glider ascending attributable to thermal buoyancy (right), are the two natural
“engines” that can be utilised to drive air in, through and out of buildings.

The use of a mechanical driving force, i.e. fans, to drive the ventilation
through a network of ducts has however dominated over natural
ventilation in the twentieth century. Mechanical ventilation has offered a
stable airflow, possibilities for air treatment (e.g. air conditioning) and
allowed heat recovery. Despite the advantages with mechanical
ventilation, natural ventilation has experienced a strongly growing
interest, or even a renaissance, in the late 1990s. Especially architects
have been keen on utilising natural driving forces to drive ventilation air
through the building interiors. They have promoted the utilisation of
natural ventilation in buildings and pushed the interest in the field. The

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

background and motivation of this interest is varied. Mechanical

ventilation systems have developed into systems of great complexity with
an increasing number of components, need for space, and use of energy2,3.
As a consequence, these systems tend to be challenging and tricky to
integrate with the building. Compromises on both architectural quality and
aspiration as well as on ventilation function are too often the result. A
mechanical ventilation system has further a considerable shorter service
life than the building structure. A refurbishment or a reinstallation of a
new mechanical ventilation system tends to pull with it a great share of
the rest of the building due to the way the ventilation plan and its
appurtenant network of ducts are shaped and infiltrated in the building
structure, thereby reducing the building’s average life span. Mechanical
ventilation systems constitute a great share of the building’s construction
and running costs4,5. The fact that many mechanical ventilation systems
do not deliver the desired air quality, and that they through several
research and investigation programmes are connected with the so-called
sick building syndrome (SBS)6,7,8, have forced a diminishing belief in
mechanical ventilation as a problem solver. Mechanical ventilation
systems tend further to generate noise (both inside and outside of
buildings) and are often difficult to clean and maintain9. This, together
with an increased awareness of the environmental consequences of a
steadily increasing consumption of energy and resources10,11, has directed
the focus on better building integrated and less energy consuming
alternatives12,13.

By using natural ventilation fluctuations in indoor temperature and air

quality may be experienced, and efficient heat recovery is difficult to
achieve. However, developments in computer technology have enabled
satisfactory control and prediction of airflow in natural ventilation
systems. Moreover, the combination of natural and mechanical ventilation
in so-called hybrid ventilation systems or mixed-mode ventilation systems
tries to utilise advantages and eliminate drawbacks from both.

A great deal or research has been undertaken on indoor air quality and
thermal comfort in the context of ventilation, and recent research projects
have been concerned with natural ventilation (e.g. NatVent –overcoming
barriers to natural ventilation (1998)14) hybrid ventilation (e.g. IEA annex
35, Principles of hybrid ventilation (2002)) and mixed mode ventilation15.
The bulk of this research has chiefly been on the “engineering” aspects
and has, in large measures, been focusing on partial aspects. Little
research has been conducted on the architectural consequences and
architectural possibilities of natural ventilation16,17,18,19. Consequently, a

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 1. Introduction

topic that can be extremely relevant to the development of architecture

suffers from little attention.

Historic Development

Human beings have throughout history developed the ability to adjusting

to different outer conditions. We move between different climatic zones
and live with the daily and seasonal cycles of change. The building
constitute man’s shield against nature’s varying climate. From the first
primitive living quarters with the fireplace in the centre, the technique we
take advantage of to control and adjust our indoor climate has grown ever
more sophisticated. The ensuring of the desired thermal environment and
indoor air quality has in the 20th century increasingly been dominated by
mechanical ventilation and air conditioning technologies. These
technologies have, as mentioned, developed into systems of great
complexity without necessarily being able to deliver the desired indoor
climate. Because of this contradiction, the focus is again on simpler, more
robust and less energy consuming solutions. A mechanism in traditional
evolution theory describes that evolution can take a step back to an earlier
and less specified, more flexible form and then later be able to find new
ways along a new line of evolution20. Progress is not always a step
forward. By combining old and new technologies, we can develop further
than by just developing new technologies. The knowledge history has
provided us with should be taken care of and used in new designs.

Thermal Delight in Architecture

Whether buildings are naturally or mechanically ventilated, they are

designed and constructed to serve people and their requirements. An
important requirement is that the indoor air quality should be felt to be
acceptable by most people and should have no adverse health effects.
Another important requirement is that the thermal environment is
appropriate21. A thermal appropriate environment is highly individual and
a qualitative experience, and therefore calls for individual control. It is
essential that buildings can be adjusted to serve people, not vice versa.
The building should be the servant, not the master.

“Thermal qualities -warm, cool, humid, airy, radiant, cozy- are an

important part of our experience of a space; they not only influence
what we choose to do there but also how we feel about the space. An
analogy might be drawn with the use of light quality as a design
element, truly a venerable old architectural tradition. The light quality
-direct, indirect, natural, artificial, diffuse, dappled, focused- can be

10

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

subtly manipulated in the design of a space to achieve the desired

effect. Thermal qualities might also be included in the architect’s initial
conception and could influence all phases of design. Instead, thermal
conditions are commonly standardised with the use of mechanical
systems that can be specified, installed and left to function
independently of the overall design concept. Indeed, environmental
control systems tend to be treated rather like the Cinderella of
architecture; given only the plainest clothes to wear, they are relegated
to a back room to do the drudgery that maintains the elegant life-style
of the other sisters: light, form, structure, proportion and so forth…
Rather than simply housing an autonomous mechanical system, the
building itself can act as a thermal system”. Lisa Heschong, 197922.

With Willis Carriers’ discovery of the air conditioning, all elements of

thermal control were available for the first time23. Once the technology
was developed, people became curious about what a truly optimal thermal
environment might be. A great deal of research has since been done to
determine the effects of temperature on human beings, and to point out the
“comfort zone”, or the zone of thermal neutrality, where a person
functions most efficiently. It has been found that people are surprisingly
sensitive to subtle changes in temperature. Despite the sensitivity of
perception it has been found that the experience of a comfort zone show
considerable variation depending on where in the world you are. A
comfort zone also varies with each individual and according to such
factors as age, sex and acclimatisation. Despite this variation, the notion
of thermal optimum persists. Standards of thermal comfort are
incorporated in building codes. The underlying assumption is that the best
thermal environment never needs to be noticed and that once an
objectively “comfortable” thermal environment has been provided, all our
thermal needs will have been met. The use of sophisticated environmental
control systems is directed to this one end, to produce standard comfort
zone conditions. A steady-state thermal environment across time and a
thermal equilibrium across space are hard to achieve since radiant and
ambient heat are very unstable forms of energy. Such uniformity is very
unnatural and therefore requires a great deal of effort and energy to
maintain22.

Utilisation of natural ventilation in the context of architecture

The driving pressures derived from wind and thermal buoyancy are, as
earlier stated, low compared to those produced by fans in mechanical
ventilation systems. This has consequences for the architecture of both the

11

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 1. Introduction

exterior and interior of naturally ventilated building as the building

structure by means of its shaping is supposed to exploit the natural driving
forces to drive the air through its interiors.

In the exterior this may be manifested in the way the building body
harness the driving forces to drive air into and out of the building. This
can influence the shaping of building volume(s), the reciprocal
constellation of volumes and the orientation of the building relative to
prevailing wind direction(s) and the sun. A naturally ventilated building
should make the most of the potential of the site. This calls for the
designers’ awareness and understanding of the site’s terms and potential,
its genius loci24. This might contribute to make buildings more site-
specific. In contrast, a mechanically ventilated building needs practically
not adapt to the site in terms of climatic characteristics, as this can be
compensated for by the mechanical ventilation and conditioning systems.

In the interior this may be manifested in the way the interior spaces are
organised and shaped to provide low resistance air paths. The pressure
losses in the path (from inlet to outlet) should be sufficiently low to
compensate for the weaker driving pressures. Thus, the structure of the
building, with rooms, corridors, stairs and so on, rather than the ducts
familiar from mechanical ventilation, is used as air path. These interior
spaces provide a far lower resistance to the airflow than ducts do due to
their considerably larger cross sections. In the interiors natural ventilation
might be reflected in more open spatial connections. A natural ventilation
concept is therefore highly integrated in the building body and will
consequently influence the architecture, in the exterior as well as in the
interior.

Natural ventilation is often an element in what is typically referred to as

“green” or “sustainable” architecture. This category of architecture has an
immensely wide span, ranging from ultra high-tech solutions to very low-
tech and passive solutions (Figure 1.2). The majority of the “green,” “low
energy” or “sustainable” buildings seem to enter into one of the two
categories, and not so much in between. This study should provide an
opportunity to find out whether there are building designs that fill the gap
between the two extremes. This will in case be designs where technology
and technical solutions do not entirely determine the form of the building
or where technology is flaunted as the primary element of the architecture.
Instead, the technical aspects should be placed at the service of the poetry
and sensuality in architecture25.

12

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 1.2 The Daimler Chrysler office building (1993-1999) at Potsdamer Platz in Berlin,
Germany designed by Richard Rogers Partnership is an excellent example of the High-
Tech approach to low energy architecture26 (left). The factory building of Farsons Brewery
(1998-1990) in Mriehel in Malta designed by Short Ford and Associates is an example of
the opposite approach to low energy architecture27 (right).

1.2 Research questions

From the description of the research field the basic question of this
research can be formulated as: how does utilisation of natural ventilation
in buildings affect the architecture? The naturally ventilated buildings that
have emerged lately indicate that their design is influenced both by the
airflow around the building and the airflow through the building. These
buildings do not only suggest that the natural airflow influences the
building design, but also that it might be a concept-making factor in the
entire project. This indicates that the relevance of aerodynamics might
have a similar importance in design of naturally ventilated buildings as in
the design of for example automobiles, aeroplanes, and sailboats, if only
with a less “extreme” result (Figure 1.3). Therefore, more specific
research questions should be formulated:

13

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 1. Introduction

x What is the relationship between natural ventilation and building

design? What are the architectural consequences?
x How do different concepts of natural ventilation influence the
architecture of buildings?
x Is there an architectural potential in using natural airflow as a
guiding factor in the development of a design? What are the
architectural possibilities of that?
x How does natural ventilation affect the work of the architect and the
HVAC consultant?

The main objective of this research is to identify the architectural

consequences and possibilities of natural ventilation. It is clear that
architecture is an extensive term that could refer to a wide range of issues.
Identifying which issues are dominating in the context of natural
ventilation is fundamental to this study. Yet, a certain pre-selection is still
needed in order to know what to look for and where to look. For this
reason the principles and elements of natural ventilation are investigated
and presented in Chapter 2. This material forms a basis for a classification
of different natural ventilation concepts with special attention to their
architectural consequences (Chapter 3). The result is a framework that has
been used to guide the rest of this study.

Figure 1.3 Will naturally ventilated buildings be more aerodynamically shaped in the
future to utilise the natural driving forces more efficiently? The model (left) and the
drawings (middle and right) show the “Green Building” which was the result of a research
project done by Future Systems (J. Kaplicky and A. Levete) in 1990. The floor slabs are
suspended from the tripod-like construction, and the building shape and the double-skin
façade were designed to optimise the natural ventilation of the office spaces28.

14

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

1.3 Focus

In order to limit the scope of this study, the focus is directed at office and
school buildings in Northern Europe. The reasons for studying office
buildings are that they perhaps are the most important building type of the
20th century. Just as factories were the symbols of the industrialisation at
the start of the 19th century, office buildings are emblematic of the current
post-industrial era. Office buildings are all around us. They dominate the
contemporary city, they accommodate more than half of the working
population in the western world and they represent a large share of the
building stock’s total use of energy29. The importance of the office has to
be seen in the light of the growing significance of knowledge and
information in our society. The world is growing into a knowledge
economy. “White-collar” office workers are replacing “blue-collar”
factory workers. The office building is a very rational building type. Its
design is dominated by “objective” requirements concerning functionality,
efficiency and flexibility. The office building should constitute the best
possible working environment in order to utilise the resource the
employees represent. The well-being and productivity of the employees,
and hence the profitability of the business, depend in large measures on
the indoor air quality and the thermal comfort. Yet another reason for
choosing office buildings is that they vary greatly in size and shape, and
hence cover a variety of different natural ventilation concepts.

This study focuses also on school buildings. Schools complement the

office buildings in that they typically are much smaller and commonly
only one to two stories tall, seldom exceeding three stories. The use
pattern in schools is different from offices in that there are defined breaks
and lessons, and the pupils move between different rooms depending on
subject and activity. Furthermore, the density of occupants per square
meter is greater in school buildings than in office buildings. This provides
another set of challenges for utilisation of natural ventilation in school
buildings than in office buildings. Several naturally ventilated schools are
built during the last decade, and there is a general interest in the field. This
makes schools interesting to look at in the context of natural ventilation.

The geographical limitation to Northern Europe is done for practical

reasons in order to be able to visit the case study buildings and to meet the
respective design teams for interviews and discussions. The climate in this
(our) part of the world is further characterised by a relatively long winter
season with substantial temperature differences between indoors and

15

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 1. Introduction

outdoors. This allows for utilisation of the thermal buoyancy force for
ventilation.

All the three buildings used as case studies in this work, as well as the
majority of buildings used to provide additional information, do have
auxiliary fans that support the natural driving forces when they do not
suffice to provide the desired air-change rates. It must be emphasised that
this study focuses on the architectural consequences and possibilities
related to the natural part (hence the heading Natural ventilation in
buildings) of these so-called hybrid or mixed-mode ventilation systems
(see section 2.5).

1.4 Research approach

The research approach consists of three elements. Firstly, a research

philosophy that guides the way data is gathered and analysed and
conclusions are drawn. Secondly, a research strategy, which provides an
outline of the plan that must be carried out to answer the research
question. Thirdly, the research instruments, which are the tools applied
for collecting the necessary data.

Research philosophy

Doctors, biologists, engineers and other specialists have studied our

indoor environment with focus on air quality, thermal comfort and
mechanical ventilation system components in great detail. They have
studied light levels, the need for fresh air, indoor air quality, thermal
comfort, use of energy and a range of other subjects. Most often their
research follows what is called a positivistic research philosophy30,
characterised by precise definition, objective data collection, systematic
procedures, and replicable findings. In line with the positivistic
philosophy, they rely on the researcher’s objective observations using
“hard” research instruments such as experiments and surveys. According
to C. Robson (1993), the positivistic approach is commonly regarded as
involving five sequential steps:

1. Deducing a hypothesis (a testable proposition about the relationship

between two or more events or concepts) from theory.
2. Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms (i.e. ones indicating
exactly how the variables are to be measured) which propose a
relationship between two specific variables.

16

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

3. Testing this operational hypothesis. This will involve an experiment

or some other form of empirical enquiry.
4. Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry. It will either tend to
confirm the theory or indicate the need for its modification.
5. If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of the findings. An
attempt is then made to verify the revised theory by going back to the
first step and repeating the whole cycle.”

The positivistic approach is difficult to apply in this type of study. The

first problem is that a positivist approach assumes that you know fairly
well what you are looking for. It starts with a predefined, detailed
conceptual framework or set of hypotheses to be tested. This research,
although containing elements of both descriptive and explanatory nature31,
is however much more exploratory in nature. Apart from a few works
referred to above, there is hardly any research done on the architectural
consequences and possibilities of natural ventilation in modern buildings.
This makes it difficult to propose a clear hypothesis at the start of the
research (which also is the reason for starting off with a set of research
questions instead). The second problem is that positivism is strongly
focused on proving causal and deterministic relations. Using quantitative
techniques, it tries to “nail down” causal factors and to identify the exact
magnitude of their contributions. Such an approach, however, will not be
fruitful for this study. It is difficult to prove causal relationships between
the design of buildings and the natural ventilation concept used for three
reasons. The first is that buildings are the result of several factors. The
factors may include climate, site situation, building function, social
structure, economy, legislation, culture, and the wishes of the architect to
name some. It is highly improbable that any of these alone “caused” one
or another set of design characteristics. The second reason is that the
contribution of even a single factor may vary from situation to situation. A
factor may be important in one situation, but not at all important in
another. Climatic circumstances may for example be drastically different
from one site to the other, thus drastically changing the building and its
natural ventilation concept. The third reason is that factors are not only
multiple but also cumulative, i.e. they add up. They can strengthen or
weaken each other, and because of their complex interplay, it is often not
possible to more than say that factors x, y and z may be important. One
may not be able to separate out their exact or unique contributions.

Because of these obstacles, this study will follow an alternative approach

which is called interpretive research philosophy32. Interpretive research
relies much more on the researcher’s subjective interpretations and
understanding of the phenomena that have to be studied. Using inductive

17

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 1. Introduction

(as opposed to deductive) research, it is more oriented towards theory

building than theory testing33, and in line with the interpretive philosophy,
the focus is on “understanding” rather than “proving”29. According to C.
Robson (1993), “a major difference in the interpretive approach [-to the
positivistic-] is that theories and concepts tend to arise from the enquiry.
They come after data collection rather than before it. Because of this, it is
often referred to as “hypothesis generating” (as against “hypothesis
testing”) research. Also, in the interpretive approach, data collection and
analysis are not rigidly separated. An initial bout of data collection is
followed by analysis, the result of which are then used to decide what data
should next be collected. The cycle is then repeated several times. Initial
theory formulation also goes on at an early stage, and is successively
elaborated and checked as the process continues.”

According to B. Cold34, the objective in architectural research is “to

maintain and develop the knowledge that is made use of in creating,
understanding and enjoying architecture”. Research within the whole field
of planning and architecture deals with selected aspects -technical,
functional, economical and organisational, little of the research deals with
the totality that architecture is, according to B. Cold.

This study relies, and is quite dependent, on a considerable amount of

input from other persons experience and knowledge. The most important
and valuable inputs have come from fellow researchers, supervisors, the
reference group and experts and practitioners in the field.

Research strategy

The interpretive approach is not beyond criticism. It tends to be less

objective, difficult to replicate and therefore it offers fewer possibilities
for generalisation. Both case studies and semi-structural interviews are
very sensitive to the researcher’s ability to observe and explore, and will
easily be biased by personal preoccupations and blind spots35. To
overcome these shortcomings it is crucial to “design” a research strategy
that shows clearly what has been done, why it has been done, and how
conclusions are drawn.

The strategy begins with the development of a research framework.

Advocates of what is known as grounded theory36 suggest the contrary
approach: that the inductive researcher needs “to be open to what the site
has to tell us” and “slowly evolve a coherent framework rather than
imposing one from the start37.” Yet, the adoption of this suggestion can
easily result in “an incoherent, bulky, irrelevant, and meaningless set of

18

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

observations37”, in particular when unlike building functions, in various

contexts, in different countries are studied. Therefore, a rough, though not
rigorous, research framework needs to be defined before the field can be
entered38.

The research framework of this study is based on the description and

analysis of the principles and elements of natural ventilation (Chapter 2)
and on a classification of natural ventilation concepts (Chapter 3). The
analysis has to point out basic characteristics and “building stones” of
natural ventilation and whether distinctive design features for each of
these can be identified. The classification of natural ventilation concepts
should reveal the main differences between the various natural ventilation
concepts and indicate why these differences emerge. The analysis of
whether and how the “building stones” and characteristics of natural
ventilation coincide with architectural consequences gives a first view of
the factors that influence the architecture of naturally ventilated buildings.
These factors and their implications for the architecture form the research
framework and will be studied in more detail in the rest of the study.

Using this more or less standard framework as a roadmap, the next step is
to start the “fieldwork”. This consists of case studies, interviews with
practitioners and experts, and literature searches. The empirical and
theoretical work affect each other mutually. For each of the three generic
building types, high-rise, medium-rise and low-rise, this study tries to
identify the architectural consequences of their respective natural
ventilation concepts. By studying the topic of natural ventilation in detail
in three different buildings (the case studies) with different functions,
sizes, shapes, geographical locations, surrounding contexts and ventilation
concepts, the aim is to find a pattern in the architectural consequences of
the various natural ventilation concepts. Guided by these findings, the
architectural possibilities of natural ventilation are investigated by
studying additional buildings (the sub-cases). The sub-cases are used to
verify and elaborate the findings in the three case study buildings, and
they provide a broader base on which to draw conclusions. The goal is to
go beyond initial impressions and to form more general explanations and
conclusions.

The overall strategy of this research is summarised graphically below

(Figure 1.4). In reality, the research process has been more iterative, but
the main point is that this study uses a certain framework to perceive
reality, and that it uses both in-depth case studies and investigations of
several sub-case buildings to come to conclusions.

19

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 1. Introduction

Analysis of
principles and
elements
Study of a
high-rise building
Investigation
Framework Study of a of possibilities
medium-rise building by the aid of
sub-cases

Study of a
low-rise building

Conclusions
and reflections

Figure 1.4 Graphical illustration of the research strategy.

Research instruments

The research instruments are the tools used to collect the necessary data.
With the exploratory nature of the research questions in mind, three
different research instruments have been employed: literature search,
case studies and interviews. These different instruments are chosen so that
the research relies on multiple sources of evidence. The data converge in a
triangular fashion, which in the literature is referred to as
“triangulation”39. According to C. Robson (1993) “Triangulation, in
surveying, is a method of finding out where something is by getting a ‘fix’
on it from two or more places.” The term refers to an iterative process of
comparing and checking the results of different sources of information,
thus providing valuable feedback. Triangulation increases the reliability
and validity of the results. The close collaboration with the two fellow
researchers, Bjørn J. Wachenfeldt and Tor Arvid Vik, who work on the
same research project, has further increased the validity of this study.
Several discussions with, and feedback from the supervisor group, the
reference group and other experts and practitioners have also increased the
validity of the study. The three research instruments are described in more
detail below.

20

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Literature search
The type of literature reviewed in this study can roughly be categorised in
two genres. The first part of the literature search focused on aspects
related to ventilation in particular, its purpose, function and challenge.
Issues like indoor environment, indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal comfort,
health, sick building syndrome (SBS), climate and so forth where studied.
The second part of the literature search focused on ecological principles in
buildings and so-called “intelligent” buildings. The study focused on
reviews of office and school buildings in architectural journals, magazines
and books. One of the limitations of this literature study is that it to a large
extent relies on architectural journals and magazines, which typically
focus on prestigious buildings. As a consequence, these buildings do not
represent common building designs. The same can possibly also be said
about the two office case-study buildings selected for this study. Still,
such buildings give a good insight into what is considered progressive,
sophisticated and “on the cutting edge” of development. For this reason
the selection of case study buildings can be defended.

Case studies
Based on the research framework developed through the initial studies of
natural ventilation (Chapter 2 and Chapter 3), three case studies were
used to identify architectural consequences of natural ventilation. By
studying a high-rise, a medium-rise and a low-rise building, consequences
that related to the generic building type as well as consequences that were
common for all the three generic types were found.

The work on the case study buildings were both guided and structured by
a checklist of architectural aspects. Architecture is a very broad
expression, and for the purpose of this study, the term architecture needed
to be “split up” into smaller and more workable sub-parts. For this
purpose a checklist was developed, which essentially split up architecture
into more defined and workable sub-parts like i.e. plan, section, façade,
orientation and shape, interior spaces and so forth (see section 3.3). The
case studies pointed out four areas where natural ventilation seems to have
particular architectural consequences. The architectural possibilities of
these areas, facade, roof, plan and section, and interior spaces, were
further investigated by studying additional sub-case buildings, where
special attention to these four areas was given.

Interviews
To get first-hand information about each case-study building, the architect
and the HVAC/energy consultant of each case-study building were
interviewed40. The interviews made it possible to check if the initial

21

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 1. Introduction

findings were right or wrong, to clear up any confusion and generally to

find out more. The design teams of the three case-study buildings were
further asked to comment upon how the design of a naturally ventilated
building affects the work of the architect and the HVAC consultant. An
interview with professor C. A. Short in Cambridge, UK who through his
own architectural practice has designed several naturally ventilated
buildings, was also conducted to supplement the other interviews and to
serve as a reference.

Interviews can be classified in a range from fully structured to semi-

structured and unstructured interviews39. Most commonly, case study
interviews are of an open-ended nature, in which you ask key respondents
for the facts of a matter as well as for the respondents’ opinions about
events. Interviews can also be focused. They are still open-ended, but will
follow a certain set of questions derived from the case study design. In
this study, open-ended semi-structured interviews were used.
Predetermined questions following the structure of the checklist of
architectural aspects were asked, and the answers were recorded on a
minidisc. The discussion could follow different directions as the interview
proceeded, however.

1.5 Outline of the dissertation

The outline of the dissertation corresponds to the different steps in the

research strategy. Chapter 1 describes the research questions and the
“design” of the research. In Chapter 2 an overview of the principles and
elements of natural ventilation is given. The combination of natural and
mechanical ventilation, and the characteristic elements and components of
natural ventilation are described successively. With basis in chapter two,
and with the aid of certain classification criteria, various concepts of
natural ventilation are classified in Chapter 3. The classification criteria
are selected in order to identify the architectural consequences (and
possibilities) of various concepts. The selection of case-study buildings
and the selection criteria used in the selection-process follow subsequently
before the chapter ends with describing the checklist of architectural
aspects, which guides and structures the work on the case studies. (The
checklist was developed and modified in an iterative process throughout
the work with the case studies). The research framework from chapters
two and three is used in Chapter 4, Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 to study the
architectural consequences of natural ventilation in the GSW
Headquarters in Berlin, Germany, in the B&O Headquarters in Struer,

22

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Denmark, and in the Mediå Primary School in Grong, Norway

respectively. The results from the case studies give an indication of in
which areas the most significant architectural consequences of natural
ventilation are to be found, as well as in which areas the greatest
architectural possibilities are most likely to be found. To validate and
elaborate the findings, and to investigate the architectural possibilities of
these areas in greater detail, a number of additional buildings utilising
natural ventilation are investigated in Chapter 7. The research findings are
summarised in Chapter 8, which also describes implications for the design
of naturally ventilated buildings.

Notes

1
The prairie dog utilises wind to naturally ventilate its burrow, and the structures
built by termites in hot zones are highly developed along principles of natural
ventilation, thermal storage and evaporative cooling. (K. Daniels, 1997).
2
Søgnen, O. G. et al. (1999) Bygningsnettverkets energistatistikk, årsrapport
1999. NVE’s byggoperatør, Bergen.
3
Tokle, T. et al. (1999) Status for energibruk, energibærere og CO2-utslipp for
den norske bygningsmassen. SINTEF Energiforskning rapport (TR A4887),
Trondheim.
4
Schrøder, H. P. (2001) Holte Prosjekt FDV-nøkkelen 2001. GCS as, Oslo.
5
Vik, T. A. (2003) Life cycle cost of natural vs. mechanical ventilation concepts,
PhD thesis at Department of Architectural Design, History and Technology,
NTNU.
6
Seppänen, O. and Fisk, J. (2002) Association of ventilation system type with SBS
symptoms in office workers, Indoor Air 2002; 12: pp 98-112.
7
Fisk, W. J., Mendell, M. J., Daisey, J. M., Faulkner, D., Hodgson, A. T.,
Nematollahi, M., and Macher, J. M. (1993) Phase 1 of the California Healthy
Building Study: a Summary, Indoor Air 1993; 3: pp 246-254.
8
Zweers, T., Preller, L., Brunekreef, B., and Boleij, J. S. M. (1992) Health and
Indoor Climate Complaints of 7043 Office Workers in 61 Buildings in the
Netherlands, Indoor Air 1992; 2: pp 127-136.
9
In an investigation on indoor air quality in 15 mechanically ventilated office
buildings in Copenhagen, P. O. Fanger found that only 12% of the contamination
came from the occupants, 25% came from cigarette smoke, 20% came from
materials and furniture, and 42% came from the ventilation system. The outdoor
air quality was excellent, and the buildings were ventilated with 25 litre/sec. per
person, an air change rate that by far exceeded the requirements in the building
regulation. (Fanger, P. O. (1998) Hidden Olf’s in sick buildings, ASHRAE
Journal, November 1998).

23

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 1. Introduction

10
Roodman, D. M. and Lenssen, N. (1995) World Watch Paper 124, A Building
Revolution: How Ecology and Health Concerns Are Transforming Construction,
Worldwatch Institute, Washington.
11
Craig, James R. et al. (1988) Resources of the earth. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
12
The European Commission. (1999) A Green Vitruvius, James & James,
London.
13
Ford, B. (2002) The Architecture of Cooling Without Air Conditioning,
SAMSA 2002 Lecture Material.
14
NatVent is a European project which is being carried out by a consortium of
nine partners, across seven countries –Great Britain, Belgium, Denmark, the
Netherlands, Sweden, Norway and Switzerland. The main objective of this
project was to reduce primary energy use in buildings by overcoming barriers
which prevent the uptake of natural ventilation for office-type buildings. It is
intended for countries with low winter and moderate summer temperatures and
where summer overheating from solar and internal gains can be significantly
reduced by good natural ventilation. The project has investigated and developed
“smart” components to provide natural ventilation for office-type buildings which
could be naturally ventilated but, because of various technical barriers are, at,
present, inadequately ventilated, fully mechanically ventilated or air-conditioned.
15
The term mixed-mode ventilation cover more or less the same as the term
hybrid, and is used in the UK. See section 2.5, Combination of natural and
mechanical ventilation.
16
Roalkvam, D. (1997) Rapport om naturlig ventilasjon, Norske Arkitekter for en
Bærekraftig Utvikling (NABU), Oslo. (In Norwegian).
17
Jertén, R. et.al. (1996) Som man bygger får man ventilera, Arkitekternas forum
för forskning och utveckling, Stockholm. (In Swedish).
18
Krupinska, J. (1988) Bra klimat -en formgivningsfråga? Tekniska Högskolan i
Stockholm, Arkitektursektionen. Stockholm. (In Swedish).
19
Brodersen, L. (1996) Naturlig Ventilation och Byggnadskonst, -Luftens etik og
estetik Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, Stockholm. (In Swedish).
20
Darwin, C. (1859) The Origin of the Species, Murray, London.
21
Clements-Crome, D. (1997) Naturally Ventilated Buildings. Buildings for the
senses, the economy and society, E & FN Spon, London.
22
Heschong, L. (1979) Thermal Delight in Architecture, The MIT Press,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
23
Banham, R. (1969) The Architecture of the Well-tempered Environment,
Architectural Press, London.
24
Norberg-Schultz, Chr. (1992) Mellom jord og himmel, Pax Forlag A/S, Oslo.
25
London based architectural practitioner, writer and professor Sarah
Wigglesworth is a spokeswoman of combining the environmental aspects of
architecture with the poetical and sensual aspects.

24

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

http:\\www.sarahwiggleswortharchitects.co.uk (Conversation with Sarah

th
Wigglesworth on the 8 of November 2002 in Trondheim, Norway).
26
“The units are designed to optimise passive solar energy, natural ventilation
and daylight, creating innovative buildings with a high-quality user comfort. All
office spaces are naturally ventilated, making use of night-time free cooling and
solar radiation in the atria.” Quoted from the homepage of Richard Rogers
Partnership: http://www.richardrogers.co.uk/
27
“The building is heavily constructed in local globigerina limestone. It is wholly
passively cooled. There is no artificial cooling, in fact no mechanical ventilation
at all. The building night ventilates itself very effectively by the judicious
opening and closing of vents, triggered by a small computer connected to
numerous sensors and a rooftop weather station.” Quoted from the homepage of
Short and Associates: http://www.shortandassociates.co.uk/
28
Compagno, A. (1995) Intelligent Glass Facades, Birkhäuser - Verlag für
Architektur, Basel.
29
van Meel, J. (2000) The European Office, -Office design and national context,
010 Publishers, Rotterdam.
30
The positivistic research approach is variously labelled natural-science based,
hypothetico-deductive, quantitative or even simply scientific. (C. Robson, 1993).
31
Descriptive studies try to discover answers to questions like: who, what, where
and sometimes how. Its purpose is to describe a situation, not to try and
understand it. An explanatory study attempts to explain the reasons for the
phenomenon that the descriptive study observed. (Cooper and Schindler, 1998).
32
The interpretive research approach is sometimes labelled ethnographic or
qualitative – among several other labels. (C. Robson, 1993).
33
Fjelland, R. (1999) Innføring i vitenskapsteori, Universitetsforlaget, Oslo
34
Cold, B. (1991) Om arkitektur og kvalitet, -ikke den teknisk, funksjonelle,
målbare kvaliteten, men den opplevde estetiske, Article in EST I
Grunnlagsproblemer i estetisk forskning. Norsk allmennvitenskapelige
forskningsråd, Oslo.
35
Kvale, S (1997) InterViews: an introduction to qualitative research
interviewing, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, California.
36
Grounded theory is one type of qualitative research. "A grounded theory is one
that is inductively derived from the study of the phenomenon it represents. That
is, it is discovered, developed, and provisionally verified through systematic data
collection and analysis of data pertaining to that phenomenon. Therefore, data
collection, analysis, and theory stand in reciprocal relationship with each other.
One does not begin with a theory, then prove it. Rather, one begins with an area
of study and what is relevant to that area is allowed to emerge."
http://www.osu.orst.edu/groups/hdnr/hdnrgthe.htm
37
Miles, M. B. (1979) Qualitative Data as an Attractive Nuisance: the problem of
analysis Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, pp. 590-601.

25

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 1. Introduction

38
Yin, R. K. (1994) Case study research, -Design and Methods, SAGE
publications, London.
39
Robson, C. (1993) Real World Research. A Resource for Social Scientists and
Practitioner-Researchers, Blackwell, Oxford, UK.
40
The HVAC consultant of the B&O Headquarters, Birch & Krogboe AS, was
interviewed by fellow researcher T. A. Vik.

26

URN:NBN:no-7242
 2 Principles and elements of natural
ventilation

The principles of natural ventilation in buildings are relatively few and

straightforward, relying on wind, thermal buoyancy or both as driving
forces. There is, however, a whole range of subtle and sophisticated ways
to take advantage of the natural driving forces to promote the ventilation
principles. This is exemplified in a number of both new and old buildings
that utilise natural driving forces for ventilation. The utilisation of natural
ventilation in modern buildings is, as earlier stated, almost without
exception done in conjunction with a mechanical driving force that assist
the natural forces in periods when they do not suffice. The combination of
natural and mechanical driving forces is most commonly referred to as
hybrid or mixed mode ventilation in the literature. We have, however,
decided to use the term natural ventilation in our work, even if auxiliary
fans are installed in the buildings we deal with. The reason for this is that
our focus is on the “natural part” of the ventilation system, and the
consequences this part has in our respective fields of profession.

The prospective of natural ventilation ought to be considerable, as the

focus and effort the last half century have been almost solely on
optimising mechanical rather than natural ventilation. The goal of modern
natural ventilation is to utilise the natural driving forces as effectively as
possible, for as much of the time as possible, to minimise the use of
energy for fans and mechanical cooling.

To be able to analyse the consequences of natural ventilation, we have

provided an overview over the various concepts of natural ventilation
utilised in buildings today. Subsequently, we have distinguished the most
representative ventilation concepts in order to provide a basis for our
research that results in conclusions with as extensive validity as possible.

Natural ventilation concept

Before proceeding, our use of the notion concept in relation to natural

ventilation must be defined. We use three essential aspects of natural
ventilation to describe and classify various concepts. The first aspect is the
natural force utilised to drive the ventilation. The driving force can be
wind, buoyancy or a combination of both. The second aspect is the

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

ventilation principle used to exploit the natural driving forces to ventilate

a space. This can be done by single-sided ventilation, cross ventilation, or
stack ventilation. The third aspect is the characteristic ventilation element
used to realise natural ventilation. The most important characteristic
elements are wind towers, wind scoops, chimneys, double façades, atria,
and embedded ducts.

Driving Ventilation Characteristic

force principle element

NATURAL VENTILATION CONCEPT

Figure 2.1 To the notion natural ventilation concept we assign the driving force that is
utilised to drive a ventilation principle with the aid of certain characteristic ventilation
elements.

Ventilation system

Ventilation system is not an unambiguous term unless the system borders

are known. By combination of natural and mechanical ventilation
technologies, five aspects are decisive for the extension of each single
ventilation system:

x Air supply unit, e.g. an inlet tower or a window in a façade inlet

system.
x Air exhaust unit, e.g. a chimney in a stack system or a window in a
cross-ventilation system.
x Space borders, e.g. walls, floor and ceiling in an open-plan office
space.
x Control options, e.g. joint control of a group of façade inlet openings.
x Ventilation principles applied, e.g. single-sided ventilation in an
office cell.

28

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 2.2 Sketch drawing of a building with several natural ventilation systems.

In a conventional balanced mechanical ventilation system with one air

supply unit and one exhaust unit, the mechanical ventilation system
constitutes one separate system. If the building has office cells with
openable windows, each office cell constitutes an additional separate
ventilation system. When wind forces are utilised for cross ventilation, the
inlet and outlet and the space where the air passes between them make a
separate ventilation system. If the building has an open-plan layout, the
borders of the single ventilation system becomes greater, following either
the space borders, the control zone, the supply unit or the exhaust unit.
Thus, each single space may be served by more than one ventilation
system at the same time.

This chapter starts by addressing the purpose of ventilation in section 2.1.

Section 2.2 deals with the natural driving forces, and the principles of
natural ventilation are described in section 2.3. Characteristics of local and
central supply and exhaust paths are described in section 2.4. Various
ways of combining mechanical and natural ventilation and the most
commonly used terms for this is presented in section 2.5. Characteristic
elements and components of natural ventilation are presented in section
2.6.

29

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

2.1 The purpose of ventilation

Ventilation of occupied spaces in buildings has two primary purposes1,2,3.

One purpose is to provide an acceptable indoor air quality (IAQ), which
essentially is based on the supply of fresh air and the removal or dilution
of indoor pollution concentration. The other is to provide thermal comfort
by providing a heat transport mechanism. Consequently, we do not
ventilate to supply oxygen (O2) to the occupants in the building4. The
reason for this is that it is in principle hardly possible to lower the oxygen
concentration in an ordinary building to a level that has implications for
our up-take rate of oxygen. Nor do we ventilate to get rid of carbon
dioxide (CO2) in itself, as we do not normally reach concentrations that
are harmful for humans in an ordinary building4. The concentration of
carbon dioxide is on the other hand used as an indicator on contaminants
produced by the human body, e.g. odour and moist, which is perceived as
stale air. Optimum IAQ may be defined as air which is free of pollutants
that cause irritation, discomfort or ill health among occupants2. Typical
pollutants are:

x Odour and moisture from humans and human activities.

x Emissions from building materials, furnishing, fittings, equipment,
detergents etc. (Volatile organic and chemical compounds, e.g.
formaldehyde).
x Tobacco smoke and pollution from combustion processes (e.g. CO
and NOx).
x Radon and pollution from outdoor sources.

Figure 2.3 The quantity of ventilation needed to ensure an acceptable indoor air quality
depends on the amount and the nature of the dominant pollutant source in a space. If the
emission characteristics are known, it is possible to calculate the ventilation rate necessary
to prevent the pollutant concentration from exceeding a pre-defined threshold
concentration. The pollution level decreases exponentially with the airflow rate2.

30

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

In addition to providing good IAQ, ventilation plays a major role in

maintaining acceptable thermal comfort. ISO 77305 states that “Thermal
comfort is that condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the
thermal environment”. Dissatisfaction may be caused by the body being
too warm or too cold as a whole (overall thermal (dis)comfort) or by
unwanted heating or cooling a particular part of the body (local
(dis)comfort)6. The condition of thermal comfort is sometimes defined as
a state in which there are no driving impulses to correct the environment
by behaviour6. Use of natural ventilation during daytime has three
objectives when it comes to thermal comfort2:

x Cooling of indoor air by replacing or diluting it with outdoor air as

long as outdoor temperatures are lower than the indoor temperatures.
x Cooling of the building structure.
x A direct cooling effect over the human body through convection and
evaporation.

The cooling of the building interiors can also be done indirectly by

cooling down the structure of the building during night-time. This means
that the building is ventilated during the night. The thermally massive
components of the building structure, e.g. an exposed concrete ceiling, are
flushed with cool night-time air. The thermal mass of the building is used
as an intermediate storage medium, which acts as a heat sink during the
following day.

31

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

Parameter Target value

CO2 in room air 1000 ppm7,8,10; 910/1010/1540 ppm11
RH in room air 30-70%5
Particles in room air Supply air filter min. EU7/F85 quality7
Supply air filter min. F7 quality9
Formaldehyde 100 Pg/m3 8,13
Ozone 150-200 Pg/m3 13; 100-120 Pg/m3 13
Max. annual average radon content 200 Bq/m3 8;100 Bq/m3 13
Max. room temperature, summer 26 qC7,5,10; 25,5/26/27 qC11
Min. room temperature, summer 23 qC5; 23,5/23/22 qC11
Max. room temperature, winter 22 qC7; 24 qC5; 25/26/27 25 qC11
Min. room temperature, winter 19 qC7; 20 qC5; 24/23/22 qC11
Maximum temperature gradient 3-4 qC7; 3 qC5; 2/3/4 qC11
between ankle and head level
Maximum temperature range during 4 qC7
one day or one period
Supply air velocity, heating season 0,15 m/s7,5; 0,18/0,22/0,25 m/s11
Supply air velocity, cooling season 0,15 m/s 7,5; 0,15/0,18/0,21 m/s 11
Airflow rates prNS 356311:
1. Office cell: 2,0/1,4/0,8 l/s per m2
2. Open-plan offices: 1,7/1,2/0,7 l/s per
m2
3. Classroom: 6,0/4,2/2,4 l/s per m2
4. Auditorium: 16/11,2/6,4 l/s per m2
Guide to Norw. building regulations9:
A. People load: 7 l/s per person
B. Emissions from materials: 1 l/s per m2
of floor area
C. For activities and polluting spots

Table 2.1 The table shows most frequently used IAQ and thermal comfort targets in
Norway and in other North European countries. The prNS 3563 gives the opportunity to
choose between three levels of indoor climate, according to ambitions. Regarding
formaldehyde, the suggested value from “Folkehelsa” (“Public health”) is valid for an
averaging time of 30 minutes. Regarding ozone, the value suggested by WHO, 150-200
Pg/m3, is valid for an averaging time of 1 hour; 100-120 Pg/m3 is valid for an averaging
time of 8 hours. Regarding maximum room temperature in summer, the guide from
“Arbeidstilsynet” (“the Health and Safety Executive”) allows the indoor temperature to
exceed 26 qC in periods with outdoor temperatures above 22°C. The period should,
however, not be longer than 2 weeks for a normal year. In the prNS 3563 the best quality
level in classrooms is 25 qC. Regarding minimum room temperature in summer the prNS
3563 recommends 24 qC for the best quality level in classrooms. Regarding maximum
supply air velocity in the heating season, the NS-EN ISO 7730 recommends 0,15 m/s by
22 ºC and 40 % turbulence intensity. Regarding the airflow rates recommended in the
guide to the Norwegian building regulations, the highest value of A+B and C counts.
Emissions from materials (B) can be set to 1 l/s per m2 of floor area if mainly well tested
and documented low emitting materials are used, 0,7 l/s per m2 if non-emitting materials
are used, and 2 l/s per m2 in the case of undocumented materials. Examples of activities
and polluting spots (C) are toilets (10 l/s per toilet seat) and showers (15 l/s per shower).

32

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

IAQ and thermal comfort targets are given either as mandatory

requirements in laws and regulations or as non-mandatory
recommendations in guidelines and standards. In the Northern countries of
Europe, the EN-ISO 77305, the CEN-report CR 1752, which became a
Norwegian standard (prNS 3563)11 in 2002, and in some extent also the
ASHRAE Standard 5512, influence thermal comfort targets. The CEN-
report comprises also IAQ targets, together with the WHO Air Quality
guidelines for Europe13. In Norway, requirements in laws and regulations
are usually not quantitative; further specification is found in guidelines
and standards.

The Norwegian Technical Regulations under the Planning and Building

Act 199714 has paragraphs concerning air quality, pollution sources
(occupants, materials, processes and activities), thermal climate and
ventilation. About thermal indoor climate, for example, § 8-36 says: “The
indoor thermal climate in rooms for permanent occupation shall provide
satisfactory health conditions and perception of comfort for their intended
use”. § 6 in the “Law on protection against tobacco injuries” places
limitations on smoking in indoor spaces. Generally, it says that the air
should be free of tobacco smoke in spaces or means of transport with
public access. § 8 of the Norwegian law on work environment15 sets
requirements for indoor climate (air volume, ventilation, moisture, draft
and temperature) and air contamination (dust, smoke, gas, damp, odours,
etc.). A regulation under this law, “Regulation on workplaces and
workspaces”16, has somewhat more detailed qualitative statements on
indoor climate, ventilation and room height. The “Regulation on
environmental oriented health care in kindergartens and schools”17 sets
requirements about smoking in § 18 and on IAQ, temperature control and
relative humidity in § 19.

The prNS 3563 gives the opportunity to choose between three levels of
indoor climate. Thus, the standard recommends an airflow rate in an
office cell of 2,0 l/s per m2 in the best quality class, 1,4 in the medium
class, and 0,8 in the lowest class.

The American ASHRAE standard 55 recognises the fact that occupants

can adapt to variations in indoor temperature if they have the opportunity
to control the indoor climate. Thus, the standard accepts higher indoor
temperatures by high outdoor temperatures than when outdoor
temperatures are low. Research results that shows this have been provided
by de Dear, Brager, Cooper and Darmawan18,19. This is particularly
relevant for natural ventilation systems with low fan power or no fan

33

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

power at all installed, where indoor temperatures depend a lot on the

outdoor temperature.

Qualitative requirements are given in guidelines to the laws and

regulations mentioned above, and in standards. The most important ones
with respect to IAQ and thermal comfort are listed in Table 2.1.
Recommendations are often mandatory in practice, because designers
must prove satisfactory performance if they choose other target values. As
an example, recommendations for minimum airflow rates in interior
spaces for permanent occupancy are given in “Guide to the Norwegian
technical building regulation of the planning and building act” (Table 2.1).

In addition to the airflow rate, the ventilation efficiency should also be

addressed, but this is not considered in the recommendations. The
ventilation efficiency describes how efficient the ventilation removes
pollutants from the breathing zone, and thus provides sufficient IAQ. The
ventilation efficiency HQ in a ventilated enclosure is a function of the
concentration of pollutants in the extract air Ce , and in the supply air Cs ,
and the concentration of pollutants in the breathing zone. The mean
concentration of pollutants in the enclosure C0 can be used as an
approximation to the concentration of pollutants in the breathing zone in
order to simplify the formula. The ventilation efficiency HQ in an
enclosure with stationary conditions is then given by:

Ce  C0
HQ 1
C0  C s

34

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 2.4 Principle sketch showing the two room ventilation strategies perfect
displacement ventilation (left) and full mixing ventilation (middle) in steady state,
assuming Cs=0 and a homogenous source of pollution in the space. The graphs (right)
show the pollution level in the space as a function of height for the two room ventilation
strategies (black graph = displacement, grey graph = full mixing). The mean concentration
of pollutants C0 is the same in both cases, but the displacement room ventilation strategy
achieve this with only half the airflow rate of which is needed with the full mixing room
ventilation strategy.

In a situation with full mixing of the ventilation air in a room, which is

based on dilution of indoor pollution concentration, Ce will equal C0,
giving a ventilation efficiency of one ( HQ =1). This room ventilation
strategy is usually applied in mechanical ventilation. If the displacement
room ventilation strategy is used, which is based on displacing the indoor
pollution concentration above the breathing zone, Ce will be higher than
C0, and thus give a better ventilation efficiency. This room ventilation
strategy is usually applied in natural ventilation. For perfect displacement
ventilation with a homogenous source of pollution and clean supply air
(Cs=0), Ce will equal 2C0, giving a ventilation efficiency of two ( HQ =2).
This means that only half the airflow rate is required to achieve the same
mean concentration level, C0, as if the full mixing room ventilation
strategy was used. In cases where pollution sources are situated at certain
points in the room, a strategic configuration of airflow openings can
increase the ventilation efficiency even more. However, as it is considered
difficult to prove that a lower airflow rate will suffice to give the required
IAQ, most designers use the airflow rates recommended in the guideline.

It is widely accepted that building occupants should have maximum

personal control over their immediate environment. Most current control
systems have facilities for manual override, often provided by control
panels and hand-held remote control units. However, there may be
occasions when unchecked occupant control will compromise general

35

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

comfort and energy reduction strategies, where the BMS (Building

Management System) either reminds the user of the error or disallows
continued functioning. A very simple means for personal control is
openable windows, which is required by the Norwegian building
regulations14. § 8-34 says: “In rooms for human occupation, it shall be
possible to open at least one window or one door towards open air. In
rooms where windows are not wanted because of its use, a corresponding
possibility of forced ventilation shall exist.”

Figure 2.5 Panels in each office allow occupants a considerable degree of control over
their particular environments in the RWE Headquarters in Essen, Germany (left). An
infrared controller allows users to control lights and override the programmed settings of
nearby windows and louvres in the Building Research Establishment’s (BRE)
“Environmental Building” in Garston, UK (middle). Users can also open windows for
local ventilation, and adjust roller blinds for additional glare control. An enhanced “light
switch panel” provide the users with facilities for controlling lights, temperature, window
openings and blind position in the Commerzbank Headquarters in Frankfurt-am-Main,
Germany (right).

2.2 Natural driving forces

Natural ventilation is, as stated above, possible through the utilisation of a

natural driving force. There are only two fundamentally different types of
natural driving forces available; thermal buoyancy and wind. The
properties of these two are elaborated in the following section. Both their
individual effect and their combined effect are described.

36

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Thermal buoyancy

Thermal buoyancy driven ventilation occurs when there is a density

difference between the internal and external air, which again is caused by
temperature differences between the inside and outside. Thermal
buoyancy is sometimes referred to as the stack effect or the chimney effect.
The difference in density creates pressure differences that pull air in and
out of a building through suitably placed openings in the building
envelope. When the indoor air temperature exceeds the outdoor
temperature, an over-pressure is built up in the upper part of the building
and an under-pressure is formed in the lower part. At a certain height, the
indoor and outdoor pressure equals each other, and this level is referred to
as the neutral plane. An over-pressure above the neutral plane drives air
out through openings in the building envelope, and an under-pressure
under the neutral plane pulls air in through openings in the building
envelope.

Figure 2.6 Thermal buoyancy in a space with two openings.

A uniform indoor temperature gives the linear pressure gradients and

pressure differentials illustrated in figure 2.6. The pressure difference over
an opening located in a height h over the lowest floor plan is given by:

'T 'T [Pa]

'p h U u g ( h0  h ) U i g ( h0  h )
Ti Tu

37

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

Where 'ph is the pressure difference [Pa], Ui and Uu is the inside- and
outside air density respectively [kgm-3], g is acceleration due to gravity
[ms-2], h0 is the vertical distance between the floor plan and the neutral
plane [m], 'T is the difference between external and internal air
temperature [K], and Ti and Tu is the inside- and outside temperature
respectively [K].

The total driving pressure for an internal space with two openings plus the
pressure difference over the lower and upper opening respectively is given
by:

'T 'T [Pa]

'p total U u g (h2  h1 ) U i g (h2  h1 )
Ti Tu

'T 'T [Pa]

'p1 U u g (h0  h1 ) U i g (h0  h1 )
Ti Tu

'T 'T [Pa]

'p 2 U u g ( h0  h 2 ) U i g ( h0  h 2 )
Ti Tu

Where 'ptotal , 'p1 and 'p2 is the total driving pressure, and the pressure
difference over the lower and upper opening respectively [Pa]. h1 and h2
is the vertical distance between the floor plan and the lower and upper
opening respectively [m].

If one assumes that the indoor temperature is higher than the outdoor
temperature, the value of 'p1 will be positive, which will give an airflow
into the room, while the value of 'p2 will be negative and consequently
give an airflow out of the room. A good approximation for the location of
the neutral plane is given by20:

2 2
A1 h1  A2 h2 [m]
h0 2 2
A1  A2

Where A1 and A2 is the area of the lower and upper opening respectively
[m2].

38

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Wind

Wind driven ventilation occurs as a result of various pressures created on

the building envelope by wind. These pressure differences drive air into
the building through openings in the building envelope’s windward side,
and drive air out of the building through openings in the building
envelope’s leeward side21. The wind pressure on a surface in the building
envelope is the dynamic pressure given by:

C p (1 / 2 U uVref ) [Pa]
2
pv

Where pv is the wind pressure [Pa], C p is the static pressure coefficient,

Vref is the wind speed at reference height [ms-1], and U u is the outdoor
air density [kgm-3].

The reference height is that height where the wind speed is measured
simultaneously with the measurement of the wind pressure for the
determination of the static pressure coefficient. The reference height is
normally the building height. The pressure difference over an opening j is
given by:

'p j p v , j  'p i
2
C p , j (1 / 2 U u V ref )  /p i [Pa]

Where 'pi is the static over-pressure inside the building, which depends
on the relation between the area of the openings in the windward- and
leeward side respectively. A positive pressure difference gives an inward
directed airflow into the building, and a negative pressure difference gives
an outward directed airflow out of the building. The static over-pressure
inside the building, 'pi , is given by setting up a mass-balance equation
expressing an equal airflow inward (through the openings in the windward
side) and outward (through the openings in the leeward side).

39

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

Figure 2.7 The illustration shows the static pressure coefficients, Cp, for three wind
directions on a building envelope with a height-length-depth ratio of 1:2,5:5 and a 10º roof
angle. It can be seen that the value of Cp varies over the individual surfaces. Mean values
for Cp are usually derived and used for the individual surfaces20.

The pressure coefficient, Cp, is normally derived from pressure

measurements in wind tunnels using reduced-scale models of buildings or
building components, or alternatively by computational fluid dynamics
(CFD). Pressure measurements can also be made on the actual building to
find the pressure coefficient. The value of Cp at a point on the building
envelope depends on the geometry of the building, the wind velocity and
the wind direction relative to the building. The value of Cp is also
influenced by the location of the building relative to other neighbouring
buildings, surrounding topography and vegetation.

