Orthogonal Oscillation along the y-axis

The y-component of the phasor is given by

𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑦
⟹ = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑑2 𝑦
⟹ 2 = −𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑑2 𝑦
⟹ 2 = −𝑦
𝑑𝜃
which describes Simple Harmonic Motion. There is no actual motion along the y-axis.

But we can proceed precisely as if we were dealing with the motion of a point in two dimensions.

Representation of the Phasor

Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏. Here 𝑧 is the phasor. Any number by itself represents a displacement along the x-axis.
Whatever j precedes it is rotated through 90 degrees.

If b is a displacement along the x-axis, then jb is a displacement along the y-axis. If j precedes jb, then we
perform a rotation of 90 degrees and end up on the x-axis with a displacement of –b. So the action of 𝑗 2 is
to make a displacement negative.

𝑗 2 = −1.

Euler’s Relation

The Euler’s relation 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃 is an instruction to perform a rotation of 𝜃 of the vector by
which it is multiplied without altering its magnitude.

Consider a vector 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏, such that 𝑎 = 𝑟 cos 𝛼, 𝑏 = 𝑟 sin 𝛼, and √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑟. Now we multiply z
by 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 .

𝑧𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏)(cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃)
= 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑗𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑗𝑏 cos 𝜃 − 𝑏 sin 𝜃
= 𝑎 cos 𝜃 − 𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑗(𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑏 cos 𝜃).

|𝑧𝑒 𝑗𝜃 | = √(𝑎 cos 𝜃 − 𝑏 sin 𝜃)2 + (𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑏 cos 𝜃)2

𝑧 = 𝑎1 + 𝑗𝑏1
= 𝑟[(cos 𝛼 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝜃) + 𝑗(sin 𝛼 cos 𝜃 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝜃)]
= (𝑟 cos 𝛼) cos 𝜃 − (𝑟 sin 𝛼) sin 𝜃 + 𝑗[(𝑟 sin 𝛼) cos 𝜃 + (𝑟 cos 𝛼) sin 𝜃]
= 𝑎 cos 𝜃 − 𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑗(𝑏 cos 𝜃 + 𝑎 sin 𝜃)
= 𝑎 cos 𝜃 − 𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑗(𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑏 cos 𝜃).

This is precisely the result of multiplying z by 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 . Note that the original expression for 𝑧 can also be
written as

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝛼 .

Complex Exponential Solution of Harmonic Oscillator Equation

The equation is

𝑑2 𝑥
= −𝜔2 𝑥.
𝑑𝑡 2

A function whose second derivative is the function itself is 𝑒 𝑡 . How could we tailor this function to our
gain, to solve the harmonic oscillator (HO) equation? If the function is 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝜔𝑡 , then

𝑑𝑥
= 𝜔𝑥,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
= 𝜔2 𝑥.
𝑑𝑡 2

We are short of the minus sign. Since 𝑗 2 = −1, and differentiating 𝑥 twice involves multiplying the
derivative of the exponent by itself, we have 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡) = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡. Let’s call 𝑥, 𝑧 since it turns
out to be a phasor. Since the magnitude may be other than just 1, we can write 𝑧 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡) . Note that
𝑧 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡) also solves the equation since:

𝑑
𝐴𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡) = −𝑗𝜔𝐴𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡) ,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2
𝐴𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡) = (−𝑗𝜔)(−𝑗𝜔)𝐴𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2
= −𝜔2 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡)
= −𝜔2 𝑧.

In general the two solutions of the HO equation are:

𝑧1 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡) ,
𝑧2 = 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡) .
Since 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 is also a solution, we have

𝑧 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡) .

The more general solution is to add 𝜙, phase constant, to 𝜔𝑡 so that 𝑧 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) .
Adding 𝜙 still solves the equation since its derivative is zero. If 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝐴, then

𝑧 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) + 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) .

So 𝑧 is the resultant of the positive rotation of a vector with magnitude 𝐴 through 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙, and the
negative rotation of another vector of the same magnitude 𝐴 through 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙. The resultant lies along the
x-axis which becomes clear from the following figure:

The reason is that the y-components are equal and inverted so they are cancelled and we are left with the
x-components only.

Combination of Two Vibrations at Right Angles

The resultant of two harmonic vibrations that take place along perpendicular directions is a true two
dimensional motion.
Let the harmonic motion of the particle along the x-axis be 𝑥 = 𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑡 and along the y-axis be 𝑦 =
𝐴2 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙). The trajectory of the particle can be given by eliminating t from the equations and
solving for y in terms of x.
𝑥
= cos 𝜔𝑡 ,
𝐴1
𝑦
= cos 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 − sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙
𝐴2
𝑦 𝑥 𝑥2
⟹ = cos 𝜙 − (±√1 − 2 ) sin 𝜙
𝐴2 𝐴1 𝐴1

𝑥2 𝑥 𝑦
⟹ (±√1 − 2 ) sin 𝜙 = 𝐴 cos 𝜙 − 𝐴
𝐴1 1 2

𝑥2 2
𝑥2 2
𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
⟹ (1 − ) sin 𝜙 = cos 𝜙 − 2 cos 𝜙 +
𝐴12 𝐴12 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴22
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
⟹ sin2 𝜙 − 2 sin2 𝜙 = 2 cos 2 𝜙 − 2 cos 𝜙 + 2 ⟹ sin2 𝜙
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴2
2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
= 2 (sin2 𝜙 + cos 2 𝜙) − 2 cos 𝜙 + 2
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴2
2 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦
⟹ 2−2 cos 𝜙 + 2 = sin2 𝜙.
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴2

For 𝜙 = 0:

𝑥2 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
− 2 cos 0 + = sin2 0
𝐴12 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴22
𝑥2 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
⟹ 2−2 + =0
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴22
𝑥 𝑦 2
⟹( − ) =0
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑥 𝑦
⟹ − =0
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐴2
⟹𝑦= 𝑥,
𝐴1
𝐴
which is a line passing through the origin with a positive slope 𝐴2 .
1

𝑥 = 𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝐴2 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝑡 = 0; 𝑥 = 𝐴1 , 𝑦 = 𝐴2
𝜋
𝜔𝑡 = ; 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
2
𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋; 𝑥 = −𝐴1 , 𝑦 = −𝐴2 .
Why is this two dimensional motion of the particle limited to a rectangle of sides 2𝐴1 and 2𝐴2 ?

The highest or the lowest the particle can go is 𝐴2 , so it can never go any higher or lower than 𝑦 = ±𝐴2 .
And the particle can go only as far as 𝐴1 on the sides, so it can never go beyond 𝑥 = ±𝐴1 . So it can never
get out the rectangle of sides 2𝐴1 and 2𝐴2 .

A Problem

Since

(−𝑝