Thermal buoyancy and wind in combination

The two driving forces can occur separately but most likely they occur at
the same time. Thermal buoyancy will typically be the dominating driving
force on a calm cold day with practically no wind, whereas pressure
differentials created by wind will typically be the dominating driving
force on a windy hot day. Their forces can oppose or complement each
other depending on the placement of the inlet and outlet openings in
relation to the wind direction22.

40

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 2.8 The schematic drawing (left) shows the buoyancy-induced pressure distribution
upon the envelope of a high-rise building with an oval shape. The inward-pointing dotted
lines indicate under pressure, and the outward-pointing solid lines indicate over pressure.
Because of the differences in interior and exterior temperatures, a pressure differential over
the building envelope is created. The schematic drawing (middle) shows the wind-induced
pressure distribution upon the same high-rise building. The inward-pointing dotted lines
indicate the positive pressure created on the windward side of the building envelope, and
the outward-pointing solid lines indicate the under pressure created on the building
envelope on the leeward side. Both the positive and the negative pressure increase towards
the top of the high-rise building as a result of the illustrated wind profile. The schematic
drawing (right) illustrates the combined effect of wind and buoyancy, and the distribution
of pressure differentials on the building envelope. The figure illustrates that the pressure
gradients derived from buoyancy and wind forces can be summed. They either strengthen
or neutralise each other21.

2.3 Natural ventilation principles

The shape of a building together with the location of the ventilation

openings dictates the natural ventilation’s manner of operation. One
usually differentiates between three different ventilation principles for
natural ventilation1, 20:

x Single-sided ventilation
x Cross-ventilation
x Stack ventilation

The ventilation principle indicates how the exterior and interior airflows
are linked, and hence how the natural driving forces are utilised to
ventilate a building. Furthermore, the ventilation principle gives an

41

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

indication on how the air is introduced into the building, and how it is
exhausted out of it. Infiltration through the building envelope can also
play a certain role, depending on the air-tightness of the building
envelope. This form of ventilation is, however, usually both unintended
and unwanted.

Single-sided ventilation

Figure 2.9 Sketch of single sided ventilation. As a rule of thumb, single-sided ventilation
is effective to a depth of about 2 – 2,5 times the floor to ceiling height1.

Single sided ventilation relies on opening(s) on only one side of the

ventilated enclosure. Fresh air enters the room through the same side as
used air is exhausted. A typical example is the rooms of a cellular building
with openable windows on one side and closed internal doors on the other
side. With a single ventilation opening in the room, the main driving force
in summer is wind turbulence. In cases where ventilation openings are
provided at different heights within the façade, the ventilation rate can be
enhanced by the buoyancy effect. The contribution from thermal
buoyancy depends on the temperature difference between the inside and
the outside, the vertical distance between the openings, and the area of the
openings. The greater vertical distance between the openings, and the
greater temperature difference between the inside and the outside, the
stronger is the effect of the buoyancy. Compared with other strategies,
lower ventilation rates are generated, and the ventilation air does not
penetrate so far into the space.

42

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Cross-ventilation

Figure 2.10 Sketch of cross ventilation. As a rule of thumb, cross-ventilation is effective

up to 5 times the floor to ceiling height1.

Cross-ventilation is the case when air flows between two sides of a

building envelope by means of wind-induced pressure differentials
between the two sides. The ventilation air enters and leaves commonly
through windows, hatches or grills integrated in the façades. The
ventilation air moves from the windward side to the leeward side. A
typical example is an open-plan office landscape where the space stretches
across the whole depth of the building. The airflow can also pass through
several rooms through open doors or overflow grills. The term cross-
ventilation is also referred to when considering a single space where air
enters one side of the space and leaves from the opposite side. In this case
the ventilation principle on the system level can be either cross- or stack
ventilation. As the air moves across an occupied space, it picks up heat
and pollutants. Consequently, there is a limit to the depth of a space that
can be effectively cross-ventilated.

Stack ventilation

Figure 2.11 Sketch of stack ventilation. As a rule of thumb, stack ventilation is effective
across a width of 5 times the floor to ceiling height from the inlet to where the air is
exhausted1.

43

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

Stack ventilation occurs where the driving forces promote an outflow

from the building, thereby drawing fresh air in via ventilation openings at
a lower level. Fresh air typically enters through ventilation openings at a
low level, while used and contaminated air is exhausted through high-
level ventilation openings (a reversed flow can occur during certain
conditions). Designing the outlet to be in a region of wind-induced under-
pressure can enhance the effectiveness of stack ventilation. A typical
example is a building with an elevated central part, in which warm and
contaminated air from the surrounding spaces rises to be exhausted
through wind towers located on the roof.

Due to its physical nature, the stack effect requires a certain height
between the inlet and the outlet. This can be achieved by e.g. increasing
the floor to ceiling height, tilting the profile of the roof, or applying a
chimney or an atrium. By its nature, stack ventilation resembles cross-
ventilation as far as some individual spaces are concerned, in that air
enters one side of the space and leaves from the opposite side1. The air
may flow across the whole width of the building and be exhausted via a
chimney, or it may flow from the edges to the middle to be exhausted via
a central chimney or atrium.

2.4 Local and central supply and exhaust paths

With supply and exhaust paths we understand the air path the ventilation
air travels through between the outside and the occupied spaces inside a
building, i.e. not the airflow path within the occupied zones. The supply
and exhaust paths can be divided into two categories: local and central.

A central supply path means that one or several occupied zones are
serviced by the same path. The ventilation air can be given different
treatments along a central supply path. The air can be filtered, heated and
cooled, and fans can be installed to surmount pressure drops in the airflow
path. Thus, one single filter unit, one single heat exchanger and one single
fan can service the entire supply airflow. A central exhaust path means
that used air from one or several occupied zones is collected and
exhausted at the same point. When both supply and exhaust paths are
central, heat recovery is possible. An embedded duct and an atrium are
examples of central supply paths. A staircase that serves as a stack is a
central exhaust path.

44

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

As opposed to central supply and exhaust paths, local supply and exhaust
paths have no distribution system associated with them. The air is taken
into and exhausted out of an occupied space directly through openings in
the building envelope. Openable windows and hatches in the façade are
examples of local supply and exhaust paths.

The table below shows some typical advantages and drawbacks of local
and central paths. Advantages with local paths compared with central
paths are a somewhat better flexibility to future changes and a lower space
demand. In addition, local inlet paths offer a shorter distance between the
source of fresh air (the outdoor air) and the occupant than central inlet
paths do. Provided sufficiently good outdoor air quality, this is considered
advantageous based on the philosophy that ventilation air is a fresh
product that should be served the occupants with a minimum risk of
degrading the quality of the air on its way into the building. On the other
hand, local paths offer less damping of noise from outdoor sources than
central paths, and heat recovery and fan assistance is more difficult. Pre-
heating and filtering of the air is also more difficult to achieve with local
supply paths than with central supply paths. With local supply paths, the
occupied spaces are ventilated with fresh air from the perimeter of the
building body. This puts a limit on the depth of the space that can be
effectively ventilated. Consequently, central paths allow for deeper
building plans than local paths do.

Factors Local paths Central paths

Supply Exhaust Supply Exhaust
Pre-heating/ draft risk - +
Distance from air source + -
Filtering - +
Fan assistance option - +
Fire and smoke distribution - -
Outdoor noise - - + +
Noise between rooms - -
Flexibility + + - -
Heat recovery - - + +
Space demand + + - -

Table 2.2 Advantages (+) and drawbacks (-) with local and central supply and exhaust
paths.

45

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

2.5 Combination of natural and mechanical ventilation

Until recently natural and mechanical ventilation technologies have

developed separately. Natural ventilation technologies have been applied
in buildings since ancient times. A typical example is a system where heat
from the fireplace made the air rise through a hatch in the roof as fresh air
was drawn into the building through an open door or through cracks in the
envelope. Sophisticated methods of utilising wind have also been applied
for thousands of years, for example in the Middle East. Since then, natural
ventilation technologies have developed further and openable windows,
self-regulating supply air grilles and roof cowls have been introduced. The
most modern natural ventilation systems are equipped with automatic
control.

In the 20th century mechanical ventilation and air conditioning

technologies have dominated. These technologies have developed into
systems of great complexity with an increasing number of components,
need for space and use of electricity. Despite this, many of these systems
do not manage to deliver the desired indoor climate. Research results has
shown that the sick building syndrome (SBS) is more common in
mechanically ventilated buildings than in naturally ventilated ones23,24,25.
It has also been claimed that mechanical ventilation systems and their
components themselves represent a significant pollution source26,27,28.
These contradictions have caused that the focus again has been put on
simpler, more robust and less energy consuming solutions. In addition,
recent developments in computer technology have enabled satisfactory
control and prediction of airflow in natural ventilation systems.

Mechanical ventilation has been commonly used during the last half of the
20th century. The early ones were exhaust-only systems with constant
airflow rate. After the oil crisis in 1973, balanced systems with heat
recovery became more common. Demand controlled ventilation systems
have been common during the last couple of decades. A recent trend is to
focus on minimising pressure losses in the ventilation system in order to
reduce fan electricity demand and to reduce noise generation.

Ventilation systems relying solely on natural driving forces will normally

not be able to deliver a desired airflow rate all the time, e.g. they may not
be sufficient on hot summer days without wind. Thus, in parallel with the
renaissance of natural ventilation technologies the last years, ventilation
systems that combine both natural and mechanical ventilation
technologies have developed. Typical for these systems is that auxiliary

46

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

fans are installed in the air path to supplement the natural driving forces in
periods when these are insufficient.

Two different sets of terms seem to exist for the combination of natural
and mechanical ventilation technologies. One is established in the UK
where the combination of natural and mechanical driving forces is
referred to as “mixed mode ventilation”. Another set of terms has been
developed in the HybVent project, where the combination is referred to as
“hybrid ventilation”. In this work we have found it necessary to establish
our own set of terms, based on contributions from the two existing sets.
The following sections include a description of the existing sets and of the
new set of terms that have emerged. An overview of sets of terms is
shown in Table 2.3.

Mixed mode ventilation

In the Application manual 13 from CIBSE29 mixed mode ventilation is

explained as “a term used to describe servicing strategies that combine
natural ventilation with mechanical ventilation and/or cooling in the most
effective manner”. Referring to a classification system that is originally
proposed by Max Fordham and Partners30, the manual distinguishes
between two levels; physical design and operational strategies. Regarding
physical designs for mixed mode ventilation, three types are identified in
the CIBSE publication:

x Contingency design is the case when a space is equipped so that a

future change of ventilation system is facilitated, for example when
altered user demands require mechanical ventilation with air
conditioning instead of natural ventilation.
x Zoned design simply means that different ventilation systems are
applied in different parts of a building. An example of this is an office
building with stack-ventilated office cells along the perimeter and
with mechanically ventilated meeting rooms in the core area.
x Complementary design is the case when a natural ventilation system is
assisted by a mechanical ventilation system, or the other way around.

For reasons that will be explained later on, contingency and zoned designs
are of lesser interest in our work and will not be further elaborated.
Regarding operational strategies, two main groups are identified in the
CIBSE publication for complementary designs:

x Concurrent operation means that mechanical and natural ventilation

systems operate in parallel. One example is a space that is served with

47

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

a balanced mechanical ventilation system, where the windows can be

opened in addition.
x Changeover operation means that “natural and mechanical systems
are available and used as alternatives according to need, but they do
not necessarily operate at the same time”.

Some examples of different changeover operation strategies are

mentioned in the CIBSE Application Manual 13:

x Seasonal changeover; e.g. when operable windows are locked shut

and replaced by balanced mechanical ventilation in winter to avoid
draft and facilitate heat recovery.
x Night cooling.
x Local changeover, e.g. when window detectors ensure that nearby air
conditioning or other mechanical cooling devices are shut off when a
window is opened.

Hybrid ventilation

The term hybrid ventilation is also widely used for the combination of
natural and mechanical driving forces. The term was probably first
introduced in the IEA Annex 35 “HybVent” project31 and is described as
“systems providing a comfortable internal environment using both natural
ventilation and mechanical systems, but using different features of the
systems at different times of the day or season of the year”. Furthermore it
is stated that ”the main difference between conventional ventilation
systems and hybrid systems is the fact that the latter has an intelligent
control system that automatically can switch between natural and
mechanical modes in order to minimise the energy consumption”. In the
HybVent project three main hybrid ventilation principles are defined:

x Natural and mechanical ventilation, which means ”two fully

autonomous systems where the control strategy either switches
between the two systems or uses one system for some tasks and the
other system for other tasks”. An example is spaces that are
mechanically ventilated during the heating and cooling seasons and
naturally ventilated in the intermediate seasons. The Liberty Tower of
Meiji University in Tokyo, Japan, is mentioned as a typical example
of this principle.
x Fan assisted natural ventilation means ”a natural ventilation system
which is combined with an extract or supply fan”, i.e. ”natural
ventilation systems which during periods of increased demand can
enhance pressure differences by mechanical (low-pressure) fan

48

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

assistance”. The new headquarter of Bang & Olufsen in Struer,

Denmark, is mentioned as a typical example of this principle.
x Stack and wind assisted mechanical ventilation means ”a mechanical
ventilation system which makes optimal use of natural driving
forces”, e.g. ”mechanical ventilation systems with very small pressure
losses where natural driving forces can account for a considerable part
of the necessary pressure”. Mediå primary school in Grong, Norway,
is mentioned as a typical example of this principle.

Using the CIBSE framework of terms, the three HybVent ventilation

principles include both different physical designs and different operational
strategies. As previously explained, in our work the term “ventilation
principle” refers to single-sided, cross and stack ventilation and is thus
given a different meaning than in the HybVent project.

Wouters et al.32 emphasise that one must differentiate between ventilation

for thermal comfort and ventilation for indoor air quality (IAQ) and
suggest a similar categorisation of hybrid ventilation systems for IAQ.
Furthermore, Wouters et al. define two types of hybrid ventilation for
thermal comfort that are parallel to the distinction between purely natural
ventilation and hybrid ventilation:

x Passive cooling concepts, i.e. making use of only passive means like
e.g. thermal mass, with night ventilation is a crucial part of the
strategy. The Probe building in Limelette, Belgium is mentioned as an
example.
x Combination of passive and active cooling, which means using active
cooling (often with limited cooling capacity) in addition to night
ventilation during extreme weather conditions. The IVEG building in
Hoboken, Belgium, is mentioned as an example.

The arguments for this are 1) that summer night ventilation requires rather
high airflow rates compared with ventilation for IAQ. 2) That the two
categories are characterised by fundamentally different “optimisation
challenges”. By ventilation for IAQ in periods with heating or cooling
demand, the challenge is to achieve an optimum between IAQ and energy
use. By ventilation for thermal comfort in summer, the challenge is to run
as high airflow rates as possible without creating comfort problems.

A new framework of terms

Within the context of our work we need a well nuanced framework of

terms. Both the CIBSE framework and the HybVent framework provide

49

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

useful terms. However, none of them seem to cover our demand

completely. Thus, we have adopted the parts of both existing frameworks
that we can use, but we have added our own terms so that it becomes
complete.

We need a set of terms that is limited to a single ventilation system and to

how a single room or a single zone (i.e. a single room, a group of rooms
or a complete floor) is ventilated. Furthermore, the set does not need to
comprise terms for the phenomena that options for future changes can be
built into the system. Thus, the CIBSE terms contingency and zoned
physical designs will not be used in the new set of terms.

As a main structure for our new set of terms, we have applied the CIBSE
terms physical designs and operational strategies. In addition, we find it
appropriate to distinguish between zone and system level. Table 2.3 shows
the CIBSE framework, the Hybvent framework and the new framework
organised with this structure. In order to show the exact validity of the
HybVent set of terms a distinction between manual and automatic control
is also made.

Within the new framework we adopt the CIBSE term complementary

physical design. CIBSE does not seem to include the combination of
natural and mechanical technologies within a single system in the term
physical designs. Therefore, we allow ourselves to extend the validity of
this term so that it includes this phenomena as well. Thus, for physical
designs within a single system HybVent has defined the terms “fan
assisted natural ventilation” and “stack and wind assisted mechanical
ventilation”. We find the HybVent distinction between these two types of
systems less relevant because we consider the fact that natural and
mechanical ventilation technologies are combined within one single
system is the most important aspect. Besides, it is not possible to make a
clear distinction between these two principles. Thus, we have given such
physical designs the mutual name combined.

In the HybVent framework the term “mode” seems to have the same
meaning as the term operational strategy in the CIBSE framework.
HybVent gives no further definitions of different modes, however.
Therefore, we have adopted the CIBSE terms concurrent and changeover
for complementary physical designs, i.e. on zone level. CIBSE does not
seem to include the building and the system level in the term operational
strategies. Therefore, we allow ourselves to extend also this term, so that
it comprises the system level as well. Thus, two principally different kinds
of operational strategies exist for combined physical designs:

50

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

x Turning fans on and off.

x Switching between alternative airflow paths.

The former kind of operational strategy provides the possibility to turn

fans in the system off when natural driving forces are strong enough to
provide the ventilation rate needed, and on again when they do not suffice.
Regarding the latter kind, three different types of alternative airflow paths
exist:

x Switching between local and central airflow path, e.g from a local
façade inlet to an embedded duct to reduce draft problems on cold
days, to cool the air on hot days, or to dampen noise from outdoors.
x Night ventilation; special paths, e.g. voids in the floor slab, an
embedded duct or special windows may be applied to boost cold night
air through the building to cool the structure during the night.
x Bypass path, i.e. alternative air paths provided around air handling
components that are not continuously in operation and that represent a
significant pressure drop, e.g. heat exchangers and filters.

Spatial Physical design Operational Control Framework

extention strategy
Concurrent Manual
CIBSE

Zone Complementary
HybVent

Changeover Automatic
New

Fans on/off Automatic

System Combined
Alternative paths Manual

Table 2.3 The terms used in the new framework of terms, i.e. the different terms used for
the various physical designs and operational strategies on zone level and system level. The
column farthest to the right shows where the three frameworks are valid.

51

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

2.6 Characteristic elements of natural ventilation

Characteristic elements are utilised to realise and/or enhance the natural

ventilation principles. These elements are characteristic for natural
ventilation and distinguish natural ventilation concepts from other
ventilation concepts. The characteristic elements have consequences with
regard to architecture, economy and ventilation performance.

However, natural ventilation can be realised without the use of dedicated

ventilation elements. The building itself doubles then as a ventilation
element, which could be named “building integrated element”. In this case
the building, as a result of its design, is capable of harnessing the natural
driving forces and to direct the ventilation air through its spaces without
the need for dedicated ventilation elements. In this sense, a building
integrated ventilation element is really not an element, but rather the
absence of one. As the “ventilation system” and the occupants share the
same spaces (rooms, corridors, stairwells et cetera), and windows and
doors are utilised as part of the air-paths as well, the most characteristic
feature of a building integrated element is that the building appears not to
have a ventilation system at all. There are no characteristic natural
ventilation elements, nor a mechanical ventilation system present. The
main advantage with a building integrated element is that the ventilation
system represents no additional use of space in the building. Ductworks,
ventilation plants, and related components are avoided.

Most naturally ventilated buildings do, however, make use of dedicated

ventilation elements to harness the natural driving forces and to support
the airflow through the building. An overview over the various elements is
provided in table 1.4 together with the ventilation principle the individual
element is most likely to be associated with. Each of the different
elements is described in the following section with some examples of
application. A description of the advantages and drawbacks of the
individual element is included.

52

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Characteristic element Ventilation principle Supply or exhaust

Wind scoop Cross and stack Supply

Wind tower Cross and stack Extract

Chimney Cross and stack Extract

Cross, stack and single-
Double facade Supply and extract
sided
Cross, stack and single-
Atrium Supply and extract
sided
Ventilation chamber Cross and stack Supply and extract

Embedded duct Cross and stack Supply

Ventilation opening in the Cross, stack and single-
Supply and extract
facade sided

Table 2.4 The relation between characteristic ventilation elements and ventilation
principles. The table shows whether the individual element is used in the extract or in the
supply end of the air-path. Some characteristic elements can be used both as extract and
supply.

Wind scoops

Both in natural and traditional mechanical ventilation systems, ventilation

air is very often taken in or extracted above the roofs of buildings. There
are many reasons for this, but in terms of natural ventilation, the roof is
particularly important. It is the place where you have the strongest and the
most stable wind, and it is at roof level that the overpressure inside the
building due to thermal buoyancy is most significant. Throughout history,
many characteristic elements have been developed to take advantage of
this. These elements can all have a significant influence on the building’s
architectural expression.

Wind scoops are devices designed to “catch” the wind and direct fresh air
into the building. The scoops are either omni-directional, turning against
the wind and taking advantage of it independent of the direction, or fixed
devices taking advantage of a dominating wind direction. They are
particularly effective in large-volume buildings or large enclosed areas of
buildings, e.g. atria, allowing the supply air to mix within the space.
Normally they are placed on the roof, even though it is possible to place

53

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

them in the landscape some distance away, the supply air then being
brought in via embedded ducts.

An example of the application of wind scoops is the Bluewater Shopping

Centre (Dartford, Kent, UK), where the wind scoops are placed on the
roof with 15-metre intervals along the centre line of the shopping mall.
The scoops rotate on a vertical axis into the wind, ensuring a continuous
supply of fresh air that mixes within the space33. In the closely packed
houses of Hyderabad in Pakistan, wind scoops have existed for at least
500 years.33 These are fixed in positions to scoop up the prevailing
afternoon winds, channelling cool air into each room of the multi-storey
houses. Wind scoops can also be seen on ships from former times,
providing spaces under deck with fresh air.

Figure 2.12 Full-scale mock-up of the wind scoop utilised in Blue Water Shopping Centre
in Dartford, UK for performance monitoring (far left). The scoops are placed on the roof of
the shopping mall with 15-metre intervals (left). Wind scoops in Dubai, United Arab
Emirates (right) and a sketch of the wind scoop in principle (far right).

Wind scoops are central inlet paths with the advantages and drawbacks of
local supply paths (section 2.4). Another important advantage regarding
wind scoops33 is that they can offer a good alternative for buildings in
which the facades are unsuitable for ventilation purposes due to e.g. noise
infiltration, pollution or low air movement. Other important drawbacks
are:

x The supply airflow rate will depend on wind speed.

x Fixed wind scoops will become ineffective if the wind is not directed
head-on to the scoop (typically if deviation is more than 30o)33.
x Rain and snow can enter through the ventilation element.
x Snow, ice and wear & tear can reduce functionality for omni-
directional wind scoops.

54

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Wind towers

Wind towers are building elements designed to take advantage of the wind
potential. The shape of the chimney is normally square, rectangular or
triangular. They can be placed on or next to the roof of the building, or as
a separate structure, connected to the building via e.g. an embedded duct.
Unlike chimneys, they often have openings on several sides.

Figure 2.13 The wind towers of (former) IONICA Headquarters.

In arid regions, the wind tower is an important passive cooling system that
has existed since ancient times. It harnesses the prevailing summer winds
to cool the air and circulate it through the building. The “badgir”, is an
archetype of such a wind tower developed in Iran and other countries of
the Arabian Gulf. It is able to both catch the wind and extract air from the
building at the same time.

55

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

Figure 2.14 The badgir is a fixed device capable of acting as wind scoop and extract for
the ventilation air. Its shaft is open at the top on four sides (occasionally only two), and a
pair of partitions is placed diagonally across each other down its length. The wind towers
are typically 3x3 metres wide and up to seven metres high, with the upper section open to
the wind in four directions. Typically, one end is situated in the lower part of the building
while the other end rises from the roof. The upper part is divided into several vertical air
passages that terminate in openings in the sides of the tower (the openings in the upper part
of the tower are often placed in pairs, so that for every windward opening, there is a
leeward one). The badgir is thus able to catch breezes from any direction and channels a
cool airflow into the room or basement. At the same time, it also may act as a chimney; hot
air will be drawn through its leeward side due to the pressure difference over it. When the
winds are low, the towers continue to ventilate the rooms through stack effect alone. This
happens because of the temperature difference between the tower walls, and the ambient
air. The air is thus heated up (night) or cooled down by the tower (day), thus its density
changes. The difference in density creates a draft pulling the air either up (night) or down
through it (day).34

Roof cowls are devices very similar to wind scoops, except that they work
on the exhaust side. They serve as air outlets, and should be designed so
that the wind is utilised to extract the ventilation air out of the building.
This can be achieved either by making them omni-directional, turning
away from the wind, or by giving them an aero dynamical shape that
creates under-pressure for the dominating wind directions. Due to the
venturi effect, non omni-directional roof cowls are effective over a wider
range (typically 260o)33 of wind directions than non omni-directional wind
scoops.

56

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Roof cowls are usually central exhaust paths; advantages and drawbacks
related to that is shown in Table 2.2. As wind scoops, roof cowls will not
function well for all wind directions unless they are omni-directional.
Moreover, snow, ice and wear & tear can reduce functionality for omni-
directional roof cowls.

Venturi elements are devices that are designed to increase the wind
induced airflow velocity over the air outlet in order to increase under-
pressure due to what is known as the Venturi - or Bernoulli effect. Thus,
they promote the extraction of used ventilation air from the building. Such
an element is typically an aerodynamically shaped obstacle placed over
outlets on the roof. An example is the wing on top of the GSW building
(Figure 2.15).

Figure 2.15 Sketch of the function of a venturi element (left). The pressure at the opening
is reduced due to the increased velocity above its top. The GSW Headquarters in Berlin,
Germany is a naturally ventilated high-rise building that utilises the venturi effect to draw
exhaust air out of the double façade (middle). The venturi element, here in the shape of a
wing, is placed right above the central outlet on top of the double façade (right).

As roof cowls, venturi elements are usually central exhaust paths.

Advantages and drawbacks related to that are shown in Table 2.2. Other
advantages of venturi elements are:

x They can (be designed to) work independent of wind direction.

x They can protect the exhaust opening from rain and snow ingress.

57

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

Other drawbacks:
x If the constriction between the outlet and the venturi element is too
small, most of the air will simply blow around it rather than across
the opening. The net result is a system less effective than without the
element.
x Although some testing has been done, use of such elements is in
general still not recommended33. Thus, analysis through e.g. wind
tunnel tests or computational fluid dynamics should be done when
designing them.

Chimneys

Chimneys are another common type of roof elements in natural ventilation

systems, normally with a cylindrical shape. The most usual function is to
extract the ventilation air, in which case they provide an increased
buoyancy effect. Since the top of the chimney normally is situated well
above the building roof, it places the opening in an area where winds are
stronger and more stable, increasing the potential for utilising wind as a
driving force for the ventilation. Thus, careful attention should be made
when designing the opening section in order to create under-pressure. The
simplest design is an open top. This will ensure negative pressure and
provide suction in all wind directions due to the Bernoulli effect. To avoid
ingress of rain, a cover can be placed above the top. Alternatively, a
combination with roof cowls might provide a greater degree of protection
from the weather and increase the effect of the chimneys.

Figure 2.16 The BRE building with chimneys extending well above roof level to increase
the stack potential and to achieve stabile wind induced suction.

58

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

An advantage of chimneys is that they offer an uncomplicated and

efficient way of taking advantage of both thermal buoyancy and wind,
independent of wind-direction.

Double facades

A double façade is a system involving the addition of a second glazed

envelope, which can create opportunities for maximising daylight and
improving energy performance. A double façade does thus have many
properties in common with an atrium. However, the cavity in a double
façade does not offer space for occupation.

Figure 2.17 Alternative configurations for double façades35. I: Cavity closed. II: Cavity
open. III: Cavity serving as supply path. IV: Cavity serving as extract path.

Figure 2.18 Window ventilation is possible in high-rise buildings with double facades as
the outer skin dampens fluctuating pressures created by wind. Test module of the double
facade concept of the Deutsche Post Headquarters building (2002) in Bonn, Germany36
(left) with an illustration of the double façade’s dampening effect on fluctuating pressure
(right).

Double façades used for natural ventilation can be used as an outlet or

inlet path in any of the three natural ventilation principles. They offer
many advantages; the most important are:

59

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

x The cavity is protected against wind and outdoor noise. Thus, open
windows can be allowed irrespective of wind and noise from the
outside, even in the upper floors of high-rise buildings.
x Solar shading devices are protected from wind when placed in the
cavity.
x Solar preheating of the supply air is provided on sunny days, when
the cavity is used as air supply path.
x Due to the protected environment in the cavity, transmission losses
through the wall are reduced compared with an ordinary external
wall. When used as a supply air path, some of the transmission heat
losses through the wall will be captured by the inlet airflow in the
cavity; thus, a heat recovery effect is provided.
x Due to the protected climate in the cavity, window surfaces in the
rooms inside will be warmer, reducing cold downdrafts and
asymmetric radiation.

Drawbacks:

x High temperatures in the cavity can be a problem on hot days, if the

external glazing is not openable. This is particularly a problem in the
upper floors of a building, when the double facade is used as an
exhaust stack.
x Noise can be transferred between adjacent rooms by reflection in the
glazed cavity surfaces.
x Cleaning of the cavity is important, especially when used as a supply
air path. This implies higher operation costs than in the case of a
normal facade.
x A double facade represents significantly higher construction costs
than a normal facade. However, double facades are usually not built
for ventilation purposes only, so the costs can be distributed on
several other functions, e.g. daylight and visual amenity.

Atriums

An atrium is a space with glazed roofs, typically in the middle of a deep-

plan building, providing daylight and visual amenity for the surrounding
building spaces. It may also be a part of the building façade. Atria give
attractive environments that can be used for several purposes. Typical use
of atria is traffic areas, gardens, cafés or canteens. The use may vary
depending on the season.

60

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Envelope Integrated Linear Attached Core

Figure 2.19 Illustration of various types of atria37.

Both thermal buoyancy and wind can be important driving forces for an
atrium that is used for natural ventilation. The higher temperatures
compared to the outdoor temperature induces a significant buoyancy
effect. Wind scoops or roof cowls can be connected to it in order to
exploit the wind, and chimneys can improve the exploitation of both wind
and thermal buoyancy. Wind pressure differences around the building and
on opposite sides of the atrium can also be utilised by strategic placement
of windows or other airflow openings, but this requires an adequate
control system that adapts to the direction and speed of the wind.
An atrium can be used as ventilation air supply unit, extract unit or as both
at the same time. Atria have several advantages and drawbacks in
common with double facades. Important advantages are:

x They allow windows to be opened in rooms facing the atrium

irrespective of wind or low outdoor temperatures, and noise from the
outside will be damped.
x When used as ventilation air supply path, they offer preheating of the
air on sunny days
x When used as supply air path, transmission heat losses from the
surrounding spaces will be captured by the inlet airflow; thus a heat
recovery effect is provided.
x On cold days, surface temperatures of windows towards an atrium are
higher than on windows facing outdoor climate. Thus, the risk for
cold downdraft and thermal discomfort due to asymmetric radiation
in the rooms inside is lower.
x Atria collect solar heat and provide protection against wind. Thus,
transmission losses from rooms towards an atrium are lower than for
rooms facing outdoor climate.

Drawbacks:

x High temperatures can be a problem on hot days.

x Noise can be transferred between adjacent rooms by reflection in the
glazed cavity surface.

61

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

Ventilation chambers

Ventilation chambers are in this context defined as spaces within the

building with the primary purpose to distribute, collect or transport
ventilation air.

Figure 2.20 Skyline view of the naturally ventilated Queens Building, De Montfort
University (1993) in Leicester, UK designed by Ford & Associates with Max Fordham &
Partners (left). The auditorium in the building is also naturally ventilated (middle). The
ventilation air enters through a large opening in the wall and is introduced to the supply
chamber after passing through motorised volume-control dampers. From the supply
chamber, it is distributed through voids under the seating and passes over finned heating
tubes before being introduced in the atrium through a grille of aluminium mesh (right).

A typical application is a chamber serving as a supply air duct, receiving

outdoor air and distributing it to the occupied parts of the building (e.g.
the chamber below the seats in the auditorium in the Queens Building,
Figure 2.20).

Another application is a chamber receiving polluted air from the occupied

parts of the building. The purpose might then be to collect the extract air
in order to recover heat and take better advantage of the stack or wind
potential by leading it into suitable elements like a chimney or a wind
tower. An example is the extract chamber in the Grong primary school
(Figure 2.21). Air from the classrooms is led into this chamber and then
further into the tower of the building. As the walls of the chamber are
made of glass, also the innermost zones of the classrooms are provided
with daylight.

62

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 2.21 The ventilation chambers of Mediå primary school.

Separate ducts or chambers within the building are central inlet paths;
advantages and drawbacks related to that are explained in section 2.4. An
important additional drawback is that they occupy space.

Embedded ducts

Embedded ducts possess many of the same qualities as ventilation

chambers described above, but unlike them, most of their surface area is
in contact with the ground. This gives them the possibility to utilise the
thermal mass in the duct walls and the surrounding ground for passive
heating and cooling. They are normally used for air supply.

Grong Primary School is an example of a typical application of an

embedded duct in a modern building exposed to a relatively cold climate.
In wintertime, when outdoor temperatures are low, the supply duct
contributes to preheat the ventilation air due to the relatively warmer
ground. On hot summer days, the embedded duct provides a cooling effect
due to sensible cooling.

The cooling effect explains why embedded ducts have been used for
thousands of years in hot arid regions, particularly in countries around the
Persian Gulf,38 often in configuration with a wind tower. In these
traditional ducts the air is cooled down due to sensible, and often also
evaporative cooling. The effects are illustrated in Figure 2.22.

63

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

Figure 2.22 Illustration of a traditional embedded duct and its related cooling effects.
When the walls are colder than the ventilation air temperature (due to the colder ground
temperature), air is being cooled. This is known as sensible cooling. In addition, when
trees, shrubs and grass in the ground over the embedded duct are watered, water seeps
through the soil and keeps the inside surface of the tunnel walls damp, providing also
evaporative cooling. A fountain at the air inlet to the building further increases this effect.

Embedded ducts are central inlet paths; advantages and drawbacks related
to that are explained in section 2.4. Other advantages are:

x They offset and reduce energy demand for heating and cooling.
x They provide freedom to locate the air inlet independent of the
building. Thus, the spot with the best air quality and with least noise
can be selected.
x They provide a certain “filtering” effect; large particles, e.g. pollen,
deposit on their way through the duct39.

Drawbacks of embedded ducts:

x Condensation can occur on the inner surfaces of the duct on warm

days, with subsequent fungus growth as a possible result.
x An embedded duct is inherently permanent once it has been built. If
the inlet spot for some reason should becomes unsuitable or if
changed use of the building should require another layout of the
supply air path, the embedded duct must perhaps be abandoned and
another supply solution implemented instead.
x Embedded ducts represent relatively high construction costs.

64

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

x If the ground emits radon, the use of embedded ducts requires special
considerations.

Ventilation openings in the façade

Ventilation openings in the façade are designed for the sole purpose of
providing ventilation inlets and/or outlets. They are therefore separated
from windows which also serve other purposes, i.e. providing daylight
and view to the outside (and to the inside).

Figure 2.23 Vertical ventilation inlets located at the corners of the administration building
of Deutsche Messe AG in Hanover, Germany (left) and a pattern of ventilation inlets in the
east façade of the high-rise building of GSW Headquarters in Berlin, Germany (right).

Ventilation inlets in the façade are often used in combination with local
supply and extract of ventilation air. They need to have a certain size to
support a sufficient air change rate with a low pressure-drop. They
therefore influence the architectural expression of the façade (Figure
2.23). Local supply/extract of ventilation air does not need a special
distribution system in the interior.

Components in natural ventilation systems

In our work, we understand components as vital parts of a natural

ventilation system. They distinguish from characteristic elements by less
space demand and architectural influence. Typical examples of
components are fans, heat exchangers, ducts and weather stations.

65

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

It is stated by Wouters et al.32 and in the final report from the HybVent
project31 that ”there are no real hybrid ventilation components”. Hybrid
ventilation systems consist of components that can be used in any
ventilation system irrespective of driving force. However, as hybrid
ventilation systems are characterised by low driving forces, the
components must generally ensure a low pressure-drop. This is
particularly emphasised for ductwork, fans and heat exchangers. For fans
the importance of ”advanced control mechanisms”, i.e. frequency control,
air flow control, etc., is stressed. ”Availability of appropriate
components” is also claimed to be ”essential”.

The HybVent report also emphasises filters and exhaust components like
”wind towers, solar chimneys or atria”, and supply air components such
as ”underground ducts, culverts or plenums”, as appropriate components
”to ensure the capability of combining natural and mechanical forces in
the air distribution system”. Furthermore, ”to ensure the possibility to
control thermal comfort, IAQ and air flow in the building, appropriate
components can include:

x Manually operated and/or motorised windows, vents or special

ventilation openings in the facade and in internal walls,
x Room temperature, CO2 and/or air flow sensors,
x Control system with weather station.”

The definition of components from Wouters et al. and the HybVent report,
is somewhat more extensive than our definition, including both our
components and some of our characteristic elements. It is stated by the
two works that no components are unique for hybrid ventilation, but that
some of the components needed in such systems require special
properties. This can be supplied with some thoughts about classification
of components. Thus, components in natural ventilation systems can be
structured in three different ways:

1. after their level of integration

2. after whether they serve one or several functions
3. after their uniqueness for natural ventilation systems

Components can be sorted into two categories, after their level of

integration with other building parts:

x Integrated components
x Separate components

66

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Examples of the former are windows, facade grilles (integrated with the
facade) and hollow slabs serving as ducts. Examples of the latter are fans,
filters and heat exchangers. Furthermore, the components can be classified
in another two categories, after whether they serve one or several
functions:

x Components that serve several functions

x Components that serve ventilation purposes only

An example of the former is a window, which provides view, daylight and

ventilation. Examples of the latter are fans and heat exchangers. The
components can be sorted into five categories, depending on their
uniqueness for natural ventilation systems:

1. Components that are basically independent of type of system, but that

require a special design when used in natural ventilation systems.
This is for example the case for filters and fans, which need a larger
cross-section area to ensure a low pressure drop.
2. Components that are not used in mechanical ventilation systems. This
is the case only for a few components, such as wind and precipitation
sensors on weather stations. The former is important for control of
wind driven ventilation systems, the latter is necessary to prevent
precipitation to enter the building through ventilation openings in the
envelope.
3. Components that are basically independent of type of system, but that
are often needed in particularly large amounts in natural ventilation
systems. This is for example the case for inlet temperature sensors and
window motors in façade inlet systems with automatic control.
4. Components that are more common in natural ventilation systems than
in other ventilation systems. This is for example the case for grilles in
partitioning walls, which may allow air to flow from an office cell to
the corridor independent of open and shut doors.
5. Components that are independent of ventilation system. This is for
example the case for CO2 room sensors, room temperature sensors,
occupation sensors and frequency controls for fans.

An overview of components that in some way are unique for natural

ventilation systems, i.e. corresponding to the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th in the list
above, is given in the table below together with their special requirements
and features.

67

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

Component Special requirements Resulting characteristics

Fan 1 Low pressure drop when not Axial type with large cross-
operating section area and few blades
Bypass airflow path.
VAV Frequency control
Filter 1 Low pressure drop when Large cross-section area
operating Electrostatic type
Low pressure drop when not Electrostatic type
operating Bypass air flow path
Heat exchanger 1 Low pressure drop when Large cross-section area
operating
Low pressure drop when not Bypass air flow path
operating
Heat recovery 1 Low pressure drop when Large cross-section area
system operating Heat removed from exhaust air on
as high level as possible
Low pressure drop when not Bypass air flow path
operating
Pre-heating 1 Low pressure drop when Large cross-section area
system operating
Low pressure drop when not Bypass air flow path
operating
Weather station 2 Location that ensures reliable Location on roof, on separate pole
with sensors for measurements, i.e. detached Data from public weather station
wind speed, wind location in the neighbourhood.
direction, and
precipitation
Solar heat 2 Good heat absorbing properties Dark coloured.
absorbing Good heat transfer properties Thin.
material for stacks
Temperature 3 No particular requirements. No particular characteristics.
sensors on façade
inlet
Motors for 3 No particular requirements. No particular characteristics.
windows, valves,
etc.
Grilles between 4 Low pressure drop No particular characteristics.
rooms within the Automatic closing in the case of
building fire
Noise attenuation
Thermal mass 4 High heat accumulation capacity Integrated with other components,
Low surface thermal resistance e.g. floor, wall or ceiling
Façade openings 1 Airflow rate control Motorised opening
4 Self-regulating opening
Avoiding draft Heating element
Airflow rate control

Table 2.5 Components with different levels of uniqueness for natural ventilation systems
listed together with their special requirements and resulting features. The second column
refers to the items in the list on the previous page.

68

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Notes

1
CIBSE Application Manual AM10 (1997) Natural ventilation in non-domestic
buildings, The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, London.
2
Allard, F. (1998) Natural ventilation in buildings, James & James, London.
3
Awbi, H. B. (1991) Ventilation of Buildings, E&FN SPON, London.
4
Roalkvam D. (1997) Naturlig Ventilasjon Norske Arkitekter for en Bærekraftig
Utvikling (NABU), Oslo.
5
Norges standardiseringsforbund, october 1995: NS-EN ISO 7730
6
Hensen, J.L.M. (1990), Litterature review on thermal comfort in transient
conditions, Building and Environment, vol. 25, no 4, pp. 309-316.
7
Arbeidstilsynet 1996: “Veiledning om klima og luftkvalitet på arbeidsplassen
(Guide on climate and air quality on working places)”. Order no. 444.
8
Folkehelsa (the Norwegian institute of public health) 1998: “Anbefalte faglige
normer for inneklima (Recommended norms for indoor climate)”. Report.
9
Statens bygningstekniske etat 1997: “Ren veiledning til teknisk forskrift til plan-
og bygningsloven 1977 (Guide to the technical Regulations under the Planning
and Building Act)”.
10
Statens helsetilsyn 1998: “Veileder til forskrift om miljørettet helsevern i
barnehager og skoler m.v. (Regulation on environmental oriented health care in
kindergartens and schools)”. IK-2619.
11
Norges standardiseringsforbund 2002: “prNS 3563. Ventilation for buildings –
Design methods for indoor climate.”(Based on CR 1752)
12
ASHRAE 1992: Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.
ASHRAE Standard 55.
13
World Health Organisation 2000: “Air Quality guidelines for Europe.” WHO
Regional Publications, European Series, No. 91.
14
Kommunal- og regionaldepartementet 1997: “Tekniske forskrifter til plan- og
bygningsloven (Technical Regulations under the Planning and Building Act)”.
15
Arbeids- og administrasjonsdepartementet 1977: “Lov om arbeidervern og
arbeidsmiljø m.v. (law on work environment)”.
16
Arbeids- og administrasjonsdepartementet 1995: “Forskrift om arbeidsplasser
og arbeidslokaler (Regulation on workplaces and workspaces)”
17
Helsedepartementet 1995: “Forskrift om miljørettet helsevern i barnehager og
skoler m.v. (Regulation on environmental oriented health care in kindergartens
and schools)”
18
de Dear 1999: “Adaptive thermal comfort in natural and hybrid ventilation”.
HybVent Forum’99, Sydney.
19
Darmawan 1999: “Adaptive thermal comfort: A multicultural issue”. HybVent
Forum’99, Sydney.
20
Andersen, K. T. (2002), Naturlig ventilation i erhvervsbygninger, By og Byg,
Statens Byggeforskningsinstitutt, Hørsholm.

69

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 2. Principles and elements of natural ventilation

21
Daniels, K. (1997), The Technology of Ecological Building. Basic Principles
and Measures, Examples and Ideas, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel.
22
Andersen et. al. (2000) AIVC conference in Haag.
23
Fisk, Mendell, et al. 1993: ”Phase 1 of the California healthy building study: a
summary”. Indoor Air 3, pp 246-254.
24
Zweers, Preller, et al. 1992: ”Health and indoor climate complaints of 7043
office workers in 61 buildings in the Netherlands”. Indoor Air 2, pp 127-136.
25
Mendell 1990: “Elevated symptom prevalence in air-conditioned office
buildings: A reanalysis of epidemic studies from the United Kingdom”.
Proceedings Indoor Air ’90, Vol. 1, pp 623-629.
26
Thorstensen, Hansen, et al., 1990: “Air pollution sources and indoor air
qualities in schools”. Proceedings Indoor Air, Volume 1, pp 531-536.
27
Fanger, Laurritsen, et al., 1988: “Air pollution sources in offices and assembly
halls, quantified by the olf unit.” Energy & Buildings, 12, 1988, pp 7-19.
28
Bluyssen, Fernandes, et al., 1996: “European audit project in 56 office
buildings.” Indoor Air, Volume 6, pp 221-238.
29
CIBSE (ed.), 2000: “Mixed Mode Ventilation.” Applications Manual AM13.
London.
30
Bordass, W. T., M. J. Entwisle, et al., 1994: “Naturally Ventilated and Mixed-
Mode Office Buildings - Opportunities and Pitfalls.” CIBSE National
Conference, Brighton, UK.
31
Heiselberg (ed.), P., 2002: “Principles of Hybrid Ventilation.” Aarhus
University Center, Denmark.
32
Wouters, P., N. Heijmans, et al., 1999: “Classification of Hybrid Ventilation
Concepts”. HybVent Forum '99, Sydney.
33
McCarthy, Christopher; Battle McCarthy Consulting Engineers (1999) Wind
Towers, Jon Wiley & Sons Ltd. London.
34
Bahadori, M.N. 1978: “Passive cooling systems in Iranian architecture.”
Scientific American, Feb., pp. 144-154
35
Schittich, C., G. Staib, et al. (1999). “Glass Construction Manual.” Basel,
Birkhäuser Publishers.
36
Schuler, M. (2000): “Optimierund des Nutzerkomforts und Minimierung der
Gebäudetechnik durch adaptive Gebäudehullen.” Transsolar Energietechnik,
Stuttgart, Germany
37
S.R. Hastings et. al. (1994): “Passive Solar Commercial and Institutional
Buildings”, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
38
Herdeg 1990: “Formal structure in Islamic architecture of Iran and
Turkistan”. Rizzoli, New York.
39
Shildt,P. 2002: “Pilote Study Report, Jaer School”. Nesodden municipality,
IEA-Energy Conservation in Buildings and community systems, May 20th, pp.
21.

70

URN:NBN:no-7242
 3 Case studies and architectural aspects

Case study research is often used in social science research and is by far
the dominating method of architectural research. In general, case studies
are the preferred strategy when “how” and “why” questions are being
posed, when the investigator has little control over events, and when the
focus is on contemporary phenomena within some real-life context1. This
work examines the relationship between architecture and natural
ventilation. The study of natural ventilation in contemporary buildings is
certainly a phenomenon within a real-life context where we as researchers
have little control over the events. This work therefore makes use of the
case study as the essential working method. According to R. K. Yin
(1994), the number of cases to be included in a research project should be
limited as case study research work tends to be demanding and time
consuming. For this reason, three case study buildings are chosen for
which the architectural consequences of their respective natural
ventilation concepts are investigated.

Different concepts of natural ventilation have different “architectural

footprints”, i.e. architectural consequences and possibilities. Isolating or
identifying the essential “building stones” of different natural ventilation
concepts facilitates the classification of different concepts and, in turn, the
study of their respective architectural consequences and possibilities.

The chapter starts in section 3.1 with an elaboration of the classification

criteria that, based on the discussion in chapter 2, are found to be most
essential for the identification of the architectural consequences and
possibilities. The selection of case study buildings is presented in section
3.2. The selection criteria are also presented in this section. The checklist
of architectural aspects presented in section 3.3 is used both as a research
tool and as a guide in the investigation of the architectural consequences
of the natural ventilation concepts in the three case study buildings.

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 3. Case studies and checklist of architectural aspects

3.1 Classification of natural ventilation concepts

An important criterion for the selection of case study buildings is that they
cover as much as possible of the variety of natural ventilation concepts.
The classification should serve the following three purposes:

1. It should constitute a structured, nuanced and well-defined basis of

knowledge for further research on identifying and analysing
architectural consequences and possibilities of the various natural
ventilation concepts.
2. It should be a basis for selection of representative case study
buildings.
3. It should result in a “concept label” that can be put on each of the
various concept groups, comprising the information that is needed,
both to be able to envision how the concept works and to distinguish
between the various concepts and their characteristics.

Addressing the purposes of classification mentioned above, it is found to

be appropriate to use the three aspects of natural ventilation that are
included in the definition of a natural ventilation concept in chapter 2, i.e.
the natural driving force, the ventilation principle and the characteristic
ventilation element as classification criteria. In addition, the building
height and the supply and exhaust air paths (i.e. whether they are local or
central, see section 2.4) are considered suitable classification criteria. The
complete set of classification criteria is shown in the table below, and the
arguments for the selection of these criteria is further elaborated in the
following.

72

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Classification criteria Sorting category

Natural driving force Buoyancy
Wind
Ventilation principle Single-sided
Cross
Stack
Characteristic ventilation elements Wind scoop
Wind tower
Chimney
Double facade
Atrium
Ventilation chamber
Embedded duct
Ventilation openings in the facade
Building height Low-rise
Medium-rise
High-rise
Supply and exhaust air paths Local
Central

Table 3.1 The table show classification criteria and corresponding sorting categories that
have implications for both the architectural consequences and possibilities.

Natural driving force as a classification criterion

Both wind and buoyancy are normally utilised as driving forces in a

naturally ventilated building, but one of them is often predominant. A
building is therefore often designed for optimal utilisation of the
predominant driving force. Consequently it is possible to distinguish
between which of the two natural driving forces the building is optimised
for, as that driving force will place certain demands on the design of the
building and the prospective characteristic ventilation elements in order to
function optimally. In this way, the natural driving force has consequences
for the shape and layout of a building, for which ventilation elements that
are to be utilised (e.g. a wind scoop or an atrium), and for the air paths
into, out of and through the building. The configuration of a system based
on wind will differ and have other challenges than a system based on
thermal buoyancy.

73

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 3. Case studies and checklist of architectural aspects

Ventilation principle as a classification criterion

The natural driving force is utilised to drive a certain ventilation principle.

The ventilation principles, single-sided-, cross-, or stack ventilation, have
implications for how the shape of the building (e.g. its depth) and its plan
layout is designed for successful utilisation of the principle. There are also
certain ventilation elements associated with the various ventilation
principles. Cross-ventilation is for instance principally wind driven, and
the ventilated space has ventilation openings in the façade on both sides of
the building. The cross- and stack ventilation principles put certain
directions on layout and use of the plan, as there should be as little
obstruction in the air path from inlet to outlet as possible. The depth of the
space that can be effectively ventilated varies depending on the ventilation
principle. Single-sided-, and to some extent cross-ventilated buildings,
have relatively narrow plan depths, which is usually achieved with linear
building forms. Stack ventilated buildings can be considerably deeper, and
by e.g. puncturing a plan with chimneys for inlet and outlet, there are
almost no limitation on building depth (in terms of ventilation).
Consequently, the way a plan can be structured, organised and used
depends on which ventilation principle is used. Cross-, single-sided- and
stack ventilation each have their unique set of possibilities and limitations.

Characteristic ventilation element as a classification criterion

Each characteristic ventilation element has a set of architectural

consequences and certain architectural possibilities linked to it. The
elements in the façade and on the roof of a building seem intuitively to
hold great consequences for the architecture as they, due to their location,
are very visible to the observer from the outside. Double façades and
ventilation openings in the building envelope are typical examples of
elements located in the façade that can have significant implications for a
building’s appearance. Wind towers, chimneys and wind scoops are
examples of elements on the roof that have architectural consequences,
especially for a building’s silhouette. Building integrated elements (see
introduction to section 2.6) also have architectural implications, e.g. for
the layout of a plan, and the location of stairwells and the design of stairs
when they are used as extract chimneys. (One could argue that an
architectural implication of a building integrated element could,
seemingly, be the total absence of a ventilation system. The southern
office wing of the B&O Headquarters is an example of this). An
embedded duct, on the other hand, has no impact in itself on the
appearance of a building, but the intake tower, typically located some

74

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

distance away from the actual building, does have architectural

implications.

Building height as a classification criterion

Tall buildings generally face another set of challenges than low buildings,
also in terms of natural ventilation. By focusing on the height of buildings,
distinctions in natural ventilation concepts can be seen. The utilisation and
characteristics of the two natural driving forces associated with natural
ventilation, thermal buoyancy and wind, are influenced by the height of
the building. The wind velocity and wind direction is more stable the
higher up from the ground level, as the wind is less influenced by
surrounding buildings and vegetation. The vertical distance between the
inlet and the outlet is significant for the driving pressure that can be
obtained with buoyancy. A tall building therefore tends to utilise other
ventilation elements than a low building. Additionally, and maybe just as
important a reason for variations in ventilation concept between tall and
low buildings, are the different challenges these various generic building
types face. A high-rise building faces for instance a higher wind pressure
than a low-rise building. This driving force can be utilised for ventilation,
but it can be hard to combine with e.g. openable windows for ventilation
and external solar shading. A logical and practical way of sorting by
building height would be to distinguish between high-rise buildings (more
than 10 storeys), medium-rise buildings (3-6 storeys) and low-rise
buildings (1-2 storeys). These categories would probably be well enough
defined to separate various concepts, and coarse enough to not run the risk
of identifying as many concepts of natural ventilation as there are
buildings.

Supply and exhaust air paths as a classification criterion

The supply and exhaust air path is the route ventilation air travel between
the outside and the occupied spaces inside a building (section 2.4). The
supply and exhaust paths can be local or central, and both of these are
associated with distinctive implications for the architecture of the
building. A local supply and exhaust air path typically implies that several
inlets/outlets are scattered on the building envelope. A central inlet/outlet
on the other hand (e.g. an intake tower linked to an embedded duct) might
have minimal visual implications for the building exterior. However, as
central inlets/outlets in most cases need horizontal and/or vertical
ductworks and/or chambers inside the building to distribute the ventilation
air to the desired locations, they have architectural and functional
consequences for the interior. Central airflow paths facilitate heat

75

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 3. Case studies and checklist of architectural aspects

recovery, whereas this is harder to achieve with local airflow paths. Local
paths offer on the other hand greater flexibility for future changes as they
usually are organised in a modular manner (e.g. inlets located in narrow
horizontal bands at every floor level across the width of the façade), and
are not encumbered with being linked to a dedicated distribution network
in the interiors.

3.2 Selection of case study buildings

In order to ensure that relevant and appropriate building cases are

selected, certain criteria were used in the selection process. Two different
sets of criteria were used:

1. Criteria for each of the buildings.

2. Criteria for the set of buildings.

An important criterion for the selection of the particular case study

building is that the building is of good aesthetical-, functional- and
technical quality. The building must be available for data acquisition and
should hence not be too far away geographically. The information on the
building should not be restricted in any way. It must further be possible to
visit the building and to get around inside it. The design team of the
building (the architect and the HVAC/energy consultant) should be
available for interviews and willing to be interviewed. It is furthermore
desirable that a monitoring program and a survey on occupant’s comfort is
performed. The case buildings must be within the focus of this work with
regard to geographical location, i.e. northern Europe, and building
function, i.e. office and school buildings.

The most important criterion for the set of case study buildings is that the
buildings should have different natural ventilation concepts. The selected
case study buildings should also cover high-rise, medium-rise and low-
rice buildings, as well as both local and central supply air paths (section
3.1). It is furthermore desirable that the case study buildings are located in
different situations and contexts, for example urban in contrast to rural
contexts, to incorporate the context’s influence on the ventilation concept
and hence on the architectural consequences and possibilities. The
selected buildings should also differ in both size and shape.

With these criteria in mind a systematic search through all naturally

ventilated buildings that could be found in Northern Europe has been

76

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

carried out. After holding the potential case study buildings up against the
selection criteria, three buildings were found to match them sufficiently:

x Gemeinnützige Siedlungs- und Wohnungsbaugesellschaft mbh

(GSW) in Berlin, Germany.
x Bang & Olufsen Headquarters (B&O) in Struer, Denmark.
x Mediå Primary School (MPS) in Grong, Norway.

Figure 3.1 Images of the GSW Headquarters (1999) in Berlin Germany designed by
Sauerbruch Hutton Architects (left), the B&O Headquarters (1998) in Struer, Denmark
designed by KHR AS Architects (middle), and Mediå Primary School (1998) in Grong,
Norway designed by Letnes Architects AS (right).

The three buildings are each representatives of their respective “concept

group” of natural ventilation. GSW represents the high-rise group, B&O
represents the medium-rise group, and Mediå Primary School represents
the low-rise group (Table 3.2). The three buildings form the basis upon
which the continued research on the architectural consequences of natural
ventilation is conducted. The results from this investigation will in turn
give an indication on the architectural possibilities that can be associated
with natural ventilation. The architectural possibilities are investigated
with the aid of additional buildings, and this work follows subsequently
after the investigations of the architectural consequences.

77

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 3. Case studies and checklist of architectural aspects

Classification criteria Sorting category MPS B&O GSW

Driving force Buoyancy x x x

Wind x x
Ventilation principle Single-sided (x)
Cross (x) x
Stack x x (x)
Characteristic Wind scoop
ventilation element
Wind tower x x
Chimney x
Double facade x
Atrium
Ventilation chamber x
Embedded duct x
Ventilation inlets in the x x
facade
Building integrated x
Building height High-rise x
Medium-rise x
Low-rise x
Supply air paths Local / central /x x/ x/
Exhaust air paths Local / central /x /x /x

Table 3.2 An overview of the natural ventilation concepts of the three case study
buildings. Note that building integrated ventilation element (section 2.6) enter into
characteristic ventilation element as this category best describes the characteristic
ventilation element of the B&O Headquarters.

It must be emphasised that the number of case study buildings is limited,

and that they also represent an early generation of modern naturally
ventilated buildings. There might consequently be architectural
possibilities and potentials beyond the aspects pointed out and focused on
in this work. The chapters that follow are not exhaustive and therefore not
conclusive. One can only indicate the sort of work that has been done in a
particular period of time and select a few buildings that seem to typify the
kind of architecture done with the technique and knowledge of natural
ventilation up to the present time. In the absence of encyclopaedic
knowledge it is extremely difficult to be confident that one has picked the
most typical building, or the best of a number of buildings illustrating the
same point. In the context of this study, the use of the typical rather than
the definitive, can however be defended. It has seemed acceptable to settle

78

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

for buildings that appear to sum up forward thinking and progressive

practice.

3.3 Checklist for architectural aspects

By studying the three buildings, the aim is to find and describe the
architectural consequences of their respective natural ventilation
concepts. Obviously, “architectural consequences”, or “architecture”, is a
very broad expression2. In the continued research on identifying the
architectural consequences of natural ventilation in the three case study
buildings, architecture needs to be “split up” into smaller and more
workable parts. For this purpose a checklist for discussion of the
architectural aspects has been developed that essentially splits up the topic
into more defined and workable parts. Some of the items on the checklist
originate from well-established and defined ways of describing buildings,
namely plan, section and façade. These three items are the “backbone” of
the checklist of architectural aspects, and they represent deep-rooted and
recognised ways of both describing and communicating architecture
through e.g. drawings. The checklist of architectural aspects is further
developed and extended with additional items through discussion with
research colleagues and supervisors, and through the actual work on the
different case study buildings. It has been the aim to “tailor” or “tune” the
items on the checklist of architectural aspects to the focus of this
particular research. It has nevertheless been the aim to limit the number of
items to maintain clarity and avoid being too exact, as separating
architectural consequences deriving from natural ventilation from
consequences originating from other issues (not to mention the combined
effect of various issues) can prove very difficult if not impossible on some
matters. The number of items on the checklist is therefore limited to eight.
The checklist constitutes an important research tool that both guides and
structures the investigation of the three case study buildings. Each of the
eight items is described below, and an icon is associated with each of
them to ease recognition.

79

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 3. Case studies and checklist of architectural aspects

Site and context

This focuses on how the site and its context have influenced the natural
ventilation concept. Matters of interest include the type of surroundings
(e.g. urban or rural), landscape/topography (e.g. flat or hilly), together
with nearby vegetation, buildings and other structures (e.g. roads).
Geographical location (longitude and latitude), climate (wind,
precipitation, solar radiation and pollution), and whether the building site
has a coastal or inland location are also ingredients of this first item on the
checklist.

Orientation and shape

This focuses on how the natural ventilation concept has influenced the
orientation, shape, composition and silhouette.

Plan

This focuses on how the layout and the organisation of the plan are
affected by the natural ventilation concept.

Section

This focuses on the consequences natural ventilation might have on the

section of the building (e.g. vertical air paths/stacks) both in the interior
and in the exterior.

80

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Façade

This focuses on the consequences the natural ventilation concept has for
the design and the appearance of the façade of the building (e.g.
ventilation openings and solar chimneys). It includes both two-
dimensional and three-dimensional aspects, i.e. not only the composition
of the “façade-surface” (two dimensions) but also relief effects in the
façade (three dimensions).

Materials and characteristic ventilation elements

This focuses on the link between natural ventilation and the use of
materials in the exterior (e.g. the necessity of using glass in a double
façade or in a solar chimney) and in the interior (e.g. applicable materials
for utilisation of thermal mass). It focuses also on the characteristic
elements of natural ventilation (e.g. ventilation openings in the facade).

Interior spaces

This focuses on the relation between natural ventilation and spatial

experience and quality (e.g. room height and volume, proportion of
spaces, light, view to exterior and so forth). It also focuses on spatial
connection in the context of natural ventilation. The air masses and the
occupants of the building tend to move along and through the same paths
in naturally ventilated buildings, and this might generate new spatial
connections and hierarchies.

Integration and conflict with other aspects

This focuses on how utilisation of natural ventilation coincides or

conflicts with other aspects (e.g. fire and utilisation of daylight).

81

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 3. Case studies and checklist of architectural aspects

Notes

1
Yin, R.K. (1994) Case study research, -Design and Methods, SAGE
publications, London.
2
There are several attempts on defining architecture, or to describe what the word
holds: “Esthetical organisation of practical reality” (E. Cornell 1966), “Buildings
are nothing but a medium for the architecture, which is the idea behind the form,
built for the purpose of manifesting and transferring this idea” (W. Lethaby
1891). Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret) stated: “You employ stone,
wood, concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces. This is
construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me
good. I am happy and I say ‘This is beautiful’. That is Architecture. Art enters
in”.

82

URN:NBN:no-7242
 4 Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

High-rise buildings comprise buildings in the range taller than ten stories.
The building selected as the case for the high-rise group is the
headquarters of Gemeinnützige Siedlungs- und Wohnungsbaugesellschaft
mbh (GSW) in Berlin. GSW is the largest provider of social housing in
Berlin. Five distinct buildings constitute the headquarters: an existing 17-
storey office block built in 1961, a new 22-storey high-rise, two 3-storey
low-rise blocks, and a 3-storey circular building volume, referred to as the
“Pillbox” by the architects, perched over one of the low-rise blocks. A
reception area on the ground floor connects and provides access to all five
buildings. A single storey basement, virtually covering the whole site,
provides access to a deep sub-basement containing a mechanical parking
system for approximately 220 cars.

Several low-energy concepts are incorporated in the high-rise building

and natural ventilation is part of that building’s low-energy concept. The
high-rise building is therefore of particular interest and constitutes the
focal point of the research on the GSW Headquarters case.

This chapter starts off with describing the GSW Headquarters in general
and the high-rise building in particular. The site and context, the building,
and the ventilation concept are described successively in section 4.1. The
architectural consequences of the natural ventilation concept are identified
and described in section 4.2. This work is guided and structured by the
checklist described in chapter 3. Extracts from the interviews with the
design team are incorporated as a part of the analysis. The design team’s
experiences with designing a building that utilises natural ventilation are
presented in section 4.3. Some occupant experiences are also briefly
presented. Finally, the chapter closes with a summary and conclusions
regarding the findings on the architectural consequences of the natural
ventilation concept used in the GSW Headquarters, in section 4.4.

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

4.1 Description of the case study building

Figure 4.1 The south façade of the GSW Headquarters high-rise building.

Key information on GSW Headquarters

Year of completion: 1999.

Location: Berlin, Germany. 53°N 14°E.
Architect: Sauerbruch Hutton Architects.
HVAC consultant: Arup.
Site and situation: Dense city landscape surrounded by medium- to high-
rise buildings.
Prevailing wind direction: West.
Gross floor area high-rise: 16 208 m2.
Number of storeys: 22 (The top floor, housing a mechanical ventilation
plant, has double height. The high-rise building is set atop of a three-
storied low-rise building).
Depth of plan: 11.5- 15 meters.
Floor-to-ceiling height: 2.7 meters.

84

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Site and context

Figure 4.2 The GSW Headquarters is located in the city centre of Berlin, Germany (left)
surrounded by medium- and high-rise buildings (right). (The high-rise building of the
GSW Headquarters is the building with the wind roof in the middle of the picture).

The GSW Headquarters is located on Kochstrasse 22, in the Borough of

Kreuzberg in the city centre of Berlin, very close to the line of the Berlin
Wall and where Checkpoint Charlie used to be. It is located in an urban
city landscape surrounded by medium- to high-rise buildings. The GSW
Company has occupied the existing 17-storey tower, built in the 1950s,
since 1961, but an urgent need for more office space called for an
extension.

Figure 4.3 The GSW Headquarters complex is the building marked in the lower part of the
map (left). The drawing (right) is a study of the context done by the architects. Note that
all high-rise buildings in the vicinity are oriented north-south.

85

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

To understand the history of the site on Kochstrasse one has to be aware

of the history of the city of Berlin. Relatively rapid and very varied
sequences of different urban ideas have emerged since ca. 1700. The
baroque city extension of the northern and the southern Friedrichstadt
were to become the dense stony Berlin of the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. The bombardment of 1945, the post-war reconstruction in East
and West, the fall of the Wall, and the 1980’s International Building
Exhibition finally lead to the heterogeneous urban structure which was to
be found at the site at the start of the project. The simultaneous traces of
the various stages of development show Friedrichstadt as a rich urban
landscape, which embodies the social, cultural and political history of this
city.

The building

In the late 1980s, before the wall came down, GSW needed additional
office space and decided to develop further on their site with a 22m high
building surrounding the existing one. The planning authorities rejected
this, and subsequently GSW held a design competition in the autumn of
1990 with six invited architects for the design of an extension to their
headquarters building. The brief asked for 19,000 m2 of offices and shops,
and to incorporate the existing building into the new development and to
create a link between old and new.

This competition was one of the first for a major building in the historic
centre of Berlin since the reunification, and it implicitly addressed the
question of the re-joining of the two city-halves, -in this case the northern
and southern parts of Friedrichstadt. The jury, consisting of the client, four
independent architects, and representatives of the Borough of Kreuzberg
and the Berlin Senate, decided to hold a second round between two of the
competitors in December 1990. In March 1991 the design by Sauerbruch
Hutton architects was unanimously awarded first prize.

The GSW Headquarters Building is an assemblage of five distinct

volumes. This variety of elements allows a response to the different
typological and morphological conditions of the ensemble’s location
between the southern and northern parts of the so-called Friedrichstadt
in the centre of Berlin. Within the discussion about the reconstruction
of the once-divided capital, this project articulates a response to the
city which accepts Berlin’s historical conglomerate as a structural
principle. History is seen as a dynamic process which leaves its traces.
The intention to work with these traces -in a constructive and creative
way is the underlying principle of this scheme. With its low-energy

86

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

concept the building leads into the future, and with its idiosyncratic
aesthetics it demands the return of a sensual architecture at the
beginning of the 21st century. (Sauerbruch Hutton; gsw headquarters
berlin, 2000)

High-rise
Baguette Pill box

Existing tower

Baguettini

Figure 4.4 The building complex includes five distinct and different volumes; the existing
tower, the high-rise, the Baguette, the Baguettini, and the Pill Box. North is up.

Figure 4.5 The picture (left) show (from left to right) the east façade of the existing tower,
the high-rise and the Pillbox set atop the baguette. The high-rise building spans between
the baguette and the baguettini (right).

87

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

The high-rise slab is the building element which -in the almost didactic
reference of the individual volumes to corresponding urban ideas from
different generations -is mostly associated with the present and future.
In urban terms it reacts to the surrounding buildings of the ‘50s and
‘60s, with its architectural philosophy it attempts to anticipate the
future. It is the high-rise which lends the whole ensemble its urban
presence and aura. (Sauerbruch Hutton; gsw headquarters berlin,
2000)

Figure 4.6 The plan of the existing tower and the new high-rise with a double-banked
office layout in the northern end and an open office layout in the southern end (left).
Section drawing of the high-rise showing the concept of the structure as well as that of the
double façade and the wind roof (right).

The structure of the high-rise building is adapted to suit a double-banked

office plan. The cantilevers are carried on every floor by a post-stressed
RC edge beam between which prefabricated floor elements with an in-situ
concrete topping are spanned. As these smooth concrete ceilings remain
exposed to take full advantage of their thermal mass, everything that is
normally concealed behind a suspended ceiling is integrated into the
primary structure. The columns of the building have a special form. They

88

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

were developed from the section of a steel I-beam and its concrete fire
protection. The resulting outline is an economical solution in terms of
space and material and provides furthermore an elegant form (Figure 4.7).

Figure 4.7 Picture taken under construction of the high-rise showing the structure (left).
(Concrete/steel columns carry a post-stressed RC edge beam between which prefabricated
floor elements span). The picture shows how daylight that enters from the side modulates
the shape of the columns in the conference room of the baguettini (right).

The façades are the most important elements of the low-energy concept. A
high degree of transparency allows for maximum daylight and view to the
exterior. The transmission of heat and light into the interior is controlled
through the use of solar shutters and blinds, and the buffer zones of the
double façades (east and west facades) contribute to achieving good
insulation values. The east façade with its porous ventilation openings is
like a smooth skin, whereas the west façade -with its depth and separation
into several layers -resembles a fur1. The individual occupant controls all
movable elements of the facades, but a central building management
system can also operate them.

The west façade comprises three layers (Figure 4.8). The inner layer
consists of a double-glazed aluminium curtain wall in which every second
bay has a window that can be opened. The vertical posts of this inner
façade carry cantilevering brackets to support the outer façade. This outer
layer is single-glazed, and consists of 3.3 m x 1.8 m laminated glass panes
which were mounted on site, as opposed to the elements of the inner
façade which were prefabricated2. The space between the two layers (1.15
m) is accessible as the brackets carry metal-mesh decking. The airflow
between the inner and outer skins can be regulated according to weather
conditions by dampers at the top and at the bottom (Figure 4.6, right). The

89

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

solar shading devices make up the third layer and are located inside the
flue, shielded from gusty weather conditions and external pollution. The
shading devices are made of 3.0 m x 0.9 m sized perforated aluminium
shutters that can be pivoted (around a vertical axis to minimise obstruction
to the upward airflow) and moved aside mechanically. The pattern created
by the coloured shutters depends upon the weather conditions and the
habits of the occupants. The west façade offers as a result an ever-
changing image.

Figure 4.8 A section drawing through the west façade (left), picture during construction
(middle) and a picture of the façade after completion (right).

Figure 4.9 The north façade (left) and the south façade (middle) are both extremely
narrow, accentuating the verticality of the high-rise. The meeting between old and new are
exposed to the greatest extent in the south façade (right).

90

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

The north and south façade make up the slender gable walls of the high-
rise slab (Figure 4.9). The layered sectioning of the building is expressed
in the two gable facades. One can clearly detect the depth of the solar flue
in the west facade, the office zone in the middle, and a vertical band
“drawn up” by the double east façade (although narrower than the double
west facade). The verticality of the two façades is emphasized in the south
facade through a homogenous field of fixed louvres (in front of the
windows), and in the north façade through the narrow rhythms of
especially articulated profiles that run from bottom to top (Figure 4.9).

Figure 4.10 A section drawing through the east façade (left). The appearance of the façade
viewed from street level (middle) and viewed from an office in the neighbouring tower
(right).

Ventilation inlets for the entire building are located in the east façade. The
inlets are clad with aluminium louvres on the outside and equipped with
openable hatches on the inside (Figure 4.10). The inlets are distributed
across the façade in such a way that a multitude of alternative office
layouts is possible on the different floors. In addition to individual
openings for every office bay, there are central fresh air inlets. These are
necessary for the ventilation of double-banked layouts (Figures 4.14 and
4.15). This results in an asymmetrical composition of the louvres on the
façade, showing a direct relationship to the use of the building. The rest of
the façade is made of two layers of glazing; a double-glazed inner layer
(which can be opened for cleaning) and a single-glazed outer layer. The
cavity between the two skins is ventilated to avoid that heat become
trapped. The double façade offers good thermal insulation and protection
for the solar blinds that are located in the cavity.

91

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

The first ideas of the competition scheme have been developed into a low-
energy concept of six points (Figures 4.11 - 4.13). The goal of the design
team has been to reduce energy consumption via passive architectural
measures instead of technical measures. In this the design team used
computer simulation programs to optimise the passive concept. The
building was also analysed twice in the wind tunnel at the Department of
Aerospace Engineering in Bristol, UK.

Figure 4.11 1) Maximisation of natural light (left). Generous glazing of the facades and a
comparatively narrow floor plan favour utilisation of daylight in all workplaces.
Additional lighting during the day is only necessary in exceptional cases. 2) Buffer zones
(right). The building’s double east and west facades act as thermal buffer as well as a
sound protection layer that reduce or keep external noise from the city out of the interiors.

Figure 4.12 3) Effective solar protection (left). In order to avoid the negative effects of the
generous natural lighting (overheating and glare), the building can be screened by blinds
located in the cavity of the double facades. The individual user can regulate the solar
protection devices. 4) Utilisation of natural ventilation (right). Natural ventilation of all
workplaces in a controlled manner renders the operation of a mechanical ventilation
system superfluous 70% of the year according to Arup. The user regulates the ventilation.

Figure 4.13 5) Heat recovery (left) In the winter, when the outdoor air is too cold to
ventilate naturally without causing draughts, a mechanical system with heat recovery take
over. 6) Thermal mass (right). Exposed concrete slabs in the interior dampen diurnal
temperature fluctuations, reducing the need for both cooling and heating.

92

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Ventilation concept

The GSW high-rise building is equipped with a mechanical ventilation

system in addition to a natural system. The mechanical system was
incorporated for comfort during seasonal weather extremes when, for
most normal office uses, the windows need to be closed. The main air-
handling plant is located in a two-storey plant-room at the 22nd floor (just
below the roof). Mechanical ventilation is initiated by the building
management system (BMS), although occupants can select individual
zones within a floor in either mechanical or natural ventilation mode by a
wall-mounted zone controller. The mechanical ventilation system takes
over for the natural system when the external temperature drops below
5ºC. This is to avoid the risk of draughts. Exhaust air is then returned to
the central plant-room via risers for heat recovery (Figure 4.13, left).
Because the client has quite high internal equipment loads, and because
tenants had to be offered reasonable equipment loads too, the building has
a limited comfort cooling system. The cooling system is designed to
provide maximum internal temperatures of about 27ºC at external
temperatures of 32ºC. In keeping with the environmentally friendly
design, no refrigeration systems are used. Instead, cooling is based on
spray coolers and desiccant thermal wheels3.

“The mechanical ventilation system installed in the building is designed

for the extreme case when only the mechanical system runs. The
mechanical ventilation plant of the high-rise is consequently not
undersized compared to an equal, fully mechanically ventilated,
building ”. (B. Cody, Arup)

The building is 100% naturally ventilated when the outdoor temperature is

between 5ºC and 25ºC. The natural ventilation principle in the high-rise
building is stack-ventilation (according to our definition in Chapter 2) in
that the natural driving forces promote an outflow out of the building
(through the double facade). This is the case for the building viewed as a
whole, but for the individual floor it is more natural to characterise the
ventilation principle as cross-ventilation. (By its nature, stack ventilation
resembles cross-ventilation as far as some individual spaces are
concerned, in that air enters one side of the space and leaves from the
opposite side. See section 2.4). Air enters each floor through the east
façade and is exhausted through the thermal flue in the west façade. This
air-path is valid for a number of possible plan layouts (Figure 4.14 and
4.15). The upward motion of air in the western double façade (due to
thermal buoyancy) creates an under pressure that can suck air out of every
storey in the building, and into the double façade when the windows in the

93

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

west facades are open. When windows on the two facades (east and west)
are open, fresh air flows accordingly from east to west. Control flaps
located at the bottom and at the top of the thermal flue regulate the airflow
and make the system less dependent on outside conditions (Figure 4.16).
This system enables air exchange rates comparable to mechanical
systems4. The natural ventilation concept eliminates the need for operation
of the mechanical ventilation system 70% of the year according to
estimates done by Arup.

“In natural ventilation mode the distribution principle is a combination

of displacement ventilation and mixing ventilation, depending on the
outside conditions. With natural ventilation you can’t control it really.
What happens is that the air sinks after entering the building through
grills in the east façade - flows along the floor - meets heat gains - rises
up - and then enters into the double façade through the window
openings under the ceiling. Our estimates are in total that the high-rise
consumes 42% of the primary energy consumption of a conventional
office building of the same size”. (B. Cody, Arup)

1) Open plan

2) Combi/east

94

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

3) Combi/west

4) Single banked

5) Double banked

Figure 4.14 The plan drawings show the ventilation air-paths for the five possible plan
layouts: 1) Open plan 2) Combi/east 3) Combi/west 4) Single banked and 5) Double
banked. (See figure 4.15 below for corresponding drawings in section).

95

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

1) Open plan

2) Combi/east

3) Combi/west

4) Single banked

5) Double banked

Figure 4.15 Section drawings corresponding to the plan drawings in figure 4.14 showing
the ventilation air-paths in section for the five possible plan layouts. (1) Open plan 2)
Combi/east 3) Combi/west 4) Single banked and 5) Double banked.).

96

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

The engineers at Arup investigated the thermal and ventilation

performance of the building using computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
analysis. These simulations quantified the air flow so that the ventilation
openings could be dimensioned. The range of room temperatures were
also predicted, so that, taking the thermal mass into account, the solar
shading could be designed. In addition, the way in which the solar flue
would function was simulated. With the help of these simulations, it was
also possible to devise a consistent concept for fire protection. Thus, the
application of CFD analysis and wind tunnel testing enabled the engineers
to predict with a high degree of certainty the way in which the seemingly
simple, yet otherwise unpredictable principles of cross ventilation of the
spaces would work4.

Figure 4.16 The air-path through the west double façade from the bottom opening (left),
through the double façade (where exhaust air from every storey is collected) (middle) and
finally at the top where exhaust air leaves the building under the wind roof (right).

The wind roof is an element of the building that came into existence as a
direct result of both the engineer’s CFD simulations and the wind tunnel
tests. When the wind blows from the east or west (which are the
prevailing wind directions in Berlin) it will be drawn directly over the top
edge of the thermal flue. Because of the profile of the roof the wind
accelerates and causes a greater negative pressure right over the top of the
flue than elsewhere (Figure 4.16, right). This phenomenon, referred to as
the Venturi effect5 (section 2.6), reinforces the natural convection caused
by thermal buoyancy in the double facade. If the wind is blowing from
northerly or southerly directions, a series of fins suspended under the wing
causes the wind to eddy. This should prevent the risk of a positive
pressure building up over the flue outlet.

97

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

Figure 4.17 The ventilation panels are integrated as part of the door (left). A section
drawing shows the air path through the panel (middle). Close up picture of the visible part
of the ventilation opening in the panel (right).

A ventilation panel was developed specially for this project to enable

cross ventilation through the partition walls (glazed or solid) running
parallel to the north and south façades (Figure 4.17). The ventilation
panels are essential in the natural ventilation concept for single- and
double-banked plan layouts (Figures 4.14 and 4.15). The panels are
designed as a part of the door, and have therefore to fulfil the same fire
protection requirements as the door. With its sound absorbent lining, the
panel also achieves a sound insulation value similar to that of the door.

4.2 Architectural consequences of natural ventilation

in GSW

The checklist described earlier (Chapter 3) is used to guide and structure

the work on identifying and describing the architectural consequences of
the natural ventilation concept in the high-rise of GSW Headquarters. The
checklist is further used to structure both the material and the way the
findings are presented. Interviews with the architect and HVAC consultant
substantiate the various issues discussed in the following.

98

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Site and context

The nature of the project, as an extension to the existing headquarters of

the GSW Company, called for the new building to be built on the site
adjacent to the existing 17-storey building6. The new high-rise building is
situated against the existing building on its west side for a number of
reasons (Figure 4.6, left). Firstly it was decided to connect the new high-
rise with the old one on every floor for practical reasons (easy access
between the two and shared elevators). Secondly, the site available to the
architects was initially the west and the north side of the existing tower
only. (The client bought the east side of the existing tower after the design
was completely finished and submitted for application).

“It is a high-rise building with the consequence that the velocity profile
increases with height. That had the biggest influence on the ventilation
concept. The conventional way to solve this building would have been
to seal the façade, and to put a mechanical ventilation plant into it.
Because of the height of the building, you can’t open the windows, and
you can’t have external shading because it flaps around in the wind.
Other issues are of course that you in the middle of the city have got a
lot of traffic, -noise and air pollution. Therefore, our concept was to
close the west façade off, facing the street, with a second skin, and
locate the air inlets in the east façade that faces into the block and
away from the street, and then cross ventilate the offices into the double
façade”. (B. Cody, Arup)

The existing 17-storey building suffered from excessive draughts when

the windows were opened and overheating when they where closed. The
proposed building configuration sought to improve this. A key driver in
the choice of the new high-rise’s location, form, and orientation was to
form a wind shelter for the existing tower and thereby to improve the
prospects for opening windows. The new high-rise building also shades
the existing tower from the afternoon sun (Figure 4.18).

99

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

Figure 4.18 The new high-rise building serves as a wind shelter for the existing tower,
protecting it from the prevailing westerly winds (left). The new high-rise building also
shades the existing tower from the afternoon sun (right).

“A part of the competition brief was to protect the existing tower, as

they had a lot of problems with the external shading and window
ventilation (the building have no mechanical ventilation). The
prevailing westerly wind were causing problems, papers etc. flew off
the desks when the windows were opened, and the external shading was
very prone to failure and difficulties. So part of the concept was to
shield the existing tower with the new high-rise, and then put another
new wind screen in front of the new building in the shape of a double
façade”. (B. Cody, Arup)

Locating the new high-rise west of the existing tower allows it to be

exposed to Kochstrasse (which runs north of and parallel with the
baguette, see Figure 4.4). Placing the new high-rise north of the existing
tower would, in the architect’s own words, have:

“Killed the existing tower to the street, you wouldn’t have seen it
anymore. That would have been a negative urban response”. (J. L.
Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

The natural ventilation concept was not decisive in the decision on

locating the new high-rise. However, once it was decided to go for a high
rise that was linked to the existing 17-storey tower on the west side, the
design of the building and the ventilation concept started feeding each
other in a “ping-pong” fashion.

100

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

“I guess there are a direct and an indirect component of the influence

for the natural ventilation. When we first considered the building, the
first idea was not a high-rise with a double façade. So in that sense you
can’t say it was a predetermined idea. But certainly, the brief asked for
a naturally ventilated building. When we started playing with
alternatives and slowly coming to the urban statement about how the
building should respond to the context, we came with the idea of a
high-rise with these proportions that extended the existing building on
each floor. Then we came to the idea of the thermal flue and cross-
ventilation. In a way, one thing led to the other. At some point the
ventilation was pulling the idea of the high-rise, but the high-rise came
also and helped create the ventilation concept. They were two things
that somehow came together. The given geographical orientation plus
the urban response of the building combined in this idea”. (J. L. Young,
Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

Orientation and shape

The long and comparatively shallow plan of the high-rise is oriented along
the north-south axis. Thus, the GSW building shares the orientation of the
neighbouring high-rise buildings and thereby adapt to the distinctive
urban pattern at the site (Figure 4.19). In this way, the high-rise engages
itself in a perspective dialogue with other high-rises on either side of the
dismantled wall7.

Figure 4.19 The new GSW high-rise building (to the right) share the same orientation as
the Axel Springer high-rise building (in the middle, further back) and the high-rise blocks
in Leipziger Strasse (the row of buildings to the left).

101

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

The thermal flue in the westwards oriented double façade gains maximum
buoyancy from the solar energy absorbed in the cavity. The afternoon sun
boosts the thermal buoyancy in the flue, which sucks exhaust air out of
every story. Fresh and cool air is additionally pulled into the building
through ventilation openings in the shaded east façade. The existing tower
and the new high-rise provide in combination shadow onto most of the
inlet façade, assuring coldest possible ventilation air. The wind roof that is
aligned over the top of the double façade is oriented towards the
prevailing wind direction in Berlin. All these considerations are closely
connected with the orientation of the high-rise and the function of the
natural ventilation concept.

All the four new building elements in the GSW-complex have distinct
shapes and geometries, tending to be curved rectangles or slightly
distorted circular egg like forms. The high-rise building is distinct by the
building’s tall and narrow body, curving asymmetrically with a growing
curl towards the southern end (Figures 4.1 and 4.6). The westward facing
concavity has nevertheless nothing to do with the natural ventilation
concept.

“We could have done a straight and linear building volume, and the
principle of the air distribution would have been the same. So it’s a
formal and a spatial reason; formal towards the exterior, spatially
towards the interior. The boomerang-like curve creates a very special
experience of the space inside the building, and towards the outside in
the way that you can see” everything”. The curve gives a very strong
relation to the existing tower, which in itself has a very strong
geometry. The geometry of the new building detaches itself from the
existing one”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

The high-rise has a comparatively slim body (11.5m at the deepest)

mainly to maximise the utilization of daylight, but also to support efficient
cross ventilation of the spaces.

“The plan could have been a bit deeper for the sake of the cross
ventilation. It is more the utilisation of daylighting than the natural
cross-ventilation that dictated the depth of the plan. Plus, in Germany
you cannot situate permanent working spaces away from windows. The
occupants have to have a view to outside and sufficient daylight. The
view to outside requirement in Germany dictates that you maximum can
build cellular offices on two sides with a corridor in the middle really.
So basically, in Germany, you end up designing office buildings that

102

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

are 13-14m deep at the most. So the GSW high-rise is actually not
much narrower than other buildings”. (B. Cody, Arup and Partners)

The architects had a maximum amount of square metres that they could
build on the site. This amount is dictated by the Berlin building
regulations, and was exploited to the maximum in the GSW project.

“The allowed amount of square meters is conceived, or is fixed, with

the conception that you do a so-called “blockbebauen”, that you close
the block. Then you typically design for a deep plan with 7 floors. We
would have killed the existing building if we had done that. It would
have been encircled on three sides with a block, and daylight
conditions would have been poor up to the seventh floor. With the
present solution, even the ground floors have exposed windows to the
exterior, and as from the third floor you can see over the neighbouring
“baguette”. The given number of square meters we were allowed to
build meant that the high-rise would have to achieve certain
proportions. For several reasons, we wanted the new high-rise to
extend the existing tower in height. To achieve this, the plan depth had
to be rather shallow, which also is advantageous for utilisation of
daylight and natural ventilation”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton
Architects)

There are a certain number of arguments for the new high-rise to extend
the old in height. One relates to the fact that the top of the flue has to be
free of influence from surrounding objects. The existing high-rise would
have had a negative influence on the airflow around the outlet of the
thermal flue, if it had the same or greater height than the new high-rise.
The other argument is of a formal nature, as the architects wanted to
create a certain contrast between the proportions of the two high-rise
compositions (Figure 4.18, right).

The new high-rise office slab sits block-like atop the two low-rise
buildings. These have curved rectangular shaped volumes resembling that
of the high-rise. The two are the “baguette”, the long low-rise fronting
onto Kochstrasse in the north, and the “baguettini” to the west of the site.
The high-rise cantilevers outwards at each end, and bridges across the
entrance hall, which is situated between the “baguette” and the
“baguettini”. There are both formal arguments and arguments related to
the natural ventilation concept to set the high-rise atop of the two low-
rises. The architects did not want to have a tower starting from the ground;
they wanted to create an urban scale on the street with low-rise buildings
with windows and stone cladding referring to the original baroque

103

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

development. The new building, which relates to the tradition of the high-
rise, sits gently on top of the 10-meter tall low-rises without interfering
with the shape of the low-rise buildings.

“In a way, the whole urban strategy to recreate the Berlin block
without negating the high-rise tradition implied the new high-rise to sit
on top of the low-rise buildings. Another aspect, or two aspects I would
say, has to do with natural ventilation. The first one is that the higher
above the ground you take in air, the cleaner and better it is. Had not
this building been on top of the “baguette” and the “baguettini”, we
would have had air inlets for the lower floors on street level, which
would not have been very good. Secondly, we needed the flaps at the
bottom of the double facade to ventilate and adjust the airflow within
the flue”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

Figure 4.20 The GSW high-rise building is a significant part of the silhouette of Berlin.

The silhouette is one of the most distinct features of the high-rise, and it is
a direct consequence of the natural ventilation concept of the building.
The GSW building is visible from long distances, acting as a landmark
from several places in the city, and constitutes a significant part of the
silhouette of Berlin with domes and cupolas, towers and high-rise
buildings8 (Figure 4.20). By day the coloured west façade stands out from
the rest of the building mass, and by night the illuminated wing is a
striking sight. The wing makes the high-rise a maverick building in its
context of high- and medium-rise buildings. The organically shaped wing
can make one think of a bird or an animal and certainly lends its

104

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

associations to speed and elegance, indicating an unusual solution to a

problem or a challenge. On the question if the designers expected more
wind roofs of this kind to be built in the future they answered:

“I don’t think you would see much more of this. The GSW high-rise is
quite a maverick building. Many clients would probably find it too
expensive. And, it is certainly a prototype, -one of its kind. I think it
sends strong signals, but to what extent it would be repeated as a
pattern, - I do not know. I would tend to say not in the immediate
future”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

“It is one way of solving a problem, but it is definitely not the only one.
I can’t tell if you will see more of them, I would not anticipate that the
whole city would now have wind-sails on top. It does create the Venturi
effect, but there are other ways of doing that”. (B. Cody, Arup)

Plan

The plan of the high-rise building is comparatively shallow and has the
shape of a slightly asymmetrical boomerang (Figure 4.20). The building
was originally intended to be a single bank building with a corridor
running along the east façade. A changing economic climate at the time
made the client review the project after completion of the detailed design.
The client decided that substantial parts of the high-rise should be rented.
Not knowing who was going to rent space, nor what needs these renters
would have, resulted in the need for greater flexibility.

“Originally a single banked layout was conceived with a load bearing

concrete wall separating the corridor from the office space on the west
side. The change of structural principle to two rows of columns meant
that the floor plan was free, and the client could have any single
alternative of plan layouts”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton
Architects)

105

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

Figure 4.21 The plan of the high-rise building. The double west façade is recognisable at
the top end of the drawing (i.e. north is to the right). The four arrows indicate larger
ventilation inlets that provide the west bank of the plan with fresh air regardless of plan
layout.

The decision to design for a double-banked plan layout instead of a single

one called for a new structural solution for the high-rise. The concrete
wall was replaced with columns to suit a double-banked plan layout. This
opened for several layout options where the various floors can be
organised in different ways (double banked, single banked, open plan,
combi/east, or combi/west) depending on the occupant’s demands and
desires (Figure 4.14). Apart from the ten columns, the only permanent
elements in the plan layout are two vertical reinforced concrete cores. The
two cores give the high-rise stability. The core located at the far northern
end contains an escape staircase and a service riser. The south core is
situated between the old and the new high-rise and contains three lifts,
toilets and a service riser.

“The structure in itself was a big change, but the most problematic
change in terms of the concept was the east façade as we had to
determine points for the location of air inlets that would provide fresh
air for the entire plan regardless of its layout”. (J. L. Young,
Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

“The concept had to be re-designed at the time when the builder

decided to have tenants and saying ‘for greater flexibility we need the
option to put cellular offices on both sides’. This meant that we had to
come up with air paths that provide air for the west facing offices that
do not get “used up” by the east facing offices. We had to look at the
air paths again”. (B. Cody, Arup)

The solution for the air paths of the new and more flexible plan layout was
to place four larger ventilation inlets in the east façade (Figure 4.21)
which can provide the west bank with fresh air regardless of plan layout

106

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

(Figure 4.14). The ventilation panels (Figure 4.17) are essential in

achieving a consistent air path for the different plan layouts.

Section

The depth of the solar flue is emphasised in the east and west façades. It
has nevertheless not been the intention, neither from the architect nor from
the builder, to promote the high-rise as a “green” building, or making it an
icon of the company’s care for the environment by expressing the
characteristic elements of the natural ventilation concept (especially the
solar flue, the wind roof and the ventilation inlets in the east facade).

“We did not try to do it to glorify it or so, it is exposed because it is the

only way to make it work. When most people look at the building they
don’t know at all that there is natural ventilation. They realise there is
something special with the building when they look at it, but they don’t
know what. I would think that most people that walk up and down the
street do not know how the building works”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch
Hutton Architects)

A section drawing of the high-rise building illustrates well the repetition

of the building’s relatively shallow floors and the distinctive 1m wide and
more than 66m tall convection facade running along the entire west façade
from bottom to top (Figure 4.22). In section one also realises the size of
the wing, covering three quarters of the depth of the building and yet
stretching beyond the perimeter of the outer skin of the western double
façade. Characteristic for the section of each floor is the openness,
allowing the space to unfold unobstructed from façade to façade, with the
exception of a light partition wall for some of the plan layout options
proposed by the architects. The fact that the new high-rise and the existing
high-rise are linked for users at each floor fixed the floor-to-floor height to
that of the existing building at 3.3m. The floor system integrates services
and structure to minimise the thickness of the floor-slab, thus gaining a
floor-to-ceiling height of 2.7m.

107

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

Street level

Figure 4.22 Section drawing through the lobby (between the Baguette and Baguettini) and
the high-rise.

“The natural ventilation works well with the existing floor-to-ceiling

height. In a way the constraints probably helped the design, as it
pushed the design team to get everything into the 3.3meters. This gave
us this integrated solution with light, sprinklers and ductwork
incorporated into the floor slab. A greater floor-to-ceiling height than
the current 2.7m would have had architectural advantages, but also in
terms of displacement ventilation. The higher the room is the better the
displacement ventilation works”. (B. Cody, Arup)

108

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Façade

The east and west facades are key elements in the natural ventilation
concept as they function as the intake for fresh air entering the building
(east facade), and as the outlet for exhaust air leaving the building (west
facade) (Figures 4.8 and 4.10). The east façade, with its firm rhythm of
window elements and porous ventilation openings, is like a smooth and
aerodynamic skin. The ventilation grills are fitted in an asymmetrical and
varied way to create an interesting façade, but also, as described above, to
provide consistent air paths for the various plan layouts.

“We had to make sure that the ventilation concept would work with all
possible plan layout alternatives. We did work a long time on this.
There are four air intake points on each floor that make sure that the
west bank of the building gets fresh air in a double banked plan
configuration”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)’

There were three main arguments for making the east facade a double
façade. The first was a consequence of the air intake components that had
to be designed to keep precipitation out, but allow air to flow in with as
little resistance as possible.

“We designed by implication the intake component as a box. So either

the box would come into the building or out of the façade, so we put it
into a narrow double facade”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton
Architects)

Hence, the air intake component does not protrude the façade, neither
outwards nor inwards. Secondly, the solar shading blinds for the morning
sun is placed in the cavity between the inner and outer facade and is
therefore protected from wind and rain and does not get so easily dirty. A
third argument for the double façade is that it improves the thermal
performance of the wall. However, in terms of the natural ventilation
concept the east façade could have been single layered.

Whereas the east façade is like a smooth and aerodynamic skin, the west
façade resembles more a fur with its depth and separation into several
layers (outer glass skin, solar shading panels and inner glass skin). The
double façade is running unobstructed throughout the entire height of the
high-rise (as opposed to most other similar designs where the façade often

109

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

is sectioned at either every floor or i.e. on every third, sixth or ninth floor.
See Chapter 7). The reason for this is that the GSW double facade is a
pure exhaust façade, and not an intake or a combined inlet and outlet
facade. Furthermore, the ventilation concept utilises the venturi effect
produced by the wind roof to pull air out of the thermal flue and hence
exhaust air out of every storey. Dividing the double façade horizontally in
several sections would have counteracted the effect of the wind roof.

“It depends on the concept if, and how, you section a double façade.
This concept was one of a thermal flue, a pure exhaust façade. I think
there are too many of these other buildings around (with the double
façade sectioned). The flue is designed so that the temperature gradient
in the flue doesn’t exceed 10 Kelvin. The dampers at the top and the
bottom adjust, so it dilutes the flue. If the temperature gets too hot, the
damper at the bottom opens, there is more air at the bottom (higher
pressure), and the heat can be flushed out. You always get 10 degrees
temperature difference between the temperature at the top of the flue
and the temperature outside. That’s the stack effect that drives the
ventilation”. (B. Cody, Arup)

Alternative solutions for the exhaust double facade were tested out, but
the solution with a continuous running thermal flue was selected in the
final solution.

Much effort has been put into the use of colour and composition of
colours in the project, both externally and internally. The east façade is
given the same colour and hue as the existing tower, together with which
it makes the background for the colourful “pillbox”. The “pillbox”
cladding is a composition of coloured, corrugated metal panels in hues of
blue, green, and beige. The same “pixel like” aesthetics are employed in
the high-rise building’s west façade where the occupant choreographed
orange-red coloured solar shading panels give the façade an ever-
changing expression. The use of colour on the two facades of the high-rise
is analogous to the changing colour temperature of the day, which through
the sun’s path from east to west changes from “pale morning light to
heavy red in the evening”7.

The north- and south façades do not have any special features that relate
to the natural ventilation system. They are both designed with
homogenous, though mutually different, surfaces to express the verticality
and narrowness of the building (see section 4.1).

110

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Materials and characteristic ventilation elements

The GSW high-rise is mostly made of glass and reinforced concrete. All
four façades are almost entirely made of glass. The exceptions are the
fixed metal louvres in front of the south façade’s glass skin, and the east
façade’s air intake openings that are covered with aluminium louvres. The
extensive use of glass and reinforced concrete in the GSW high-rise
building is not extraordinary, as most modern high-rise buildings are
made of these materials. In the GSW high-rise building, however, certain
materials are used in certain parts as a consequence of, or rather, as a part
of the natural ventilation strategy. One obvious example is the thermal
flue in the westwards facing double façade that demands the outer skin to
be made of glass to gain as much solar energy as possible to increase the
buoyancy.

Furthermore, the use of thermal mass is an important part of the

ventilation concept. The building relies on the fabric’s ability to store heat
and cold. Because there is negligible thermal capacity in the facades,
heat/cold is stored in the exposed concrete floor slabs. They act as a
thermal sink for the interior and thereby dampen the diurnal temperature
fluctuations. The indoor temperature is at its greatest under the ceiling
where the energy exchange from the indoor air to the concrete is most
effective. Concrete is also exposed in the load bearing columns and in the
two concrete cores which provide stability for the high-rise building. The
materials used in the interiors are concrete, slate, hardboard, glass, parquet
and fitted carpets (shorthaired). Low emission materials are used to
minimise the ventilation load.

“Utilisation of thermal mass (e.g. by exposing concrete in the ceiling)

is of paramount importance and can be decisive for whether you can go
for a low energy concepts and natural ventilation instead of full air-
conditioning. Thermal mass in conjunction with nighttime ventilation is
utilised for natural conditioning of the high-rise building. The double
façade allows the windows to be open during the night without being
worried about adverse weather conditions and burglary. Exposing the
thermal mass is often the small but important difference between
whether the natural ventilation concept works or not”. (B. Cody, Arup)

111

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

Figure 4.23 The west double façade and the wind roof are characteristic elements of the
natural ventilation concept of the high-rise (left). The local ventilation inlets in the east
façade also put a distinct mark on the building (right).

The three most visible and perhaps most striking characteristic elements
of the natural ventilation concept in the GSW high-rise building are the
double façade, the wind roof and the ventilation inlets in the east facade
(Figure 4.23). The wind roof is probably the most peculiar and
characteristic feature of the building. Its curved steel construction is
covered with a textile membrane and soars 85 meters above the street
level. The wind roof faces westwards towards the prevailing wind
direction. It produces an under pressure right over the thermal flue when
the wind blows, thereby pulling air out of the flue.

“The wing stops rain getting into the flue, it acts as an umbrella for the
double facade. The form of it is designed to induce the Venturi effect.
The velocity through the narrow gap is greater compared to the
velocity elsewhere, which produces a suction effect right over the outlet
of the flue”. (B. Cody, Arup)

The thermal flue and the wind roof make up the two “engines” of the
natural ventilation concept of the high-rise. The two natural driving forces
thermal buoyancy (thermal flue) and wind (wind roof) are combined in a
mutual effort to pull air through the building. The dampers located at the
bottom and the top of the double façade are essential to its function. The
BMS system controlling the natural ventilation gets inputs from velocity-,
pressure- and temperature sensors in the flue as well as from sensors for
the position of all windows (closed or degree of opening) in the west
façade and from an external weather station. The coloured solar shading
devices are also a part of the ventilation concept. The panels are

112

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

enamelled in hues of red. The colour red has similar characteristics as

black when it comes to the absorption of solar radiation. Hence, the air
around the red panels is heated up and boosts the upwards-going motion
of air (thermal buoyancy).

The ventilation inlets in the east façade (Figure 4.23, right) are as essential
to the functioning of the building’s natural ventilation concept as the
double west facade. The ventilation inlets in the east façade add liveliness
and variation to the façade and do as such influence its architectural
expression.

Interior spaces

The narrow plan of the building, 11.5m at its widest, offers an

extraordinary view to the exterior wherever you are situated in the
building. Another striking experience as you enter one of the building’s
floors is the generously daylit spaces, literally flooded with daylight from
two sides. There are no suspended ceilings or ductworks with downward
pointing air diffusers. The whole space can be full enjoyed and
experienced by the occupants; its true borders and size is revealed and
recognisable. As the concrete ceilings are exposed to take fully advantage
of their thermal mass, everything that is normally concealed behind a
suspended ceiling is integrated into the primary structure. An even rhythm
of slots in the ceiling contains lighting, sprinklers and smoke-alarms
(Figure 4.24). A recess along the façades enables the lateral connections.

Figure 4.24 Pictures of an open plan layout (left) and a combi/west layout (right). The
rhythm of slots in the ceiling containing lighting and technical installations can be seen in
both pictures.

113

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

Despite the fact that the floor-to-floor height in the high-rise building is
fixed to a relatively modest 3.3m the proportion of the floors, even at the
deepest point, gives the space a feeling of openness and airiness. This
contrasts to the spatial experience in most conventional deep plan office
buildings.

Figure 4.25 Picture of the interiors after occupation. Note the ventilation inlet hatches in
the east façade (left). The vertically pivoting and sliding solar shading panels suspended
within the thermal flue have an 18% perforation. This may seem a low figure, but from
within the building it still produces a bright environment with spectacular views across
Berlin (right).

The natural cross ventilation concept in the GSW building necessitates a

plan layout that allows the air to flow unobstructed across the building.
This is most easily obtained through an open plan solution. This is,
however, not always the desired or needed solution. When a double
banked, or a combination of cellular and open plan solution is desired, the
airflow path is ensured by open “bays” into the east façade to permit fresh
air into the areas not directly bordering the east façade. This layout
includes a corridor with regular niches that opens towards the east façade.
These niches are used as smaller meeting spaces or workspaces for
groups, and allow some daylight to penetrate into the corridor when
division walls without windows are applied in the offices located along
the east façade (Figure 4.14, 5) Double banked). The niches also ensure a
view eastwards from the corridor/west bank areas.

114

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Integration and conflict with other aspects

Few internal walls and a limited distance between the inlet and the outlet
are favourable for natural ventilation. There should be as little resistance
in the airflow path as possible as the natural driving forces are much
weaker and more variable than those produced by fans in a mechanical
ventilation systems. This tends to imply shallow and rather open plans,
which integrate well with some issues and conflict with others.

A shallow and open plan layout favours utilisation of daylight and

occupants’ abilities to have contact with and view to the exterior. (The
latter is regulated by the German building regulations). A shallow and
open plan allows both daylight and air to “flush” through the interiors of a
plan unobstructed, and this is highly utilised in the thin disc of the GSW
high-rise building. As stated earlier, the building is in fact designed to
optimise utilisation of daylight, occupants’ contact with the exterior and
cross ventilation.

Fire and acoustic issues, on the other hand, tend to conflict with the
openness of spaces favoured by natural ventilation and therefore need
close attention. These issues often call for new solutions. The exposed
concrete ceilings in the high-rise building are, from an acoustical point of
view, worse than a suspended ceiling. However, good acoustical
properties of the other materials in the room can resolve that problem. In
the GSW high-rise building the shorthaired carpet on the floors and the
acoustical absorption properties of the partition walls provide for
acceptable acoustical conditions. The west facing double façade also
causes some acoustical problems:

“There are certain acoustical effects related to the double façade. On

the one hand the double façade reduces the noise from outside, the so-
called masking noise. On the other hand, the double façade rebounds
noise produced in the building. The thermal flue channels the sound
between floors, especially vertically, but also horizontally. But this was
accepted in the design process and has also shown to be acceptable
after occupancy. You are loosing the background noise, but the direct
noise is increased”. (B. Cody, Arup)

The ventilation panels had to fulfil the same acoustical requirements as

those of the door (which the panels are integrated with). The panels were

115

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

designed in close collaboration between the architect and an acoustics

expert.

“In the ventilation panel there is sort of an S-curve. The air goes
through the panel along an absorbing sound attenuating material”. (B.
Cody, Arup)

Special attention had to be paid to fire issues in the design of the double
façade and of the ventilation panels placed on interior partition walls in
the GSW building. The fire protection concept of the double façade was
developed in a close collaboration between the design team of GSW and
the fire department in Berlin. Using CFD simulations, engineers were able
to devise a reliable concept for fire protection in the double façade.

“The one issue that we had to determine and prove to the authorities is
that we don’t get a case of smoke in the façade, that you don’t get
smoke back-flow into the upper levels. So we had to prove that in a fire
situation the smoke goes out at the top, and not back into the building.
The windows close automatically in a fire, but can be opened again by
the fire department”. (B. Cody, Arup)

“The concept, or the main idea is that if the temperature rises too
much, the outer skin is single glazed and it will brake, and the heat will
go out. That is basically what the simulations showed, and then every
floor has an F90 parapet wall9. That means that the fire would not go
immediately into the floor above. So, if it starts to burn on e.g. the third
floor, the windows above close to avoid letting the smoke in. The top
opening of the flue remains open”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton
Architects)

Both fire and acoustic issues had to be addressed in the design of the
ventilation panels used in the partition walls. Air should be allowed to
flow as unobstructed as possible through interior partition walls, while at
the same time noise and smoke in case of a fire should be stopped.

“If it is a glass partition wall, which has no fire regulation, the

ventilation panel has not to fulfil anything. If it is an F90 wall, this
panel is part of the door and it has to fulfil the same requirements as
the door. That means that when the door is closed the ventilation panel
also has to be airtight. In this element there is a little flap that closes in
case of fire”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

116

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

An interesting issue for natural ventilation concepts in high-rise buildings

is whether they demand less or more space than the mechanical equivalent
for the building. It is not unusual that ventilation plants in high-rise
buildings occupy 1-3 storeys for every tenth story of the building10. In
addition to that there are also space demands for ducts, often hidden under
intermediate ceilings. The natural ventilation concept in the GSW building
also requires a certain amount of space. The most visible component,
easily seen in both plan and section, is the 1m wide double west façade.
But in addition to serving as a convection façade, it increases thermal
insulation and houses the solar shading panels. The double façade is the
only element of the natural system that requires extra space within the
building envelope. The mechanical ventilation plant is located in a double
height storey on the top of the building, adding two “extra” storeys to the
high-rise building.

“With natural ventilation you can definitely save space that otherwise
is used for components of a mechanical ventilation system. In this case,
we have a mechanical system that cover the extreme conditions in
summer and winter, but mainly in summer. So we have the system in
there, we could just have ventilated the building mechanically with that
system; we would have lost energy though. It is possible that we have
done just as well to design buildings just with natural ventilation,
without any mechanical system. Then really a lot of space could be
saved”. (B. Cody, Arup)

4.3 Experiences of the design team

The experiences gained in designing the GSW high-rise were for the
architects and engineers (Sauerbruch Hutton Architects and Arup
respectively) in general very positive. However, both underline that
designing a naturally ventilated building is far more difficult and more
demanding than designing a similar, but mechanically ventilated building.
Fire, acoustics, and strict building codes are emphasized as key
challenges, as well as designing interior air paths that do not compromise
on functionality/flexibility.

“There are lots and lots of restrictions, which you always have to take
into account; there is fire, certainly acoustic, money, how cold it can
get, -certain office spaces cannot be immediately to a wall where
windows open and the air comes in. There are quite a few restrictions
in the end; flexibility makes it even more complicated, especially with

117

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

regard to internal air paths for the natural ventilation. All looks very
simple now, but it was a hell of a lot of coordinating and, -very
difficult. I mean doing mechanical ventilation is easy in comparison;
you don’t need to worry about anything. Natural ventilation is far more
difficult”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

“The main restrictions towards achieving a functional design with

natural ventilation were building regulations, fire issues, acoustical
issues, and conventional expectations of people that expect certain
things to be as they always were. It is definitely a challenge; it is harder
to design a naturally ventilated building than a mechanical one. You
have got less system to design, but you have to look at the whole thing.
You are dealing with many more parameters, the whole thing is much
more complex”. (B. Cody, Arup)

Although natural ventilation is challenging, it also offers certain

possibilities. The architect emphasized the occupants’ improved contact
with the exterior and the significance this has for the use and perception of
the interior spaces. It heightens the quality of the space when you, as an
occupant in a building, can hear sounds from the outside, whether it is a
bird singing or an ambulance rushing to a hospital. It heightens the quality
of being inside if you can feel or sense how the weather is like outside, if
it is cold or not. In general, just being able to register the aspects related to
the nature and the life out there to a greater extent than you do in a sealed,
air-conditioned building affects the use of the building and the qualities of
the spaces.

“The possibilities are obviously to save energy. It is the main reason

for doing this, and also to increase occupant comfort. A lot of studies of
the sick building syndrome have shown that if you can have operable
windows, and it works thermally with thermal mass, then you will
generally have better occupant comfort. So the reasons would be
energy, and better environment for the occupants. Architecturally of
course, you don’t need suspended ceilings for ductworks. One of the
great challenges was to use elements in more ways than one. Normally
a window is just for unspecified ventilation and for letting light
through. In this building, the windows are really part of the ventilation
strategy. They are like grills in a ventilation ductwork system, and the
slabs are like the ductwork. So all the elements fulfil more functions. As
many functions were put to each element as possible. Cost wise, you
can reduce the height of the building I think”. (B. Cody, Arup)

118

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

The architect recognizes a large potential in using naturally induced

airflow as a design criterion. However, getting the air through the building
with as little resistance as possible truly calls for the design team’s
creativity and cleverness.

“If you are going to do natural ventilation, then you have to make sure
that the path the air is moving along is as optimal as possible. You have
to be far more inventive and clever. If somebody else is providing the
air, the only thing you have to do is to make sure that the things can be
nicely integrated. You create spaces for them to go through. But if you
have to make sure that the air goes into the building through means
that you give, facades for instance, then you have to create them, but
also you are responsible for them”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton
Architects)

The architect emphasises that ventilating a building with natural driving

forces successfully calls for an integrated design where multiple issues
have to work together as a whole. These are issues like proper solar
shading, thermal mass, plan layouts that allow airflow, low emission
materials etc. The essence is to reduce the source triggering the need for
more ventilation as much as possible.

“You have to relate a million parameters, which you have to look into
in detail so that the concept of natural ventilation works. You have far
more demanding work”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

The architect experienced that the ventilation enterprise was partly moved
from the engineer and over to the architect. Natural ventilation is more a
joint venture between the architect and the engineer than a mechanical
ventilation system is. This implies increased communication and
teamwork between the two professions. That is, designing a natural
ventilation concept for a building is a complex task that demands an
interdisciplinary effort.

“The concept was developed with the engineers as well. So we worked

hand in hand, together, they helped us a lot. I mean we developed the
concept together basically”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton
Architects)

“It was much more communication and collaboration with the

architects in this project than in equivalent projects with mechanical
ventilation. The whole thing, the building and its ventilation concept, is

119

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

really one system, -one piece. This implies close collaboration between
the architects and the engineers, which is obviously positive, especially
in terms of saving energy. What’s interesting for me is not the process,
but the product; -how much energy the building uses in the end when
occupied, and how good the building looks. The building as a whole is
a better piece of architecture when it consumes less energy than the
typical design (which is the parameter you can measure best). For me
the energy consumption of the building is part of the architecture”. (B.
Cody, Arup)

On the question if Brian Cody (Arup) and Juan Lucas Young (Sauerbruch
Hutton Architect) would welcome natural ventilation in their next project,
they answered:

“Sure, I mean, not every project has to be the same and not every
project has to have natural ventilation, but as a matter of fact, most
projects we do have natural ventilation. In one way or another, not all
of them can work the whole year around, but most buildings do have
it”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

“Always! Always when it is right. There are certain cases where it

makes sense to ventilate mechanically, but a lot of buildings can be
naturally ventilated. Natural ventilation is not the only part of making
efficient building design, its only one. It is also only a part of the GSW
project. If possible, yes –natural ventilation”. (B. Cody, Arup)

Occupants

Systematic investigations of occupier’s comfort have not been conducted

in the GSW building. Only informal ones have been done.

“There was a program on television recently where occupants were

interviewed. The occupants seem to be quite happy with the building,
certainly on television they all seemed to be very happy with it (!). After
certain teething problems at the start (the building was occupied for
one year without the control system being finished) the occupants
generally seem to be satisfied”. (B. Cody, Arup and Partners)

“If I were to plan it again I would try to look for solutions that are
slightly easier for the users to understand. The building has a certain

120

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

amount of possibilities, maybe far too many, because it is designed for

maximum flexibility”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

“I was yesterday with the client, and they were telling me that many
people in the beginning went to the existing tower. They didn’t want to
have anything to do with the new high-rise, but in the summer it was
better than the existing tower, and now they are starting to move into
the new one”. (J. L. Young, Sauerbruch Hutton Architects)

4.4 Summary and conclusions

The key architectural consequences of the natural ventilation concept in

the GSW high-rise building are summarised here.

 Site and context

The high-rise is an extension to an existing building and had therefore

to be located on the site adjacent to the existing tower. It was an issue
not to block the existing tower to Kochstrasse, however. The new
building configuration sought to improve problems related to
overheating, the external solar shading and excessive draughts that
were experienced in the existing tower. The new building was
therefore located and shaped to protect the existing building from the
prevailing wind and the sun. The fact that the site is in a dense city-
situation had implication for the natural ventilation concept chosen
for the high-rise building. The high-rise is “lifted” up from the most
polluted street level, the inlets are located in the (shaded) east façade
facing into the block and the west façade is closed with a double
façade to the street. Issues concerning the building’s adaptation to the
urban context were of greatest importance in the initial stages of the
design, however. The ventilation concept became an issue at a later
stage, and the design of the building and the ventilation concept then
fed each other in a “ping-pong” fashion.

 Orientation and shape

The shape and orientation of the high-rise adapt to the neighbouring

high-rise buildings and the distinctive urban pattern at the site. The
asymmetrically curving of the high-rise was done for formal reasons
and not with concern to the natural ventilation concept. That is, the

121

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

urban response was more important than considerations of natural

ventilation in the initial stages. Once the initial decisions where taken
with regard to shape and orientation (the buildings urban response),
however, the ventilation concept contributed, as mentioned, in the
development of the building design and vice versa. As for the link
between the orientation of the building and its natural ventilation
concept, the most important points to note is that the afternoon sun
boosts the thermal buoyancy in the flue of the double west façade.
Further, fresh air ventilation inlets are located in the shaded east
façade facing into the block, and the wind roof is oriented and
optimised for the prevailing westerly winds. The wind roof
contributes in great measures (together with the slender proportions
of the building) in giving the high-rise its distinctive silhouette. The
fact that the building is a high-rise had the biggest influence on the
natural ventilation concept chosen for the building, according to B.
Cody, Arup.

 Plan

The shape of the long and shallow plan is optimised for utilisation of
daylight and natural cross-ventilation. The need for flexible plan
layouts (substantial parts of the high-rise are rented out) necessitated
the designers to design five optional layout designs with appurtenant
air paths for the natural ventilation. The five possible layouts are 1)
Open plan, 2) Combi/east, 3) Combi/west, 4) Single banked, and 5)
Double banked.

 Section

A section drawing (looking north/south) of the high-rise illustrates

the repetition of the relatively shallow floors and the 1m wide and
66m tall thermal flue in the double west façade. Openness
characterises the section of each floor, allowing the space to unfold
unobstructed from façade to façade. Considerations with regard to
utilisation of daylight dictated the depth of the building. In this
respect, utilisation of daylight and natural ventilation share interests.
The fact that the new high-rise is coupled with the old tower on every
floor fixed the floor-to-floor height to 3.3m. The floor system
integrates services and structure to minimise the thickness of the
floor-slab, thus gaining a floor-to-ceiling height of 2.7m.

122

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

 Façade

The east and west facades are key elements in the natural ventilation
concept. The inlet openings that provide the entire building with fresh
air are located in the east facade, and the thermal flue in the double
west façade provide the outlet air path for exhaust air. The east facade
is accentuated by the firm rhythm of ventilation inlet grills that are
flush with the rest of the façade. The ventilation inlet grills are fitted
in an asymmetrical and varied way to create an interesting façade and
to provide consistent supply air paths for the various plan layouts.
Whereas the east façade is like a smooth and aerodynamic skin, the
west façade resembles more a fur with its depth and separation into
several layers: the outer glass skin, the solar shading panels and the
inner glass skin. Colours are consciously used throughout the entire
project and play an important role in the architecture. The north- and
south façades do not have any special features that relate to the
natural ventilation system. They are both designed with homogenous,
though mutually different, surfaces to express verticality.

 Materials and characteristic ventilation elements

The structure of the high-rise is made of reinforced concrete while all

facades are made almost exclusively of glass. The use of thermal
mass is an important part of the natural ventilation and natural
conditioning of the building. The concrete slabs are therefore exposed
in the ceiling at every story and act as a thermal sink, thereby
dampening the diurnal temperature fluctuations. Low emission
materials are used in the interiors to minimise the ventilation load.
The double west façade, the wind roof and the ventilation openings in
the east façade are all characteristic ventilation elements that highly
affect the architecture of the high-rise building.

 Interior spaces

The interiors of the shallow building offer an extraordinary view to

the exterior wherever you are situated in the building. Another
striking quality is the abundant amount of daylight in the interiors.
There are no suspended ceilings in the building, allowing the whole
space of the rooms to be fully enjoyed and recognised by the
occupants. Utilisation of the floor slabs’ thermal mass involves the
exposure of concrete in the interiors. A narrow plan combined with a
relative generous floor-to-ceiling height of 2.7m gives the interior
spaces a rather unusual proportion where the rooms are tall and

123

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 4. Natural ventilation in a high-rise building

shallow instead of deep and low. Air paths from the east façade into
the west bank of the plan also provide daylight and a view eastwards.

 Integration and conflict with other aspects

Utilisation of daylight and provision of view to the exterior integrates

well with the natural ventilation concept. Acoustics, fire and
flexibility (due to the need for internal air paths with low pressure
drop) can conflict with the natural ventilation concept. The
ventilation panel that were developed specially for this project seeks
to facilitate natural airflow while at the same time not neglect fire and
acoustics issues.

Conclusion

Considerations regarding the urban context (the high-rise’s orientation,

proportion, size and location/positioning) weighed heavier than
considerations regarding the natural ventilation concept in the initial
stages of the design. The ventilation concept was hence not allowed to
jeopardise important urban responses or architectural formal issues. Once
the building concept’s response to the urban context was decided,
however, the development of the natural ventilation concept and of the
building fed each other with inputs in an iterative process. At some points
the ventilation concept provided inputs and inspiration for the design of
the building whereas the building provided inputs for the natural
ventilation concept at others. The GSW Headquarters illustrates in this
respect that natural airflow can be used as a design criterion in the
development of a building design.

The characteristic elements of the natural ventilation concept (the

ventilation openings in the façade, the double façade and the wind roof)
are both expressed and at the same time highly integrated in the
architecture of the high-rise. They are consciously designed to be a part of
the architecture and to contribute in achieving the deliberate architectural
language of the headquarters building. The architectural expression of the
west and east facades are in great measures a result of the natural
ventilation concept. The solar shading panels in hues of red positioned in
the thermal flue constitute an important part of the strategy of the natural
ventilation and conditioning. Solar shading devices are by some architects
considered an architectural compromise (like e.g. suspended ceilings). In
the GSW High-rise, however, they are converted from being an
architectural compromise to being an essential element in the architecture
of the building. The characteristic silhouette of the slender building with

124

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

the wind roof on top is also a product of the natural ventilation concept,
giving the GSW Headquarters an iconographic appearance on the Berlin
skyline.

The interviews with the design team revealed that the GSW High-rise
building and its natural ventilation concept was both interesting and
stimulating to design. Both the architects at Sauerbruch Hutton and the
engineers at Arup emphasises, however, that designing a naturally
ventilated building is far more difficult and more demanding than
designing a similar, but mechanically ventilated, building. Combining
flexibility with consistent air paths with minute pressure drops were
pointed out as an essential challenge. Using elements in more ways than
one were also emphasised as a challenge. As many functions as possible
were put to each element in the GSW Headquarters. Close collaboration
between the architect, the consulting engineer and the builder was
emphasised by both the architect and the engineer as mandatory for this
project.

Notes

1
Louisa Hutton (Sauerbruch Hutton Architects) used the analogy of a fur to
describe the architectural expression of the west facade. (Conversation in
Trondheim 5. March 2002).
2
Intelligente Architektur 21, Zeitschrift für Architektur, Gebäudetechnik und
Facility Management, Februar 2000, pp. 29-41.
3
Brown, D. J. (2000) The Arup Journal (Millennium issue 3), Vol. 35 No.2 Ove
Arup Partnership Ltd, London.
4
Sauerbruch Hutton Architects (2000) GSW Headquarters, Berlin, Lars Müller
Publishers, Baden, Switzerland.
5
White, F. M. et. al. (1999) Fluid Mechanics - 4th ed., WCB/McGraw-Hill,
Singapore.
6
The existing building was designed by the architects Schwebes Schoszberger
and Noth in the 1950’s and has been occupied by GSW since 1961.
7
Architecture Today 116, March 2001, pp. 30-49.
8
Bauwelt Sonderdruck (special print) (1999) Heft 46, Hochhaus der GSW in
Berlin (The GSW high-rise in Berlin).
9
The German building regulations require 1m of fire resistant material between
the windows in high-rise buildings where the last occupied floor is more than
22.5m above grade level.
10
According to the experience of M. Schuler (Trans Solar). (Conversation in
Stuttgart, autumn 2001).

125

URN:NBN:no-7242
URN:NBN:no-7242
 5 Natural ventilation in a medium-rise
building

Medium-rise buildings comprise buildings in the range of three to six

storeys. The building selected as the case for the medium-rise group is the
headquarters of Bang & Olufsen (B&O), located in the town of Struer in
Jutland, Denmark. B&O is a manufacturer of fine stereo and television
products. The new headquarters building is built adjacent to the
company’s production site in Struer. Three wings aligned in a U-shaped
constellation constitute the building. The northern wing contains
reception, meeting rooms, auditorium and canteen. The southern wing and
the connection building contain office spaces, and these are the wings that
utilise natural ventilation. The southern office wing constitutes the focal
point of the research on the B&O Headquarters.

This chapter starts off with describing the B&O Headquarters in general
and the southern office wing in particular. The site and context, the
building, and the ventilation concept are described successively in section
5.1. The architectural consequences of the natural ventilation concept are
identified and described in section 5.2. This work is guided and structured
by the checklist described in chapter 3. Extracts from the interviews with
the design team are incorporated as a part of the analysis. The design
team’s experiences with designing a building that utilises natural
ventilation are presented in section 5.3. Some occupant experiences are
also briefly presented. Finally, the chapter closes with a summary and
conclusions on the findings on the architectural consequences of the
natural ventilation concept in the B&O Headquarters, in section 5.4.

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

5.1 Description of the case study building

Figure 5.1 The south façade of the southern office-wing of B&O Headquarters.

Key information on B&O Headquarters

Year of completion: 1998.

Location: Struer, Jutland, Denmark. 56qN 9qE.
Architect: KHR AS Architects.
HVAC consultant: Birch & Krogboe AS.
Site and situation: Semi urban with low-rise buildings. Flat.
Prevailing wind direction: West.
Gross floor area: 1 520 m2.
Number of storeys: 3.
Depth of plan: 8,3 meters.
Floor-to-ceiling height: 3,1 meters.

128

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Site and context

Figure 5.2 The B&O Headquarters are located in the outskirts of the town Struer on
Jutland, Denmark (left). A picture of the south-eastern corner of the office wing with Venø
bay of the Limfjord in the background (right).

The B&O Headquarters is located at the outskirts of the town Struer on

Jutland on the west coast of Denmark, in the border district between town
and countryside. The building is located on a big open field surrounded by
an agricultural landscape to the south and east. The horseshoe-like scheme
opens eastwards to the Venø bay, giving the offices an epic view over the
meadows and the bay by the Limfjord. The new building terminates the
row of factory buildings (Figure 5.3) and gives both B&O and the town of
Struer a new “face” from the town’s southern main approach.

Figure 5.3 A conceptual drawing by the architect showing the new headquarters with the
elevated office wing terminating the cluttered row of production unit buildings.

129

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

Figure 5.4 The site plan shows the Gimsing Church (1) the B&O Headquarters (2) and
B&O production unit buildings (3). The headquarters building, located 12m above sea
level, terminates the row of production unit buildings to the south. (North is up).

Figure 5.5 Distribution of wind speed and direction at the nearest metro station (Mejerup).
The data are based on average values for a period of ten years1. The prevailing wind
direction is from west. There is no significant external air pollution or noise on the site.

130

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

B&O was founded in Struer in 1925. The factory was destroyed during
the war, but was rebuilt already in 1946. Since then, a number of additions
have created a continuous band of buildings running towards south
between the town of Struer to the west and the Venø Bay on Limfjorden
to the east. The new headquarter building conclude the chain of
production unit buildings to the south. Placing the new building to the
south of the production site ensures that the existing balance in the hilly
landscape south/southeast of Struer is maintained. (The property between
the factory and the bay on Limfjorden also belongs to B&O, and thus the
possibility of building here was formally present).

The building

Figure 5.6 The main entrance is located on the west façade side in the corner between the
connecting building and the northern wing (left). The foyer provides a view into the court
and onto the southern office wing (middle). The linear volumes of the southern and
northern wings point in the direction of Venø bay and the sea (right).

In the spring of 1996 KHR AS Architects were selected to design B&O’s

new headquarters in collaboration with the engineer consultants Birch &
Krogboe AS. B&O required an office building of high quality that was to
be a great “show room” for the Bang & Olufsen culture and production.
B&O also wanted a building with a minimum of technical installations,
and the ones that had to be installed should be simple and hidden. The
architects wanted to utilise natural ventilation to the highest possible
extent in the new headquarters building. They also wished to build on, and
refine the natural ventilation concept they had designed for Pihl & Søn’s
office building in Lyngby a few years earlier. The new headquarters for
B&O was completed in 1998.

131

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

Northern wing

Connecting building

Southern wing

Figure 5.7 The B&O Headquarters consist of three oblong volumes in a U-shaped
constellation. North is up.

The B&O headquarters consists of three oblong volumes organised in a

U-shaped building complex. The longest and broadest, though not the
tallest, is the northern wing with the “public” functions. This two-storied
wing is aligned close to the south end wall of the factory blocks, and
encloses the entrance with a reception and foyer, meeting rooms, an
auditorium, and a canteen for the employees. The idea is to allow the
adjacent factory building to be easily connected to the northern wing in
case it becomes desirable to use the canteen both for the administration
and for the production units in the future. All functions that require
mechanical ventilation according to Danish building codes are placed in
this mechanically ventilated wing.

132

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 5.8 Plan of ground level showing the connecting building, the northern wing and
the footprints of the load bearing structure of the southern wing. North is up.

The two-storey connecting building houses the marketing department in

an open plan office layout and a lobby that connects the two other wings
(Figure 5.6, middle). The connecting building is placed perpendicular to
the southern office wing and cuts obliquely into the northern wing. The
three-storey elevated southern wing houses the B&O administration in an
open plan office layout with a few cell offices at both ends (Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.9 Section drawing through the courtyard of the headquarters looking west. The
elevated southern office wing is easily recognisable to the left, the façade of the connecting
building in the middle and the northern wing with the “public” functions to the right.

The southern office wing of the B&O Headquarters ensemble utilises

natural ventilation (as does the connection building), and is accordingly of

133

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

special interest to this study. This office wing has, as the western and
northern ones, a very defined and clear geometry with a long and narrow
three-storey body. The scheme is comparatively shallow, and with a flat
roof, it leaves a rectangular shaped section that measures 8.3m in width
and 12m in height externally.

Figure 5.10 The glazed north façade of the elevated, rectangular shaped southern office
wing.

Distinctive for the southern wing is that it from some angles seems to be
afloat. However, closer inspection reveals a row of discrete columns and
slabs confirming the fact that gravitation is still a factor when designing a
building. A system of vertical and horizontal concrete slabs is connected
by another system of steel columns and beams. The purpose of this
connection is to balance the building mass on as few supporting points as
possible. By designing the wall of the south façade as a large cantilevered
concrete beam, only two supporting concrete slabs were necessary. This is
achieved with a so-called Vierendeel construction where the façade is
designed as a post stressed concrete girder. The construction consists of
horizontal pre-fabricated elements and vertical panels cast in place.
During the construction phase, the girder was supported by temporary
columns, and after assembly, the structure was post stressed with
horizontal and vertical tension cables, which run through metal pipes cast
into the concrete elements. The horizontal concrete slabs are supported by
the steel beams, which span between the south wall and the steel columns
of the north façade. The columns themselves stand on a row of concrete
plinths. The location of all the columns on the visually “light side” of the
building (north façade, Figure 5.10), and only two supporting concrete

134

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

slabs on the “heavy side” (south façade, Figure 5.1), underscore the
mystery of the floating brick façade (Figure 5.11, left).

Figure 5.11 The gable façades of the office wing are identical (mirrored images of each
other) and composed of a glass surface and a brick surface (left). The concrete is exposed
both in walls and ceilings in the interior (middle). A view from the third floor towards
Venø bay (right).

The concrete slabs are exposed in the ceilings to utilise their thermal
capacity. The same applies for the concrete walls of all the façades with
the exception of the glazed north façade. The reinforced concrete structure
in the south facades is clad with bricks on the outside, as are the east and
west facing end walls. The north facade is fully glazed, and its glass
segment continues a distance into the east and west facades equivalent to
the depth of the communication zone (Figure 5.11). The south façade has
a moderate window area compared to the north façade. The user-
controlled windows (the narrow ones) can be automatically opened during
night-time for cooling of the building structure when needed.

The office wing has three similar floors that together constitute a gross
area of 1520m2. The plan layout is based on an open office-landscape
except for a few office cells at each end of the building. The
comparatively shallow plan, internally measuring 7,5m, has the main
communication zone running along the north façade (Figure 5.11) and an
additional communication zone running along the south façade. The desks
are organised along the middle of the scheme. The office cells in the
eastern and western end of the building are organised in a single banked
layout. Two stairways are situated more or less symmetrically around the
centre of the plan (Figure 5.7), serving as extract chimneys for the exhaust
air. The interiors have a generous floor to ceiling height of 3,1m. The
floor-to-floor height is 3,4m.

135

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

“The building evokes associations of Bang & Olufsen’s products in

continuous variations between lightness and heaviness, supporting and
bearing, translucent and transparent. The interior is experienced in relation
to the surrounding landscape, reflected by the sky light in a physical
spatial juxtaposition which unites exterior and interior visually. The
framework of a dynamic working environment which breaks down the
hierarchic room division with a deliberate choice of not having interior
walls and doors. Spatial experiences are with changing directions and
variation among the materials. The aimed at dynamics, which manifests
itself in the openness and visual accessibility of the building, initiate a
conscious decision regarding the users’ needs for individual private
spheres in spatial intimacies. This is expressed in the spatial formation,
the detailed elaboration of the facades together with the sculptural
heaviness, which is brought forward by the design of the furniture”. KHR
AS2.

Ventilation concept

The south wing of the Bang and Olufsen headquarters utilises natural
driving forces for ventilation. Extract fans are installed on top of the two
stairwells to support the natural driving forces at times when they do not
suffice to maintain the desired air change rate.

“The very idea with natural ventilation is to utilise the natural driving
forces as efficiently as possible to transport the air through the
building. Two types of natural driving forces are in principle utilised;
differential pressure created by wind and the thermal driving pressure
that arise due to the temperature difference between the outside and the
inside”. (P. S. Monby and T. Vestergaard, Birch & Krogboe A/S)

The engineers used CFD-simulations to evaluate the effect and the

variations of the differential pressure created by the wind upon the
building envelope. By studying the geometry of the headquarters’ south-
wing in this “mathematical wind tunnel”, it was possible to determine the
magnitude of the differential pressure created by wind between inlet and
outlet, and hence which way the air would flow through the building.
Obviously, the thermal driving pressure varies during the year, as it is a
consequence of the temperature differential between inside and outside.
Thermal buoyancy and wind act together to create the total natural driving
pressure that at any given time is available to drive the air-change in the
building.

136

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

The natural ventilation principle utilised in the B&O Headquarters

building is stack-ventilation. The ventilation strategy is most of the time
displacement ventilation. A combination of stack- and cross ventilation is
used for night ventilation, and during hot summer days when the
occupants open the windows in the south façade, however.

“The design and the location of the air inlets must be based on
evaluation of the outdoor air quality. Because of the rural location of
the B&O Headquarters, and a relative low traffic load around the
building, natural ventilation will not cause problems even in the
daytime”. (P. S. Monby and T. Vestergaard, Birch & Krogboe A/S)

Figure 5.12 An illustration of the ventilation in principle made by Birch & Krogboe A/S.

Fresh air enters the building through low positioned inlets placed in the
horizontal divisions in the glazed north façade. The inlet glass hatches are
positioned right in front of the floor slab. Ribbed pipes located just behind
the glass hatches preheat the fresh air before it enters the interior through
inlet grilles located in the floor next to the glass facade.

137

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

Figure 5.13 The inlet grills integrated in the floor next to the glazed north façade are made
of aluminium and produced by B&O themselves (left). The manifestation of the inlet glass
hatches in the north façade (middle and right).

The building itself in principle acts as a huge ventilation duct between the
inlets and the outlets3. The air is extracted through two central stairwells,
which serve as extract chimneys for the wind and buoyancy driven natural
ventilation. Specially designed cowls, located on the roof over the two
staircases, are shaped to take advantage of wind to suck air out of the
building. The cowls are fitted with two axial fans each. The fans, which
are of a three-blade propeller type, are frequency controlled and start
running when the sum of the buoyancy and wind forces are insufficient to
maintain the desired air change in the building.

Figure 5.14 Two stairwells double as extract chimneys (left), and are designed to produce
as little resistance for the airflow as possible (middle). They are centrally located in the
plan with the outlet openings located immediately above (right).

138

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 5.15 One extract cowl is located over each of the two stairwells (left). The cowls
are made with a slit running around the top perimeter of the cube to utilise wind suction
regardless of wind direction (middle). Two axial fans are located in each of the two cowls
(right).

“The location of the neutral plane is essential for a natural ventilation

system. The air flows into the building under the neutral plane, and out
of the building over the neutral plane. The ventilation concept of the
B&O building is designed so that the neutral plane is situated high up
in the building. The extract cowls are equipped with fans, both to
ensure the location of the neutral plane, and to ensure a greater
operating time over the year”. (P. S. Monby and T. Vestergaard, Birch
& Krogboe A/S)

User controlled windows in the south facade are used for supplementary
ventilation during summertime. High windows, located right under the
ceiling on each floor on the south façade, are automatically controlled
during night time for cooling of the building’s thermal mass. Compared to
the fully glazed north façade, the south facade has a moderate window
area serving as supply for daylight and to give a view to the exterior. The
window bands in the south façade are prepared for installation of shading
devices of the lamella type on the inside, but the builder chose to wait a
season of operation to see if they were needed. The lamella blinds were
never installed. Instead silver coloured internal roller blinds were put up to
prevent glare on the computer screens, which proved to be a problem
especially in the transitional seasons with the sun low on the horizon. The
north façade has no shading devices. To utilise the building’s thermal
mass, the pre-cast concrete floor slabs as well as the in-situ cast concrete
structure of the south wall are exposed. The thermal mass is also exposed
in the east and west walls, but that will only have an effect on the two end
offices.

139

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

The building services manager can decide to run the operation of the
ventilation and heating systems either by a timer program, or by signals
from the IBI-system (Intelligent Building Installation4). The IBI-system’s
sensors can detect whether there are people in the building or not. As for
the ventilation system, the building services manager has the option of
more service modes: a) constant operation by timer program or IBI-signal,
b) operation by CO2 sensors via the timer program or IBI-signal, and
finally c) night operation. When operated by CO2 sensors, the building is
ventilated only if the CO2 level exceeds a set level, or if the indoor
temperature rises too high, i.e. exceeding a set level. Two CO2 sensors are
located on each floor.

The office wing is heated by a radiator system that is divided in nine

zones with individual room temperature regulation. The system is
designed to have an optimum start up time by a timer program. Transition
to night lowering is initiated by signals from the IBI-system when all
occupants have left the building. Ribbed heat pipes with vents are located
immediately inside the inlets to preheat the air. The vents adjust the
heating of the outdoor air to a constant temperature. If the temperature in
the inlets cannot be upheld, the opening area is reduced. The pressure
conditions on the building envelope are dependent on the wind’s direction
and speed. That implies that windows with the same opening can have
different airflow rates, and hence that the different zones within the
building can be unevenly ventilated. As all zones are of the same size, the
position of the heat pipe’s vents can be used as a measure of the airflow
rate through the inlet. The building’s CTS-system5 uses this to correct the
opening of the inlets so that an even air distribution is ensured along the
façade.

Air velocity sensors are located in the outlet cowls to measure the total
airflow rate through the building. The opening of the inlet windows in the
north façade regulates the airflow rate through the building. If desired
airflow rates cannot be achieved with fully opened windows, the axial
fans start. The fans start when the natural driving forces cannot keep a
ventilation rate of 1.5 ach in winter and 3.0 ach in summer. The fan speed
is controlled to achieve the desired air change rate.

The occupants can control the narrow windows right under the ceiling in
the south façade individually by pressing a push button located at every
desk. These windows, as well as the inlet windows in the north façade, are
opened automatically by the CTS-system during night cooling. Together
the two narrow window bands in the north and south façades ensure an
effective flush of air through the building.

140

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

A number of limitations are incorporated in the control strategy to prevent

excessive draught and rain to enter the building:

a) When the wind velocity exceeds x m/s (x = selectable set point) from
easterly or westerly direction, the inlets near the connection building
close to prevent draught through the building. All natural ventilation
is stopped when wind velocities exceed y m/s (y = selectable set
point).

b) In the case of rain and wind velocity exceeding z m/s (z = selectable

set point), all natural ventilation is stopped. Also individually
controlled windows in the south façade are forced to close.

c) Natural ventilation is stopped when the outdoor temperature drops

below the freezing point to protect the ribbed pipes from freezing. In
such cases the occupants use the windows in the south façade for
short time venting.

All control of heating and ventilation, together with the monitoring of the
rest of the technical installations, are done via the CTS-system. All control
of electrical light and the windows in the south façade is done via the IBI-
system. The two systems are connected so that signals from the motion
detectors affiliated with the IBI-system also are used by the CTS-system.
Equally, the CTS-system is used to overrule the windows in the south
façade if the weather conditions claim them to be closed, and open them if
night cooling is needed.

5.2 Architectural consequences of natural ventilation in

B&O

The checklist described in chapter 3 is used to guide and structure the

work on identifying and describing the architectural consequences of the
natural ventilation concept in the B&O Headquarters. The checklist is
further used to structure both the material and the way the findings are
presented. Interviews with the architect and HVAC consultant substantiate
the various issues discussed in the following.

141

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

Site and context

The new headquarters’ location south of the production units marks a

distinct termination for the cluttered row of factory buildings (Figure 5.4).
Its elevated southern office wing is a characteristic figure in the open
landscape and constitutes B&O’s new façade to the area south of Struer.

Figure 5.16 The location of the B&O Headquarters relative to Gimsing Church.

There were four vital arguments for locating the headquarters to the south
of, and adjacent to the row of factory buildings: 1) By building the new
building here, it could be gently integrated in the landscape, and the
existing balance in the hilly landscape south and southeast of Struer is
upheld. Secondly, the headquarters building does not block the view to the
bay from the nearby Gimsing Church and the residential area in the
southern part of Struer. Thirdly, locating the headquarters building in the
slight depression in the terrain south of the production buildings prevents
it from conflicting with the skyline of the town. The highest point of the
headquarters, the southern office wing, does not exceed the height of the
nearby church (Figure 5.16). Lastly, the north wing, containing all the
public spaces like canteen, auditorium and meeting rooms, is located next
to the existing factory to allow for a potential future connection of the two
buildings. The facilities of the northern wing can then easily be accessed
from the factory unit. The fact that parts of the building were going to

142

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

utilise natural ventilation had, however, no influence on the location and

orientation of the new headquarters building.

“The site and the context were in the first turn of minor importance for
the natural ventilation concept chosen for the B&O headquarters. We
knew that the building would be built on a site surrounded by a
completely open landscape, and we also knew that the site is very
windy. So whatever we did, we knew that it would never be any problem
to get fresh air into the building. The ventilation concept came into play
at a later stage”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

Orientation and shape

The headquarters’ U-shaped scheme, composed of the three oblongs that

overlap and slide into each other, opens towards the bay in the east and
turns its “back” to the car park and the city in the west.

Figure 5.17 The U-shaped scheme opens up towards the meadows and the sea and turns
its “back” to the car park.

“Simply spoken, the headquarters has the shape of a Danish farm, lying
out on the fields. The farms are typically made up of four wings that
enclose a yard. We have designed a modern farm, where one of the

143

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

wings is left out. We derived at this idea as a result of the builder

telling us: ‘we are located in west Jutland; we might be a world firm,
but here in west Jutland you do not brag. Here you are deliberate and
down-to-earth. You shall make something, but it must not appear as a
show off’. We responded to this by closing the building outwards.
Everything what you see is what you know; –brickwork, the major
building material out here. So you see a closed building from the
outside. Only when you enter the building you see a lot of glass, which
signals something else. The main idea was to design a building that is
humble to the outside, but as you enter it, reveals a different storey
where a lot happens”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

Hence, the U-shaped layout of the narrow wings is not a direct

consequence of the natural ventilation concept, even though the narrow
plans of this scheme are easier to ventilate than a deep plan would be.
Neither has the headquarters’ orientation, opening downwards towards the
sea, any relation to the natural ventilation concept. The southern office
wing is tilted a few degrees away from the direction of the northern wing
to open up and allow a better view to the meadows and the sea. The tailor-
made extract cowls fitted on the roof are designed to work for all wind
directions. The orientation of the building with regard to utilisation of
natural ventilation was not considered very important.

“The wind cowls, half a meter tall square shaped metal sheet boxes,
are fitted with specially developed opening/closing mechanisms on all
four sides. These mechanisms always close on the windward side and
open on the leeward side. Thus the cowls create a suction effect
irrespective of wind direction. Therefore, in principle, it does not
matter which way the building is oriented with regard to wind-direction
and natural ventilation”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

The orientation of the U-shaped scheme gives the north- and south wings
an east-west orientation. The two long facades of the two volumes face
north and south respectively. The northern wing forms a spine for the
nearest production building (hall 5) and provides a façade to the
courtyard. Even though there is no physical contact, it may seem as
though the new building is connected to hall 5. Viewed from the northern
wing and the lobby, the elevated office wing looks very thin and
transparent. The combined steel and concrete construction resting on a
sub-structure of concrete piers suggests a sense of weightlessness, and the
office wing can strike a chord to a slender bridge. This effect of openness
is achieved with the thin metal casements in the curtain glass wall and

144

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

with the thin floors that are free of intermediate ceilings and lighting
fixtures.

Figure 5.18 The architects at KHR AS sought to give the north façade the lightest possible
appearance. Slender floors and extensive use of glass in the north facade are important
means at achieving this. The effect of transparency is fortified by the design of the
windows in the south façade at the back, resulting in a combination of spot-like window-
bands and counterlight through the building6.

“All functions that the Danish building code require to be mechanically

ventilated are located together in the northern wing (Auditorium,
canteen, meeting rooms). The ventilation plant for this part is located in
the basement under the canteen area. By gathering all the mechanically
ventilated spaces in one place, we avoided long ventilation ducts
around in the building. This was decisive for the economy, and was
above all crucial for us to be able to design a generous floor-to-ceiling
height without suspended ceilings. That is very important for the
architecture of the building”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

Therefore, the administration functions are assembled in one separate

wing, and ventilated naturally. The building itself offers a shadow to the
fully glazed north façade where the air inlets are located. The south façade
of the elevated office wing makes B&O’s new façade to the area south of
Struer. The narrow bands of windows in the massive brick façade
underline its horizontality, and it has an almost earth bound appearance
despite the fact that the office wing is “afloat” (Figure 5.1). The limited
area of openings in the exposed south facade limits the heat gain from the
sun.

145

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

“The internal heat load is reduced by minimising the window area

facing south and using low solar energy transmittance windows. The
south façade is prepared for internal solar blinds, but the builder has
chosen to wait to see if they are needed.” (P. S. Monby and T.
Vestergaard, Birch & Krogboe A/S)

All the three oblong building volumes in the B&O headquarters have very
clear and comprehensible geometries. The clear shapes are sought for
formal and architectural reasons and have little to do with the natural
ventilation concept. That said; the prospects of utilising daylight and
natural ventilation are better for a shallow plan layout than for a deep plan
layout.

“For architectural reasons we wanted to design the building very

slender. And that is due to proportion, no doubt. Architects often aspire
to designing the gable walls as narrow as possible. We desired the
gables of the office wing to be even narrower, but they could not be for
practical reasons regarding furnishing of the working desks. It was not
the natural ventilation that decided the building to be designed so
narrow.” (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

The south office wing is elevated approximately two meters above ground
level. This is done for architectural and formal arguments and has nothing
to do with the natural ventilation concept of the building. When sitting in
the canteen, your eyes are allowed to follow the line of the horizon under
the building, and you can have a view out onto the fields south of the
headquarters. Nothing of the shape, silhouette or orientation reveals that
this building is naturally ventilated. There is for instance no chimney,
wind tower, double façade or inlet/outlet grills in the facades.

“I must say that we are strict in our architecture, and we know exactly
what we want to achieve. Inevitably, Birch & Krogboe started to say
that the easiest way to design the ventilation was to put some big
chimneys on the building. To that we said a definite no. We simply
didn’t want to be part of that because of our architectural motivations.
The building should have all what it could haul architecturally
(solutions, components and materials), but it should also be sensible.
As for double facades, they were never an issue in this building. The
concept is like those of former times: you just opened the window or the
door and your building could be ventilated. The only difference in B&O
is that the control system is more sophisticated. That is the whole
philosophy of this concept”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

146

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Plan

The plans for all three floors of the south office wing are identical. The
middle section, in-between the two staircases, is an open office-landscape.
In both ends of the office wing there are cellular offices, separated by
shelf walls supplemented with glazed areas. At the east end, where the
executive offices are, there is abundant space. To the west, where the
management offices are located, the conditions are somewhat more
modest. The ventilation of the cellular offices is controlled by opening and
closing the doors to the communication zone and/or by opening the
windows in the south façade.

Figure 5.19 The plan layout of the southern office wing.

The main communication zone is located along the north façade, where
fresh air enters the interiors. An additional communication zone runs
along the south façade. Locating the working desks away from the façades
reduces the risk of cold draughts from ventilation inlets and windows.
(The tolerance of draughts is higher in the communication zone than in the
sedentary workspace area). Also, trouble with glare on the computer
screens decreases the farther from the facades the screens are located.

“The building can in principle be considered as one big ventilation

duct. This fact necessitates the plan layout, and the room geometry in
general, to be designed to allow the air to flow as freely and
undisturbed as possible. All three stories of the office wing are openly
connected with each other via the stairwells. Also, all doors reach the
ceiling to allow unobstructed airflow”. (P. S. Monby and T.
Vestergaard, Birch & Krogboe A/S)

147

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

The two staircases are arranged nearly symmetrically around the centre of
the plan, dividing the plan into three sections. The staircases constitute an
important element in the natural ventilation concept in that they double as
stack chimneys. Their central location in the plan is thus profitable both
for the flow of air and the movement of occupants. Sliding doors located
in the walls of the stairwells close automatically in case of a fire. The
stairwells are then transformed into individual fire cells.

Specially designed walls that also function as shelves divide the open plan
into smaller units that accommodate four desks each. On top of these
space-defining elements there are light fixtures that direct light upwards,
eliminating the need for light fixtures in the ceiling. The smooth surface
of the ceiling gives a very clean and sober impression, and the thermal
properties of the slabs can be exploited unobstructed of technical
installations.

“Because of the natural ventilation concept in the office wing we didn’t

need suspended ceilings. We saw this as an architectural potential. We
could have daylight coming in high up under the ceiling, and the
generous floor-to-ceiling height is pleasing, you get another feeling. We
didn’t want to have anything on the concrete ceilings, they should
appear as completely white and free surfaces. Therefore we integrated
up-lights in the shelves and used the white ceiling surface as a
reflector”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

Section

A section drawing of the south wing illustrates well the three

comparatively shallow floors that are lifted some 2 meters up from the
ground level on concrete pillars (Figure 5.9 and 5.20, left). This is, as
mentioned in orientation and shape, done to provide the canteen and the
auditorium with a view out onto the meadows and the grazing herd. This
was an important issue for the owner. The elevation of the wing can thus
not be ascribed to the natural ventilation concept. Lifting the wing up
from the ground does, however, prevent leaves etc. swirling in the wind
along the ground to enter the inlet openings. Also, smaller animals cannot
easily enter through the inlet openings. This has actually led to a few
problems in the foyer and the lobby where the air inlets are located at
ground level (Figure 5.6, right). The receptionist has on a few occasions

148

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

chased mice in the lobby that have entered through these inlets. Whether
this should be regarded a problem or a curiosity apparently depends on the
attitude of the receptionist.

Figure 5.20 Section drawing of the three-storied southern office wing elevated from the
ground on concrete pillars (left). The appearance of the south façade viewed from the
inside with the characteristic skylight windows located right under the ceiling (middle and
right).

Recalling Birch & Krogboe’s picture of the building as one big ventilation
duct, one realises when studying a section drawing the openness of the
space on each floor. The space unfolds unobstructed from façade to
façade, allowing ventilation air and daylight to do the same. Together with
the shallow plan, the generous ceiling height of 3,1m results in a
proportion that gives the space an extremely “light and open” character.
The office wing’s facades’ response to the orientation of the building can
be seen in the section drawing above. The north façade, a thin glass
curtain wall with a row of steel columns on the inside of the weather
screen, is totally open to the inner courtyard. The north façade gives a
generous view to the exterior and feeds the interior with plenty of daylight
without running the risk of overheating the building. The inlet hatches for
the natural ventilation are also located in this façade.

“An idea emerged to use openable windows down by the floor in the
north façade as inlets for the natural ventilation. We had an idea to
keep the “concrete house” and make a light steel construction to the
north, containing the main communication area. This design gave us
the possibility to work with the light “steel house”, where all
installations are located. Here we eventually drew fresh air into the

149

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

building, and it proved uncomplicated to distribute the air evenly into

the building from the communication zone. Also, having the openable
windows in the north façade was advantageous in terms of avoiding
complications with solar shading”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR
AS)

The south façade is a massive concrete and brick construction that is

rather closed to the surroundings compared to the north facade. The
façade has a band of moderately sized windows to let in some light and
allow a view to the outside. In addition there is a stripe of narrow window
just under the ceiling used for night cooling and natural lightning (Figure
5.20). The south brick clad façade is rather closed both to avoid solar heat
gain and to not signal glass, which would be too resplendent and modern.
The façade’s brick cladding corresponds to the building traditions of
Jutland.

The air path for the exhaust air is clearly seen in the section. It stretches
up through the stairwells and through a slit in the roof above the stairwell
and out through the cowl on the roof (Figures 5.12 and 5.14). Instead of
equipping the building with chimneys extending the internal “stairwell-
chimneys” and utilise buoyancy as driving force, wind cowls that utilise
wind to suck air out of the stairwells were selected and fitted (Figure
5.15).

“The stairs are very open. They are made of glass, and they are closed
only in the horizontal level, -for the steps. So vertically it is open, and
the air rises upwards with minimum resistance. The upper floor in the
stairwell has an intermediate ceiling with sound baffles on top to
dampen the noise from the fans when they are running. The air travels
through one slit between the wall of the stairwell and the suspended
ceiling, and then out of the building through the cowls; which in
principle does the same job as a chimney”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen,
KHR AS)

Façade

The north façade is a light, fully glazed curtain wall with openings in the
horizontal division serving as inlets for natural ventilation (Figure 5.10).
The long and narrow horizontal lines composed by the narrow band of

150

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

openable inlet windows are located in the front of each floor slab. Hence
four lines are articulated in the façade, strengthening the building’s
horizontal appearance.

“The stripe of small openable windows in the north façade is a direct

consequence of the natural ventilation concept. They wouldn’t be there
if the wing was mechanically ventilated. They give life to the façade -
light and shadow, essential in architecture. We are enormously fond of
that.” (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

For some light conditions, the fully glazed façade gives a good view into
the building. The building appears strikingly light and open, mainly
because of thin floor slabs with no muddling installations in the ceiling.
As there are no intermediate ceilings to hide installations, the building has
a light and transparent appearance from the north side.

The east and west façades are, as earlier mentioned, mirror images of
each other. The facades are brick clad with the exception of a vertical line
of glass. These fixed windows provide a view to the landscape in each end
of the communication zone (Figure 5.11).

The south façade has a moderate window area for daylighting. In addition
to the user-controlled panorama windows, there is a stripe of high
windows, located right under the ceiling on each floor. These narrow
bands of windows give the rather closed south façade a horizontal
appearance. One might have expected external blinds on the windows in
the south façade, but there are none. This is for architectural reasons. The
windows and the brickwork are flush, a feature the architects brought with
them from an earlier building they designed, the Phil & Søn’s
headquarters. This gives the façade a smooth surface.

Materials and characteristic ventilation elements

Glass, steel, concrete and brick are the dominating materials in the office
wing. The north façade is entirely made of glass, and the structural
elements of the façade are made of steel. The façade itself is a curtain
wall, covering all three floors of the wing. Very narrow profiles of natural
oxidised aluminium in the façade ensure an almost weightless appearance.
No solar blinds are provided for the façade, as it is oriented northwards.
Air inlet grills in the floor are also made of natural oxidised aluminium.

151

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

They run along the entire north façade in a field defined by the steel
columns (Figure 5.13, left). A black rough sponge is situated under the
rather wide slits in the inlet grills to reduce the velocity of the airflow and
to break it up to avoid excessive draughts. The idea is that the air should
seep in rather than blow. Because of the rather windy conditions on the
site, smaller objects and particles tend to travel with the air. The sponge
also stops these objects, especially sand, from entering the building.

“We wanted the inlet grills in the floor inside the north façade to be
made of natural oxidised aluminium, both because we like the
appearance of that material, and because B&O use it in all their
products. We didn’t find any appealing grills on the market, so we
turned to B&O: You are experts on this, who knows better than you to
produce these grills? They were thrilled by the idea to deliver a
component to their own building, so they produced the grills after
specifications made by us”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

The south façade is constructed of reinforced concrete and clad with brick
on the outside and plaster on the inside. The windows in the south façade
have internal solar blinds, except for the sky windows. They ensure some
daylight when the roller blinds are down without causing glare as they are
very narrow and as the wall is quite thick (Figure 5.20).

Utilisation of the concrete’s thermal mass in the interior is part of the

ventilation concept. The building relies on the construction materials’
ability to store heat and cold. The office wing has, as earlier mentioned,
thermal storage capacity in the ceilings and in the east, west and south
facades. The exposed concrete acts as a thermal sink for the interior,
dampening the diurnal thermal fluctuations. The narrow windows situated
right under the ceiling flush the surface of the concrete slab with cool
outdoor air during the night, “preparing” the slab to efficiently absorb heat
the next warm summer day.

“To be able to utilise natural ventilation to uphold an acceptable

indoor climate throughout the year, the internal as well as the external
heat gains should be minimised as much as possible. The building is
therefore made as a heavy construction with exposed heavy surfaces for
accumulation of night cooling. The B&O office wing is constructed and
built without intermediate ceilings and computer floors. The low solar
energy transmittance windows (g-factor=40%) in the already
minimised window areas in the south façade reduce the internal heat
load. Daylight controlled, low-energy light fittings are installed

152

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

throughout the office wing”. (P. S. Monby and T. Vestergaard, Birch &
Krogboe A/S)

The main materials used in the interior are white stuccoed wall and ceiling
surfaces, white stuccoed steel beams, grey painted steel columns, naturally
oxidised aluminium window frames, and ash parquet flooring. Most of
these are rather “hard” materials with smooth surfaces that are easy to
clean and maintain. They are also low emission materials, which is an
important part of the concept of minimising the ventilation load by source.

There are very few visible characteristic elements of the natural

ventilation concept in the B&O Headquarters. The most visible is the
openable band of glass hatches in front of each concrete slab in the north
façade serving as inlets, and the metal inlet grills in the floors along the
north facade. Another characteristic element, though not recognisable to
the inattentive, are the office wings’ two staircases that in addition to
serving as vertical communication also doubles as stack chimneys for the
natural ventilation concept. For this reason the staircases are designed to
be as open as possible (Figure 5.14). Also visually the stairs appear
extraordinarily light and open. Slender bands of metal carry steps made of
glass.

The last visible characteristic natural ventilation element in the B&O

Headquarters is the two wind cowls located on the roof over the
stairwells. They are so low, however, that they are not visible unless you
climb up on the roof.

Interior spaces

The narrow plan of the building offers an extraordinary view to the

exterior wherever you are situated in the building. The landscape, the
fjord and the sky become an important part of the spatial experience of the
rooms. Another striking quality is the generously day-lit spaces. The
daylight’s natural variations in colour and intensity give life and character
to the interiors.

“The natural ventilation has vast implications on the appearance and

design of the south wing. The building is very plain and light. If it was
mechanically ventilated it would be heavier and more awkward. The
whole lightness you find in that building is because if the thin floors,

153

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

only 30cm thick. That is also essential for the design’s light and
transparent north façade. Another matter is that the building is well
proportioned now as it is. A mechanical ventilation system would have
altered the proportions of the building”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen,
KHR AS)

Figure 5.21 KHR AS Architects wanted the architectural expression of the north façade of
the office wing to be as transparent and light as possible (left). There are no technical
installations in the ceiling, giving it a sober and uncluttered appearance (right).

There are no suspended ceilings or installations such as sprinklers and

electrical light fittings in the ceiling. The ceiling surface hovers evenly
and uncluttered at a generous height above the floor, contributing to
giving the interiors a calm and sober expression. The whole space can be
fully enjoyed and experienced by the occupants: its true borders and size
are recognisable. The proportions of the space (7,5m wide and 3,1m tall)
give a feeling of openness and airiness.

“Over and over again we meet the argument that generous floor-to-
ceiling heights cost too much. We think that this is absolutely not the
right item to save money on. It has something to do with psychological
well-being, the way you perceive and experience a room. Your psyche
perceives instantaneously a room’s proportions and tells you whether
the room is nice to be in or not. That you cannot, and indeed should
not, put a price tag on”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

The natural stack ventilation concept in the office wing necessitates a plan
constellation that allows unobstructed airflow through the space. This is
easily obtained in the middle open plan section of the wing. The

154

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

occupants in the cellular offices at either end of the scheme control the
ventilation by opening/closing doors and windows. But even more
important than the horizontal air paths, are the vertical path for the stack
induced airflow. This is where the stairwells come into play, openly
connecting all three stories and ensuring a path for the rising air to the
wind cowls on the roof. The blades of the doors reach the ceiling to
minimise airflow obstruction. This gives a feeling of openness and also
grandeur. This theme is used in architecture throughout history, especially
in religious buildings like in for example the contemporary church Chiesa
Marco de Canavesas by the Portuguese architect Alvaro Siza7.

Integration and conflict with other aspects

There should generally be as little resistance in the airflow paths as

possible in a naturally ventilated building as the natural driving forces for
much of the time are considerably weaker and more variable than those
produced by fans. Few internal walls, and a limited distance between the
inlet and the outlet in a room are therefore favourable.

The shallow and open plan layout of the B&O office wing is favourable
for the natural ventilation concept. The layout also favours utilisation of
daylight and the occupant’s abilities to have visual contact with the
outside. The long and narrow building body allows both daylight and air
to “flush” unobstructed through the interior. The interior is generously
daylit from two sides. Double-sided daylighting tend to dissolve shadows
and thus blur an object’s form. However, in the office wing of the B&O
Headquarters the great difference in light quantity, colour and in the way
it enters the space assures that the contours of furnishings and so forth
stand out in character. The office wing further offers a fantastic view and
contact with the exterior from every desk. Transparency and luminosity is
essential themes in the design of the headquarters, and these aspects are
closely linked with the surrounding landscape. The view allowed to the
exterior varies depending on where and what you do in the building, and
the views are carefully selected and framed with the building body. When
walking down the “corridor,“ the view to the sea is the main theme,
whereas when you sit down on your desk the view over the fields and the
meadows take over. Sky, water, and greenery are as much materials of the
architecture, as is steel, glass, brick, wood, concrete and thin slates of
stone8.

155

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

As the airflow of the natural ventilation concept shares paths with the
occupants, the prospect of saving space both in area and height (i.e.
volume) should be present. Especially the constraints on maximum
building height would have been stressed if the wing were to be
mechanically ventilated and at the same time have the same characteristics
(three storeys elevated 2m over ground level with 3,1m floor-to-ceiling
height). The local authorities and the department of ecclesiastical affairs
gave the restriction in maximum building height.

“If the wing were to be mechanically ventilated, we would have lost

space for vertical feedings, but most importantly height for horizontal
ductwork that would have had to be hidden above a false ceiling. Given
the height constraints, it would simply have stolen a story, or the
building would have been standing on the ground. The project would
probably have looked different, but it was never an issue to ventilate
mechanically”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

Fire and acoustic issues, on the other hand, tend to conflict with the
openness of spaces favoured by natural ventilation, and these issues
therefore often need close attention. The natural ventilation concept of the
office wing did not conflict with fire safety issues, however. Sliding doors
close the two stairwells into independent fire cells in case of a fire alarm
(The building is fitted with a conventional fire detecting system). A stair
falls down to the ground under the eastern stairwell if there is a fire alarm.
A sprinkling system was not needed and was therefore not an issue.
Acoustical damping is integrated as part of the bookshelves on every
storey. This was necessary as all surfaces are rather hard, and as there are
no suspended ceilings, which have a positive effect in acoustical terms.
This is an example of a conflict between utilisation of thermal mass
(exposure of (hard) concrete surfaces) and acoustical dampening.

“The bookshelf of each office worker is divided in two; the first half is
the actual shelf with a sliding door in the front to put disorder out of
sight. The other half is fixed and makes the rear wall of the shelf of the
person sitting on the other side. This wall is perforated with slits. There
is a cavity behind the slits and then an attenuating material inside. By
locating the acoustical attenuators in the shelves, all staff members
have an attenuator nearby their working desk”. (Henrik Richter
Danielsen, KHR AS)

156

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 5.22 Acoustical attenuators are located in the bookshelf-walls behind each desk,
appearing as a striped field in these walls (left). Note that the sliding mechanisms of the
doors slide on top of the shelves, making it impossible to use the space on top for storage
of paper, coffee cups and plants (right).

The design of the plan layout can prove more complicated in a naturally
ventilated building if the functional requirements and the requirements of
the airflow do not correspond. An example could be a cross-ventilated
double-banked layout, which would need special attention in finding
reasonable air paths. In B&O’s office wing, however, most of the scheme
consists of open office landscape, representing minor obstruction to the
airflow. The single banked offices at either end “breathe” outwards to the
corridor through open doors. If desired, windows in the south façade can
also be opened.

5.3 Experiences of the design team

The architects received a fixed sum of money from B&O for which to
design the headquarters. For that money, B&O should “get as much
headquarter-building” as they possibly could. The builder had full
confidence in KHR AS to decide how the money could be put to best use.

“Obviously, we wanted to get as much out of the money as possible. We

were not interested in spending the money on ventilation ducts. The
builder immediately agreed. The utilisation of natural ventilation in
Bang and Olufsen’s headquarters supports the company’s green
image”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

The architects, KHR, and the engineers, Birch & Krogboe, were both very
interested in trying something new for the B&O Headquarters. KHR

157

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

wanted to build on their experiences from the Phil & Søn building, a
naturally ventilated office building they had designed a couple of years
earlier (see Chapter 7). They wanted to use natural ventilation in as much
of the building as possible. According to the architect, the natural
ventilation concept did not impose any architectural limitations or
restrictions on the design of the office wing. On the contrary, natural
ventilation gave the designers more freedom in the design of the B&O
Headquarters. The architect emphasises the generous floor-to-ceiling
height and the resulting qualities of the indoor spaces. Suspended ceilings
were not necessary in this project as there are no ventilation ducts or other
technical installations to hide in the ceiling. Neither was it necessary to fit
and integrate vertical ventilation ducts, which according to KHR AS
Architects’ experience need considerable space and planning. The same
apply for the ventilation plant itself, which typically has to be placed in
the basement or on the roof. (The ventilation plant serving the auditorium,
the meeting rooms and the canteen in the northern wing of the B&O
Headquarters occupy an area in the basement equivalent to that of the
canteen).

“…so, obviously I experience a lot of liberties. But above all, the

building is much lighter and more elegant to look at without all the
conventional ventilation apparatus. At present we work on two
mechanically ventilated office buildings. Every time, the discussion is
about the floor-to-floor height. In one of the buildings we have a floor-
to-floor height of four meters. One meter, 25%, is” lost” above the
suspended ceilings that cover up the horizontal ventilation ducts”.
(Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

The architect is convinced that natural induced airflow (buoyancy and

wind) has a great architectural potential as a design criterion, contributing
to give shape to buildings. The natural ventilation concept of the B&O
Headquarters southern office wing allowed the building to take certain
proportions and height and made it possible to build an elevated three-
storied building without conflicting with Gimsing Church (see Section
5.2, site and context). The architect further underlines the economic
potential of natural ventilation, -“it is a lot of money in natural
ventilation” because you do not need to invest in large ventilation plants,
ducts and suspended ceilings. You do not have to use electricity to operate
the ventilation plant, and you do not have to fit the plant into the building,
thereby saving space. The architect also emphasises that natural
ventilation systems are easier, and hence cheaper, to clean and maintain.
Cleaning and maintenance of the southern office wing and its ventilation
system coincide as the interior spaces are the ventilation system, or vice

158

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

versa, depending on how you look at it. The characteristic natural

ventilation elements of the B&O Headquarters’ office wing are essentially
the motorised windows in the north façade and the two wind cowls on the
roof. A building management system is further needed to control them.
The money saved compared to a conventional mechanical system was in
this project invested in the actual building, in better materials, details and
design in general according to KHR AS Architects.

“It is very important to see to that the concept is plain and simple, and
easy to understand. It should always be possible for the occupants to
over-run the control system. When you can open your own window, you
have the feeling that you are a part of the concept, and that you can
influence your own conditions”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

The design of the office wing and its natural ventilation concept
demanded more from the architects and the engineers, compared to an
office building with mechanical ventilation. They had to think
untraditionally and search for new solutions. The ventilation concept is
tailor made for this specific building, and it was developed in close
collaboration between the architect, the engineer and the builder.

“Inevitably, natural ventilation is more demanding. You have to think

in a different way, and you have to work very closely with an engineer
that is determined to solve the task. Birch & Krogboe shared our
philosophy”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

”Natural ventilation makes great demands on the control strategy and

the automatics. Also a good interplay between the builder, architect
and engineer is crucial to achieve a best possible indoor climate at a
low energy consumption.” (P. S. Monby and T. Vestergaard, Birch &
Krogboe A/S)

Occupants

Systematic investigations of occupier’s comfort in the B&O headquarters

have not been conducted. However, after three months of occupancy KHR
had a meeting with all the occupants in the auditorium of the B&O
Headquarters to give a talk on how they had thought and planned the
building, and to get feedback from the occupants. The building is very
open and dynamic. The people working in the headquarters cannot hide
behind books and papers in cellular offices, but are on the contrary on
display. According to the feedback the architects got, it took some time

159

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

for some of the occupants to adapt to this philosophy and way of working,
but after some teething problems the majority is now very pleased with
the working conditions. In terms of ventilation, the maximum speed of the
fans in the cowls where reduced to lower noise, which previously
disturbed the occupants on the third floor9.

“The people in the connection building were not pleased with the
ventilation and the daylight conditions. Later on, motorised windows
similar to those in the south wing that can be opened by the occupants
were installed. I have the impression that the people are utterly
satisfied to work in the southern office wing. Especially after they got
the roller blinds that solved the glare problem on the computer
screens”. (Henrik Richter Danielsen, KHR AS)

5.4 Summary and conclusions

The key architectural consequences of the natural ventilation concept in

the B&O building are summarised here.

 Site and context

The nature of the site, which is windy, open and with little pollution
put the designers in a rather free position in terms of how a natural
ventilation concept should be designed. The context was of minor
importance for the natural ventilation concept chosen for the B&O
Headquarters. Issues concerning the building’s adaptation to the
landscape and the urban context were of greatest importance in the
initial stages of the design, while the ventilation concept became an
issue at a later stage.

 Orientation and shape

The location and orientation of the building is not influenced or

dictated by its natural ventilation concept. Issues related to landscape,
town planning, view, and relation to the existing B&O factory
buildings determined the orientation and location. The oblong and
clear-cut shape was chosen for formal and architectural reasons and
has little to do with the natural ventilation concept. The long and
narrow shape of the volumes does favour utilisation of both natural
daylight and natural ventilation, however.

160

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

 Plan

The majority of the work desks are located in an open office-

landscape. The plan is organised with the working area in the centre
of the plan. A main- and an additional communication zone flank the
workspaces on either side to reduce the risk of draft from the facades
and to limit glare on the computer screens. Two symmetrically
located staircases double as stack chimneys. They are located to
minimise the walking distances within the building and the distance
the ventilation air has to travel through the building.

 Section

The three storeys of the wing are openly connected with each other
via the two stairwells, which act as extract towers in the natural
ventilation concept. As the building in principle can be considered as
a huge ventilation duct, its geometry is designed to allow the air to
flow as freely and undisturbed as possible. The generous floor-to-
ceiling height supports this together with the door openings that reach
the ceiling to allow unobstructed airflow. The natural ventilation
concept makes suspended ceilings superfluous. This fact allows the
whole space of the rooms to be fully enjoyed and recognised by the
occupants. This is one of the most advantageous architectural
consequences of the natural ventilation concept according to the
architects. The south façade has a limited glass area compared to the
north facade to reduce the risk of overheating and hence the need for
cooling by increased ventilation rate. Because of the windy site, wind
cowls could be utilised to create an under pressure to suck air out of
the stairwells instead of using chimneys to increase the driving height
and hence the buoyancy.

 Façade

One of the most characteristic architectural features of the building is

the extremely light, almost “weightless” appearance, of the office
wing’s north façade. Only the thin floor-slabs manifest themselves in
the façade, and the narrow bands of openable windows are adapted to
the size of the floor slabs. This could be achieved as a direct result of
the natural ventilation concept of the headquarters, where no
horizontal ductwork and suspended ceilings are installed. The thin
floors gave the architect greater possibilities in the design of the
façades. This was essential for the architectural concept: heavy and
closed to the outside, light and weightless to the inside courtyard. The

161

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

horizontal bands of openable windows serving as inlets for

ventilation air in the north façade articulate the building and
strengthen its horizontal appearance. The lines of openable glass
hatches bring in light and shadow, adding “life” to the façade
according to the architects.

 Materials and characteristic ventilation elements

The building is made as a heavy construction with exposed surfaces

for accumulation of night cooling. Night cooling of the construction
helps ensure that an acceptable indoor climate is maintained during
the summer season. Most of the materials are rather “hard” with
smooth surfaces that are easy to clean. They are also low emission
materials, which is an important part of the concept of minimising the
ventilation load by source. There are very few visible characteristic
elements of the natural ventilation concept. The most visible is the
openable glass-hatches in front of each floor slab in the north façade.
The second characteristic element, though not recognisable to the
inattentive, are the office wings’ two staircases that in addition to
serving as vertical communication also doubles as stack chimneys for
the natural ventilation concept. Specially designed cowls, located
over the staircases on top of the roof, are shaped to take advantage of
the wind to suck air out of the building, but these cannot be seen
unless you go up to the roof.

 Interior spaces

The natural ventilation concept makes suspended ceilings

superfluous. This fact allows the whole space of the rooms to be fully
enjoyed and recognised by the occupants. This is one of the most
advantageous architectural consequences of the natural ventilation
concept according to the architect. The narrow plan and the generous
floor-to-ceiling height give the interior spaces an unusual proportion
where the rooms are tall and shallow rather than low and deep.
Together with generous daylight conditions and an exceptional view
to and contact with the outside, this makes an unusually light and
open workspace. As the building itself acts as a huge ventilation duct,
the majority of the working desks are located in an open office
landscape with few partition walls to give as little resistance to the
airflow as possible. As the stairwells serve as extract chimneys for all
three floors, the stories are openly connected to each other through
the stairs, forming one huge space. This spatial connection between

162

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

different stories is not very common, and it is a direct result of the

natural ventilation concept.

 Integration and conflict with other aspects

The shallow and open plan layout favours the utilisation of daylight
and the occupant’s abilities to have visual contact with the outside.
The plan is generously day-lit from two sides. Transparency and
luminosity is essential themes in the design, and these aspects are
closely linked with the surrounding landscape. The view to the
exterior varies depending on where and what you do in the building,
and the views are carefully selected and “framed” with the building
body. The absence of horizontal as well as vertical ventilation ducts
and suspended ceilings have saved space in the headquarters
(Functions that must be mechanically ventilated according to the
Danish building code are located together in the northern wing. By
gathering the mechanically ventilated rooms in one wing, long
ventilation ducts around in the building could be avoided. The rest of
the building is naturally ventilated). As a consequence of hard and
exposed surfaces and the absence of a suspended ceiling, special
attention had to be paid to acoustic dampening. Acoustical
attenuators were designed as a part of the shelf walls. The natural
ventilation concept did not conflict with fire safety issues.

Conclusions

There are few visible architectural consequences that are a direct result of
the natural ventilation concept in the southern office wing of the Bang &
Olufsen Headquarters. The most apparent consequence is in fact that the
building, on the whole, seems not to have a ventilation system at all. The
only visible characteristic natural ventilation element is the horizontal
bands of openable windows in the north façade that constitute the
ventilation inlets. The office wing is free of components/elements
associated with mechanical ventilation, e.g. ducts. The horizontal bands of
air inlet windows articulate the glass façade and bring in motion (literally
as well as metaphorically) and variation, light and shadow. The air path
between the inlets in the north facade and the wind cowl outlets on the
roof does not make so much out of itself. It shares the same spaces as the
occupants. In this respect it is a very “straightforward” and “simple”
ventilation concept that integrates completely with the building body.

The “indirect” consequences of the ventilation concept in B&O (that the

building seems not to have a ventilation system at all) are maybe the most

163

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 5. Natural ventilation in a medium-rise building

interesting. There are no ductworks or suspended ceilings in the office

wing. This affects the appearance of the building in the exterior,
especially the north façade facing the courtyard. It looks extremely
transparent with an almost weightless appearance. The thin floor slabs and
the glazing with slim metal sash bars give the façade this appearance. In
this respect the natural ventilation concept contributes and underscores an
essential theme pursued in the architectural expression of the
headquarters: the cultivation of the contrast between closed and heavy on
the one side and transparent and light on the other.

It is clear from the interviews with the design team that this has been an
intellectually challenging ventilation concept to work with and that it has
been fascinating and rewarding to design the building. Considerations to
the urban context (the new headquarters orientation relative to the view
towards the fjord, size (height), proportion and location/positioning
relative to the neighbouring production units) weighed heavier than
considerations to the natural ventilation concept in the initial stages of the
design. Close collaboration between the architect, the consulting engineer
and the builder has been emphasised by both the architect and the
engineer as mandatory for this project.

Notes

1
Hendriksen, O. J. et.al. (2002) Pilot study report: Bang & Olufsen
Headquarters, International Energy Agency (IEA) Annex 35.
2
From the homepage of KHR AS (http://www.khras.dk/projekter.asp)
3
Monby, P. S. and Vestergaard, T., Birch & Krogboe A/S (1998) Styr på
Naturlig Ventilation (Controling Natural Ventilation), VVS/VVB 13, 1998, pp.
20-24. (Article in the Danish HVAC journal).
4
Intelligent Building Installation (IBI), (Intelligent Bygnings Installasjon in
Danish), comprises in Denmark all control and regulation of climate (heating,
cooling and ventilation), light and solar shading that take place in an individual
room or zone according to Troels Vestergaard at Birch & Krogboe.
5
CTS (Central Tilstandskontrol og Styring in Danish) can be translated to Central
Condition-control and Regulation. According to Troels Vestergaard at Birch &
Krogboe CTS comprises installations that control, regulate and monitor the
central technical systems in a building, heating systems, ventilation systems,
cooling systems and so forth. The CTS is primarily located in the technical room.
6
BPS-Publikation 131, May 2000 Fem glasfacader. Optimering af energi- og
komfortforhold. (Five glass facades. Optimisation of energy- and comfort issues).

164

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

7
Siza, Á. and Frampton, K. (2000) Álvaro Siza: complete works, Phaidon,
London.
8
Dirckinck-Holmfeld, K. (1999) Bang & Olufsen A/S, Special print of Arkitektur
DK 6/99. Boktrykkeriet, Skive.
9
Hendriksen, O. J. (2001) Long-term monitoring at Bang & Olufsen Office
building, Annex 35 Hybvent, Second International One-day Forum at Technische
Universiteit Delft, 14 May 2001.

165

URN:NBN:no-7242
URN:NBN:no-7242
 6 Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

Low-rise buildings comprise buildings in the range of one to two storeys.

The building selected as the case for the low-rise group is the Mediå
Primary School in Grong, Norway. Mediå Primary and Secondary School
is located together with the community centre of Grong municipality. The
new primary school building is located at the east end of the site and was
completed in 1998. The one-storey building is organised around a central
corridor with the classrooms on the north side. Common rooms, rooms for
group activities, and service facilities are located on the south side. The
oblong building is bent some degrees in the middle of the scheme. This
gives the school building a boomerang-shaped plan. A tower is located in
the centre of the building, right where the two wings meet. The tower
represents a vertical element that constitutes a focal point in an otherwise
rather horizontally stretched building. The building is characterised by the
tower, the shape and size of the roof, and a band of windows in the
southern roof surface. The primary school building constitutes the focal
point of the research on Mediå School.

This chapter starts off with describing Mediå School in general and the
south-eastern primary school wing in particular. The site and context, the
building, and the ventilation concept are described successively in section
6.1. The architectural consequences of the natural ventilation concept are
identified and described in section 6.2. This work is guided and structured
by the checklist described in chapter 3. Extracts from the interviews with
the design team are incorporated as a part of the analysis. The design
team’s experiences with designing a building that utilises natural
ventilation are presented in section 6.3. Some occupant experiences are
also briefly presented. Finally, the chapter closes with a summary and
conclusions on the findings regarding the architectural consequences of
the natural ventilation concept used in Mediå Primary School, in section
6.4.

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

6.1 Description of the case study building

Figure 6.1 The school building seen from the south side with the schoolyard in the
foreground.

Key information on Mediå Primary School

Year of completion: 1998.

Location: Mediå, centre of Grong municipality, Norway. 65°N, 12°E.
Architect: Letnes Architects AS.
HVAC consultant: VVS Planconsult AS and SINTEF.
Site and situation: Semi urban, surrounded by low-rise buildings. Flat.
Prevailing wind direction: Southeast and Northwest.
Gross floor area: 1 001 m2.
Number of storeys: 1 (plus distribution chambers in basement and attic).
Depth of plan: Varying between15-20 meters.
Floor-to-ceiling height: 2,8-4,8m (sloping roof).

168

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Site and context

Figure 6.2 Mediå School is located in Mediå, the centre of Grong municipality in the
county of Nord-Trøndelag, Norway (left). An aerial photo of Grong with surrounding
landscape (right).

Mediå Primary School is located in Mediå, the centre of Grong

municipality in the middle of Norway. The site is located 34m above sea
level in a semi-urban, flat site surrounded by low-rise buildings. The
village is surrounded with agricultural fields and forests. Mountains and
valleys characterise the topography in the area. The main highway, and
relative heavy traffic, passes by some hundred meters north of the school
building, on the other side of the river Namsen.

The climate is a typical inland climate of Norway with relatively warm

summers and cold winters. The summer design temperature is 23qC, while
the winter design temperature is -23qC. The site has unsteady wind speeds
and directions, and there can be relatively long calm periods (5-7 days
have been reported at the site). There are periods in spring and summer
with dust, pollen and smell from agriculture. In the winter season there are
particles from the burning of oil and wood in the air.

The building

Letnes Arkitektkontor AS was engaged in 1995 by the municipality of

Grong to make a sketch project for the extension of the primary school.
Grong primary- and secondary school is located together with Grong
community centre. A part of the school’s area is directly linked to and
shared with the community centre. This particularly applies to the art and

169

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

woodwork rooms, the indoor swimming pool and the gymnasium. The
community centre is part of the master plan of Mediå School and includes
the development of a cinema with a stage and a reconstruction of the
existing café and vestibule. It is predicted that the Grong public library
will share spaces and be connected with the school library. The joint
project is divided in several parts or stages, which are to be completed at
different times.

Figure 6.3 The site plan. The primary school is the building located to the upper right.

The condition of the old two-storey primary school building from 1924
was found to be too poor for the building to be incorporated in the new
project. The old building was therefore demolished to make space for the
new primary school building. The new building is designed for new
space- and teaching principles. It is dimensioned to give room for the six-
year-olds in the school and to meet a future situation with two parallel
classes.

Several energy efficiency and renewable energy principles have been

implemented in the building. The local authorities’ aim was to build an
economical and modern school building with an attractive and healthy
indoor environment at a minimal energy demand. The architect and the
engineering consultant, in cooperation with SINTEF Architecture and
Building Technology, developed solutions for utilisation of daylight and
natural ventilation.

170

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

North

Figure 6.4 The plan of Media Primary School.

The one storey building has a central corridor. The classrooms are situated
on the north side of the central circulation spine, and the common rooms
on the south side, facing the schoolyard (Figure 6.4). In order to reduce
the amount of air contamination, low-emitting materials and finishes have
been used throughout the building.

The building is designed with a natural ventilation system that utilises

thermal buoyancy as the main natural driving force. Fresh air enters the
building through an inlet tower and an embedded distribution chamber,
which is incorporated under the building’s central communication spine.
Used air is extracted through a chamber located over the building’s central
communication spine and exhausted through a centrally located exhaust
tower.

171

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

Figure 6.5 The apparent formal similarity between the inlet and the exhaust tower put
these building elements in “a dialog”, suggesting a link between the two.

The visually most striking elements of the natural ventilation concept are
the exhaust tower and the extract chamber with its row of skylight
windows running along the upper part of the roof (Figures 6.5 and 6.6).
The extract chamber, located above the central circulation spine, makes
the building unusually tall for a one-storey building. It also gives rise to
the out-of-the-ordinary shape of the roof, where the roof’s angle increases
noticeably towards the ridgepole.

Figure 6.6 Picture taken from a passing road outside the schoolyard that show the roof of
the school building which, apart from its shape, is characterised by the exhaust tower and
the windows in the extract chamber.

172

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Ventilation concept

Mediå primary School is equipped with a ventilation system that utilises

both fans and natural driving forces to drive the air change in the building.
Fans are installed both at the supply side and at the exhaust side of the air-
path. The air-path itself is designed with negligible resistance to the
airflow for optimal utilisation of thermal buoyancy. The supply air fan
ensures a steady airflow into the building, while the exhaust fan is used to
achieve forced ventilation for cooling during summer when buoyancy
forces are insufficient1. The natural ventilation principle in the school
building is stack-ventilation, and the ventilation strategy is displacement
ventilation. Thermal buoyancy is the main natural driving force.

Figure 6.7 A section drawing showing the ventilation concept.

Figure 6.8 Sketch of the ventilation concept where only the inlet tower (at the very back),
the supply duct, the distribution chamber and the extract chamber with the exhaust tower
are indicated. The “actual building” is located in between the ventilation chambers (see
Figure 6.6).

173

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

An independent air inlet tower is located 8m from the school building’s

north façade (Figure 6.9). Fresh air enters the tower through grills located
2m above the ground. An embedded supply duct connects the air inlet
tower to an embedded distribution chamber located under the building’s
central circulation spine (Figure 6.7). From here, the air is distributed into
the school building. Custom made sound attenuators located in the
embedded duct are designed to prevent noise travelling between rooms via
the duct (Figure 6.11, right).

The supply air enters the classrooms at floor level through low-velocity
diffusers located at the inner wall. The diffusers are incorporated in
bench-like boxes that are aligned along the inner wall (Figure 6.9,
middle). Common rooms and workshop rooms are fed with fresh air
through ventilation grills located in the floor (Figure 6.9, right).

Figure 6.9 The inlet tower (left) and the low-velocity diffusers in the classrooms (middle)
and the inlets in the common rooms integrated in the floor (right).

The efficient use of fresh air in displacement-ventilated rooms is achieved

by using the property of heat sources to create thermal convection flows.
Fresh air from floor level is entrained in the convection flow around
occupants, and rises upwards by convection into the breathing zone2.
Body odours, heat and combustion products from the metabolic process
are in the same process transported upwards, out of the breathing zone, to
the upper zone of the room where it is exhausted through motorised
dampers into the extract chamber (Figure 6.10).

174

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 6.10 Motorised glass-hatches (encircled left) lead exhaust air from the classrooms
and into the extract chamber (middle). The extract fan is located high up in the exhaust
tower (right).

The used and contaminated air is transported horizontally through the

exhaust chamber, and exhausted through the centrally located tower. The
tower, which improves the stack effect by adding height between inlet and
outlet, is designed to utilise wind to suck air out of the tower. The
triangular shaped tower has adjustable dampers on each of the three sides
that can be opened or closed, depending on the wind direction. The extract
fan is installed in the upper part of the exhaust tower (Figure 6.11, right).
A weather station on the site feed the Building management system
(BMS) system with data on wind speed, wind direction, and outdoor
temperature. Sensors for CO2 and temperature are installed in every
classroom, and data from these sensors control the fresh air supply to the
various classrooms. The system ensures demand-controlled ventilation 24
hours a day. The fans shut down automatically when the CO2 and
temperature levels are below set values, and only the natural driving
forces drive the ventilation then. The hatches in the extract chamber never
closes totally as there should be a certain air change in the building at all
times to remove emissions from materials, furniture and so forth. Toilet
and locker room areas are provided with overflow air, and the exhaust air
is extracted mechanically from the toilets without any form of heat
recovery.

175

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

Figure 6.11 The panel of filters (six in all, the three cassettes to the left are removed in this
picture) in the end of the embedded supply duct (left), the sound attenuators in the
distribution chamber (middle), and the extract fan in the exhaust tower (right).

The ventilation system has the same filter specifications as the equivalent
mechanically ventilated building. A mosquito net is installed in the intake
tower, and a fine filter (EU 7) is installed in the end of the supply duct
after the supply fan (Figure 6.11). The pressure drop over the filter is
substantial, 20Pa for a new filter. It is assumed that large particles, e.g.
pollen, will deposit in the supply duct due to the low air speed before
reaching the fine filter.

The hybrid ventilation concept includes a heat recovery system. Heat is

recovered from the exhaust air in the exhaust tower by the use of heat
exchangers. There are three exchangers in the top part of the tower, one
located at each of the tower’s three sides. The recovered energy is then
used to pre-heat the supply air via another heat exchanger located just
behind the fine filter in the embedded distribution chamber. A water-
glycol mixture in a pipe loop moves the heat from the outlet to the inlet.
The effectiveness of the heat recovery is measured to 60%3. The
embedded supply air duct and distribution chamber also provide for pre-
heating and pre-cooling of the ventilation air in the winter and summer
seasons respectively through ground coupling4. Increased night-time
ventilation during overheating periods provides a significant amount of
cooling energy for the building with an estimated 12-hour time lag. The
cooling effect of the embedded duct is greater than initially expected by
the engineers5. The optional installation of a mechanical cooling device
could thus be avoided.

Low-emitting materials is used throughout the building in order to reduce

air contamination by source. Lower emissions from materials allow for a

176

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

reduction in air change rates, which in turn promises a decrease in the heat
loss by ventilation air during the heating season.

The exhaust air chamber was designed to assist the movement of air as
well as to improve the daylight conditions in the classrooms (Figure 6.10).
The driving force represented by the hot air in the exhaust chamber
reduces the need for fan assistance. This is particularly important in the
summer season when increased ventilation air rates are used to cool the
building together with utilisation of thermal mass and night cooling.
Cooling can also be achieved by cross ventilation using open windows
and vents.

A preliminary study performed by the design team indicated that wind

driven natural ventilation could not provide satisfactory ventilation rates
at all times at this particular site. Buoyancy driven ventilation was
considered reliable for the coldest part of the heating season, but may not
work sufficiently for summer conditions and for some periods during
spring and fall. Additionally, the installed filters and heat exchangers
cause a substantial pressure drop in the airflow path. Hence, a fan-assisted
buoyancy driven ventilation strategy was employed in the final design.

6.2 Architectural consequences of natural ventilation in

Mediå School

The checklist described in chapter 3 is used to guide and structure the

work on identifying and describing the architectural consequences of the
natural ventilation concept in Mediå School. The checklist is further used
to structure both the material and the way the findings are presented.
Interviews with the architect and HVAC consultant substantiate the
various issues discussed.

Site and context

The town of Grong has since 1997 been part of the Brundtland City
network, which is an EU project under the ALTENER programme. The
project’s aim is to reduce the environmental damage from energy
consumption by using renewable energy sources. The local municipality is
generally very engaged and focused on energy efficient initiatives. The

177

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

energy efficient and renewable energy principles implemented in the new

primary school were very compatible with the “green” profile the town of
Grong wants to have.

Figure 6.12 The site plan showing Mediå School and the primary school building (shaded)
with surrounding buildings and infrastructure.

The site had no significant implication for the natural ventilation concept
chosen for the primary school. As there is little wind, and no distinct
prevailing wind direction on the site6, wind did not influence the
orientation or the shape of the school building. The triangular exhaust
tower is the only element designed with consideration to wind. The tower
will, regardless of wind direction, provide at least one side with suction
due to its triangular shape.

“For us, the site and the context had no influence on the natural
ventilation concept we designed for the building. When we came into
the picture, the building had found its location and was to a high extent
designed by the architect. The concept with the embedded duct was put
down as a premise by the Architect and SINTEF”. (Torbjørn Landsem,
VVS Planconsult AS).

178

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

The intake tower for ventilation air is located on the north side (backside)
of the building. This was done to limit the traffic of pupils around the
tower and to protect it from the activities in the schoolyard on the south
side. The location also screens the intake tower from the street south of
the school building. Further, the location of the intake tower does not
conflict with potential future extensions of the school, for which the area
southeast of the building is earmarked.

“The site and the context had in principle no influence on the natural
ventilation concept chosen for the school building. The location of the
school was predetermined, as it was an extension to the existing
complex. The situation we had was evaluated to find out if it was
suitable to incorporate natural ventilation into the project. The site is
relatively open and exposed to prospective winds from several
directions, and not close to roads with heavy traffic. Adjacent buildings
are low, and do not involve any contaminations”. (Kåre Herstad,
Letnes Architects AS)

Orientation and shape

Low wind speeds, long calm periods, and no clear prevailing wind
direction on the site has excluded wind to be an important, contributing
parameter in the design of the building and its ventilation concept. The
sun, on the other hand, has influenced the orientation of the windows in
the exhaust chamber, which are orientated towards the south to improve
the stack effect and the efficiency of the heat recovery system. The other
buildings on the site, the roads, and the neighbouring residential buildings
determined the location and orientation of the primary building.

“The new school building was very fixed from the buildings in the
existing situation, and is adapted to these. But, obviously we did orient
the glass roof to the south and west where we have most sun. We
wanted to get as much daylight as possible into the interiors via the
extensively glazed exhaust chamber”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects
AS)

179

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

Figure 6.13 The extract chamber explains the “peak-shaped” ridge of the roof in the
southern gable wall (left). The extract tower is located in the centre of the building where
the two wings meet (right).

The shape of the one-storey building is characterised by the saddled roof’s

untraditional profile (Figure 6.13, left), the tower, the bend in the centre of
the building body, and the boxlike volumes sticking out of the south
façade containing locker rooms and toilets (Figure 6.13, right). Due to the
extract chamber, the height of the roof is greater than usual for a one-
storey building with the same depth. According to the façade drawings the
height of the roof is 1.3 times that of the façade7. The building’s most
characteristic feature, separating it from buildings with which it can be
compared, is found on the roof and in the building’s silhouette. The row
of windows in the combined solar collector and extract chamber runs
along the upper half of the entire roof. The band of windows stretches out
from the centrally located exhaust tower like two open arms towards the
schoolyard. The tower forms a focal point with its verticality in an
otherwise horizontally stretching building. The building is bent around the
schoolyard, forming a ridge to the north side of the yard (Figure 6.12).

“Later in the design phase, when it was decided to go for natural

ventilation, and when we started to work more in detail, the natural
ventilation concept meant a lot to the final appearance of the school
building. The roof and the exhaust tower have substantially governed
the design and the shape of the finished building”. (Kåre Herstad,
Letnes Architects AS)

180

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Plan

The plan of the building is not particularly shallow, which contrasts with
most naturally ventilated buildings (Figure 6.4). The depth (externally) of
the plan is 15.1m at its narrowest, and 20.3m at its widest.

“The location of all classrooms to the north has to do with organisation

of functions and has little to do with the utilisation of natural
ventilation. The classrooms are regarded private for each class and are
hence located towards the north and backside of the school. The
schoolyard represents the fellowship, or the society, of the school
community. The common rooms are located on the south side of the
building, facing the yard. Hence, the organisation of functions in
relation to the north south axis is a matter of private versus public”.
(Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

Obviously, locating the classrooms to the north reduces the risk of glare
(provided good solar shading of the glass wall of the extract chamber) and
overheating, and thereby also the cooling demand. The communication
zone, the embedded distribution chamber, and the extract chamber are
located vertically on top of each other in the centre of the plan. By feeding
fresh air into the building from the centre of the scheme, the plan can be
relatively deep. The exhaust chamber’s partially glazed roof and glass
wall to the classrooms allow daylight to enter the innermost parts of the
classrooms.

“We see a great advantage in the central location of the embedded

distribution chamber. Fresh air is fed into the building from both sides
of the chamber. This obviously allows for a deeper plan, than say, if the
distribution chamber was located along the perimeter of the plan”.
(Torbjørn Landsem, VVS Planconsult AS).

The HVAC consultant also emphasises the flexibility this ventilation

concept offers in the plan. The internal walls can be located freely as there
are no vertical or horizontal ducts that otherwise places limitations on the
design of the plan layout.

“The size and depth of the classrooms are of traditional dimensions,

but the glazed extract chamber has given us the possibility to introduce
a daylight quality into the traditionally darkest part of the room. The

181

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

alternative would have been a conventional mechanical ventilation

system with traditional ventilation ducts and intermediate ceilings. The
technical installations and the distribution system would easily have
represented a barrier in comparison to what we have achieved in this
project with respect to daylight utilisation and generous floor-to-ceiling
height”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

Section

The three-layered sectioning of the school building is easily recognised in

the section drawing. The classrooms are located to the north, the common
rooms to the south, and the communication zone (and technical pathways)
in the middle. The central communication spine and the air paths look in
section like three corridors stacked on top of each other. Pragmatic
consideration decided the location of the ventilation chambers to be in
conjunction with the communication spine, according the architect.

“It was natural for us to locate the technical pathways together with
the communication zone. Electricity, water, air etc. need, like pupils
and teachers, to reach all rooms in the building. Therefore it was
rational to organise the technical aspects in the same way as the
communication system, only on different levels”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes
Architects AS)

Figure 6.14 The extract chamber is placed over the central communication spine in
between the common areas and the classrooms to pick up the extract air from these areas.

182

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

The floor to ceiling height of the classrooms and common rooms increases
from 2.8m by the façade up to 4.8m by the inner wall in the classrooms.
This was done both because of the utilisation of natural ventilation, and to
allow daylight to enter the deepest parts of the plan. Used air leaves the
classrooms through motorised glass-hatches in the glazed wall between
the extract chamber and the upper levels of the classrooms. The hatches
open and close according to the need for fresh air in the classrooms.

“Instead of using traditional ducts hidden above an suspended ceiling

to transport away used air, we use the uppermost volume of the
classrooms for this purpose. Warm and contaminated air rises
naturally to the highest point in the room and is naturally led out under
the slanting roof into the extract chamber. The generous ceiling height
has, apart from the spatial qualities, acoustical advantages compared
to lower floor to ceiling heights”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

Also the HVAC consultant emphasises the positive effect of the generous
floor-to-ceiling height, both from an aesthetical point of view, but also
from a ventilation point of view. Large volumes give a greater buffer zone
for used and contaminated air, and in general more air to the space. The
building is one storey high, but because of the relatively generous ceiling
height and the exhaust chamber on the top of the corridor area, the height
of the building equals that of the planned neighbouring two-storey
administration wing. The total height from the floor of the embedded
distribution chamber to the top of the chimney is 10.3m. This is a large
buoyancy-height for a one-storey building, especially when the relatively
modest height of the exhaust tower is taken into account. It was never
considered to have more than one exhaust tower as that would have
complicated the use of heat recovery as well as reduced its efficiency. For
the same reason, the building was designed with one central air inlet. This,
together with the advantageous thermal properties of an embedded duct,
was the decisive argument for the system with the embedded duct, the
extract chamber, and the exhaust tower. The height of the tower was a
matter of judgement between the appearance of the tower on the site and
on the building, and the absolute necessary height of the tower for the
ventilation to work. The architect therefore decided the maximum height
of the exhaust tower. Nevertheless, the architect thinks the tower could
have been higher (now that he can see the finished building) without that
having adverse aesthetical consequences.

183

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

Façade

Figure 6.15 The south façade (top) and the north façade (bottom) of the primary school
(and a part of the secondary school). (Drawings by Letnes Architects, 1997).

No consequences of the natural ventilation concept can be seen in the

building’s facades like e.g. ventilation openings or a double façade
(Figure 6.15). The roof, taller than the façade, can be said to act partially
as a façade, however. It is very visible from ground level, e.g. from the
schoolyard (Figure 6.13, right), because of the steep roof angle (60º) of
the extract chamber to optimise daylight utilisation in the classrooms. The
extract chamber has consequences for the shape of the gable facades
(Figures 6.13, left and 6.16). The use of natural ventilation can therefore
be said to have consequences for the appearance of the facades.

Figure 6.16 The east facing facade (left) and the north-east facing façade (right).

184

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

“Because of the large roof area, the roof represents an important part
of the appearance of the school building. The ventilation tower
represents a break in the roof surface and constitutes a focal point. The
glass bands break up the roof surface on the south side. The special
design of the roof with the mentioned elements clearly influences the
architecture of the building”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

Materials and characteristic ventilation elements

Wood, concrete, brick and gypsum are the dominating materials in the
building. The primary building construction is laminated wood, and the
secondary construction is lightweight framework in wood. A brick clad
lightweight framework wall is built between the corridor and the
classrooms. The brickwork is placed on the corridor side and runs through
the entire core of the building. Brick is used because the material’s
thermal properties dampen thermal fluctuations in the building. Brick also
has advantageous acoustical properties, although there are some
drawbacks in terms of cleaning. All other walls are clad with gypsum
wallboards with a white painted fibreglass wallpaper finish. All floors are
fitted with vinyl flooring except the classrooms of the first class, which is
fitted with parquet. The use of low-emitting materials and finishes are
emphasised throughout the building to reduce contamination by source,
and hence the ventilation load.

“ We normally claim that the buildings we work on should be built and

finished with low emitting materials. This was also the case with the
primary school in Grong”. (Torbjørn Landsem, VVS Planconsult AS).

There are some visible attributes of the natural ventilation concept in

Mediå Primary School. The most conspicuous is the large, red roof
surface. The roof angle increases considerably towards the ridgepole to
give room for the extract chamber. The row of roof windows seems to
meet, both metaphorically and literally, in the centrally located tower. The
tower’s verticality contrasts with the horizontality that dominates the
appearance of the school building. The tower is the focal point of the
building, holding the horizontal wings together. The tower is made of
wood with a traditional boarding. The hat of the triangular tower is made
of red metal sheets.

185

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

“We did not consider glass in the tower, but we did consider dark
colours to absorb solar heat which in turn would increase the
buoyancy. However, as we went along, seeing that this would have no
significant effect, we dropped the idea”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes
Architects AS)

The inlet tower can be seen on the backside of the building (relative to the
schoolyard) as a freestanding element. The shape and colours of the inlet
tower is similar to that of the outlet tower, revealing a link between the
two to the attentive viewer.

Summing up, the inlet tower, the embedded supply duct, the embedded
distribution chamber, the extract chamber, and the extract tower are all
characteristic ventilation elements related to the utilisation of natural
ventilation. The control of the system is done by a BMS system that
receives inputs from sensors inside and outside the building to control the
motorised glass hatches, the fans, and the heating system. The classrooms
are equipped with control panels, allowing the pupils/teachers a certain
control over their own indoor climate. The air quality, represented by the
carbon dioxide concentration in the classroom, is shown on a scale where
colour codes represent the quality of the indoor air. This is made use of in
the teaching at the school.

Interior spaces

The elevation of the roof and its glass openings are results of a
combination of the natural ventilation concept and the daylighting
concept.

“Initially we discussed that we should have opened up more for

daylight to enter the common rooms, the rooms for group activities, and
the corridor. We should have done that, but it was not done in the final
design”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

Apart from enhancing daylight conditions in the classrooms, the solution

also gives an extraordinary floor to ceiling height, especially for the
innermost halves of the classrooms. This is quite different from the
traditional classroom situation where the area along the façade normally
has better daylight conditions than the area along the inner wall.

186

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 6.17 The sloping roof of the classrooms facilitate skylight in the core of the
building.

The absence of conventional ventilation ducts have made suspended

ceilings superfluous. The volumes built for the occupants are not reduced
by the space requirements of technical installations.

“I think the ventilation system we have chosen for the building is very
well integrated in the building’s infrastructure. It is integrated with the
communication lines and the organisational pattern of the school
building. The air follows its own communication line over and under
that of the occupants”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

The architect does not think that there are any new spatial connections in
the school building as a result of the natural ventilation concept. The
spatial connection is still entrance-wardrobe-corridor-classroom. The
common rooms are in direct connection with the corridor, but that cannot
be said to be a consequence of the natural ventilation concept.

Integration and conflict with other aspects

As the natural driving forces are much weaker and more variable than
those produced by fans in mechanical ventilation systems, there should be
as little resistance in the airflow path as possible. In the Mediå School this
manifests itself in the great cross section of the inlet and outlet ducts. The
importance of an open air-path often implies few internal walls and a
limited distance between the inlet and the outlet, although it depends on
the ventilation principle to what extent this is the case (e.g. cross

187

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

ventilation allows deeper plans than single sided ventilation). It also tends
to imply shallow and rather open plans. This integrates, as seen in the two
other cases, well with some aspects (e.g. utilisation of daylight and view
to the exterior) and conflicts with others (e.g. fire, acoustics and
flexibility).

The plan of Mediå Primary School is not particularly shallow (15.1 –

20.3m externally), and does not differ much from comparable school
buildings of the same size with a conventional mechanical ventilation
system. The plan of the school building is deeper than the plans of both
the GSW Headquarters building in Berlin and the B&O Headquarters
building in Struer, however. The stack ventilation principle, with the air
entering the classrooms from the core of the building, allows for this
relatively deep plan.

The designers did not have to take more fire precautions than for a
mechanically ventilated building, but they did need a special dispensation
from the fire authorities as the classrooms are in contact with each other
through both the embedded distribution chamber and the extract chamber.
Good escape routes and the fact that the building is single storied were the
fire authorities’ arguments for giving the dispensation. The glass wall
between the classrooms and the extract chamber was initially made of
fireproof glass. This glass was eventually replaced with normal glass,
which was considered sufficient, as the hatches would open anyway in
case of fire.

“Fire was the biggest challenge, and the second biggest one was
acoustics. More specifically, we were concerned with noise travelling
between the classrooms through both the embedded supply air duct and
the extract chamber”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

The HVAC engineer emphasised the same challenges for the natural
ventilation concept as the architect, namely fire and noise travelling
between the classrooms through the ventilation chambers. In a school
building, it should be possible to work undisturbed in one classroom
regardless of activity in neighbouring rooms. The two chambers for the
inlet and the outlet air have jeopardised this. Specially designed sound
attenuators had to be installed in the embedded duct in front of the inlets
to the classrooms. The users of the building must anyway organize their
working day, and put certain activities to places and times that disturb as
little as possible. The architect points out that the users do have to adapt to
the building’s limitations and possibilities.

188

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Standing waves between parallel surfaces is a problem in the classrooms.

The hard surface of the glazed wall of the extract chamber seems to have a
negative influence on this phenomenon as the problem is reduced
considerably when its vertical blinds are closed.

“ Acoustical mineral wool boards had to be placed on the wall and

ceiling surfaces after commissioning. The acoustical characteristics
were not satisfactory without these attenuators. Regretfully, because we
would have had a better aesthetical result if the needed attenuating
baffles were integrated in the ceilings/walls early in the design phase. I
must emphasise that these problems are not consequences of the
natural ventilation, but are conditions we should have brought into
mind earlier in the process”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

Space is saved in the occupied zones by integrating the ventilation

chambers under and over the corridor of the building. The floor to ceiling
height is limited to that of the building structure, and there are no vertical
ducts in the building; the rooms themselves are used as vertical
ductworks. Anyway, on the whole, the ventilation concept of the primary
school is rather space demanding. A quick glance on a section drawing is
enough to ascertain that.

There are control panels in the classrooms, giving the pupils a certain
control over their own climatic situation. The display also shows the air
quality of the room using the current CO2 level as indicator. This is a
refinement not found in traditional schools, and it is an environmental
consciousness-raising finesse.

“A positive spin-off effect is that the ventilation concept can be used in

the environmental education of the pupils, and contribute to raise the
consciousness about the environmental thinking. The building itself acts
as a teaching aid. The fifth grade recently had a project assignment on
energy use and indoor climate where they used their own school as a
case study”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

6.3 Experiences of the design team

The experiences the architect and the engineer gained in the design of the
Mediå Primary School were in general very positive. The architect
emphasises that the utilisation of natural ventilation brings in elements

189

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

that contribute to add character to the building, especially in relation to the

inlet, the outlet, and the linking air-path between the two. The architect
underlines that the Mediå Primary School belongs to the first generation
of modern naturally ventilated buildings, and that we in the future
eventually will come up with new and improved concepts. The architect
does not think that the appearance of all future buildings utilising natural
ventilation will differ in appearance from mechanically ventilated
buildings. The architect thinks, however, that new functional aspects will
come into the designs of naturally ventilated buildings, i.e. that we will
think in new ways about how a building is used and consequently how the
plan layout is designed.

“With natural ventilation, you add elements, e.g. towers, that

contribute to give the building a distinctive character. I would claim
that I experience more liberties than limitations when designing a
building that utilises natural ventilation”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes
Architects AS)

Both the HVAC engineer and the architect emphasises that it is more
demanding to design a naturally ventilated building than a mechanically
ventilated one. A close and strong collaboration between the two
professions is essential from the first stages of the design if a successful
result is to be achieved.

“You need to bring forward the old engineer in you when you work
with a natural ventilation system. You cannot use all the rules of thumb
that you often use otherwise. You need to be more creative”. (Torbjørn
Landsem, VVS Planconsult AS).

“It is very important to have a very close collaboration with the

consulting HVAC engineer, and that the architect and the HVAC
consultant have the same objectives. Having a good dialog is
mandatory through the whole process, and the architect and the
engineer are required to work towards the same goal. The HVAC
consultant must adapt her/his product to the building -in short: to think
more about the architecture and the aesthetics”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes
Architects AS)

Both the architect and the HVAC engineer identified fire and acoustic
issues in conjunction with the utilisation of natural ventilation as the main
challenges. The HVAC engineer’s most positive experience with the
design of the ventilation concept was the generous space offered to the

190

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

ventilation system. He described the typical situation to be a fight for

every centimetre of space for ducts, pipes and cables. There were no such
conflicts with other professions in this project.

The architect sees a potential in using natural induced airflow as a design

criterion that contribute to give shape to buildings. Natural ventilation has
consequences for the architecture, especially in the design of the facades
(vents, double facades, solar collector) where the architectural potential is
considerable (relief, light/shadow, composition of elements etc.). The
architect draws a parallel to the Pompidou centre in Paris where the
mechanical ventilation together with the other technical installations are
placed in the façade to free the internal volumes.

On the question if Kåre Herstad (Letnes Architects AS) and Torbjørn

Landsem (PlanConsult VVS) would welcome natural ventilation in their
next project, they answered:

“Yes, we have recently designed an office building that utilises natural

ventilation. The office building is under construction at the moment.
The ventilation concept in Mediå School seems to work very well, and
several clients have got knowledge about the school and it’s ventilation
concept. I already have inquiries about new projects with natural
ventilation. The school building has been a good marketing tool for us.
Our architectural practice has more concrete plans for naturally
ventilated buildings that we are starting to work on in the near future.
Then we will look at new approaches and solutions. So, I am definitely
wishing natural ventilation welcome in my next project”. (Kåre
Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

“We have designed other buildings (hotel- and school buildings) with
natural ventilation. I have an open mind! We learn on every project we
do. We bring the gained experience with us to the next project. Natural
ventilation can be the right thing in one project in a particular
situation, but need not necessarily always be the correct solution”.
(Torbjørn Landsem, VVS Planconsult AS).

191

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

Occupants

Systematic investigations on occupier’s comfort have not been conducted

in the Mediå Primary School. Only informal ones have been done, and
they have essentially been very positive. There were no complaints about
the indoor climate after the first “running in” winter5. According to the
replies from 19 pupils in the fifth class on a questionnaire8, the ventilation
system is capable of giving the occupants acceptable air quality and
thermal comfort in the heating season. The users perceive the air as
“fresh”, and teachers and pupils that experienced asthma and allergic
problems in the old school have reported considerable improvement after
moving over to the new school building3. This is in line with the
impression gained after talking to five of the teachers at the primary
school.

“The feedback from Mediå School (the principal and the janitor at the
school) is so positive, that I have great belief that the system will work
well”. (Kåre Herstad, Letnes Architects AS)

6.4 Summary and conclusion

The key architectural consequences of the natural ventilation concept in

the Mediå Primary School are summarised here.

 Site and context

The site had no significant implication for the natural ventilation

concept chosen for the primary school. Wind did not influence the
orientation or the shape of the school building, only the shape of the
extract tower, which is triangular to provide at least one side with
suction regardless of wind direction. The intake tower for the
ventilation air is located in the shadow to the north of the building
where the temperature fluctuations are smaller, ensuring a more
stable temperature for the intake air throughout the day. The design
team also considered it favourable to locate the intake tower on this
side to screen it from the traffic of pupils and their activities in the
schoolyard. Considerations concerning future expansion of the school
building were also considered when locating the intake tower.

192

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

 Orientation and shape

The utilisation of natural ventilation did mot have any consequences

for the orientation of the school building. The sun dictated the
location and orientation of the windows in the extract chamber. The
windows are oriented to the south so that the air in the extract
chamber gains maximum solar heat, which in turn improves the
buoyancy effect. The shape of the school building’s roof is greatly
influenced by the natural ventilation concept. So are also the roof’s
proportions relative to the façades. The extract chamber dictates the
size and shape of the roof, while the extract tower introduces a
distinct vertical element to the design and constitutes a focal point.

 Plan

The plan of the building is not as shallow as seen in many other

naturally ventilated buildings. This is due to the fact that the fresh air
is introduced into the core of the building, and not at the façade. The
stack ventilation principle also allows for deeper plans than single
sided and cross ventilation. There are no space-consuming vertical
ducts that must be integrated in the plan. Hence, the flexibility of the
plan is not limited by vertical ductworks for ventilation. The
classrooms are located to the north to reduce the risk of overheating,
thereby also reducing the need for high ventilation rates for cooling
purposes. The entrance and locker rooms are located in separate
units, where the pupils change from outdoor to indoor shoes. The idea
is to reduce the amount of contaminants (dust and dirt) entering the
building, as reducing the contaminants by source allow for lower
ventilation rates.

 Section

The relatively generous height of the building (for being a one-storied

building) is a result of the extract chamber that is a part of the
school’s natural ventilation concept. It is also the extract chamber that
gives the building its large ridgepole and unusual roof profile. The
sloping roof increases in height towards the outlet hatches in the
extract chamber’s glass wall to facilitate a natural flow of exhaust air
(buoyancy driven) out of the classrooms and into the extract chamber.
The ventilation inlet and outlet are placed close to each other to
facilitate heat recovery. The large horizontal supply and extract
chambers, located under and over the corridor respectively, are the

193

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

product of having a design that facilitates heat recovery of the

ventilation air.

 Façade

There are no consequences of the natural ventilation concept seen in

the facades apart from the shape of the gable walls (the peak at the
ridgepole due to the extract chamber).

 Materials and characteristic ventilation elements

Thermal mass is used in the interior to dampen temperature

fluctuations in the building, and thermal mass, both in the concrete
culvert and the brick clad corridor wall, is an important aspect of the
cooling strategy. Otherwise, increased air changes are the most
common way to cool school buildings on hot summer days in
Norway. Use of low emission materials and finishes in the school
building is emphasised to minimise contamination by source.

There are two characteristic ventilation elements in Mediå Primary

School, and both can be seen on the roof. One is the extract chamber
that gives the roof its special shape and large size. The other element
is the centrally located exhaust tower that gives the building a distinct
vertical element.

 Interior spaces

Suspended ceilings are superfluous in the school building as there are

no ventilation ducts to hide, allowing the whole space to be fully
enjoyed and recognised by the occupants. The sloping roof is a result
of both the natural ventilation concept and the daylighting concept.
The daylight that enters the classrooms through skylight windows
gives the space an open appearance. The unusually generous floor-to-
ceiling height (especially at the innermost part of the rooms) further
strengthens the “light and open” appearance of the interiors. There
are no new spatial hierarchies or connections in this project as a result
of the utilisation of natural ventilation.

 Integration and conflict with other aspects

The combined extract chamber and skylight provides the interior

spaces of the school building with plenty of daylight. View to the

194

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

outside is, however, provided in only one direction through the

“conventional” panorama windows.

The absence of vertical ductworks allows for a flexible plan, which

can be designed, used and rebuilt without considerations to
ductworks that commonly would be needed if the building was
mechanically ventilated. The stack ventilation principle applied in
Mediå School, with the air entering the classrooms from the core of
the building, allows for a relatively deep plan layout with greater
flexibility than seen in some shallow plan buildings.

The designers did not have to take more fire precautions than for a
mechanically ventilated building, but they did need special
dispensation (as the classrooms are in contact with each other through
both the embedded distribution chamber and the extract chamber).
The connection of the classrooms through the ventilation chambers
also called for custom made sound attenuators to stop noise travelling
from one classroom to the other. The users of the building must
nevertheless organize activities such that they disturb as little as
possible. Acoustical mineral wool boards had to be placed on the wall
and ceiling surfaces after commissioning.

The ventilation system is a part of the environmental education of the

pupils.

Conclusion

The characteristic elements of the natural ventilation concept (the exhaust

tower, the extract chamber and to some extent the intake tower) are highly
expressed in the architecture of the school building. It is apparent that the
greatest architectural consequences of the ventilation concept in the Mediå
School are found on the roof, which in turn gives the building its unusual
silhouette. The roof is more than half the total height of the building. The
shape of the roof and its angle is further quite different from that of
common buildings. A ventilation extract tower crowns the building and
constitutes a strong vertical focal element. The roof and the silhouette are
hence decisive for the buildings characteristic appearance.

Heat recovery complicates utilisation of natural ventilation as the

technology favours inlets and outlets to be located near each other. In this
case it implied that two large horizontal ventilation chamber had to be
built to accommodate location of the inlet and the outlet near each other.

195

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 6. Natural ventilation in a low-rise building

It is clear from the interview with the design team that this has been an
intellectual challenging ventilation concept to work with, and that it has
been interesting and rewarding to design. Close collaboration between the
architect and the HVAC consultant has been emphasised by the architect
and the engineer as mandatory for this project.

The pupils and teachers seem to be satisfied with their school building.

Notes

1
Vik, T. A. (1998) Natural and hybrid ventilation in buildings, Technology state-
of-the-art 1998. SINTEF Report STF22 F98504.
2
Tjelflaat, P. O. and Rødahl, E. (1997) Design of Fan-Assisted Natural
ventilation. General Guidelines and Suggested Design for Energy-Efficient
Climatization-System for School Building in Grong, Norway. SINTEF Report
STF22 A97557.
3
Tjelflaat, P. O. (1999) Hybrid ventilasjon – et alternativ som virker på Grong
barne- og ungdomsskole (Hybrid ventilation – an alternative applied in the
Mediå Primary School in Grong)), Økobygg conference in Oslo 27th of August
1999 in Oslo.
4
Wachenfeldt, B. J. (2003) Natural Ventilation in Buildings. Detailed prediction
of energy performance, PhD thesis at Department of Energy and Process
Engineering, NTNU.
5
Tjelflaat, P. O. (2002) Erfaringer med kostnader, inneklima og energibruk ved
Mediå Barneskole i Grong (Experiences related to costs, indoor climate and use
of energy in Mediå Primary School in Grong), Norsk VVS landsmøte (national
congress for the Norwegian HVAC ) 26th of April 2002 in Trondheim.
6
According to T. Landsem, VVS Planconsult AS. Interview on the 29th of May
2002 in Namsos, Norway.
7
Letnes Architects AS, drawing 95002-130.
8
Tjelflaat, P. O. et.al. (2000) Pilot study report: Mediå School in Grong, Norway,
IEA Annex 35: HybVent.

196

URN:NBN:no-7242
 7 Architectural possibilities of natural
ventilation

The results from the investigation of the three case-study buildings

suggest that the greatest architectural consequences of natural ventilation
are found in the facade, on the roof, in the plan layout and section, and in
the interior spaces. The essential architectural possibilities of natural
ventilation are likely to be found in the same four areas. It must, however,
be emphasised that the number of case study buildings are limited, and
that they represent an early generation of modern naturally ventilated
buildings. There are consequently architectural possibilities and potentials
beyond the areas pointed out and focused on in this work. The four areas
in which there seem to be particular architectural possibilities are listed
below. Some keywords are associated with each of them.

x Façade; openings for ventilation inlets and outlets, double façade,

solar chimney, and solar shading.
x Roof; characteristic ventilation elements, shape of roof, and
silhouette.
x Plan and section; shape and proportion of plan, vertical air paths/
stacks, and internal layout and organisation of rooms and functions.
x Interior space; spatial connection and hierarchy, spatial experience
and quality, and materials in the interior.

To find out, and to elaborate, if the most significant architectural

consequences and possibilities of natural ventilation are found in these
areas, additional buildings that utilise natural ventilation are looked at. To
limit the scope somewhat, special attention is paid to facade, roof, plan
and section, and interior spaces. Looking at several other buildings in
addition to the three main case buildings makes it possible to get an
impression on how different natural ventilation concepts allow various
architectural solutions to emerge for certain generic building types. It will
also provide a broader basis on which to draw conclusions. The majority
of the sub-case buildings are of the same building type as the main cases,
i.e. office and school buildings, and they represent low-rise to high-rise
buildings. Consequently, the additional buildings complement the main
case study buildings with regard to function and building height, but their

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

shapes and natural ventilation concepts may vary from those of the three
main cases.

The same criteria are used in the selection of sub-case buildings as in the
selection of the three main case-study buildings (Chapter 3). Although,
the majority of these buildings, as stated above, are office buildings and
schools, there are also some others. This is to allow a greater variety of
natural ventilation concepts. The sub-case buildings and some key
information for each of them are listed in Table 7.1. Additional
information is provided in the appendix, where each sub-case building is
given a short presentation. The sub-cases are therefore used and referred
to without any further presentation in the subsequent sections.

This chapter has four sections, each one dealing with one of the four
aspects in which natural ventilation seem to have particular architectural
possibilities. The first part of each section includes a general elaboration
of the architectural possibilities of that aspect. Illustrations from both the
three main case-study buildings and from some of the sub-cases are used.
Each section concludes with examples from the sub-case buildings
illustrating the architectural potential of natural ventilation in the façade,
roof, plan and section, and interior space, respectively.

198

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

High- Medium- Low-

Building Completed Location
rise rise rise
Commerzbank Frankfurt am
1997 X
Headquarters1 Main, Germany
Deutsche Messe 2 1999 Hanover, Germany X
MDR Zentrale3 2000 Leipzig, Germany X
debis Haus,
1997 Berlin, Germany X
DaimlerChrysler4
Ludwigsfelde,
Daimler Chrysler5 2000 X
Germany
Sundalsøra,
Tredal School6 2000 X
Norway
Kvarterhuset7 2001 Kolding, Denmark X
BRE8 1996 Garston, UK X
Inland Revenue9 1995 Nottingham, UK X
Enschede,
Tax Office10 1996 X
Netherlands
Jean Marie Cultural Nouméa, New
1998 X
Centre11 Caledonia
IONICA
1994 Cambridge, UK X
Headquarters12
Waldorfschule13 1997 Cologne, Germany X
Karlsruhe,
WAT14 1995 X
Germany
Evangelische Gelsenkirchen,
1998 X
Gesamtschule15 Germany
Lanchester Library16 2000 Coventry, UK X
Deutsche Post
2003 Bonn, Germany X
Headquarters17
Pihl & Søn18 1994 Lyngby, Denmark X
ARAG Düsseldorf,
2001 X
Headquarters19 Germany
Jaer School20 1999 Nesodden, Norway X
Solar-Fabrik21 1999 Freiburg, Germany X

Table 7.1 The sub-case buildings used to illustrate architectural possibilities of natural
ventilation.

199

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

7.1 Façade

Depending on the specific concept, natural ventilation can have

considerable consequences for the design of a façade, and hence for the
appearance of the building. Basically, it can set its footprints onto a
building’s façade in four principally different ways:

x Ventilation openings in the façade.

x The façade as a double façade.
x Solar chimneys.
x Solar shading.
x Other implications of natural ventilation in the facade.

Ventilation openings in the façade

Ventilation openings hold significant architectural possibilities as the

openings in many cases are located in the façade. They need to have a
certain size to support a sufficient air change rate with the lowest possible
pressure drop for the airflow. In most cases this means that the area of the
ventilation openings constitutes a considerable area of the façade. They
therefore need to be taken into account by the designers. Together with
aspects related to texture, colour and proportion, windows and ventilation
openings make up important building elements, which the architect uses
in the design and composition of a façade.

The integration of the ventilation openings in the façade can be done in

different ways, both in terms of the shape and composition in the two-
dimensional façade plane, and in terms of the location relative to the axis
perpendicular to the façade skin plane. As for the first point, the
ventilation openings can be organised in various patterns on the façade.
The most common way is to organise them in horizontal bands in front of
the floor slab at each floor level, or for instance on every third, sixth, or
ninth floor level if it is a high-rise building. The openings can
alternatively be organised in vertical stripes, or be scattered seemingly
randomly onto the façade (Figures 7.1 and 7.2). These ventilation
openings are suitable elements to underline verticality or horizontality in a
building.

200

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.1 Sketches of various arrangements of ventilation openings in a façade.

Keywords here are composition, proportion, scale, and rhythm.

The location of ventilation openings in the façade in natural ventilation

systems is principally different from the location of ventilation openings
in mechanical ventilation systems where the inlets and outlets most often
are centrally located (Section 2.4). The ventilation openings in mechanical
ventilation systems are also usually sought to be hidden, either on top of
the roof or on the backside of the building. As a result of the fact that
inlets and outlets in many naturally ventilated buildings are exposed, as
well as that they are large in area, the location and design of the
ventilation openings have to be given the same attention as for instance
the location and design of windows.

The ventilation openings consequently have a considerable potential of

being an architectural element that can give a façade, and hence a
building, a distinct character. The principle sketches in figure 7.1 suggest
ventilation openings with strict rectangular shapes. It is, however,
conceivable for the ventilation openings to adopt other geometrical shapes
than rectangular ones, e.g. elliptical, circular and so forth.

Figure 7.2 The Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk (MDR) Zentrale (2000) in Leipzig, Germany
(left) has a double façade with horizontal ventilation openings on every storey. The
administration building of the Deutsche Messe AG (1999) in Hanover, Germany (middle)
has a double façade with a set of vertical ventilation openings located close to the corners
of the building. The ventilation openings of the GSW Headquarters (1999) in Berlin,
Germany (right) are scattered in a pattern onto the façade.

201

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

In addition to the possibilities related to the composition of ventilation

openings on the façade plane, there are also possibilities associated with
their positioning relative to the façade skin. Ventilation openings are
commonly covered with grills to keep out precipitation and to dampen the
peaks of wind-induced pressure fluctuations, as well as to cower
filters/mosquito nets. These components can be aligned with the façade
skin, protrude from the façade skin, or be drawn into the façade skin to
various extents (Figure 7.3). A relief effect is created by such ventilation
opening components, especially when they are set into or protrude from
the façade skin. Patterns of light and shadow bring in depth and an ever-
changing “life” to the façade as they change with changing daylight
conditions.

Figure 7.3 Sketches of various locations of ventilation opening components relative to the
façade skin (imagine that outside is to the left). They can protrude from the façade skin
(left), be set back into the façade skin (middle), or be aligned with the facade skin (right).
Key words include relief, depth, light, and shadow.

Consequently there are options in three dimensions for the design of

ventilation openings in the façade. In addition, they are commonly made
of another material than the rest of the façade, and this contrast in texture,
colour and reflection properties has the potential of enriching the
expression of the façade further (Figure 7.4).

202

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.4 Pictures of three different buildings where the ventilation openings are located
differently relative to the façade skin. The panels of the ventilation openings protrude from
the façade of the administration building of Deutsche Messe AG (1999) in Hanover,
Germany (left), whereas the glass hatches of the B&O Headquarters (1998) in Struer,
Denmark open to allow airflow through ventilation openings set into the façade skin
(middle). The panels of the ventilation openings in the GSW Headquarters are aligned with
the façade skin (right).

The façade as a double façade

The double façade is a system involving the addition of a second glazed

building skin22 (Section 2.6). Such designs are increasingly used in
modern high-rise buildings in order to allow openable windows for natural
ventilation as well as external solar shading (relative to the inner skin) that
is not prone to failure due to adverse weather conditions (Figure 7.5).

Figure 7.5 The double façade of the City-gate office building (1997) in Düsseldorf,
Germany. The ventilation opening component, encircled in the section drawing (middle),
is manifested as a “box” that is integrated into the depth of the façade (left). The double
skin cavity of the building (right) varies between 0,9m and 1,4m depending on the
orientation of the façade.

203

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

With the double façade, a new architectural element that holds some
unique architectural features and possibilities is brought into the design of
buildings. The outer skin of almost all double façades is a curtain wall
façade made mostly of glass. A curtain wall of glass is in itself not new,
exemplified for instance in the two buildings the Bauhaus School of
Architecture (1926) and the Fagus Factory (1913), both designed by
Walter Gropius (Figure 7.6). The double façade can, however, be a
strategy in keeping transparency while at the same time handling the
indoor climate problems.

Figure 7.6 Walter Gropius left the corners of Fagus Factory (1911-13) in Alfeld-an-der-
Leine, Germany (left) open and bent the curtain wall around without a thickening of its
slender mullions. The glass curtain wall is hung in front of the skeleton, thereby creating a
floating effect and emphasising its transparency. Large and horizontal glazing panels
subtly reveal the three-storied interior by fronting the floors with bands of opaque panels.
In the workshop wing of the Bauhaus School of Architecture (1925-26) in Dessau,
Germany (right), the glazing is drawn without interruption around the entire block. The
Bauhaus unit, lifted above a setback half-basement, appears as a pure, quadratic volume of
glass, suspended weightlessly in midair. The two buildings were important as a
springboard to the high modernist phase soon to follow. (From Architecture from
prehistory to post-modernism, 1986).

However, the new architectural aspect with the addition of a second skin
is that it first and foremost gives added depth to the façade and thereby
changes its appearance. In general, working with the two skins of the
double façade, which essentially are two transparent layers laid on top of
each other, gives several new possibilities where the width of the cavity,
the texture, colour, opaqueness, and reflection are key variables. The
cavity in the double facade constitutes a shielded space for solar shading
devices where they can be protected from gusty weather condition, dust
and dirt. By incorporating solar shading devices in the cavity, a third layer
is introduced into the “façade-equation”, which really opens for a design
where the layers and their combined effects can be refined into various

204

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

designs and expressions. The border between inside and outside comprises
several layers or steps, implicating that the transition from outside to
inside, and vice versa, as a consequence appears somewhat “softer” or
more “subtle” than for conventional facades (Figure 7.7). The façade
appears more as “a fur as opposed to a smooth skin” to use the analogy of
Louisa Hutton23. The depth of the double façade can be accentuated in e.g.
the gable wall if the double façade is not wrapped around the entire
building. A new element that accentuates verticality is thus incorporated
into the gable wall façade (Figure 7.7, far right).

Figure 7.7 The two pictures to the left show the south façade of the debis Haus (1997) in
Berlin, Germany. The outer skin of the double façades is made of glass lamellas that can
be opened (far left) or closed (left). The two pictures to the right show the west and south
façade respectively of the GSW Headquarters (1998) in Berlin, Germany. The picture to
the right illustrates Louisa Hutton’s analogy to a fur in her description of the façade’s
appearance. The picture to the far right illustrates the changing effect of glass relative to
the angle the façade is viewed from. The appearance of a double façade can also change
dramatically with changing daylight conditions. The picture shows furthermore the
accentuation of the double facades in the south façade as a narrow vertical stripe.

Mies van der Rohe said in an interview after commissioning of the

Seagram Building (1954-58) in New York that “glass imposes new
solutions”24. The use of glass in double façades has provided new
solutions for façade designs where the function of the façade is extended
beyond being a weather shield (Section 2.6). The possibilities with regard
to architectural expression are taken some steps further. In addition to
giving added depth to the façade, the two layers of glass introduce more
complex reflection characteristics than a single skin glass façade (Figure
7.8). It is interesting to observe that the majority of naturally ventilated
high-rise buildings where the double façade plays an important part in the
ventilation concept are located in Germany. This observation suggests that
there can be a link between naturally ventilated high-rise buildings with
double facades and national context. According to a study done by van

205

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Meel (2000) there are several links between office design and national
context25. There are links on the building level (high-rise/low-rise), the
floor plan level (deep/narrow plans) and the workplace level (open,
cellular and mixed layouts). The study also concluded that natural
ventilation and ecological issues got more attention in Germany compared
to in the other European countries that were investigated (UK, Sweden,
Italy, and the Netherlands).

Figure 7.8 The double façade of the GSW Headquarters comprises three layers; a double-
glazed aluminium curtain wall, solar shading devices manifested in perforated and
lacquered aluminium shutters, and a single-glazed outer skin. The pictures show the
changing reflection characteristics of the façade for three daylight conditions. The degree
of reflection increases from left to right, while the perception of depth in the façade
decreases, as one apprehends only the outer skin. The expression of the façade appears
very three-dimensional for some light conditions, the result resembling a holographic
image.

Solar chimneys

Solar chimneys are used as extract paths in buildings utilising natural

ventilation. The solar energy raises the temperature in the chimney, which
in turn increases the thermal buoyancy. Solar chimneys are typically
located in front of the façade, set into the façade, or integrated in the
façade. They can also be located inside a building, e.g. in conjunction with
an atrium like in the WAT building in Karlsruhe, Germany. A double
façade can act as a solar chimney. The west façade of the GSW
Headquarters building is an example of that. Solar chimneys provide
similar architectural possibilities as ventilation openings in the façade, but
some designs provide additional possibilities as they protrude from the
façade to a far greater extent (Figure 7.9). This creates a strong relief
effect where light and shadow contribute to accentuate the façade. Most
solar chimneys also represent a strong vertical element in the façade, as
their texture and expression can contrast to the rest of the façade.

206

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Solar chimneys are commonly made of glass (at least on the south-facing
side) to take advantage of the solar energy to boost the buoyancy. The
solar chimneys of both The Environmental Building of BRE and the
Inland Revenue (Figure 7.9) are clad with glass bricks (except the part of
the chimneys that extend the roof line in the BRE building which are clad
with metal). Solar chimneys also normally extend above the roofline of
the building and affect therefore the silhouette of the building as well as
the façade (Section 7.2).

Figure 7.9 Solar chimneys in the façade of The Environmental Building of BRE (1994-96)
in Garston, UK (left), and in the Inland Revenue Headquarters (1995) in Nottingham, UK
(middle). The solar chimneys in the Inland Revenue buildings double as stairwells and are
located at the corners of the building (right). The five solar chimneys of the BRE building
are incorporated in the south façade. These chimneys are located in front of the actual
façade, creating a row of bays.

Solar shading

Solar shading devices are not only used in buildings with natural
ventilation. They are widely applied in buildings with mechanical
ventilation as well. Solar shading devices, and then especially external
solar shading devices, are, however, in most cases mandatory for
successful natural ventilation (and natural conditioning) of buildings. This
is especially the case if the intention is to avoid or minimise the use of
auxiliary fans and mechanical cooling. Solar shading devices in all their
diversity of manifestations are consequently closely linked with façade
designs in naturally ventilated buildings.

The renewable resource of the sun can be the principal contributor of

energy to a building, but the sun can also be detrimental to internal

207

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

comfort conditions. It is therefore often necessary to protect against its

negative effects, including overheating, irradiation, and glare. Computer
controlled blinds, louvres and other protective shades are the most
common solar shading devices. Many new buildings include venetian
blinds that can be lowered, raised and tilted according to the course of the
sun. These blinds are commonly incorporated into the cavity of a double
façade for protection, to keep the heat out of the occupied zone and to
enhance the action of the solar flue. The solar shading devices in the GSW
Headquarters is an example of the latter where the perforated aluminium
blinds in hues of red absorb solar heat and increase the effect of thermal
buoyancy.

Figure 7.10 Two different manifestations of solar control illustrated by GlaxoWellcome

House West Headquarters building (1995-97) in Greenford, UK (far left and left), and The
Environmental Building of BRE (1994-96) in Garston, UK (right and far right). In the
BRE building the translucent glass louvres in the bays span between the solar chimneys,
and the rotating louvres are designed to cut out direct sun to the interior, whilst still letting
in diffuse light.

Solar shading devices make a unique element in the façade as they in

contrast to most other building elements have characteristics beyond the
spatial three dimensions, i.e. their appearance changes with the course of
time due to varying sun and daylight conditions. Most shading devices
tune in according to the course of the sun and the daylight conditions to
give optimal protection from the harmful effects of the sun. The best
designs at the same time maintain view to the exterior for the occupants
and let through a sufficient amount of daylight so that electrical lighting
does not have to be switched on. Consequently, solar shading devices
change appearance relative to the external conditions and can in this way
provide the building with “chameleon-like” characteristics (Figure 7.10).

The building’s appearance and architectural expression can change

dramatically depending on the position of the solar shading devices. The
GSW Headquarters is a prime example of this (Chapter 4). The

208

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

expression of the building changes in pace with the external conditions, or

according to the activities and desires of the occupants inside the building
if they choose to override the building’s BMS system. In this way the
façade reflects the ongoing activities inside the building. This is by some
considered to enrich the architecture of a building, while others find it
cluttering and therefore consider it degrading to the architecture. In such
cases, the BMS system of the building can control the position of all solar
shading devices on a façade to maintain order and consistency.

Figure 7.11 Solar shading can take many shapes. The solar shading of Debis Haus (1997)
in Berlin, Germany is provided by blinds located in the cavity in the double façade. Their
colour and texture match that of the building’s façade (far left). Mechanical apertures
controlled by photoelectric cells (not unlike the diaphragm in a camera) provide solar
shading in the Arab Institute (1987-88) in Paris, France (left). Numerous “shade sails”
cover the entire glazed north façade of Phoenix central Library (1990-95) in Phoenix, USA
(right), eliminating the harsh glare of the summer sun, while optimising views to the
outside. Photovoltaic cells laminated in the outer glass skin of a double façade at the
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (Retrofit 2000-01) in Trondheim,
Norway provides solar shading in addition to producing electrical energy (far right).

Solar shading devices can be manifested in various ways, where texture

and colour are key words (Figure 7.11). Perforation of the shading
devices, e.g. in shading lamellas of aluminium, gives a certain degree of
view to the outside, depending on the size and density of the perforations.
This can give the façade a characteristic expression from the outside at
night when the blinds are shut and the building is lit inside. The solar
shading devices constitute an additional layer in the façade, and have
thereby architectural implications as discussed in the section above.

Other implications of natural ventilation in the facade

Intermediate ceilings in the interior spaces are superfluous in most

naturally ventilated buildings as there are no ventilation ducts to cover up.
This certainly has consequences for the interior spaces (Section 7.4), but

209

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

there are also spin-off effects in the façade. In 1926 Le Corbusier

published his ideas for a “new architecture” as the “Five Points of a New
Architecture” with reference to the five classical orders26 (Figure 7.12).
Points 4 and 5 relate to the façade of buildings. Corbusier postulated
100% freedom in the design of windows when using columns instead of
load-carrying facades.

Figure 7.12 Le Corbusier. “Five points of a new architecture.” 1926. From Oeuvre
complete, 1910-29 (left). The enlarged extract of the part concerning the façade (right)
illustrates increased freedom in the design of the façade, and indicates also the possibilities
for better utilisation of daylight in the interiors. (Architecture from prehistory to post-
modernism, 1986).

In this context, it is interesting to note that also natural ventilation results

in increased freedom in the design of the façade (location of windows, and
their proportion and extension). This is a consequence of the integration of
ventilation air paths and interior spaces that make intermediate ceilings
superfluous (Figure 7.13). As there are no ventilation ducts to hide, the
actual borders of the space can be recognised by the occupants and
consequently be exposed in the facades. The north façade of B&O
Headquarters is an excellent example of this, where the windows stretch
from floor to ceiling, creating a façade with an extreme lightness (section
5.2).

210

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.13 Sketch illustrating a naturally ventilated building without an intermediate

ceiling (left), and a mechanically ventilated building with an intermediate ceiling to hide
the ventilation ductwork (right). The illustration shows that intermediate ceilings limit the
height of windows in the facade. The absence of intermediate ceilings consequently gives
the designer increased freedom in the design of the façades, i.e. the size and the proportion
obtainable for windows. Further, the potential for spatial quality and utilisation of daylight
in the interior are greater without intermediate ceilings.

Building examples illustrating aspects related to façade

To further exemplify the architectural consequences and possibilities of

natural ventilation in the façade, some façades of selected sub-case
buildings are shown and briefly commented upon in the following. The
intention is to exemplify and highlight the aspects discussed in the
preceding section by means of pictures of more buildings with façades
that are designed to support natural ventilation.

Figure 7.14 The ventilation inlets in the outer skin of the double façade of the ARAG
Insurance company building make a rhythm of horizontal lines at every storey (far left and
left). Double-height “sky-gardens” punctuate the building at every eighth floor. This is also
accentuated in the façade with extra large ventilation inlets. The double façade of
Commerzbank Headquarters is essentially made up of a single-glazed glass-layer located
0.15m in front of the openable windows in the inner skin of the facade (right and far
right). There is an open slit in the outer glass-layer right under and right above each of the
windows in the inner skin, which facilitates ventilation of the cavity. The outer glass layer
dampens the pressure fluctuations created by wind, thus making it possible to apply
openable windows in the inner skin.

211

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.15 Like the south façade of the office wing in the B&O Headquarters, the façades
of both the Pihl & Søn Headquarters building (left) and the Enschede Tax Office building
(middle) are characterised by the narrow window bands located above the panorama
windows. The narrow windows enhance utilisation of daylight in the interior and provide
ventilation openings. (Vents are located right above the daylight windows in the Tax
Office). Their size/proportion and location right under the ceiling make them favourable
for night-cooling without the risk of burglary. Four bands of windows make up the glass
façade of IONICA Headquarters (right), where the upper band can be opened and used as
ventilation inlets. The south façade of the building is characterised by the fixed solar
shading devices.

Figure 7.16 The central communication spine and exhaust stack of the Kvarterhuset
(assembly building) in Kolding is “drawn out” and accentuated in the façade (left). The
“black wall” (double solar wall used as extract for ventilation air) is accentuated in the east
and west façades of the Headquarters building of Wasser- und Abfalltechnik
Ingenieurgesellschaft (WAT) mbH in Karlsruhe (right).

212

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.17 The wooden double façade of the Jean Marie Cultural Centre in Nouméa,
New Caledonia is characterised by the wooden slats and the pattern they make due to a
varying distance between them (i.e. the degree of openness in the outer skin) depending on
where on the façade they are located. The spacing of the slats in the outer skin of the
double façade is more open at top and bottom to achieve the desired airflow.

Figure 7.18 The double wooden façade of the Jean Marie Cultural Centre is flexible in
that the degree of opening in the lower part of the inner skin can be adjusted corresponding
to the wind speed.

213

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.19 The grills in front of the ventilation inlets is a “new” element that contribute
to enriching the façade of the administration building of Deutsche Messe AG in Hanover.

Figure 7.20 The outer skin of the double façade of the administration building of Deutsche
Messe AG in Hanover (left) protects the inner wood and glass façade (middle) against the
weather. Sliding French windows provide inlets for the natural ventilation (right).

Figure 7.21 The double façade of the MDR-Zentrale in Leipzig is another example where
ventilation inlets and outlets accentuate the façade with horizontal lines at every story. (left
and middle). The 1,3m wide cavity of the southern double façade is sectioned at every
story, but runs the length of the building in east-west direction (middle). The cavity is lit
with fluorescent tubes by night, thus creating a sense of depth also by night (right).

214

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.22 The exhaust tower of the natural ventilation concept in the Tredal School does
not only affect the silhouette of the school building, but also constitutes an element of the
facades. The tower accentuates the horizontality of the east façade and constitutes a focal
element. The elevation of the roof to the right of the exhaust tower houses a chamber
where the exhaust air is collected before it is exhausted through the tower. This chamber
provides the entrance area with extra daylight through two skylight windows.

Figure 7.23 The drawings of the south façade (left) and the north facade (right) of the
Tredal School illustrate that the most characteristic natural ventilation element, the extract
tower, is shaped to be part of the architectural expression, and even to strengthen it. The
analogy to the surrounding steep mountains is evident.

Figure 7.24 The west façade of the Tredal School faces the schoolyard. The generous
floor-to-ceiling height at the west side of the plan (due to the sloping roof, see Figure 1.23
above) provide a buffer zone for warm and stale air under the ceiling as well as an air path
for the extract air from the classrooms and to the centrally located exhaust chimney. The
tall façade gives room for an extra row of windows up under the roof, which provides extra
daylight.

215

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

7.2 Roof

All natural ventilation concepts based on the stack ventilation principle

(Section 2.3) exhaust the ventilation air at a high level, typically over the
roof. These concepts of natural ventilation can therefore have
consequences for the appearance of the roof of a building. The design of
the roof itself with regard to roof-angle and general shape can be affected,
and several characteristic elements of natural ventilation are located on the
roof (e.g. chimneys, wind towers, and wind scoops). This influences the
architecture of the building, and especially its silhouette.

The silhouette of a building should not be disregarded, as it can be

essential for a building’s expression and recognition. There are examples
where the silhouette contributes to “anchor” a building in people’s
consciousness, and where it even makes a building an icon for a city, a
country or even a continent (Figure 7.25).

Figure 7.25 The way a building draws its contours towards the sky can be essential for the
iconographic effect a building can possess. The pyramids in Ghiza (ca. 2500-2570 B.C.)
(left), the Sydney Opera House (1956-73) in Sydney by Jørn Utzon (middle) and the City
Corp Centre (1974-77) in New York by Hugh Stubbins Associates (right) are prime
examples of the silhouette’s architectural and iconographic potential.

In short, natural ventilation can set its mark on a building’s roof, and
hence the silhouette of the building, basically in two different ways:

x Elements of natural ventilation located on the roof.

x The shape of the roof and the roof angle.

Elements of natural ventilation on the roof

The characteristic elements of natural ventilation located on the roof are

shaped and oriented to strengthen the natural driving forces (Section 2.6).
The physical size of the majority of these elements implies that they have

216

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

significant impact on the architecture. Some roof elements have been in

widespread use for a long time and are common for most, e.g. a chimney,
even though chimneys can take shapes that differ from the common
picture we have in our minds (Figure 7.26).

Figure 7.26 Four contemporary non-domestic buildings where chimneys are utilised in the
natural ventilation concept. Lanchester Library and Learning Resource Centre at Coventry
University (2000) in Coventry, UK (far left), The Contact Theatre (1999) in Manchester,
UK (left), debis Haus at Potsdamer Platz (1996) in Berlin, Germany (right), and the
administration building of Deutsche Messe AG (1999) in Hannover, Germany (far right).
The two latter buildings show that natural ventilation has extended the use of chimneys to
high-rise buildings. The design of the chimneys of the Lanchester Library and Learning
Resource Centre and The Contact Theatre differ from the common conception of a
chimney, as these chimneys are designed to react to changing wind and to allow rising air
to exit without mechanical assistance under all weather conditions.

Other roof elements are products of modern natural ventilation in recently

designed non-domestic buildings. They are quite new to most of us, e.g. a
wing that produces under-pressure to draw air out of a building. Many of
these elements are not (yet) in widespread use, and as they have a rather
short history compared to most other building elements, there is an
unexploited potential with regard to design and building integration.
Architects and designers have a unique challenge in refining and
cultivating the appearance of these elements while at the same time not
compromising their function.

217

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.27 Ventilation elements on the roof can be considered the “hat” of the building.
The sculpture on the roof of Asahi Beer Azumabashi Hall (1989) in Tokyo, Japan (left)
designed by Philippe Starck is not an element of natural ventilation. It shows, however,
that elements located on the roof have a quite unique architectural potential both in
themselves and in the reciprocal relation between the element and the building27. The
shell-like building elements of Jean Marie Cultural Centre (1998) in Nouméa, New
Caledonia (middle) designed by Renzo Piano Building Workshop are constructed of a
double façade of laminated wood. The openings in the outer shell have been arranged to
exploit the monsoon winds coming from the sea to drive the natural ventilation28. The
conical profile of the courts of Tribunal de Grande Instance (1998) in Bordeaux, France
(right) designed by Richard Rogers Partnership, penetrates the roofline of the main
building volume, which is essential for the natural ventilation concept of the courtrooms29.

It can be useful to separate the architectural possibilities of natural

ventilation elements located on the roof into three “levels”: possibilities
associated with the individual element, possibilities associated with the
mutual constellation of elements (if there are several), and possibilities
associated with the element’s integration with the rest of the building.

The element has in itself architectural possibilities as an independent

object, where its shape is most essential, but also its texture and colour
play a role. The shape of some roof elements is given by the laws of
aerodynamics, which often lead to organic forms with double-curved
surfaces to increase the air velocity and hence under-pressure (e.g. some
wind tower designs). This contrast with most other building elements,
including the building itself, which more often than not have geometrical
shapes with flat surfaces that are joined perpendicular to each other.

In addition to the architectural possibilities of the individual element, the

constellation of multiple elements, together forming a unity, holds
architectural potential (Figure 7.28). The constellation of elements has
collective possibilities in the way they are organised relative to each other.

218

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

They can e.g. be gathered in groups or aligned along a straight or curved

line.

Figure 7.28 Repetition of similar elements can make a strong impression and have effects
beyond that of one solitary element. Here illustrated by the artwork Another Place (1998)
by Antony Gormley at Sola beach, Norway (left) and Musholm bay holiday resort (1998)
in Korsør, Denmark (middle). The fish smokehouse (1943) at Odden harbour in Denmark
designed by Arne Jacobsen is situated near a cliff overlooking the sea. The characteristic
design of the three chimneys and their intersection with the main house (both the
silhouette/roof and the facade) create a simple monumentality which is comparable with
that of the Danish country churches (right)30.

Lastly, and maybe most importantly, the elements possess architectural

possibilities in the way they are integrated with the rest of the building
and its architecture. This can be achieved in basically two principally
different ways: either by expressing the roof elements, and
integrating/adapting them with the architecture of the current building
(e.g. the Tribunal de Grande Instance, Figure 7.27, right), or oppositely,
by designing and arranging the elements so that they are not visible at all
to the observer, and hence do not play a part in the architecture of the
building (e.g. the roof cowls of the B&O Headquarters, Section 5.1). Most
characteristic elements of natural ventilation located on the roof are of the
first group and interplay therefore with the silhouette of the building. The
presence of the elements can also be emphasised by night by directing a
spotlight on them like for instance in the IONICA Headquarters (Figure
7.29, right) and the GSW Headquarters cases. The “landmark effect” is
thus upheld and even strengthened by night.

The shape of the roof and the roof angle

Generally, the design of naturally ventilated buildings should encourage a

natural airflow through the building, from the inlet towards the outlet. The
shape of the roof can in this context play an important role. By sloping the
roof upward towards the outlet, it contributes to lead the ventilation air to
the outlet, while it at the same time increases the driving height for

219

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

thermal buoyancy. This strategy is most often seen in low-rise buildings,

but can also occur in some medium rise buildings. This has architectural
possibilities both in the interior and the exterior. In the exterior, the shape
of the roof and hence the building’s silhouette is affected. In the interior
the most evident possibilities are linked with the spatial experience a
space with a varying floor-to-ceiling height provides, and possibly also
with utilisation and distribution of daylight through skylights in an
elevated part of the roof (Section 8.4).

Figure 7.29 The roof of the Mediå Primary School (1998) in Grong, Norway (left) and the
IONICA Headquarters (1994) in Cambridge, UK (right) both have an elevated central part
in which ventilation air ascends before it is exhausted through wind tower(s). The shape of
the roofs (and the gable wall in the Mediå case) are consequently characterised by an
elevated ridge along the middle.

Building examples illustrating aspects related to the roof

To further exemplify the architectural consequences and possibilities of

natural ventilation concerning the roof and the silhouette of the building,
selected sub-case buildings are shown and commented upon in the
following. The intention is to exemplify and highlight the aspects
discussed in the preceding section using more buildings where the shape
of the roof and characteristic ventilation elements located on the roof are
designed to support natural ventilation.

220

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.30 The exhaust tower of Tredal School in Sunndalsøra, Norway communicates
with the surrounding mountain peaks (left), and introduces a strong vertical element in the
otherwise rather horizontal building body (right).

Figure 7.31 The direction of the weatherboarding in the east façade of Tredal School is
used to underline the horizontality of the building and the verticality of the exhaust tower.

Figure 7.32 The Kvarterhuset (assembly building) in Kolding, Denmark utilises a two-
story tall, centrally located, communication spine as an exhaust stack for the ventilation
air. The roof of this stack is provided with a “wing” which is shaped to utilise the Venturi-
effect to increase the wind-induced suction over the outlet. The same strategy is utilised in
the GSW Headquarters.

221

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.33 A single ventilation chimney with a light, bird-like, shape thrones over the
Evangelische Gesamtschule in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, indicating utilisation of natural
driving forces (left). The façade is characterised by openable windows in different heights,
providing ventilation inlets fort the classrooms. The build-up of volumes of the
Waldorfschool in Cologne, Germany culminate in the centre where the outlet is located,
hence supporting a natural flow of exhaust air up and out through the highest point (right).

Figure 7.34 The glass canopy extract chamber and the row of six wind-towers put a
distinctive mark on the IONICA Headquarters in Cambridge, UK. The glass canopy is
curved, hence aligning the wind towers in such a way that none of the towers will come in
the wind shadow of another tower regardless of wind direction. The wind-towers are lit
from beneath by night, creating a landmark effect also by night (like the GSW
Headquarters building in Berlin).

222

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.35 The exhaust chimney of the administration building of Deutsche Messe AG in
Hanover, Germany distinguishes the silhouette of the building. (Passing by other points of
comparison, the silhouette can be reminiscent of the statue of liberty in New York).

Figure 7.36 The silhouettes of the Tax Office in Enchede, Netherlands (left), the
Lanchester Library in Coventry, UK (middle) and the Jaer School in Nesodden, Norway
(right) are characterised by exhaust chimneys/towers for the natural ventilation. This is
also the case for The Environmental Building in Garston, UK and the Inland Revenue
Headquarters in Nottingham, UK (Figure 7.9).

Figure 7.37 Together with the B&O Headquarters, the Pihl & Søn Headquarters in
Lyngby, Denmark (left) and the building of DaimlerChrysler Aerospace, MTU
Maintenance in Ludwigsfelde, Germany (right) are examples of buildings where the
utilisation of natural ventilation does not affect the roof or the silhouette of the buildings.

223

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

7.3 Plan and section

The design and layout of the plan in a naturally ventilated building will in
almost all cases be influenced or affected by the natural ventilation
concept, as optimisation of the internal spatial organisation in both plan
and section is decisive for optimal utilisation of the natural driving forces.
The principal rule is that there should be as few obstacles as possible in
the air path through the building, and that there should be a “the-shorter-
the-better” distance between inlet and outlet. This represents both
limitations and possibilities. In short, natural ventilation affects the
following aspects of a building’s plan and section:

x Proportion of the plan and vertical air paths/stacks

x Internal layout and organisation of rooms and functions

Proportion of the plan and vertical air paths/stacks

The three ventilation principles place different limits on the depth of a

space that can be effectively ventilated (Section 2.3). The plan of most
naturally ventilated buildings is quite narrow, with a depth of up to 12-15
meters. This especially applies to single-sided and cross-ventilation
principles. In many cases it implies that the proportion of the plan is long
and narrow. This can be achieved with a linear plan form, or a similar
effect can be achieved by wrapping the building around an open
courtyard, an atrium or a centrally located communication space, typically
housing lobby, stairs, and elevators. A key design challenge with cross-
ventilation is to create a building form that will ensure a significant wind-
pressure differential between the inlet and outlet openings. This is more
difficult to achieve with a courtyard approach as the courtyard and
leeward side of the building will be at similar pressures31. A narrow plan
implies that the various rooms and functions have to be organised
according to the physical restriction. This can give limitations in
flexibility and plan organisation, but also some possibilities. Utilisation of
daylight and view to, and contact with, the exterior for the occupants are
evident advantages (Section 7.4). Another architectural advantage is that
narrow plans support slender proportion of both building volumes and
facades, where particularly the gable walls are slim and tall (see interview
with KHR AS in Section 5.2, orientation and shape).

224

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.38 Sketches of favourable plan types for natural ventilation. Seen from left to
right, the plans are simplifications of ARAG Headquarters - GSW Headquarters - Mediå
School, Commerzbank Headquarters - RWE Headquarters - IONICA Headquarters - and
B&O Headquarters. For single-sided and cross-ventilation principles shallow plans are
desired. This is most commonly achieved with a linear building form, or by wrapping the
building around a closed or open courtyard.

Natural ventilation does, however, not necessarily dictate shallow building

plans. Even though natural ventilation in a deep plan building is difficult,
if not impossible, to achieve by means of local inlets and outlets in the
perimeter of the building, it can be achieved with centralised inlets and
outlets. The stack ventilation principle is then applied. This ventilation
principle allows for deeper plans than the two principles referred to above.
The stack ventilation principle has greater implication for the section of
the building than the single-sided and cross-ventilation principles do,
however. This is because the vertical air paths are essential for this
ventilation principle, as they constitute both a vital link in the air path
chain as well as a stack for utilisation of thermal buoyancy. The vertical
air paths/stacks can take many forms depending on the size and shape of
the building (Figure 7.39).

Figure 7.39 Sketch showing four typical ways of providing vertical air paths in stack
ventilation: double façade/solar chimney (far left), atrium/central communication space
(left), buffer zone (right), and chimneys/stacks that perforate a deep plan building (far
right).

As mentioned above, the vertical air paths double as stacks for utilisation
of thermal buoyancy, one of the two “engines” of natural ventilation. The
other being wind, and in a mechanical ventilation system the fans make up
the engine, i.e. the driving force. One can therefore argue that e.g. a
central communication space several stories tall (Figure 7.40) constitutes

225

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

both an essential vertical air path as well as an “engine” for the natural
ventilation concept. Such a space can therefore in one respect be equalled
with the plant room(s) associated with mechanical ventilation systems,
which typically is located in the basement or on the roof and contain the
fans and the other air-handling units. The obvious difference between the
two spaces is that the “plant room” of a natural ventilation system can
house several other functions as it is a space usable for occupation. It is
quite common that such a space, several stories tall and often generously
daylit, is the nicest and most presentable in the building. This “plant
room” houses typically the main entrance with lobby/counter and the
building’s vertical communication (stairs/elevators). The plant rooms of
natural and mechanical ventilation systems are in this respect therefore
diametrical opposites.

Figure 7.40 The atria/buffer zones of the develop centre of Audi AG (2000) in Ingolstadt
(left), the Service centre of Nassauischen Sparkasse (2000) in Wiesbaden (middle) and the
Solar-Fabrik Headquarters building (1999) in Freiburg (right) serve as vertical air paths
and stacks for natural ventilation. They also house lobbies and vertical communication
with stairs and galleries. (From the German Journal Intelligente Architektur).

The Lanchester Library and Resource Centre at Coventry University

(2000) is an excellent example of a naturally ventilated and naturally
conditioned deep plan building. The 46m square and four story high open
plan building is ventilated through fresh air supply plenums, five atria,
and a series of extract chimneys located along the perimeter of the
building body (Figure 7.41, left).

226

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.41 The Lanchester Library and Resource Centre at Coventry University (1995-
2000) in Coventry, UK, designed by Short and Associates, is a naturally ventilated deep
plan building (left). The Sendai Mediathèque (1997-2000) in Sendai-shi, Japan, designed
by Toyo Ito, is not naturally ventilated. The building nevertheless possesses characteristics
that make it interesting in the context of natural ventilation in deep plan buildings (right).
(The plan drawings are not in the same scale).

The Sendai Mediathèque32 (2000) in Sendai-shi is not naturally ventilated.

The Mediathèque illustrates excellently, however, some architectural
possibilities if the building where to be naturally ventilated with a
ventilation concept similar to that of the Lanchester Library and Resource
Centre. The size of Ito’s Mediathèque is not unlike that of Short’s
Lanchester Library and Resource Centre, with a square plan of 50 x 50
metres and six storeys (Figure 7.41, right). The conception of the building
is founded on three main elements of composition: six linear planes,
thirteen reticular columns and an external skin (Figure 7.42). The thirteen
columns, formed out of tubular steel structures, support all the floors,
running vertically through the building from the basement to the roof. The
columns, that have diameters ranging from 2 to 9 metres, permit natural
illumination of the central parts of the various floors and contain all the
systems of vertical circulation as well as all the ducts. These columns
could have served as vertical air paths in a natural ventilation concept,
both for inlet and outlet. They are similar to the combined
stairways/extract towers in the Inland Revenue, but have greater prospects
of success as these columns are evenly distributed within the building plan
and not only in the corners at the perimeter of the building. According to
C. A. Short33, the main drawback with the natural ventilation concept of
the Inland Revenue is the peripheral location of the stairs/extract towers.
The architectural possibilities of such a concept, both in the interior, in the
façade, and on the roof, are excellently illustrated in the Sendai
Mediathèque (Figures 7.42 and 7.43).

227

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.42 The Sendai Mediathèque building is characterised by the reticular columns
running from basement to roof both in the interior and in the exterior (facades and
roof/silhouette). (Toyo Ito; works projects writings, 2002 ).

Figure 7.43 The reticular columns in the form of hyperbolic paraboloids penetrate the
interiors as a struck of lightning. This analogy is not so far from “the truth” in that
skylights set at the top of the columns transform them into “pillars of light”, feeding the
interiors with daylight. The study of the form of the columns started out from the concept
of a cylinder, subjected first to torsion and then deformed by oscillation. The torsion
imparts greater stability to the structure. (Toyo Ito; works projects writings, 2002 ).

228

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

The internal layout and organisation of rooms and functions

The layout and organisation of the plan play an important role in creating
favourable terms for the natural airflow. An open plan constitutes the best
conditions with no walls impeding the airflow on its journey between inlet
and outlet. This is however not always the plan layout that meets the
functional requirements of the users. The space often has to be sectioned
into smaller rooms with walls. Walls represent barriers to the airflow, and
in this context an essential challenge for the cross- and stack ventilation
principle is found: to combine the functional requirements of the
occupants with an air-path through the building that has a sufficiently low
airflow resistance. This can be achieved by organising rooms, corridors,
stairwells et cetera in a way that upholds a low resistance airflow path
through the building (both in plan and section), and/or by integrating
overflow vents in the walls to allow the air to flow past the obstructing
wall. The location of doors and other openings in the walls is also
important, as they can be designed to be a linkage in the air-path chain.

The plan layout, be it offices or classrooms, can roughly be organised as

an open plan, a single banked plan, a double banked plan or a combination
of these types (e.g. a cellular layout along one perimeter of the building
and an open layout along the other). In any case, the designer must
provide an air-path across the plan if it is to be cross-ventilated, or from
the inlet to the point of outlet if stack ventilation is the reigning principle.
As the ventilation air picks up heat and pollutants on its way from the inlet
towards the outlet, the cleanest air will consequently be upstream, closest
to the inlet. This may suggest zoning of the various functions relative to
their requirements for both IAQ and thermal comfort. This may result in
novel ways of organising the plan, generating solutions otherwise not
thought of, with innovative spatial constellations as a product.

Building examples illustrating aspects related to plan and section

To further exemplify the architectural consequences and possibilities of

natural ventilation concerning the plan and the section, selected sub-case
buildings are shown and commented briefly upon in the following. The
intension is to exemplify and highlight the aspects discussed in the
preceding section by means of buildings where the shape of the plan, the
plan layout and the section are designed to support natural ventilation.

229

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.44 The section drawing of the Waldorf School in Cologne, Germany shows the
build-up of volumes in height towards the central outlet located in the roof of the luminous
volume of the central hall at the heart of the school.

Figure 7.45 The plan of the Waldorf School is built up around the central hall into which
exhaust air from the classrooms is collected and subsequently exhausted (left). The central
hall is provided with fresh air through seven embedded pipes, as indicated on the situation
plan (right).

Figure 7.46 The plan of the MDR-Zentrale in Leipzig, Germany is double banked with the
offices along the facades and meeting rooms and service functions in the core. The
curvilinear double south façade is one of the most characteristic features of the building.

230

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.47 Fresh air enters the under-floor plenum from the perimeter and passes into the
base of the four corner light-wells in the Lanchester Library in Coventry, UK (left). A
central atrium and a series of brick perimeter stacks make up the ventilation exhaust paths.
The cone-shaped building elements of the Jean Marie Cultural Centre in Nouméa, New
Caledonia utilises both buoyancy (generous driving height) and wind (shape and double
façade design) as driving forces (right).

Figure 7.48 The plan of the Evangelische Gesamtschule in Gelsenkirchen, Germany is

conceived as a village; the group of buildings (classrooms) are clustered around a central
covered street with a public “square” at the main entrance end.

Figure 7.49 A stack tower extends over the “square” of the Evangelische Gesamtschule.

231

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.50 The Inland Revenue Headquarters in Nottingham comprises six buildings
built around a central amenity building. There are two typical floor plans (both open plan
layouts): quadrangle (left) and L-shaped (right). The low-energy concept for the buildings
called for narrow plans to maximise daylight and enhance the effect of cross-ventilation.
Ventilation towers provide in addition a stack effect that draw air through the offices. The
towers, extending over the stairwells located in each corner34, are fitted with moveable
fabric “top hats” that can control the airflow according to the climatic conditions.

Figure 7.51 A typical plan in the administration building of Deutsche Messe AG in

Hanover, Germany (left). The offices are located along the perimeter of the building and
the fresh air feeding double façade, while group meeting spaces occupy the centre of the
plan. The office spaces are organised in the same manner in the Deutsche Post
Headquarters building in Bonn, Germany (middle) and in the ARAG Headquarters
building in Düsseldorf, Germany (right). Double-height “sky gardens” punctuate the
ARAG Headquarters at every eighth floor and occupy half of the plan as shown on the
drawing above.

232

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.52 The Pihl & Søn Headquarters in Lyngby, Denmark (left), the Tax Office in
Enschede, Netherlands (middle) and the Solar Fabrik in Freiburg, Germany (right) utilise
atria as stacks and air paths for the natural ventilation. Similar concepts can be seen in the
Daimler Chrysler Aerospace building in Ludwigsfelde, Germany and debisHaus Daimler
Chrysler in Berlin, Germany (see appendix).

Figure 7.53 Section drawing of the Commerzbank Headquarters in Frankfurt-am-Main,

Germany illustrating the characteristic “sky-gardens” that are linked to the central atrium.
The concept of the “sky-garden” is also incorporated in the design of the Deutsche Post
Headquarters building in Bonn, Germany and in the ARAG Headquarters building in
Düsseldorf, Germany.

233

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.54 The classrooms (1-7) in Tredal School in Sundalsøra, Norway are openly
connected to the common area that faces westwards and the schoolyard. Fresh air is taken
in through vents located in a parapet wall that divide (to some extent) the classrooms from
the common area. Before reaching the classrooms, the air is taken in through an inlet tower
located some 50m away from the school building and directed through an embedded duct
(see Figures 7.55 and 7.56).

Figure 7.55 Cross section through the entrance area of Tredal School showing the
embedded supply duct and the extract chamber with integrated skylights(left). Cross-
section through the two-storied administration block in the southern end of the linear
building volume (right).

Figure 7.56 Lengthwise section through the entrance area in the Tredal School showing
the extract chamber that extends over the central part of the building and its main entrance
only. This is different from the Mediå School in Grong, Norway where the extract
chamber runs the whole length of the plan. The section drawing above also shows the
generously sized supply duct embedded under the building.

234

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

7.4 Interior space

The interior spaces of a naturally ventilated building will in many cases be

influenced by the natural ventilation concept. The main reason for this is,
as discussed in the section above, that the plan and section are designed to
support both horizontal and vertical airflows with minimal resistance in
the air path. As a consequence, natural ventilation can affect the following
three aspects in certain ways:

x Spatial connection and hierarchy.

x Spatial experience and quality.
x Material use.

Spatial connection and hierarchy

With spatial connection and hierarchy we understand spaces that are

linked or coupled with each other as a consequence of obtaining an
airflow path within the building with minimal pressure drop. Spaces
connected to each other individually form links in the hierarchy of the “air
path chain”. In this context, the word hierarchy in connection with interior
spaces ranks the importance or the significance of a space. The rank can
be related to e.g. the size of the space, its floor-to-ceiling height, or the
number of other rooms connected to the space (i.e. the number of people
using or passing through the space). This chain, or hierarchy, of different
spaces affect the occupants’ perception of the building interiors. The
connection and hierarchy of spaces consequently hold architectural
possibilities both for the individual space and for the constellation of
spaces that arises.

As the ventilation air flows through the building in the horizontal (cross-
ventilation) and/or in the vertical plane (stack ventilation), the connections
and hierarchies of spaces occur both in the vertical and in the horizontal
plane. Optimisation of the internal spatial organisation, both in plan and
section, is hence decisive for successful functioning of natural
ventilation35. An atrium or a central space in a building (e.g. a lobby space
with stairs and elevators) that stretches over several stories is an excellent
stack that enhances the buoyancy effect utilised in several natural
ventilation concepts. Such spaces contrast with their verticality
(proportion) to most other spaces in the building and introduce drama and
excitement in the interior (Figure 7.57). Atria, lobbies and so forth do this
mainly by virtue of their size, height, number of persons using or passing
through the space and by the daylight conditions in the space (both the

235

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

amount and how it is introduced, e.g. through skylights in the roof). What
make spatial connection and hierarchy of spaces especially interesting in
the context of natural ventilation is firstly that it is more likely that spaces
with totally different proportions, and hence character, are put together in
a naturally ventilated building (e.g. stack ventilation utilises a tall space, a
chimney or an atrium). Secondly spaces with different sizes and
proportions may intertwine with each other for the purpose of supporting
the air path. This supports the human affinity towards environments that
cause enthusiasm and positive stimulation36. Curiosity and a desire to
explore are stimulated by environmental complexity and a certain
“mystery” which promises exciting or new experiences “around the next
corner”.

Figure 7.57 Examples of atria and central communication spaces that introduce dramatics
and excitement in the interiors of debis Haus (1997) in Berlin, Germany (left), RWE
Headquarters (1996) in Essen, Germany (middle), and The Tax Office (1996) in Enschede,
Netherlands (right).

Walls can be considered potential obstructions for the air path in a

naturally ventilated building that uses the internal spaces as the air path
(see Section 2.6, building integrated element). It is, however, possible to
introduce walls, defining sub-spaces within the larger space, without
sacrificing the air path of the naturally induced airflow (Figure 7.58).

236

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.58 Sketch of various plan-layouts with various degrees of obstruction for the
airflow in the cross-ventilation principle. Open plan (far left), space-defining walls
oriented in parallel with the airflow (left), space-defining walls oriented perpendicular to
the airflow (right), and a combination of the two latter forming more closed and defined
spaces, that nevertheless are openly connected to each other (far right).

If separate rooms are needed, e.g. cellular offices or classrooms, natural

ventilation need not be abandoned. Overflow vents (GSW), ducts or
chambers between rooms (BRE) can be applied. Further, different areas
can be ventilated with different ventilation principles. A combination of
single-sided ventilated spaces and stack or cross-ventilated spaces may
further introduce new spatial connections. With perimeter ventilation, all
zones need to “stretch” towards the façade at some point. The façade
provides both inlets for fresh air and outlets for used and contaminated air.
An example of this is the combi/east plan layout alternative in the GSW
Headquarters, where the central communication space at certain points
stretches out between the office cells to the east façade where the
ventilation inlets are located. This forms small niches between the linear
clusters of offices along the east perimeter of the plan (Chapter 4, Figures
4.14, 2) and 5)). The rhythm of niches springing from the communication
space gives room for small meeting points, a quality H. Hertzberger is
concerned with37 (Figure 7.59). The niches also provide a view eastwards
of the city of Berlin, as well as daylight for the corridor.

237

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.59 Hertzberger is i.a. concerned with the habitable space between things, here
illustrated by an old couple’s lunch at a bus trip (Hertzberger 1991) (left). The interiors of
Centraal Beheer building (1972) in Apeldoorn, the Netherlands illustrates the spatial
connections and qualities that can be achieved with a “semi-open” layout that will support
a natural airflow with low pressure drops (right).

Another way of feeding deeper parts of the plan with ventilation air and
daylight is to do the opposite, instead of arranging the occupied zones
along the perimeter of a building volume, an atrium can bring fresh air
into the spaces that need ventilation. The Commerzbank Headquarters in
Frankfurt am Main is an example of this strategy (Figure 7.60).

Figure 7.60 Sky-gardens (left) are connected with a central atrium (middle) in the
Headquarters of Commerzbank (1997) in Frankfurt am Main. The inner perimeter of the v-
shaped plan of offices (right) is ventilated towards the atrium/sky-garden, while the outer
perimeter is ventilated through a double façade towards the outside.

238

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Zoning of functions with regard to their individual requirements for

indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal comfort and noise level (e.g. in schools)
is a way to optimise the layout for stack and cross-ventilation principles38.
This can affect spatial connections and use-patterns. Commonly, functions
that require the best IAQ (e.g. office work spaces) are located upstream in
the airflow path close to the inlet, while e.g. toilets, kitchens and rooms
for printers, copy machines etc. are located downstream, closer to the
outlet. Zoning of functions can also be done on the basis of their
requirement for thermal comfort. To avoid problems related to cold drafts
near local supply air paths in the façade, functions that are less sensitive to
draft, e.g. corridor/communication paths, are located along the perimeter
of a building. Functions more sensitive to draft, e.g. sedentary office
work, are placed away from the ventilation inlets in the façade. An
example of this is the plan layout in the B&O Headquarters (Chapter 5).
In addition to zoning relative to IAQ and thermal comfort requirements,
zoning according to the natural driving forces can be applied in order to
obtain the best possible utilisation of the natural forces. Functions that
need to be mechanically ventilated according to building codes, e.g.
canteens, meeting rooms and auditoria, can then for instance be located on
the upper floors, as these may be harder to ventilate naturally due to a
limited buoyancy effect.

Spatial experience and quality

Spatial experience and quality are the essence of the aesthetics39 of the
interior spaces of a building. These aspects can be harder to evaluate and
put into words as they are qualitative parameters. Their evaluation will to
a certain extent vary from person to person. The spatial experience and
quality of interior spaces should nevertheless not be neglected, as these
properties are essential for the perception and acknowledgement of the
quality of a building and its interior spaces and for this reason whether it
feels good or not to be inside the building. Spatial quality is thus linked
with the well being of the occupants. There is a growing understanding, or
rather intimation, that aesthetics, whether we think of it in terms of the
sensory perceivable properties of the environment (e.g. the interior spaces
of buildings), the concept of beauty, or theories in arts, is important and
not merely a luxury40. One might assume that if we are surrounded by an
aesthetically pleasant environment which we appreciate, a feeling of well-
being will follow41. This may, in the long run, have a positive influence on
our health42. Aesthetics in general, and spatial experience and quality in
particular, are the essence in the work of an architect who aspires towards
designing buildings with high aesthetical and functional value and spaces
with good spatial qualities.

239

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Birgit Cold et. al. (1998) conducted a study where they looked at
theoretical and empirical research within environmental aesthetics to
investigate the correlation between aesthetics, well-being and health36.
There are many myths in this area, and one of their aims was to
acknowledge or invalidate such myths, for instance that aesthetics is an
individual matter which can not be discussed, that aesthetics is only the
concern of the elite and is a luxury, or that aesthetics only becomes
relevant and interesting when all other needs are fulfilled43. The literature
reviewed by B. Cold et. al. has been published during the last fifteen years
and have mainly been in the field of environmental psychology. Studies
within environmental psychology deal with people’s psychological
relations with the physical environment: how they psychologically react to
properties of the physical environment and how people themselves
influence the physical environment36. A conceptual model, showing
emotional and cognitive processes, is of great importance for a better
understanding of this field. Rikard Küller and his research unit have
developed a model of an emotional process (Figure 7.61) and used it as a
theoretical basis for several studies, for instance on the lack of daylight in
classrooms (1991)44, on workers’ well-being in a workplace (1989), and
on the influence of familiarity of a hospital environment (1988). The
model shows the interaction between man and the environment as a
“puzzle” of components creating the inputs and outputs in a basic
emotional process. The concept is that a balance between the input
components is important for a successful or optimum activation process,
avoiding unwanted under- and over-stimulation demanding adaptation or
compensation.

Figure 7.61 Küller’s model of human-environment interaction showing the emotional

process (1991). Activities, physical and social environment and individual resources are
input components, while control, adaptation and compensation are the outcomes in the
basic emotional process which is dynamic and changes over time.

240

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

The research findings on aesthetics, well-being and health carried out by

B. Cold et. al. (1998) can be summarised into four points:

x The roots to aesthetic preferences originate from surviving in nature45.

x Nature and natural elements have a positive impact on our well-being
and health46.
x Environmental coherence is essential for understanding the
environment, and environmental complexity is essential for the desire
to explore and learn more about the environment47.
x Pleasant, exciting and calm environments make us feel well48.

In the context of natural ventilation, these findings are very interesting to

note, and they are quite in line with essential characteristics of naturally
ventilated buildings. As for the first point, natural ventilation is in line
with our aesthetic “preferanda” for natural elements. Natural ventilation is
in itself natural, and enables us in most cases to have closer contact with
the nature outside the building (season, time of day, sounds, smells, views
etc.49) than in a sealed and air-conditioned building. As for the second
point, utilisation of natural ventilation and daylight share premises, where
a shallow building plan is favourable. Besides providing natural
ventilation and daylight, a shallow plan increases the occupant’s prospects
of having a view to and contact with the exterior. As for the third point,
designing for a natural airflow around and through a building can prove
helpful in structuring and organising the building, producing a coherent
and logical architecture. Shapes that interplay with the air and the laws of
nature can be considered following the “aesthetics of the air”50. At the
same time, as mentioned in spatial connection and hierarchy, it is likely
that spaces with different proportions, and hence character, are put
together in a naturally ventilated building as utilisation of natural driving
forces partly depends on the geometry and arrangement of interior spaces.
This provides a certain complexity and richness which cause positive
stimulation towards exploring such environments. As for the fourth point,
a natural ventilation concept produces in itself no noise or vibrations,
making the best premises for calm and pleasant interior spaces.

Spatial quality is, as mentioned, a qualitative parameter that can be hard to

evaluate. There are nevertheless some fundamental quantitative
characteristics of a “good space” that, based on the material discussed
above, can be elaborated and exemplified. The proportion of the space
(width-depth-height ratio) is decisive in whether we perceive the space as
good to be in or not. The floor-to-ceiling height is especially important for
the experience of a space and is often challenged in modern buildings (see
interview with KHR AS in Chapter 5). A generous floor-to-ceiling height

241

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

gives a space “air” and “lightness”, both literally and mentally, and it does
not feel squeezed51. A space with a generous floor-to-ceiling height
appears less constrained and is “easier to breath in”. Further, daylight,
both with regard to the total amount available and to how it is introduced
into the room, is important for the perceived quality of the space. A third
central parameter is whether the space offers view to and contact with the
exterior. The connection of interior spaces and the visual contact to the
outside is important for the building’s readability. It is also important for
the occupants in order for them to be able to orient themselves, both inside
the building and relative to the outside.

Beyond the possibilities concerning spatial connection and hierarchy

discussed in the section above, natural ventilation holds possibilities with
respect to the shaping of the individual interior spaces. Using the space
itself as air-path liberates space otherwise used for ventilation purposes
only, and the space itself is often formed to encourage the desired airflow.
Shaping the roof to direct the airflow towards its point of exit, which
typically is at a high level, gives spaces with a varying floor-to-ceiling
height. The elevated part of the roof is also suitable for integration of
skylights, providing the areas of the plan furthest away from the façades
with daylight (Figure 7.62). This opens for exciting spatial qualities and a
varying environment with high and low floor-to-ceiling heights, an
environment sought in kindergarten and school designs. Kids thrive in
spaces that vary in size and proportion and have the need for both small
niches and big rooms, depending on the activities they are involved in52.
The designers have succeeded well in shaping varying environments with
both generous and low floor-to-ceiling heights in several naturally
ventilated schools in Sweden and Denmark, e.g. Stjernevejens School in
Hedensted, Denmark and Stenvad school in Farum, Denmark52. This need
not be the merit of the natural ventilation concept only, but it might have
contributed in focusing on space and volume issues to a greater extent
than is usual in conventional school designs.

242

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.62 Both IONICA Headquarters in Cambridge, UK (left) and Mediå Primary
School in Grong, Norway combine a centrally located extract of ventilation air with
skylight windows that introduce daylight into the core of the buildings. (See also the
Munkegård School in Figure 7.65, left).

A good example of optimising the airflow path in the zone between inlet
and outlet is found in the Unité d’Habitation outside Marseilles in France
(Figure 7.63). Le Corbusier came up with an ingenious solution for cross
ventilation in this block of flats. The seventeen-story tall building has
corridors on every third story. Each apartment is a duplex with an opening
to the corridor as well as to the opposite side of the building. This makes
cross-ventilation possible, the flats are daylit from two sides, and views to
the outside on both sides of the building are provided. These are qualities
highly unusual in a block of flats.

Figure 7.63 The Unité d’Habitation (1947-52) in Marseilles, France designed by Le

Corbusier has corridors only on every third floor. The apartments are exposed on each side
of the building to accommodate for i.a. cross-ventilation (left). The balconies have
perforated parapets to further encourage ventilation, and they provide sun shading (right).

243

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Contrasts in both proportion and illumination may heighten the qualities

of a space. This is sought in the “baguette” low-rise building of the GSW
Headquarters ensemble where a 100m long and 6m wide central atrium
was conceived in terms of the superimposition of two spaces: a wide
“night-space” into which is set a narrow “day-space” (Figure 7.64). The
“night-space” is defined by the outer walls with their long rows of doors
set into a concrete surface that is illuminated by night. The “day-space” is
the narrower, but taller slice of space, defined by natural light that
“washes down” from the skylight windows to reach the ground floor. In
this way the atrium acquires different spatial profiles at different times of
the day.

Figure 7.64 The sketch is a study of the atrium in the “baguette” low-rise building of
GSW Headquarters (left). The daylit atrium gives the building its public character and
forms an internal street with access to the office areas (right).

Material use

The shape of the plan and the internal organisation of spaces are, as stated
above, essential for the success of natural ventilation. So is also the choice
of materials in the interior. Their thermal, hygroscopic and emission
characteristics are especially important38,50. The removal of pollutants and
sources of pollution is necessary for good indoor air quality (IAQ).
Emissions from materials together with those of persons and processes
taking place determine the amount of fresh air needed to achieve the
desired IAQ. Removing or reducing pollutants53 at source level increases
the prospects of natural ventilation and minimises the need for auxiliary
fans. A reduction in energy use for both ventilation and heating can be
expected54. Low emitting materials, surfaces, and furniture are hence
favourable for successful utilisation of natural ventilation. Relative

244

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

humidity (RH) and temperature are important parameters of good IAQ.

Depending on the properties of materials and building technological
qualities such as thermal bridges and air leakages, a building is capable of
handling more or less humidity. Some materials have the ability to absorb
and release humidity (wood, hardboard, plastering, gypsum, clay, porous
concrete) without the risk of biological growth. Quickly responding
hygroscopic materials, i.e. materials that quickly can absorb and release
humidity, have the ability of being humidity buffers. Such materials
stabilise the relative humidity of the air, and prevent damage by moist and
microbiological growth. The buffer effect of hygroscopic materials will be
of greater importance in cases of temporary variations in RH than
ventilation in keeping an acceptable RH level38. A more stable RH can
thus be achieved with a lower ventilation rate.

Figure 7.65 Both the Munkegård School (1949-57) in Vangede, Denmark by Arne
Jacobsen (left) and the “Queens building” of De Montfort University (1989-93) in
Leicester, UK by C. A. Short (right) make use of brick in the interiors.

In the same way as some materials have the ability to diminish variations
in RH, others can dampen diurnal temperature fluctuations by virtue of
their thermal storage capacity, or thermal mass. Thermal mass can be
defined as the material of the building that absorbs or releases heat from
or to the interior space55. The material concerned is usually part of the
structure or envelope and is typically a dense material such as concrete,
brick, stone, or gypsum56 (Figure 7.65). The thermal mass of building
materials is consequently linked with both natural ventilation and natural
conditioning of buildings. Buildings with high storage capacity can
improve thermal comfort (e.g. by reducing unwanted high amplitude
temperature fluctuations), and reduce energy requirements for heating,
cooling and ventilation54 (e.g. the need for auxiliary fans and air

245

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

conditioning). The choice of building materials is therefore important for

both IAQ and thermal comfort, the two main reasons for ventilating
interior spaces (Section 2.1). The architectural consequences and
possibilities related to the use of building materials with the characteristics
discussed above involve the exposure of some particular building
materials in the interiors: wood, hardboard, plastering, gypsum, clay,
porous concrete, stone, concrete, brick, and plaster. The materials should
be exposed for the interior spaces to profit from their hygroscopic and
thermal properties56. The associated possibilities include the alignment of
crude, natural materials where the meeting of distinct surface finishes,
textures, and colours can be pursued (Figure 7.66). The exposure of both
the true borders of the interior spaces (there are for example no vertical or
horizontal ducts to hide) and of the natural finishes of materials (e.g. brick
and concrete) in naturally ventilated buildings are in line with the
“honesty” in the design of many contemporary buildings. The occupants
can recognise the spatial borders of the interior spaces and the building
material’s natural expression and finish. The exposure of heavy materials
for utilisation of their thermal mass has certain acoustical consequences.
Special attention to acoustics is therefore necessary. Acoustical
attenuators need to be incorporated in the interior design, either in the
structure itself (wall, roof or floor) or integrated in installations and
furniture (see B&O Headquarters, Section 5.2). The coping with
acoustical challenges in spaces with hard surfaces and exposed thermal
mass hold in itself architectural possibilities (Figure 7. 66).

Figure 7.66 Acoustical attenuators are integrated in the artworks hung on the exposed
concrete walls in the canteen of the Pihl & Søn Headquarters building in Lyngby,
Denmark (left). The alignment of different materials with unlike texture and colour gives a
sober impression and the materials accentuate each other. The in-situ cast concrete wall in
the foyer of the B&O Headquarters building in Struer, Denmark looks, in combination
with the skylight, almost like it is made of a “soft” textile-like material (right).

246

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Building examples illustrating aspects related to interior space

To further exemplify the architectural consequences and possibilities in

the interior spaces of buildings utilising natural ventilation, the interiors of
some selected sub-case buildings are shown and commented briefly upon
in the following. The intention is to exemplify and highlight the aspects
discussed in the preceding section by means of buildings that have interior
spaces that are designed to support, or even enhance, the utilisation of
natural ventilation.

Figure 7.67 The central communication spine and exhaust stack of Kvarterhuset
(community building) in Kolding, Denmark feed both the corridor (left) and adjacent
spaces (right) with daylight.

Figure 7.68 Flexible office spaces are organised around a central atrium in the
DaimlerChrysler Aerospace building in Ludwigsfelde, Germany (left). The offices may be
partitioned off and furnished as either clusters of office cubicles or large open-plan offices,
team offices or flexible office landscapes. The atrium feeds the core of the building with
daylight as well as serving as a stack chimney and extract air path for the building’s
natural ventilation concept (right).

247

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.69 The three storey tall central hall with stairs and galleries is the heart of the
Pihl & Søn Headquarters building in Lyngby, Denmark and doubles as a stack and an
extract path for the building’s natural ventilation concept. Rooms are set in a visual
juxtaposition between indoors and outdoors which have turned the interior into an eventful
whole. The natural airflow through the building has governed the design of spaces and
spatial connections and “contributed to the dynamic floating spatial sequence” according
to KHR AS57. Daylight is introduced and distributed in different ways into the central hall,
and the variety of galleries, stairs, and levels creates drama and exciting spatial
connections.

Figure 7.70 Daylight is introduced in various ways and amounts in the Pihl & Søn’s
Headquarters, and the floor-to-ceiling height of the interior spaces varies from one to three
stories (left). Skylight windows provide the offices with fresh air and daylight deep into the
spaces (right). Simplicity in the choice of materials and high quality finishing is
conspicuous in the expression of the building, both in the exterior and in the interior. The
materials chosen; natural stone, brick, solid wood and steel need little maintenance and
have a long lifespan. These materials are also associated with low emission, and stone and
brick have high thermal mass. The natural colours of the materials -black, white and grey-
are neutral and “classical colours”. The architects wanted the building to form a neutral
background for the occupant’s personal character through e.g. pictures and objects.

248

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.71 The office floors of the ARAG Headquarters in Düsseldorf, Germany are
simple and open in feel, and the shallow plan is provided with daylight from two sides
(left). Cellular offices and meeting rooms ring the perimeter while group-meeting spaces
occupy the centre of the lens-shaped plan. The narrow shape of the plan makes utilisation
of daylight possible also in the core of the building, and a view to the exterior is provided
from all working desks. The double-height “sky-gardens” provide lungs of air and light on
every eighth floor (right). Planted with “meadows” of tall grass and wild flowers, the
gardens provide informal meeting areas and relaxation spaces.

Figure 7.72 The linear shaped atrium of the Solar-Fabrik in Freiburg, Germany plays an
important role in the natural ventilation concept of the building (left). The black glass-wall
in the atrium of the WAT building in Karlsruhe, Germany serves as an installation wall
and a ventilation chimney. Its stack effect is supported by the black colour which absorbs
solar radiance (right). The atrium brings daylight into the core of the building and
constitutes a central communication spine.

249

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.73 The interior of the Tredal School in Sunndalsøra, Norway is characterised by
an open plan layout, a sloping roof and plenty of daylight. The ventilation inlet grills are
located in the brick parapet wall separating the classrooms from the common area (left).
The tilted roof, the window-band right under the ceiling in the west façade and the open
room structure contribute in creating a strong “airy and open” spatial character (right).

Figure 7.74 The interiors of the Jean Marie Cultural Centre in Nouméa, New Caledonia is
characterised by the ventilation openings for inlets and outlets on the upper and lower part
of the wall (left). The sloping roof reaches its highest point where the outlet openings are
located (right).

250

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Figure 7.75 In addition to its social and visual functions, the central hall of the Waldorf
School in Cologne, Germany serves as the main ventilation shaft. The stack effect is
utilised to exhaust warm air through vents at the top and suck fresh air in at the bottom
through inlets encompassed by greenery in the floor in the centre of the central hall (left).
Galleries and stairs in the generously daylit central hall provide access to the classrooms
and the different stories (right).

Figure 7.76 The unheated indoor street space in the Eveangelische Gesamtschule in
Gelsenkirchen, Germany is used as a climatic buffer with cold air arriving through
embedded ducts at the bottom and warm air escaping at the top (left and middle). The
interiors of the Jaer School in Nesodden, Norway is characterised by the extensive use of
brick (thermal mass) and a varying floor-to-ceiling height in some of the spaces. The outlet
into the extract chimney can be seen high up on the wall in the media hall (right).

251

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

Figure 7.77 The soffit to the sinusoidal concrete slabs are left exposed in the interiors of
both The Environmental Building of BRE in Watford, UK (left) and in the Inland Revenue
Headquarters in Nottingham, UK (right). The upper side of the sinusoidal concrete slabs
provide horizontal air paths, and the sinusoidal design provides large areas of thermal
mass.

Figure 7.78 The pictures give an impression of how a double skin façade is perceived
from the inside of the ARAG Headquarters in Düsseldorf, Germany (left), of the
administration building of Deutsche Messe AG in Hanover, Germany (middle), and of the
Commerzbank Headquarters in Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany (right).

Figure 7.79 All offices in the Commerzbank Headquarters have a view to the outside
either directly, or through the atrium/skygarden (left). Drawing illustrating the view to the
exterior from the work desks (right).

252

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Notes

1
The Architectural Review Volume 1205, July 1997.
2
Herzog, T. (2000) Sustainable height. Deutsche Messe AG Hannover
Administration Building, Prestel Verlag, Munich.
3
Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,
Jan./Feb. 2001.
4
Berlin: Open City. The city on exhibition, -the guide. Nicolai 2000.
5
Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,
März/April 2001.
6
http://www.byggforsk.no/prosjekter/hybvent/Norske_bygninger.htm
7
Kolding Kommune (2002) Kvarterhuset. Et forsamlingshus efter byøkologiske
principper i Sydvest-Kvarteret Kolding, Booklet, Denmark.
8
Wigginton, M. and Harris, J. (2002) Intelligent Skins, Architectural Press,
London.
9
Energy Efficiency Best Practise Programme. New Practice Case Study 114
(2000) The Inland Revenue Headquarters - feedback for designers and clients,
DETR, London.
10
Wigginton, M. and Harris, J. (2002) Intelligent Skins, Architectural Press,
London.
11
Buchanan, P. (1995) Renzo Piano Building workshop, Complete works Volume
two, Phaidon Press Limited, London.
12
The Architects’ Journal, 1 December 1994.
13
The Architectural Review 2/1999, pp. 40-44.
14
Sonderdruck aus Intelligente Architektur Spezial 3/96.
15
Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,
März/April 2001.
16
Brick Bulletine Summer 2001, Cunning plan, emap construct, London.
17
http://www.murphyjahn.com/english/frameset_intro.htm
18
Dansk Center for Byøkologi (2000) Pihl & Søn A/S. De Store Bygningers
Økologi, Booklet, Copenhagen.
19
Jenkins, D., Baker, P., Forde, G. and Davis, C. (2001) Foster Catalogue2001,
Foster and Partners, London and Prestel Verlag Munich.
20
Schild, P. G. (2002) Hybrid ventilation of Jaer School: Results of Monitoring,
Hybrid Ventilation 2002: 4th International Forum, May 14-15, 2002, Montreal,
Canada.
21
Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,
September 1999.
22
The outer skin of a double façade is in most cases made of glass. The double
façade of Jean Marie Cultural Centre (1998) in Nouméa, New Caledonia (Figure
7.16) has an outer skin of wood, however.

253

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

23
Conversation with Louisa Hutton (Sauerbruch Hutton Architects) on the 5th of
March 2002 in Trondheim, Norway.
24
"Skyscrapers reveal their bold structural pattern during construction. (…) When
the outer walls are put in place, the structural system, which is the basis of all
artistic design, is hidden by a chaos of meaningless and trivial forms. (...) We can
see the new structural principles most clearly when we use glass in place of the
outer walls (…) use of glass imposes new solutions." From Martin Pawley,
introduction and notes. Library of Contemporary Architects: Mies van der Rohe.
p12.
25
van Meel, J. (2000) The European Office, Office design and national context,
010 Publishers, Rotterdam.
26
Hyman, I. and Trachtenberg M. (1986) Architecture from prehistory to post-
modernism, H. N. Abrams, B.V., The Netherlands.
27
Steele, J. (1997) Architecture Today, pp. 270-271. Phaidon Press Limited,
London.
28
http://www.rpwf.org/frame_works.htm
29
http://www.richardrogers.co.uk
30
Vindum, K. and Tøjner, P. E. (1996) Arne Jacobsen. Architect & Designer,
Danish Design centre, Copenhagen.
31
CIBSE Application Manual AM10 (1997) Natural ventilation in non-domestic
buildings, The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, London.
32
Maffei, A. (2002), Toyo Ito works projects writings, Electa architecture, Milan.
33
Interview with C. Alan Short on the 9th of January 2002 in Cambridge,
England.
34
According to professor C. A. Short the peripheral location of the stairs in the
Inland Revenue Headquarters in Nottingham, UK is a weak point of the
building’s natural ventilation concept.
35
Marsh, R. (2000) arkitektonisk form og termisk oppdrift (arkito), -naturlig
ventilasjon i boliger, Arkitektskolen i Aarhus, Center for Integrert Design,
Aarhus.
36
Cold, B. et.al. (1998) Aesthetics, Well-being and Health, Norsk Form, Oslo.
37
Hertzberger, H. (1991) Lessons for students in architecture, Uitgeverij 010
Publishers, Rotterdam.
38
Roalkvam, D. (1997) Rapport om naturlig ventilasjon, Norske Arkitekter for en
Bærekraftig Utvikling (NABU), Oslo.
39
The term Aesthetics derives from the Greek aisthanesthai which means “to
perceive” and aistheta “things perceivable”.
40
Different conceptions and definitions of aesthetics have been offered
throughout history. B. Cold (1998) summarises three main areas of aesthetic
knowledge in the history of aesthetics: 1) the knowledge which derives through
the senses, 2) the knowledge of the nature of beauty, and 3) the knowledge of
theories of criticism in the arts.

254

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

41
In this context, well-being may refer to people’s preferences for places
generally, or it may implicitly refer to preferences for a balance in the built
environment between excitement and control, over- and under-stimulation.
42
Health is not only explained as freedom from disease. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) defines good health as a state of complete physical,
psychological, and social well-being.
43
This last hypothesis is in line with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1954) which
places the cognitive and aesthetic needs as least urgent. Perhaps the aesthetic
needs are not separate from, but integrated in other needs, as Maslow also found
out in a later study (1956).
44
Küller, R. and Lindsten, C. (1991) Hälsoeffekter vid arbete i Fönsterlösa
klassrum (Health effects by working in classrooms without windows) Report
R10:1991, Statens råd för byggnadsforskning, Stockholm.
45
The close contact with natural elements necessary for our survival through
thousands of years has apparently influenced our aesthetic preferences.
46
Nature and natural elements, and even simulations and symbolic images of
nature appear to have a positive impact on people’s well-being and health.
Daylight is one of the natural factors which appear to be crucial for our well-
being and health. Daylight in the interiors, especially combined with a pleasant
view of nature and aesthetically attractive environments, has a positive effect on
our physiological health and psychological well-being.
47
It seems possible to point out some general perceptual and cognitive factors
which interact positively with certain environmental qualities. Understanding the
environment, and being able to “read” it and to feel secure is supported by
environmental coherence. This is perceived when things are ordered and “fit
together” somehow. At the same time there is a human affinity towards
experiencing environments of a certain richness which cause arousal and positive
stimulation towards exploring such environments. Curiosity and an explorative
desire are stimulated by environmental complexity and a certain “mystery” which
promises exciting or new experiences “around the next corner” (e.g. Figure 1.35
Pihl).
48
Certain qualities in the built environment appear to be generally preferred
independently of people’s knowledge structure, emotional “baggage”, interests,
and category of buildings and places. These qualities are found to be
pleasantness, excitement and calmness. In other studies they are called coherence
or harmony and balance, originality or authenticity, place adaptation or
fittingness, and “cultivated simplicity” or good craftsmanship.
49
This can obviously be both positive and negative. The fragrance of a lilac tree
and the sound of a singing bird are by most people welcome, while noise and
smell from e.g. traffic is not. The building and its ventilation concept need
consequently to be optimised for the context in which it is built and make the
most of the sites distinctive characteristics.

255

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 7. Architectural possibilities of natural ventilation

50
Brodersen, L. (1996) Naturlig Ventilation och Byggnadskonst, -Luftens etik og
estetik Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, Stockholm.
51
Brochmann O. (1994) Om stygt og pent, J.W. Cappelens Forlag 4th edition,
Oslo
52
Krupinska, J. (1988) Bra klimat -en formgivningsfråga? Tekniska Högskolan i
Stockholm, Arkitektursektionen. Stockholm.
53
Different materials and finishes have varying impacts on the quality of the
indoor environment. Materials and finishes which emit volatile organic
compounds (VOC), plastics, or which retain dust and dirt worsen air quality and
often affect the health of the occupant. The most toxic materials tend to be those
that are unstable or that are applied in a wet state. Paints, sealants, preservatives,
glues, cleaners and plastics such as PVC (poly vinyl chloride) are among the
worst offenders. Materials present in small quantities may have a disproportionate
impact on air quality.
54
Daniels, K. (1997) The technology of ecological euilding,-basic principles and
measures, examples and ideas Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel-Boston-Berlin.
55
Baker, N. and Steemers K. (2000) Energy and Environment in Architecture – A
Technical Design Guide E&FN SPON, London.
56
The surfaces of any material in a room are in constant state of reciprocal
radiation exchange. A convective heat transfer is dependent upon the temperature
of the surface and that of the air. Together they form a “system” striving for
equilibrium. For variable room temperatures, a rise in temperature triggers
absorption of thermal energy by the surrounding walls from the air in the room.
Hence, the storage properties of thermal mass imply a reduction of the cooling
load for the room. A fall in room temperature will on the other hand trigger a
radiation of thermal energy from the surrounding walls to the air in the room.
This implies a reduction in heating load for the room (Daniels 1997). The thermal
mass’ ability to influence the thermal behaviour of a building depends on the
degree of coupling between the thermal mass and the space. The greater the
contact surface is between the thermal mass and the interior space, the more
effective exchange of thermal energy between the two. It has been found from
both experimental observations and mathematical modelling that thicknesses of
concrete greater than about 50mm have very little effect on diurnal temperature
cycles. Furthermore, if the thermal mass is covered with lightweight finishes
(suspended ceiling, carpeted raised floor etc.) it will play little part in the thermal
behaviour of the building (Baker, N. and Steemers K. 2000).
57
http://www.khras.dk

256

URN:NBN:no-7242
 8 Conclusions and reflections

This research started with the observation that natural ventilation in

buildings has experienced a strongly growing interest, or even a
renaissance, in the late 1990s. Especially architects, but also some HVAC
consultants like e.g. Transsolar, Max Fordham and Partners and Arup,
have promoted the utilisation of natural ventilation and pushed the interest
and knowledge in the field. Very little research that focus on the
architectural consequences of natural ventilation has been conducted,
however, even though natural ventilation is highly integrated with the
building structure and can have considerable architectural consequences.
These observations triggered a desire to acquire a better understanding of
both the architectural consequences and the architectural possibilities
associated with natural ventilation in buildings. A set of research
questions were formed:

x What is the relationship between natural ventilation and building

design? What are the architectural consequences?
x How do different concepts of natural ventilation influence the
architecture of buildings?
x Is there an architectural potential in using natural airflow as a
guiding factor in the development of a design? What are the
architectural possibilities of that?
x How does natural ventilation affect the work of the architect and the
HVAC consultant?

To answer these questions the study started out by investigating the

principles and elements of natural ventilation (Chapter 2). Based on this,
different concepts of natural ventilation were classified by certain criteria
with an eye to identify their respective architectural consequences.
Governed by i.a. these criteria, three main case study buildings were
selected (Chapter 3). Guided by a checklist (which partly was developed
and consecutively modified through the work on the case study buildings),
the architectural consequences of natural ventilation in the three case
study buildings were investigated (Chapters 4, 5 and 6). Based on these
findings, the architectural possibilities were investigated in four key areas
with the aid of several sub-case buildings in addition to the main case
buildings (Chapter 7). This final chapter integrates and sums up the
results from the previous chapters and tries to answer the research

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 8. Conclusions and reflections

questions. A discussion of the findings’ implications for future design of

naturally ventilated buildings follows subsequently. The chapter ends with
recommendations for further research.

8.1 Findings regarding the architectural consequences

of natural ventilation

The first two research questions put focus on the architectural

consequences of natural ventilation. The findings are based on the
investigation of the three case-study buildings, supplemented with
findings from the investigation on the sub-case buildings in Chapter 7.

What is the relationship between natural ventilation and building

design? What are the architectural consequences?

A natural ventilated building must be designed to get air in and out as well
as to support a natural airflow through the interiors. The main
architectural requirements are in short:

x ventilation openings for inlet(s) and outlet(s) in the building envelope

x an internal layout, both in plan and section, that provide a low
pressure drop air path from the inlet(s) to the outlet(s).

Site and context

A natural ventilation concept is based on the characteristics and potentials

of the site. Depending on the nature of the site, the most dominating
driving force (wind or buoyancy) is selected and utilised as effectively as
possible. The ventilation concept is then designed for the primary driving
force (buoyancy in the case of Mediå School) or for both wind and
buoyancy (like in e.g. the GSW Headquarters). The climatic conditions on
the site also influence the specific design of the natural ventilation
concept. Cold climates favour central ventilation inlets and outlets, as that
is advantageous with regard to heat recovery and pre-heating of the
ventilation air (e.g. Mediå Primary School). Local inlets and outlets may
be applied in temperate climates (e.g. GSW and B&O Headquarters)
where the risk of draught is lower. The investigation of the three case-

258

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

study buildings indicated that their urban/rural response (to neighbouring

buildings, streets/roads, the building typology at the site and so forth) and
laws and regulations governed the design of the case buildings and their
natural ventilation concepts to a great degree, especially in the initial
design stages.

Orientation and shape

The orientation and overall shape of buildings utilising natural ventilation

is less influenced/dictated by the natural ventilation concept than initially
expected. Considerations related to the urban context and laws and
regulations determined the orientation of the buildings to a far greater
extent than did considerations to the natural ventilation concept.
Furthermore, the buildings investigated in this study show that naturally
ventilated buildings need not be shaped more aero dynamicaly (like e.g. a
car or an aeroplane, see Figure 1.3) than mechanically ventilated
buildings. The greatest difference in terms of shape appears to be that the
majority of naturally ventilated buildings are rather narrow (even though
the Lanchester Library proves that naturally ventilated buildings can be
designed as deep plan buildings). It can therefore not be said that natural
ventilation dictates the shape of buildings; they can evolve into “any”
shape. Most characteristic ventilation elements associated with natural
ventilation do influence on the shape of the building, however.
Characteristic ventilation elements located on the roof (chimneys, wind
scoops and wind towers) influence the silhouette of the building like e.g.
the wing on the GSW Headquarters and the wind towers of IONICA
Headquarters. Solar chimneys also influence the appearance of facades
(like in e.g. The Inland Revenue Headquarters), as do double facades and
ventilation openings in the façade.

Plan

The proportion of the plan of a naturally ventilated building must be

shaped to facilitate natural airflow. This results most often in linear plans
or in various atrium designs that can be effectively cross-ventilated (e.g.
the B&O Headquarters and DaimlerChrysler Aerospace building). The
plan layout must further accommodate natural airflow from the inlet(s) to

259

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 8. Conclusions and reflections

outlet(s) when stack and cross-ventilation are the applied ventilation

principles. (This is not an issue with the single-sided ventilation principle
where the inlet and outlet is located in the same facade). This is best
achieved with an open plan layout, or a layout with fewest possible
internal walls. Such layouts coincide well with utilisation of daylight and
view to the outside, but may conflict with flexibility/use as well as fire
and acoustics issues. Zoning of functions according to their indoor air
quality requirements is done in some naturally ventilated buildings.

Section

Utilisation of natural ventilation does not have any obvious architectural

consequences in the section of buildings other than those associated with
vertical air paths in stack-ventilation principles. Such a vertical air path
can be interior spaces stretching over several stories, like e.g. a lobby or a
reception, or stairwells that are used as exhaust air paths and therefore
must be connected openly with the spaces/stories served (like in e.g. the
headquarters of B&O and the Inland Revenue). Other examples of vertical
air paths are chimneys (like e.g. in The Environmental Building of BRE)
and double façades serving all (or some) stories in a building (like in e.g.
the GSW Headquarters). The roofs of low-rise buildings (or the top floor
of taller buildings) utilising the stack ventilation principle can be sloped to
accommodate a natural airflow up and out of the room (like e.g. in the
classrooms of Mediå Primary School).

Façade

Ventilation openings constitute the greatest architectural consequences of

natural ventilation in the façade. Local, rather than central, inlets and
outlets affect the façade expression to the greatest extent as they are
distributed over the entire façade and need to cover a rather large area to
avoid large pressure drops. The east façade of the GSW Headquarters with
all its ventilation inlets is a prime example of that. Centralised ventilation
inlets are typically located in towers away from the building, and
centralised outlets are located on the roof. They consequently do not affect
the facades. Tredal School and Media School are representative examples
of that. Characteristic ventilation elements like chimneys (Lanchester

260

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Library), solar chimneys (The Environmental Building of BRE) and

double facades (Deutsche Post Headquarters) are all integrated in the
façade and influence therefore on the façade expression.

Materials and characteristic ventilation elements

Utilisation of thermal mass to dampen diurnal temperature fluctuations is

commonly used in buildings that utilise natural ventilation. It involves
exposure of building materials with high thermal mass like concrete, brick
and stone in the interior. This is the case for all three case-study buildings
and for the majority of the sub-cases. The utilisation of thermal mass is
often manifested in exposed concrete slabs in the ceilings as seen in the
headquarter buildings of GSW and B&O. As for the exterior, the use of
double facades in many naturally ventilated buildings (especially high-rise
buildings) imply extensive use of glass in the facades.

The characteristic elements of natural ventilation have architectural

implications stretching from none to substantial. An embedded duct, most
often used in low and medium rise buildings, has in itself no architectural
implications, whereas wind scoops, wind towers and chimneys can have
significant consequences for the silhouette of the building. Chimneys,
most commonly utilised as ventilation extracts in low- and medium-rise
buildings, seem to be most widespread in the UK1. Double facades are
most often used to facilitate natural ventilation in high-rise buildings by
making it possible to open windows and use them as air paths without
severe draughts. The majority of naturally ventilated high-rise buildings
are located in Germany, and a great deal of them have double façade
designs like GSW Headquarters, debisHaus, Commerzbank Headquarters,
Deutsche post Headquarters, MDR Zentrale, ARAG Headquarters,
Deutsche Messe AG and many others.

Interior spaces

The interiors of buildings utilising natural ventilation are designed to

promote a natural airflow with small pressure drops. This usually results
in open plan layouts or layouts where rooms and functions are openly
connected with each other2. As the various rooms double as an air path,

261

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 8. Conclusions and reflections

they are “links” in what could be referred to as the “air path chain”.
Varying proportions and sizes of rooms depending on where in the air
path chain the room is located is thus characteristic for the interiors of
buildings utilising natural ventilation. An atrium or a tall lobby, as an
example, form excellent stacks where exhaust air can rise and escape
through the roof. Such spaces constitute, as an analogy, a combined
“engine” and “plant room” as well as an exhaust air path. Such a plant
room (an atrium or a tall lobby) is commonly the most extravagant space
in the building, serving representation functions. The contrast to the plant
room of a mechanical ventilation system housing fans and other air
handling components, typically located in the basement or on the roof, is
striking. The floor-to-ceiling height is typically generous to accommodate
a buffer zone over the breathing zone for stale and warm air. The rather
narrow plans seen in many naturally ventilated buildings facilitate
generously daylit spaces and good views to the exterior. Exposure of
materials such as concrete, stone and brick (thermal mass) characterises
the interior surfaces of many of the buildings.

Integration and conflict with other aspects

Natural ventilation, utilisation of daylight and provision of view and

contact with the exterior share interests. Utilisation of thermal mass for
passive conditioning also goes hand in hand with natural ventilation.

Issues related to fire, acoustics and generally strict building regulations

are great challenges for natural ventilation, and need close attention in the
design phase. The organisation of interior spaces in order to provide air
paths with minute pressure drops can challenge flexibility and
functionality.

262

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

How do different concepts of natural ventilation influence the

architecture of buildings?

This second research question is specifically related to the architectural

consequences of different natural ventilation concepts. To the notion
natural ventilation concept we assigned in Chapter 2 the driving force
that is utilised to drive a ventilation principle with the aid of certain
characteristic ventilation elements. The most decisive factors determining
the natural ventilation concept’s influence on the architecture are:

x the ventilation principle (stack, cross and single-sided ventilation) and

x the nature of the supply and exhaust paths, i.e. whether they are
central or local.

Certain characteristic ventilation elements are associated with various

combinations of the two points above. These characteristic elements, such
as e.g. a double façade, can also be essential in determining how different
concepts of natural ventilation affect the architecture of buildings.

Ventilation principle

Stack ventilation

Stack ventilation is mainly driven by buoyancy (wind can also contribute),

and can ventilate deep plan buildings, like e.g. the Lanchester Library and
Resource Centre. Buildings utilising the stack ventilation principle are
characterised by ventilation openings in the façade and characteristic
ventilation elements on the roof like chimneys, wind towers, wind scoops
and venturi wings. The interior spaces have to be organised in such a way
that they accommodate an airflow path both in plan and section.

Cross-ventilation

Cross Ventilation is driven by wind, and the depth of the building that can
be effectively ventilated is limited, typically resulting in linear buildings
or various courtyard and atria designs like e.g. the GSW Headquarters and
the DaimlerChrysler Aerospace. Buildings utilising the cross-ventilation

263

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 8. Conclusions and reflections

principle are characterised by ventilation openings in the façade. The

interior spaces have to be organised in such a way that they accommodate
an airflow path in plan.

Single-sided ventilation

Single-sided ventilation is driven by wind-induced turbulence (buoyancy

can also contribute), and the depth of the space that can be effectively
ventilated is limited, typically resulting in double-banked plan layouts and
linear building volumes like e.g. the ARAG Headquarters. Buildings
utilising the single-sided ventilation principle are characterised by
ventilation openings in the façade. The interior spaces need not be
organised in specific ways to accommodate an airflow path like in the two
ventilation principles above, but the depth that can be effectively
ventilated is, as mentioned, limited.

Supply and exhaust paths

The type of supply and exhaust path, i.e. whether it is local or central, also
determines what kind of influence a natural ventilation concept has on
architecture:

Local supply and extract paths influence the interiors to only a limited
degree in themselves, as there is no need for a dedicated distribution
network (chambers, ducts and so forth) since the interior spaces
themselves form the air path. The building envelope is on the other hand
“perforated” with numerous and/or extensive ventilation openings for
inlets and outlets. The inlet openings in the north façade of the B&O
Headquarters and the inlet openings in the east façade of the GSW
Headquarters are good examples of that.

Central supply and extract paths have usually lesser influence on the
building envelope as the inlet and outlet respectively are centralised in one
unit each. The centralised pathways are on the other hand dependent on a
dedicated distribution system within the building to transport the air to the
desired locations. A typical example is the Mediå primary school with the
inlet and exhaust towers linked to the distribution chamber and extract
chamber respectively.

264

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

This study has shown that the natural ventilation concepts of the three
case-study buildings have influenced the architecture of all three
buildings. The study has also shown that the architecture of the buildings
has influenced the natural ventilation concepts, however. It is very hard to
say how much the architecture influenced the ventilation concept and vice
versa. In general it is important to note that they mutually influence each
other, and that the design is an iterative process between building and
ventilation concept (and obviously a number of other factors). As J. L.
Young at Sauerbruch Hutton Architects puts it:

“In a way, one thing led to the other. At some point the ventilation was
pulling the idea of the high-rise, but the high-rise came also and helped
create the ventilation concept. They were two things that somehow
came together”.

8.2 Findings regarding the architectural possibilities of

natural ventilation

The third research question puts the focus on the architectural possibilities
of natural ventilation.

Is there an architectural potential in using natural airflow as a guiding

factor in the development of a design? What are the architectural
possibilities?

The answer to the first part of the question is, as expected, a definite yes
which also J. L. Young’s experience quoted above substantiate. To
indicate the architectural possibilities, it has been found useful to simplify
a “complex picture” in order to clarify and draw up the main lines.

Ventilation of buildings can very roughly be simplified as 1) getting fresh

air into the building from the outside, 2) directing the air through the
interior to provide it with fresh air and to pick up heat and pollutants on its
way, and finally 3) to get the exhaust air out of the building (Figure 8.1).
The three points are useful when attempting to describe the architectural
possibilities associated with natural ventilation.

265

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 8. Conclusions and reflections

Driving force

Air Building

Figure 8.1 In the simplest terms the building structure and the natural driving forces
should form a symbiosis that produces an air-change in the building. The driving force is
utilised to drive air into and out of a building. The building is designed to accommodate
airflow into and out of itself in addition to direct the airflow through the interiors from the
inlet to the outlet opening(s).

The first and the third point; getting air into and out of the building, are
manifested in ventilation openings in the building envelope (façade and
roof). These can be accentuated in various ways, and can be associated
with various characteristic elements like e.g. a wind scoop and a double
facade. The design and shaping of ventilation openings can represent an
architectural possibility, as well as they can be a challenge or a limitation
for some designs. Commonly, the ventilation openings are very
pronounced in the architectural expression of the building due to their
location and size, especially those in the façade and in some cases also
those on the roof. They are by implication considered as an important
architectural element that implicitly is shaped and given a deliberate
design. The building can further be shaped or designed in order to
increase over and under pressure at designated locations on the building
envelope where the ventilation openings are located. The Deutsche Messe
AG is an example of this where a conscious build up of volumes increases
the driving pressure created by wind at the areas in the building envelope
where the ventilation openings are placed (section 7.3). The curved
facades of both the Deutsche Post Heasquarters and the MDR-Zentrale are
examples of the same where the building by virtue of its shape influences
the driving pressure derived from wind. It is however most common that
the characteristic ventilation elements, rather than the whole building, are
designed to increase the driving pressure. The wing of the GSW
Headquarters, the wind cowls of the B&O Headquarters and the wind
towers of IONICA Headquarters are examples of that.

266

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

The second point, directing the airflow through the interiors from the inlet
opening(s) to the outlet opening(s), represents a great design challenge as
the desire for minimal pressure drop for optimal utilisation of the natural
driving pressure (from the ventilation point of view) can conflict with the
functional needs and requirements of the users of the building. This
especially applies for natural ventilation concepts based on cross- and
stack ventilation where the air paths are much longer than in single-sided
ventilated buildings. This challenge involves at the same time substantial
architectural possibilities for the organisation and the shaping of the
interior spaces in particular, and the overall shaping of the building in
general3. The possibilities for the interior spaces derive from the fact that
the various rooms form links in the “chain of the airflow path”, stretching
from inlet to outlet. Depending on a room’s location in the airflow path,
different size, proportion, floor-to-ceiling height and so forth is desired
from a ventilation point of view. The architectural possibilities that can be
derived from this comprise issues related to spatial experience and quality
in the interior spaces (volumes, proportions, floor-to-ceiling height) as
well as the spatial connections and rhythm of spaces with differing
expressions and qualities along the airflow path. The ventilation principle
and the organization of the interior spaces produce new reasons as well as
arguments for buildings to assume certain forms and proportions (e.g.
GSW Headquarters, B&O Headquarters, Commerzbank Headquarters,
Deutsche Post Headquarters and Jean Marie Cultural Centre). The shape
of most naturally ventilated buildings have in common that they can
utilise daylight in practically all interior spaces, and accommodate view to
and contact to the exterior from virtually every spot inside the building.
The headquarters of GSW and B&O are prime examples of that. The
avoidance of large ventilation plants with accompanying components and
vertical and horizontal ducts may in itself result in architectural
possibilities and a greater freedom in the design.

8.3 Design team experiences and implications for

future designs

This study has confirmed that an interdisciplinary approach is mandatory

when designing buildings that utilise natural ventilation. In the
introduction chapter the following question was posed:

How does natural ventilation affect the work of the architect and the
HVAC consultant?

267

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 8. Conclusions and reflections

Design team experiences

Essential to the idea of natural ventilation is simplification of the

ventilation system and better integration of this system with the structure
of the building. Rather than housing a machine, the structure should in
itself act as one4. By virtue of the shape and the design of the building
body, wind and thermal buoyancy should be harnessed to drive ventilation
air into and out of the building at designated locations. The internal
arrangements of interior spaces should further, as mentioned above,
promote a natural airflow from the inlet(s) to the outlet(s). In a successful
design, as an analogy, the building should be able to breath on its own
without the need for extensive use of a lung machine or a pacemaker (i.e.
a mechanical ventilation system). The development of the natural
ventilation concept is as a result intertwined with the shaping and design
of the building body as well as the organisation of the interior spaces. The
fact that the building design should meet the criteria favourable for natural
ventilation (low pressure drops) should obviously not compromise on the
functionality of the building. This is a key challenge for the design team
and an essential reason for a close, interdisciplinary collaboration between
the various professions of the team.

Successful utilisation of natural ventilation in buildings demands the

designers’ thorough awareness and understanding of the terms and
potentials of the site where the building is to be erected. Based on the
possibilities the site provides with regard to issues like topography,
climate, orientation, pollution and so forth, the building and the
ventilation concept have to be developed in an iterative process where the
two give inputs to each other and evolves into “one unity”. The
experiences of the architects and the HVAC engineers of the three case-
study buildings are in general very positive, and they all emphasise the
interdisciplinary approach to natural ventilation in buildings as
mandatory. They also emphasise that it is both difficult and challenging to
design a naturally ventilated building, -more difficult than designing an
equal, but mechanically ventilated, building. Even though this study has
focused only on these two professions (and demonstrated the need for, and
the importance of an interdisciplinary cooperation between them in the
design of the three case-study buildings), it is apparent that utilisation of
natural ventilation can have significant implication for the structure of the
building (thermal mass, air paths, construction and so forth) and hence the
work of the civil engineer as well. Further, natural ventilation cannot, and
indeed should not, be seen as an independent or individual exercise
isolated from the rest of the building. Achieving a good natural ventilation
concept also implies dealing with solar shading, thermal mass, utilisation

268

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

of daylight to reduce heat gains from electrical light and a number of other
issues. There are hence several factors that should be viewed as a
complete package. This is, no doubt, a great challenge for the designers,
but should also be an intellectual rewarding task with both positive
professional and social spin-offs.

Implication for future designs

Implications of the findings of this study for future designs of buildings

utilising natural ventilation can in short be summed up in a few points:

x The building site with its requirements and potentials must be

thoroughly investigated and understood by the designers both to
clarify the applicability of natural ventilation in the first place and to
utilise the potential of the natural driving forces as effectively as
possible.
x Inputs provided by the site are then subsequently used in the design of
the building and its natural ventilation concept where the two are
developed in an iterative process. The arrangement of the interior
spaces to achieve a favourable airflow path with the lowest possible
resistance to airflow without compromising functionality is a key
design challenge.
x Some of the characteristic elements of natural ventilation (e.g. wind
towers) affect the building silhouette to a great degree and require
implicitly special attention and care from the designers.
x An interdisciplinary approach is mandatory when designing buildings
that utilise natural ventilation. Especially the HVAC consultant and
the architect should work together from the initial stages of the design
phase.
x As a consequence, more time should be invested in the development
of the natural ventilation concept in the program and design phase.
This is especially the case at present, as modern natural ventilation is
in its infancy and routines, methods and experience is not yet fully
established.

269

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Chapter 8. Conclusions and reflections

8.4 Further research and development

Based on the research conducted in this work, five central issues for
further research and development are pointed out below. More knowledge
on these issues is essential to future practice and to the use of natural
ventilation in buildings in the future.

x Internal arrangement and layout of spaces focusing on the connection

between low pressure-drop air-paths for natural ventilation and spatial
qualities and flexibility.
x Development in design and function of characteristic natural
ventilation elements. This hold technical as well as aesthetical
challenges.
x Occupiers’ comfort and satisfaction in modern naturally ventilated
buildings.
x Issues related to acoustics, fire and building regulations.
x Design guidelines for architects.

Notes

1
The chimney has been an important element in English architecture, especially
in domestic buildings, but also in non-domestic buildings, and represents both
architectural and cultural qualities.
2
An interesting point to note is that plan layouts of both office buildings (e.g. the
B&O Headquarters in Denmark) and school buildings (e.g. the Tredal School in
Norway) seem to be evolving in the direction of more open layouts. This was also
underlined at the conference Rom for næring -rom for læring. (Space for business
-space for learning) held in Oslo on the 24th of October 2002. (The conference
focused on shaping and management of business premises and on buildings that
meet the requirements of changes in organizations and work patterns).
3
The overall shaping of the building in general as the greatest achievable distance
between inlet and outlet varies according to the ventilation principle. This dictates
thus certain building shapes and proportions to develop, e.g. linear building
volumes and slender gable walls.
4
To use an analogy derived from Le Corbusier, who saw a house as a machine
for living in (see Chapter 1).

270

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Literature

Allard, F. (1998) Natural ventilation in buildings, James & James, London.

Andersen et. al. (2000) AIVC conference in Haag.

Andersen, K. T. (2002) Naturlig ventilation i erhvervsbygninger, By og Byg,

Statens Byggeforskningsinstitutt, Hørsholm.

Andresen, I. A. (2000) A Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Method for Solar

Building Design, PhD thesis at Department of Building Technology, NTNU,
Trondheim.

Arbeids- og administrasjonsdepartementet (1977) “Lov om arbeidervern og

arbeidsmiljø m.v. (law on work environment)”.

Arbeids- og administrasjonsdepartementet (1995) “Forskrift om arbeidsplasser

og arbeidslokaler (Regulation on workplaces and workspaces)”.

Arbeidstilsynet (1996) “Veiledning om klima og luftkvalitet på arbeidsplassen

(Guide on climate and air quality on working places)”. Order no. 444.

Architecture Today 116, March 2001, pp. 30-49.

ASHRAE (1992) Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.

ASHRAE Standard 55.

Awbi, H. B. (1991) Ventilation of Buildings, E&FN SPON, London.

Axley, J. W. (2001) Application of Natural Ventilation for U.S. Commercial

buildings, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Technology
Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce.

Bahadori, M.N. (1978) Passive cooling systems in Iranian architecture. Scientific

American, Feb., pp. 144-154.

Baker, N. and Steemers K. (2000) Energy and Environment in Architecture – A

Technical Design Guide E&FN SPON, London.

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Literature

Banham, R. (1969) The Architecture of the Well-tempered Environment,

Architectural Press, London.

Bauwelt Sonderdruck (special print) (1999) Heft 46, Hochhaus der GSW in
Berlin (The GSW high-rise in Berlin).

Berlin: Open City. The city on exhibition, -the guide. Nicolai 2000.

Blakstad, S. H. (2001) A Strategic Approach to Adaptability in Office Buildings,

PhD thesis at Department of Building Technology, NTNU, Trondheim.

Bluyssen, Fernandes, et al., (1996) European audit project in 56 office buildings.

Indoor Air, Volume 6, pp 221-238.

Bordass, W. T., M. J. Entwisle, et al., (1994) Naturally Ventilated and Mixed-

Mode Office Buildings - Opportunities and Pitfalls. CIBSE National Conference,
Brighton, UK.

BPS-Publikation 131, (2000) Fem glasfacader. Optimering af energi- og

komfortforhold. (Five glass facades. Optimisation of energy- and comfort issues).

Brager, G. S. and deDear, R. (2000) A Standard for Natural Ventilation,

ASHRAE Journal, October 2001, pp. 21-28.

Brick Bulletine (2001, summer) Cunning plan, emap construct, London.

Brochmann O. (1994) Om stygt og pent, J.W. Cappelens Forlag 4th edition, Oslo.

Brodersen, L. (1996) Naturlig Ventilation och Byggnadskonst, -Luftens etik og

estetik Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, Stockholm. (In Swedish).

Brown, D. J. (2000) The Arup Journal (Millennium issue 3), Vol. 35 No.2 Ove
Arup Partnership Ltd, London.

Buchanan, P. (1995) Renzo Piano Building workshop, Complete works Volume

two, Phaidon Press Limited, London.

CIBSE Application Manual AM10 (1997) Natural ventilation in non-domestic

buildings, The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, London.

CIBSE Applications Manual AM13 (2000) Mixed Mode Ventilation, The

Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, London.

272

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Clements-Crome, D. (1997) Naturally Ventilated Buildings. Buildings for the

senses, the economy and society, E & FN Spon, London.

Cold, B. (1991) Om arkitektur og kvalitet, -ikke den teknisk, funksjonelle,

målbare kvaliteten, men den opplevde estetiske, Article in EST I
Grunnlagsproblemer i estetisk forskning. Norsk allmennvitenskapelige
forskningsråd, Oslo. (In Norwegian).

Cold, B. et.al. (1998) Aesthetics, Well-being and Health, Norsk Form, Oslo.

Compagno, A. (1995) Intelligent Glass Facades, Birkhäuser - Verlag für

Architektur, Basel.

Craig, James R. et al. (1988) Resources of the earth. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Daniels, K. (1997), The Technology of Ecological Building. Basic Principles and

Measures, Examples and Ideas, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel.

Dansk Center for Byøkologi (2000) Pihl & Søn A/S. De Store Bygningers
Økologi, Booklet, Copenhagen.

Darmawan (1999) Adaptive thermal comfort: A multicultural issue. HybVent

Forum’99, Sydney.

Darwin, C. (1859) The Origin of the Species, Murray, London.

de Dear (1999) Adaptive thermal comfort in natural and hybrid ventilation.

HybVent Forum’99, Sydney.

Dirckinck-Holmfeld, K. (1999) Bang & Olufsen A/S, Special print of Arkitektur

DK 6/99. Boktrykkeriet, Skive.

Energy Efficiency Best Practise Programme. New Practice Case Study 114
(2000) The Inland Revenue Headquarters - feedback for designers and clients,
DETR, London.

Fanger, Laurritsen, et al., (1988) Air pollution sources in offices and assembly
halls, quantified by the olf unit. Energy & Buildings, 12, 1988, pp 7-19.

Fisk, Mendell, et al. (1993) Phase 1 of the California healthy building study: a
summary. Indoor Air 3, pp 246-254.

273

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Literature

Fisk, W. J., Mendell, M. J., Daisey, J. M., Faulkner, D., Hodgson, A. T.,
Nematollahi, M., and Macher, J. M. (1993) Phase 1 of the California Healthy
Building Study: a Summary, Indoor Air 1993; 3: pp 246-254.

Fjelland, R. (1999) Innføring i vitenskapsteori, Universitetsforlaget, Oslo.

Folkehelsa (the Norwegian institute of public health) (1998) “Anbefalte faglige

normer for inneklima (Recommended norms for indoor climate)”. Report.

Ford, B. (2002) The Architecture of Cooling Without Air Conditioning, SAMSA

2002 Lecture Material.

Hansen, H. E., Kjerulf-Jensen, P., Stampe, O. B. (1997) Varme og Klimateknikk,

Grundbog, Danvak ApS, Copenhagen.

Heiselberg (ed.), P., (2002) Principles of Hybrid Ventilation. Aarhus University

Center, Denmark.

Helsedepartementet (1995) “Forskrift om miljørettet helsevern i barnehager og

skoler m.v. (Regulation on environmental oriented health care in kindergartens
and schools)”.

Hendriksen, O. J. (2001) Long-term monitoring at Bang & Olufsen Office

building, Annex 35 Hybvent, Second International One-day Forum at Technische
Universiteit Delft, 14 May 2001.

Hendriksen, O. J. et.al. (2002) Pilot study report: Bang & Olufsen Headquarters,
International Energy Agency (IEA) Annex 35.

Hensen, J.L.M. (1990) Litterature review on thermal comfort in transient

conditions, Building and Environment, vol. 25, no 4, pp. 309-316.

Herdeg (1990) Formal structure in Islamic architecture of Iran and Turkistan.

Rizzoli, New York.

Hertzberger, H. (1991) Lessons for students in architecture, 010 Publishers,

Rotterdam.

Herzog, T. (2000) Sustainable height. Deutsche Messe AG Hannover

Administration Building, Prestel Verlag, Munich.

Heschong, L. (1979) Thermal Delight in Architecture, The MIT Press,

Cambridge, Massachusetts.

274

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Hyman, I. and Trachtenberg M. (1986) Architecture from prehistory to post-

modernism, H. N. Abrams, B.V., The Netherlands.

Intelligente Architektur 21, Zeitschrift für Architektur, Gebäudetechnik und

Facility Management, Februar 2000, pp. 29-41.

Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,

Jan./Feb. 2001.

Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,

März/April 2001.

Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,

September 1999.

Jenkins, D., Baker, P., Forde, G. and Davis, C. (2001) Foster Catalogue2001,
Foster and Partners, London and Prestel Verlag Munich.

Jertén, R. et.al. (1996) Som man bygger får man ventilera, Arkitekternas forum
för forskning och utveckling, Stockholm. (In Swedish).

Kolding Kommune (2002) Kvarterhuset. Et forsamlingshus efter byøkologiske

principper i Sydvest-Kvarteret Kolding, Booklet, Denmark.

Kommunal- og regionaldepartementet (1997) “Tekniske forskrifter til plan- og

bygningsloven (Technical Regulations under the Planning and Building Act)”.

Kroner, W. M. (1997) An intelligent responsive architecture, Automatisation in

Construction 6, pp. 381-393.

Krupinska, J. (1988) Bra klimat -en formgivningsfråga? Tekniska Högskolan i

Stockholm, Arkitektursektionen. Stockholm.

Kvale, S (1997) InterViews: an introduction to qualitative research interviewing,

SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, California.

Küller, R. and Lindsten, C. (1991) Hälsoeffekter vid arbete i Fönsterlösa

klassrum (Health effects by working in classrooms without windows) Report
R10:1991, Statens råd för byggnadsforskning, Stockholm.

Luke, A. (1999) Natural Ventilation Chimneys, Building Services Journal, Vol.

21, No. 7.

275

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Literature

Maffei, A. (2002), Toyo Ito works projects writings, Electa architecture, Milan.

Marsh, R. (2000) Arkitektonisk form og termisk oppdrift (arkito), -naturlig

ventilasjon i boliger, Arkitektskolen i Aarhus, Center for Integrert Design,
Aarhus.

McCarthy, Christopher; Battle McCarthy Consulting Engineers (1999) Wind

Towers, Jon Wiley & Sons Ltd. London.

Mendell (1990) Elevated symptom prevalence in air-conditioned office buildings:

A reanalysis of epidemic studies from the United Kingdom. Proceedings Indoor
Air ’90, Vol. 1, pp 623-629.

Miles, M. B. (1979) Qualitative Data as an Attractive Nuisance: the problem of

analysis Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, pp. 590-601.

Monby, P. S. and Vestergaard, T., Birch & Krogboe A/S (1998) Styr på Naturlig
Ventilation (Controling Natural Ventilation), VVS/VVB 13, 1998, pp. 20-24.
(Article in the Danish HVAC journal).

Norberg-Schultz, Chr. (1992) Mellom jord og himmel, Pax Forlag A/S, Oslo.

Norges standardiseringsforbund (2002) “prNS 3563. Ventilation for buildings –

Design methods for indoor climate.”(Based on CR 1752).

Norges standardiseringsforbund, october (1995) NS-EN ISO 7730.

Roalkvam, D. (1997) Rapport om naturlig ventilasjon, Norske Arkitekter for en

Bærekraftig Utvikling (NABU), Oslo.

Robson, C. (1993) Real World Research. A Resource for Social Scientists and
Practitioner-Researchers, Blackwell, Oxford, UK.

Roodman, D. M. and Lenssen, N. (1995) World Watch Paper 124, A Building

Revolution: How Ecology and Health Concerns Are Transforming Construction,
Worldwatch Institute, Washington.

S.R. Hastings et. al. (1994) Passive Solar Commercial and Institutional
Buildings, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Sauerbruch Hutton Architects (2000) GSW Headquarters, Berlin, Lars Müller

Publishers, Baden, Switzerland.

276

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Schild, P. G. (2002) Hybrid ventilation of Jaer School: Results of Monitoring,

Hybrid Ventilation 2002: 4th International Forum, May 14-15, 2002, Montreal,
Canada.

Schittich, C., G. Staib, et al. (1999) Glass Construction Manual. Basel,

Birkhäuser Publishers.

Schrøder, H. P. (2001) Holte Prosjekt FDV-nøkkelen 2001. GCS as, Oslo.

Schuler M. (2000) Optimierund des Nutzerkomforts und Minimierung der

Gebäudetechnik durch adaptive Gebäudehullen. Transsolar Energietechnik,
Stuttgart, Germany.

Schuler M. (1999) Double facades – Double Shell facades, IEA TASK 19, Solar
air systems. Engineering handbook. Double facades.

Seppänen, O. and Fisk, J. (2002) Association of ventilation system type with SBS
symptoms in office workers, Indoor Air 2002; 12: pp 98-112.

Shildt,P. (2002) Pilote Study Report, Jaer School. Nesodden municipality, IEA-
Energy Conservation in Buildings and community systems, May 20th, pp. 21.

Siza, Á. and Frampton, K. (2000) Álvaro Siza: complete works, Phaidon, London.

Statens bygningstekniske etat (1997) “Ren veiledning til teknisk forskrift til plan-
og bygningsloven 1977 (Guide to the technical Regulations under the Planning
and Building Act)”.

Statens helsetilsyn (1998) “Veileder til forskrift om miljørettet helsevern i

barnehager og skoler m.v. (Regulation on environmental oriented health care in
kindergartens and schools)”. IK-2619.

Steele, J. (1997) Architecture Today, pp. 270-271. Phaidon Press Limited,

London.

The Architects’ Journal, 1 December 1994.

The Architectural Review 2/1999, pp. 40-44.

The Architectural Review Volume 1205, July 1997.

The European Commission. (1999) A Green Vitruvius, James & James, London.

277

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Literature

Thorstensen, Hansen, et al., (1990) Air pollution sources and indoor air qualities
in schools. Proceedings Indoor Air, Volume 1, pp 531-536.

Tjelflaat, P. O. (1999) Hybrid ventilasjon – et alternativ som virker på Grong

barne- og ungdomsskole (Hybrid ventilation – an alternative applied in the
Mediå Primary School in Grong)), Økobygg conference in Oslo 27th of August
1999 in Oslo.

Tjelflaat, P. O. (2002) Erfaringer med kostnader, inneklima og energibruk ved

Mediå Barneskole i Grong (Experiences related to costs, indoor climate and use
of energy in Mediå Primary School in Grong), Norsk VVS landsmøte (national
congress for the Norwegian HVAC ) 26th of April 2002 in Trondheim.

Tjelflaat, P. O. and Rødahl, E. (1997) Design of Fan-Assisted Natural ventilation.

General Guidelines and Suggested Design for Energy-Efficient Climatization-
System for School Building in Grong, Norway. SINTEF Report STF22 A97557.

Tjelflaat, P. O. et.al. (2000) Pilot study report: Mediå School in Grong, Norway,
IEA Annex 35: HybVent.

Tokle, T. et al. (1999) Status for energibruk, energibærere og CO2-utslipp for

den norske bygningsmassen. SINTEF Energiforskning rapport (TR A4887),
Trondheim.

Twisdell, J. and Weir, T. (1986) Renewable energy sources, E&FN Spon Ltd.,
London.

van Meel, J. (2000) The European Office, Office design and national context, 010
Publishers, Rotterdam.

Vik, T. A. (1998) Natural and hybrid ventilation in buildings, Technology state-

of-the-art 1998. SINTEF Report STF22 F98504. Trondheim.

Vik, T. A. (2003) Life cycle cost of natural vs. mechanical ventilation concepts,
PhD thesis at Department of Architectural Design, History and Technology,
NTNU, Trondheim.

Vindum, K. and Tøjner, P. E. (1996) Arne Jacobsen. Architect & Designer,

Danish Design centre, Copenhagen.

Wachenfeldt, B. J. (2003) Natural Ventilation in Buildings. Detailed prediction of

energy performance, PhD thesis at Department of Energy and Process
Engineering, NTNU, Trondheim.

278

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

White, F. M. et. al. (1999) Fluid Mechanics - 4th ed., WCB/McGraw-Hill,

Singapore.

Wigginton, M. and Harris, J. (2002) Intelligent Skins, Architectural Press,

London.

World Health Organisation (2000) Air Quality guidelines for Europe. WHO
Regional Publications, European Series, No. 91.

Wouters, P., N. Heijmans, et al. (1999) Classification of Hybrid Ventilation

Concepts. HybVent Forum '99, Sydney.

Yin, R. K. (1994) Case study research, -Design and Methods, SAGE

publications, London.

Zweers, T., Preller, L., Brunekreef, B., and Boleij, J. S. M. (1992) Health and
Indoor Climate Complaints of 7043 Office Workers in 61 Buildings in the
Netherlands, Indoor Air 1992; 2: pp 127-136.

279

URN:NBN:no-7242
URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Appendix: Sub-case buildings

High- Medium- Low-

Building Completed Location
rise rise rise
Commerzbank Frankfurt am
1997 X
Headquarters1 Main, Germany
Deutsche Messe 2 1999 Hanover, Germany X
MDR Zentrale3 2000 Leipzig, Germany X
debis Haus,
1997 Berlin, Germany X
DaimlerChrysler4
Ludwigsfelde,
Daimler Chrysler5 2000 X
Germany
Sundalsøra,
Tredal School6 2000 X
Norway
7
Kvarterhuset 2001 Kolding, Denmark X
BRE8 1996 Garston, UK X
Inland Revenue9 1995 Nottingham, UK X
Enschede,
Tax Office10 1996 X
Netherlands
Jean Marie Cultural Nouméa, New
1998 X
Centre11 Caledonia
IONICA
1994 Cambridge, UK X
Headquarters12
Waldorfschule13 1997 Cologne, Germany X
Karlsruhe,
WAT14 1995 X
Germany
Evangelische Gelsenkirchen,
1998 X
Gesamtschule15 Germany
Lanchester Library16 2000 Coventry, UK X
Deutsche Post
2003 Bonn, Germany X
Headquarters17
Pihl & Søn18 1994 Lyngby, Denmark X
ARAG Düsseldorf,
2001 X
Headquarters19 Germany
Jaer School20 1999 Nesodden, Norway X
Solar-Fabrik21 1999 Freiburg, Germany X

Table 2 List of the sub-case buildings used in addition to the three main case-study
buildings to illustrate architectural possibilities of natural ventilation. Each building is
briefly presented in the following.

281

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

Commerzbank Headquarters

Figure 2 The triangular shaped Commerzbank Headquarters tower has a distinctive

presence on the Frankfurt skyline (left). Drawing of the section (middle) and drawing of
the plan (right).

Building type : Office building (53 stories).

Year of completion : 1997.
Location : Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany.
Site and situation : City centre, medium- to high-rise buildings.
Architect : Foster and Partners.
HVAC consultant : Arup and Roger Preston & Partners.

The Commerzbank Headquarters claims to be the world’s first ecological

office tower and is the tallest building in Europe to date. Central to this
concept is a reliance on natural systems of lighting and ventilation. Every
office in the tower is daylit and has openable windows thanks to the
double façade design. The shape of the plan is triangular, comprising three
“petals”, the office floors and a “stem” formed by a full-height central
atrium. Pairs of vertical masts enclose services and circulation cores in the
corners of the plan and support eight-storey Vierendeel beams, which in
turn support clear-span office floors. Four-storey gardens are set at
different levels on each of the three sides of the tower, forming a spiral of
gardens around the building. As a result only two sides of the tower are
filled with offices on any level. The gardens become the visual and social
focus for village-like clusters of offices. They play an ecological role,
bringing daylight and fresh air into the central atrium, which acts as a
natural ventilation chimney for the inward-facing offices.

282

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Deutsche Messe AG, administration building

Figure 3 The administration building of Deutsche Messe AG is widely visible on the

exhibition area in Hanover, both because of its height compared to the neighbouring
exhibition halls and because of the ventilation chimney stretching up towards the sky (left).
Drawing of the section (middle) and drawing of the plan with offices located along the
facades and meeting/group rooms in the core (right).

Building type : Office building (20 stories).

Year of completion : 1999.
Location : Hanover, Germany.
Site and situation : Trade fair area with exhibition halls.
Architect : Herzog + Partners.
HVAC consultant : Ingenieurbüro Hausladen GmbH.

The decision in favour of a high-rise building was the outcome of tight

site conditions. The layout is articulated into a 24x24m square office
tower flanked with two access structures (the one to the south-west
contains sanitary facilities as well). Every second façade bay contains a
sliding window (1x2m) in the inner skin of the double facade that
provides the inlet for the natural ventilation. Ventilation inlets linked to
the mechanical ventilation system are incorporated in the apron panels. A
mechanical device connected to the casements closes the air inlets when
the windows are opened. In this way a choice between natural and
mechanical forms of ventilation is allowed. Exhaust air is removed via a
central duct system and conducted over a rotary heat-exchange unit before
being discharged from the building through the chimney. Both thermal
buoyancy and fans are hence used to extract the ventilation air out of the
building.

283

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk (MDR) Zentrale

Figure 4 The south façade of MDR-Zentrale is characterised by its curved double façade
and the horizontal bands of ventilation inlets and outlets in front of each floor-slab (left).
Drawing of the section (middle) and drawing of the plan (right).

Building type : Office building (13 stories).

Year of completion : 2000.
Location : Leipzig, Germany.
Site and situation : Urban, low- to medium-rise buildings.
Architect : GPS Architekten with Struhk +partners.
HVAC consultant : HL-Technik, Hamburg/München.

“On air”, the principle of a radio station, became visual reality in the new
MDR-Zentrale in Leipzig in several ways. “Air” plays an important role
in the concept of natural ventilation. In addition, the high-rise building
seems to be floating some meters above the ground. The core of the
buildings interior is the foyer which functions as crossing point for staff
and customers. Important for the whole building concept was to achieve
flexible and adaptable plan solutions. The plan is a combination of the
rectangular northern part and the curved southern part including offices
which can be either used as two person offices or as an open office
landscape. The climate concept is different from most high-rise buildings
as it uses mostly natural facilities. The double facade and its elements
allow natural ventilation, a facility that is adjustable by the occupants
opening doors and windows. Integrated water basins help improving the
buildings microclimate, air humidity and cooling facilities.

284

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

debis Haus, Daimler Chrysler

Figure 5 The debis Haus at Potsdamer Platz is made up of three sections of varying
heights (left). The office tower rises to a height of 85 meters, making it one of the tallest
buildings on the square. Drawing of the section through the lower parts with the atrium
(middle) and drawing of the plan (right).

Building type : Office building (21 stories).

Year of completion : 1997.
Location : Berlin, Germany.
Site and situation : City centre, medium- to high-rise buildings.
Architect : Renzo Piano Building Workshop.
HVAC consultant : Arup GmbH and Schmidt Reuter and Partner.

A green cube tops the tall and slender headquarters building of the debis
head office, which is the company’s trade-mark. It has been placed on the
funnel which serves as the ventilation shaft of the Tiergarten tunnel. The
two elongated wings of the administrative building encompass the
cathedral-like atrium which acts as a stack and an air path for the
building’s natural ventilation concept. The atrium, covered by a 2260m2
glass roof that allows light to flood in, is open to the public and serves
also as an exhibition area. (“Méta-Maxi” by Jean Tinguely, “Light Blue”
by Francois Morellet and “Nam Sat” by Nam June Paik are on exhibit). A
remarkable feature of this ensemble is the double façade design of the
high-rise. The operable glass lamellas of the outer skin can be opened and
closed depending on the weather conditions. During hot summer days, the
cavity of the double façade is allowed to breathe, and the protective outer
skin allows the windows in the inner skin to be opened for natural
ventilation in adverse weather conditions.

285

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

DaimlerChrysler Aerospace, MTU Maintenance

Figure 6 The south façade of the DaimlerChrysler Aerospace building has a distinctive
concave shape with fixed solar shading devices integrated (left). Drawing of the section
(middle) and drawing of the plan (right).

Building type : Office building (3 stories).

Year of completion : 2000.
Location : Ludwigsfelde, Germany.
Site and situation : Semi urban, medium rise buildings.
Architect : Gewers Kühn + Kühn Architekten.
HVAC consultant : Arup GmbH.

The office spaces of the new customer and training centre of

DaimlerChrysler Aerospace are organised around an oval atrium which is
the point where the public and the corporation meet and where customer
service teams are trained in turbine maintenance. Flexible office spaces
around the atrium contain the company’s control centre for its various
corporate activities and may be partitioned off and furnished as either
clusters of office cubicles or large open-plan offices, team offices or
flexible office landscapes. An access ring around the atrium allows for
short distances between the different teams. The idea is that the “open
house” concept should correspond to DaimlerChrysler’s innovation-
oriented corporate philosophy and promote team spirit and effective
communication. The atrium feeds the core of the building with daylight as
well as serving as a stack chimney for the natural ventilation concept.
Fresh air enters the building through local ventilation inlets integrated in
the facades.

286

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Tredal School

Figure 7 The Tredal school is a one storey linear building structure which is articulated by
a characteristic ventilation exhaust tower (left). Drawing of the section (top right) and
drawing of the plan (bottom right).

Building type : School building (1 storey).

Year of completion : 2000.
Location : Sunndalsøra, Norway.
Site and situation : Rural.
Architect : HUS Sivilarkitekter A/S.
HVAC consultant : Theorells A/S.

Tredal School consists of several buildings from different time periods.

The latest part (the one studied in this work) was built after the school
partly burned down. It houses 7 classes, a common area and
administration facilities. The linear structure completes and closes the
inner schoolyard. The row of classrooms is only interrupted by an
amphitheatre and an entrance hall placed in the centre of the plan. The
primary school is located to the south of the entrance hall while the
intermediate grades are located on the north side. The corridor/common
area runs along the façade facing the inner schoolyard while the
classrooms face outwards. The classrooms are partly open. Walls separate
the individual classrooms from each other while there is only a parapet
wall separating the classrooms from the common area. The tilted roof and
the open room structure support the feeling of space as well as natural
airflow. Tredal School uses a hybrid ventilation concept analogous to that
of Media Primary School in Grong, Norway. Fresh air is provided through
an embedded duct and into the building through vents located in the
parapet wall. The ventilation air is exhausted through a central exhaust
tower. The classrooms are ventilated by natural buoyancy while the
administration part is mechanically ventilated. The exhaust tower is
important for the school building both technically and architecturally.

287

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

Kvarterhuset

Figure 8 The community centre in Kolding uses materials that make its ecological and
energy saving concept visible to the public (left). Drawing of the section (top right) and
drawing of the plan (bottom right).

Building type : Community centre (2 stories).

Year of completion : 2002.
Location : Kolding, Denmark.
Site and situation : Residential area, low-rise buildings.
Architect : White Arkitekter A/S.
HVAC consultant : Esbensen Rådgivende Ingeniører A/S.

The Kvarterhuset (community centre) in Kolding is an assembly centre

and social meeting point which is intended to be used by people of all
ages and classes. The use of materials and the ventilation concept of the
building are chosen according to ecological and energy saving aspects.
The building uses solar energy to preheat ventilation air in the heating
season and to generate electricity. The south façade is a double glass
facade with integrated photovoltaics (PV) in the outer skin. Another
energy collecting and light distributing element is the slightly tilted atrium
continuing throughout the building. It serves as a stack and an extract path
for the ventilation air. Fresh air is supplied through a large embedded
concrete duct. The stable earth temperature pre-heats or pre-cools the air
on its way into the building depending on the time of year. An auxiliary
fan located in the embedded duct starts when the natural driving forces do
not suffice. Air is exhausted through wind-driven vents in the roof or
through high-located southward facing windows in the corridor area.

288

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

The Environmental Building, BRE

Figure 9 The eye-catching element of The Environmental Building at BRE is the five
ventilation chimneys which accentuates the building’s south façade as well as its silhouette
(left). Drawing of the section (middle) and drawing of the plan (right).

Building type : Office building (3 stories).

Year of completion : 1997.
Location : Watford, United Kingdom.
Site and situation : Residential area, low/medium-rise buildings.
Architect : Fielden Clegg Architects.
HVAC consultant : Max Fordham and Partners.

The Environmental Building of the British Research Establishment (BRE)

houses offices for the Fire Research Station. The building is a landmark
building, intended to be a replicable example of cutting-edge
environmental design. The plan layout is a mixture of open-plan offices
and cellular office spaces. Cross- and stack-ventilation are the
predominant ventilation principles. The single-sided ventilation principle
is applied in the cellular offices along the north façade. The five
ventilation chimneys in the south façade are fronted with glass for solar
contribution to the stack effect. The ground- and first floor are connected
to the stacks. The idea is that the stack-driven airflow should draw in fresh
air through the windows on the north façade. Small propeller fans
installed in the top of the chimneys assist the natural ventilation on hot
summer days. The second floor, rising to 5m at its apex, is not connected
to the chimneys. Instead, the split-pitched roof with automatically
clerestory windows provides ventilation outlets and daylight.

289

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

Inland Revenue Headquarters

Figure 10 The Inland Revenue Headquarters is a large complex recognisable by the

repetition of the shape of the buildings and the distinctive ventilation towers on every
corner (left). Drawing of the section (middle) and drawing of the plan (right).

Building type : Office building (3 stories).

Year of completion : 1994.
Location : Nottingham, United Kingdom.
Site and situation : Urban, medium-rise buildings.
Architect : Michael Hopkins and Partners.
HVAC consultant : Arup.

The Inland Revenue is known as innovative low-energy and

environmental friendly offices. The complex consists of six buildings
which are either L-shaped or rectangular shaped with an inner courtyard.
The width of the office buildings is no more than 13.6m to ensure a high
degree of daylight penetration and natural ventilation. A combination of
natural and mechanical ventilation is used in all the offices, where natural
cross-ventilation is obtained by the occupants opening windows and
doors. The low-energy strategy sought to utilise natural ventilation rather
than air-conditioning and make best use of daylight. The ventilation
towers, which double as staircases as well as providing stacks for the
natural ventilation concept, are characteristic for the buildings’
appearance. The towers are constructed in glass bricks which admit solar
radiance, thus increasing thermal buoyancy in the towers. The airflow rate
for each tower is adjustable by the hydraulically controlled roof of the
tower which can be gradually raised by up to 1m. Internal temperature
control is assisted by use of high levels of thermal mass in exposed
structural concrete ceilings, triple-glazed windows and integral blinds to
reduce solar gain.

290

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Tax Office

Figure 11 The Tax Office Building has an innovative appearing façade owing to the
additional set of windows which ensure extra daylight and ventilation openings for the
building’s natural ventilation concept (left). Drawing of the section (middle) and drawing
of the plan (right).

Building type : Office building (6 stories).

Year of completion : 1996.
Location : Enschede, Netherlands.
Site and situation : Urban/industrial, medium rise buildings.
Architect : Ruurd Roorda, Government Building Agency .
HVAC consultant :W/E Consultants and Esbensen Consulting
Engineers.

The building is the extension to the existing tax office building. It

provides two rows of cellular offices around a 23m tall atrium. Each
storey has a double row of windows, lower ones for view and higher ones
for utilisation of daylight. Manually controlled blinds provide solar
protection to the lower window row. The building is naturally ventilated.
Air is submitted to the offices by means of “intelligent” vents located in
conjunction with the narrow window bands, close to the ceiling to avoid
draught. Each workstation has two vents that can be operated by the
occupants. Normally one vent provides sufficient ventilation, but the
second vent can be used during summer for night cooling. From the office
spaces air is drawn into the atrium through a duct located in the space
above the suspended ceiling in the corridor in order to bypass the inner
areas. The stale air rises up the atrium due to the stack effect and is
exhausted through six large ventilation outlets, which are designed to
utilise wind induced suction. Auxiliary fans can extract air from the
atrium in exceptional conditions, i.e. on hot summer days.

291

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

Jean Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre

Figure 12 The hut-like buildings of the Jean Marie Cultural Centre conceal an advanced
ventilation concept adapted to the New Caledonian climate (left). Drawing of the section
(middle) and drawing of the plan (top right).

Building type : Museum (1 storey).

Year of completion : 1998.
Location : Nouméa, New Caledonia.
Site and situation : Rural, tropical island.
Architect : Renzo Piano Building Workshop.
HVAC consultant : Ove Arup & Partners.

The centre is composed as a village. It consists of ten houses which all are
different in size and function, intended as a celebration of the Kanak
people who are particularly concentrated on New Caledonia. The visual
link between these and the traditional Kanak villages is made explicit
through arrangement and form. These “huts” are built of wooden joists
and ribs. On the outer layer the staves are of different width and spaced in
an uneven manner which strengthens the association with vegetation
stirred by wind. Exploiting the New Caledonian climate the “huts” are
equipped with a system of passive ventilation, i.e. natural ventilation. A
double façade/roof has been used in which the air circulates freely
between two layers of laminated wood. The monsoon winds from the sea
are utilised to drive the ventilation air in through the openings in the outer
shell and up in the cavity between the two skins. The airflow rate can be
regulated by adjusting the degree of opening in the outer skin. The system
was designed with the aid of computer simulations and wind tunnel tests.

292

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

IONICA Headquarters

Figure 13 A series of six wind towers aligned in a curvilinear fashion on top of a glass
canopy distinguishes the IONICA Headquarters (left). Drawing of the section (top right)
and drawing of the plan (bottom right).

Building type : Office building (3 stories).

Year of completion : 1994.
Location : Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Site and situation : Countryside.
Architect : RH Partnership.
HVAC consultant : Battle McCharty.

IONICA was (is now out of business) a public telecommunication

company that wanted an energy-efficient building with a mixture of
natural and mechanical ventilation, flexible office solutions and the
possibility for the occupants to control their local environment. The
building should reflect the image of an innovative high-technology
company. The building is north-south oriented and constructed around a
central atrium, partly connecting all three levels. The south-side has open-
plan offices and contains a high level of glazing while the north-side has
cellular offices and meeting rooms and is mainly made of brick (the A14
Motorway passes just north of the building). The headquarters uses a
seasonal-mixed mode of ventilation and cooling. In winter- and
summertime ventilation air is supplied mechanical through hollow core
floor slabs into the offices, while the building is naturally ventilated
during spring and autumn. The central atrium acts as a stack for the
natural ventilation. A series of wind towers is located right over the atrium
which utilises wind to suck the warm and stale air out of the building.
Thermal mass is incorporated in the building by exposing concrete
ceilings throughout.

293

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

Waldorfschule

Figure 14 The philosophy of Rudolf Steiner is reflected in the design of the Waldorf
School in Cologne (left). Drawing of the section (top right) and drawing of the plan
(bottom right).

Building type : School building (3 stories).

Year of completion : 1997.
Location : Cologne, Germany.
Site and situation : semi-urban.
Architect : Peter Hübner.
HVAC consultant : Transsolar.

The Waldorf school in Cologne was planned around Steiner’s philosophy

anthroposophy. The new school consists of two buildings, each developed
around one of the two largest social rooms: the auditorium and the sports
hall (the sports hall is not shown here). All the classrooms are oriented
around a central hall which unmistakably is the heart of the school and
serves as the main communication axis and foyer to the auditorium.
Beyond its visual and social function, the hall serves as a stack and the
main ventilation shaft for the natural ventilation concept. Stale and warm
air is exhausted through vents on top, while fresh and cool air is sucked in
at the bottom. Fresh air is admitted from peripheral intakes through a
series of large, radially placed underground pipes. While moving slowly
through the pipes, air can exchange heat with the mass of the earth under
the building, being cooled in the summer and warmed above zero in the
winter to lessen the heating load. An additional wide duct runs northward
to supply fresh air at the bottom of the auditorium. The single active air-
handling element in the whole complex is a roof-top fan which sucks air
out of the auditorium.

294

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

WAT (Wasser- und Abfalltechnik) Ingenieurgesellschaft

Figure 15 The black solar wall that “cuts” through the WAT building is visible from the
outside as well as from the inside (left). Drawing of the plan (middle) and drawing of the
section (right), both showing the solar wall cutting through the building.

Building type : Office building (3 stories).

Year of completion : 1995.
Location : Karlsruhe, Germany.
Site and situation : Rural.
Architect : Günter Leonhardt.
HVAC consultant : Transsolar.

The WAT Ingenieurgesellschaft Headquarters building is constructed as a

low-energy building and symbolises thereby the aims of the company with
regard to ecological and energy saving aspects. The building is strictly
north-south oriented and constructed in different layers. The most
pronounced is the “black wall” that divides the building in two different
sections: The highly insulated northern section that contains auxiliary
function rooms and staircases. The offices are located in the southern
section which is the transparent part that is optimised for utilisation of
daylight, natural ventilation and passive solar heating. Fresh air is
admitted through ventilation openings in the façade which are equipped
with small supply fans. The black solar wall, forming an optical as well as
a climatic division, serves as an installation wall and a ventilation stack.
Thermal buoyancy is enhanced by solar energy which is effectively
absorbed in the cavity between the two skins of the black wall. The warm
and stale exhaust air rises in the double skin solar wall and is expelled
through ventilation grills on top of the roof.

295

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

Evangelische Gesamtschule

Figure 16 The Evangelishe Gesamtschule complex consists of several buildings,

reminding of a village, and includes the possibility for further extension. Drawing of the
section (top right) and drawing of the plan (bottom right).

Building type : School building (2 stories).

Year of completion : 1998.
Location : Gelsenkirchen, Germany.
Site and situation : Residential area, low-rise buildings.
Architect : Peter Hübner.
HVAC consultant : Transsolar.

The school is located in a former industrial suburb (developed around a

huge coal mine) in the Ruhr, which lately has become a problem area due
to i.a. economical recession and unemployment. The new school evolved
as an idea of a multicultural ecological school. It should function as a
catalyst for redevelopment, welcoming people of different faiths and
promoting ecological education. “Learning by doing” as a motto, the
school is intended to develop and adjust to the local needs instead of being
planned out fully from the start. The school building complex is
developed like a village structure where groups of buildings cluster
around a central, covered street. The classrooms, group rooms and other
smaller rooms are ventilated by creating a cross draughts by opening the
windows. The unheated indoor street space is used as a climatic buffer
with cold air arriving through embedded ducts at the bottom and warm air
escaping through an exhaust chimney located in the end of the street. The
larger spaces such as the theatre and the sports hall require more advanced
solutions. In these spaces fresh air is drawn in through long underground
inlet pipes to be preheated in winter and cooled in summer. The sports hall
and the street have thermal chimneys which create an airflow due to the
effect of thermal buoyancy and wind. The sport hall (not shown here)
utilises the Venturi effect to create wind-induced suction to draw out air.

296

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Lanchester Library

Figure 17 The brick clad building of the Lanchester Library with its huge ventilation
chimneys is an eye-catcher on the Coventry skyline (left). Drawing of the plan (middle)
and drawing of the section from façade to the central atrium (right).

Building type : Library (4 stories).

Year of completion : 2000.
Location : Coventry, United Kingdom.
Site and situation : Urban.
Architect : Short and Associates.
HVAC consultant : Environmental Design Partnership and IESD,
Montfort University, Leicester.

The impressive cluster of the tall ventilation towers of the Lanchester

Library creates a dramatic landmark on the Coventry skyline. The plan of
this massive brick building is exactly square shaped, and staircases,
entrance corridor and ventilation towers are positioned outside of the
square. The volume is punctuated vertically by a glazed atrium at its
centre and four large, full-heights light wells. The deep plan solution
differentiates the library from other naturally ventilated buildings. Even in
this large, heavily used library and resources centre, it was possible to
avoid the use of air conditioning. Shafts, linked to a plenum under the
ground floor, conduct fresh air into the building while it is removed again
via the large central atrium and 20 ventilation stacks around the perimeter
of the building. The tall brick stacks terminate in a metal structure
especially designed to react to changing winds and to allow rising air to
exit without mechanical assistance under all weather conditions.

297

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

Deutsche Post Headquarters

Figure 18 The high-rise building of Deutsche Post Headquarters is located in a park by the
river Rhein (left). Drawing of the plan (middle) and an extract of the section lengthwise
indicating (with the trees) the 9 story tall sky-gardens (right).

Building type : Office building (45 stories).

Year of completion : 2003.
Location : Bonn, Germany.
Site and situation : Semi-urban (park), low/medium.
Architect : Murphy/Jahn.
HVAC consultant : Transsolar.

The 160m tall tower is located in the outskirts of the city in the
Rheinauenpark. The plan of the high-rise has the shape of a split oval
where the parts are shifted and separated by a 7.4m wide atrium. The
connecting glass floors at 9-story intervals form “sky-gardens”, which
serve as communication floors and elevator crossovers. The building has a
double façade. The outer glass skin renders natural ventilation possible by
allowing the windows in the inner façade to be opened regardless of
weather conditions. The outer skin protects from rain, wind and noise
from the outside, and protects the solar shading panels that are mounted in
the cavity. Glass from floor to ceiling optimises daylight. The concrete
structure has an integral heating and cooling pipe system, which takes
advantage of the thermal storage capacity of concrete. If comfortable
temperatures cannot be achieved naturally, a mechanical ventilation
system applying the displacement ventilation strategy assists. The sky-
gardens are cross-ventilated along the north-south axis.

298

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Pihl & Søn Headquarters

Figure 19 Glass and brick are materials used in the Pihl & Søn Headquarters (left)
achieving a modern and “clean” appearance. Drawing of the L-shaped plan (middle) and a
section drawing through the central hall (right).

Building type : Office building (3 stories).

Year of completion : 1994.
Location : Lyngby, Denmark.
Site and situation : Urban, low/medium .
Architect : KHR AS Architects.
HVAC consultant : NNR Consulting Engineers & Planners AS.

The Pihl & Søn Headquarters building is an innovative building gaining

its modernity i.a. by inspiration from passive technologies (daylighting
and natural ventilation) and the thoughtful combination of rooms. The
building is specifically designed for natural ventilation. All rooms have
openable windows, and offices and meeting rooms are equipped with a
narrow band of windows in addition to larger panorama windows. These
windows are inlets for ventilation air, and they make night-cooling
possible without security risks. They also provide daylight deep into the
plan as daylight is reflected in the light surface of the ceiling. The three
storey tall central hall that houses the reception, the vertical
communication and the galleries linking offices and meeting rooms is the
heart of the building. The hall doubles as a stack and an extract chimney
for the building’s natural ventilation concept. The ventilation air is
exhausted through openable windows in the skylight galleries over the
hall. Auxiliary extract propeller fans located on the roof over the central
hall support the natural driving forces when these do not suffice. Heavy
materials (thermal mass) such as concrete and stone have been used
throughout the building. The combination of natural ventilation, heavy
materials and accurately positioned openings make it possible to create a
pleasant indoor climate both on warm summer days and cold winter days.

299

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

ARAG Headquarters

Figure 20 The slender proportion of the high-rise building of the ARAG Headquarters is
not unlike that of the GSW high-rise in Berlin (left). Drawing of the section (middle) and
drawing of the plan (right).

Building type : Office building (30 stories).

Year of completion : 2001.
Location : Düsseldorf, Germany.
Site and situation : Urban, medium-rise buildings .
Architect : Foster and partners together with Rhode
Kellermann and Wawrowsky GmbH.
HVAC consultant : Schmidt Reuter and Partner.

The ARAG (Allgemeine Rechtsschutzversicherung AG) high-rise

building is the headquarters of one of Germany’s leading insurance
companies and is situated at a major gateway into Düsseldorf. The 30-
storey building has a double-skin glazed facade. A protective outer layer
forms a weather shield and sun filter; an inner layer, with openable
windows, allows the building to breathe naturally. Maximum use is made
of daylight and the construction allows passive cooling with night storage
so that air conditioning will rarely be needed. Office floors are simple and
open in feel. Cellular offices and meeting rooms ring the perimeter while
group meeting spaces occupy the centre of the lens-shaped plan. Double-
height “sky gardens” punctuate the building at every eighth floor. Open
access between office floors and the gardens encourages a friendly
atmosphere as well as improving communication between staff.

300

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Jaer School

Figure 21 A large roof with several ventilation towers characterises the architectural
expression of the Jaer School building (left). Drawing of the section (middle) and the plan
(top right).

Building type : School building (2 stories).

Year of completion : 1999.
Location : Nesodden, Norway.
Site and situation : Rural.
Architect : Grinde A/S.
HVAC consultant : Axlander & Rosell A/S.

Influenced by increasing concern about childhood allergy and poor indoor

environment in schools, the local school authority opted for a school that
utilises natural ventilation when Jaer School needed to expand. The new
school building has six classrooms, three at the ground floor and three at
the first floor, as well as a large common room which is also used as a
library. Because of the shape of the roof, the classrooms located on the
first floor obtain an unusually tall floor-to-ceiling height which gives these
classrooms a generous spatial quality. The height mass school building
primarily utilises stack-driven natural ventilation, since the outdoor
temperature is below room temperature most of the year. An embedded
fresh air inlet duct connected to an inlet tower provides the building with
fresh air. An auxiliary fan located on the supply-side in the embedded
duct assists the natural driving forces when they do not suffice. In
summer, supplementary ventilation and cooling can be provided by
manually opening windows in the facades (the ground-coupled supply
provides the minimum fresh air requirements all year). Low-emission
materials (brick, concrete, plasterboard, lino and ceramic tiles) are used
throughout the building. This improves the IAQ whilst enabling a
reduction of the design airflow rates according to the national building
regulations.

301

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Appendix: Sub-case buildings

Solar-Fabrik

Figure 22 A tilted south façade clad with photovoltaic cells distinguishes the Solar-Fabrik
(left). Drawing of the section (middle) and drawing of the plan (right).

Building type : Office building (4 stories).

Year of completion : 1999.
Location : Freiburg, Germany.
Site and situation : Semi-urban.
Architect : Rolf + Hotz Architects.
HVAC consultant : Stahl -office for solar energy.

The linear shaped building volume of the Solar-Fabrik is made up of a

long and narrow atrium/buffer zone to the south and a section of offices to
the north. The building has no fans installed for ventilation. Thermal
buoyancy (and wind) is utilised to drive the natural ventilation. Fresh air
is admitted into the building through three embedded concrete pipes with
a total length of 108m. A total amount of 11000m3 air per hour is
provided exclusively by the thermal buoyancy driving force in the
building/atrium. The fresh ventilation air will be pre-heated in the winter
and pre-cooled in summer through ground coupling (the pipes are
embedded three meters deep in the ground). The ventilation air is fed into
the bottom of the atrium through vents surrounded by greenery, which
should improve the air quality. The atrium provides the offices with fresh
air. Warm and stale air is expelled through openings in the north façade or
at the top of the atrium. Oversized inlet- and outlet openings in the atrium
render extended air change rates possible in the summer season. Night
cooling is possible through the embedded ducts without the risk of
burglary.

302

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Natural Ventilation in Buildings -Architectural concepts, consequences and possibilities

Notes

1
The Architectural Review Volume 1205, July 1997.
2
Herzog, T. (2000) Sustainable height. Deutsche Messe AG Hannover
Administration Building, Prestel Verlag, Munich.
3
Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,
Jan./Feb. 2001.
4
Wigginton, M. and Harris, J. (2002) Intelligent Skins, Architectural Press,
London.
5
Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,
März/April 2001.
6
http://www.byggforsk.no/prosjekter/hybvent/Norske_bygninger.htm
7
Kolding Kommune (2002) Kvarterhuset. Et forsamlingshus efter byøkologiske
principper i Sydvest-Kvarteret Kolding, Booklet, Denmark.
8
Wigginton, M. and Harris, J. (2002) Intelligent Skins, Architectural Press,
London.
9
Energy Efficiency Best Practise Programme. New Practice Case Study 114
(2000) The Inland Revenue Headquarters - feedback for designers and clients,
DETR, London.
10
Wigginton, M. and Harris, J. (2002) Intelligent Skins, Architectural Press,
London.
11
Buchanan, P. (1995) Renzo Piano Building workshop, Complete works Volume
two, Phaidon Press Limited, London.
12
The Architects’ Journal, 1 December 1994.
13
The Architectural Review 2/1999, pp. 40-44.
14
Sonderdruck aus Intelligente Architektur Spezial 3/96.
15
Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,
März/April 2001.
16
Brick Bulletine Summer 2001, Cunning plan, emap construct, London.
17
http://www.murphyjahn.com/english/frameset_intro.htm
18
Dansk Center for Byøkologi (2000) Pihl & Søn A/S. De Store Bygningers
Økologi, Booklet, Copenhagen.
19
Jenkins, D., Baker, P., Forde, G. and Davis, C. (2001) Foster Catalogue2001,
Foster and Partners, London and Prestel Verlag Munich.
20
Schild, P. G. (2002) Hybrid ventilation of Jaer School: Results of Monitoring,
Hybrid Ventilation 2002: 4th International Forum, May 14-15, 2002, Montreal,
Canada.
21
Intelligente Architektur, Zeitschrift für Architektur und Facility Management,
September 1999.

303

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Acknowledgements

Writing a PhD thesis is not, as some might think, something you do in

isolation and then “come out again” after three or four years. You work
with a great number of people. I want to thank all of them for their
contribution.

First of all I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Anne Grete

Hestnes. Despite being a very busy woman Anne Grete always found time
for me, and her ever critical, but always constructive comments upon my
work have been invaluable. Many thanks are also due to my co-
supervisors Professor Øyvind Aschehoug and Professor Per Olaf Tjelflaat
for constructive criticism and backing.

A special thanks to Bjørn J. Wachenfeldt and Tor Arvid Vik for

friendship, collaboration and for providing me with the best colleagues!

For financial support I thank Hydro Aluminium/Wicona, the Research

Council of Norway and NTNU.

I would also like to thank Dr. Koen Steemers for giving me the
opportunity to spend a very interesting time at The Martin Centre,
Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge. Special thanks go
to Professor C. Alan Short for sharing his comprehensive experience and
knowledge on natural ventilation and natural conditioning of buildings
with me. I am also very thankful to all my friends and colleagues in “The
Martin Centre basement”; Gail for putting me on the River Cam in Sidney
Sussex College’s rowing boats, Rich for showing me all the nice bars and
pubs in Cambridge, Ryan for his great humour, Mario and Marylis for
friendship, Ilan for teaching me English, and, of course, Christine for
taking such great care of me. Ho-ho-ho!!!

Thanks are also due to Juan Lucas Yong and Louisa Hutton at Sauerbruch
Hutton Architects, Brian Cody at Arup GmbH Berlin, Henrik Richter
Danielsen at KHR AS, Kåre Herstad at Letnes Architects AS and
Torbjørn Landsem at VVS Planconsult AS for providing me with first
hand information on the case study buildings and for sharing their
experience in designing buildings that utilise natural ventilation.

URN:NBN:no-7242
 Thanks to the members of our “reference-group” for “setting us off in the
right direction” in the initial stages of our research; Professor Bent
Børresen, Professor Jan V. Thue, Senior Researcher Hans Martin
Mathisen, Assoc. Professor Finn Hakonsen and Mr. Werner Jager.

Thanks are due to all my colleagues at the Department of Architectural

Design, History and Technology for the nice working environment.
Special thanks to Eva and Christian for taking care of the administrative
and economical project organisation during these years. I also owe great
thanks to the multi-cultural and stimulating working environment
provided by my fellow PhD students on the 9th floor. I also express my
gratitude to Professor Birgit Cold and Assoc. Professor Are Risto
Øyasæter at the Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art at NTNU for their
valuable ideas and inputs. I would also like to express my gratitude to the
researchers at SINTEF Department of Architecture and Building
Technology for providing me with valuable inputs and views.

Also, thanks are due to Mr. Matthias Schuler of Transsolar for sharing his
experience and knowledge on natural ventilation as well as his great
enthusiasm and spirits.

And last, but certainly not the least, a very special thank to Judith and my
family for supporting and helping me, and making me believe I could do
it. I also owe the architects John Arne, Terje, Ole Alexander, Berit, Kjell-
Sverre, and Snorre many thanks for providing me with “real-world-
inputs” as well as tips and ideas.

Thank you!

Trondheim, March 2003

Tommy Kleiven

305

URN:NBN:no-7242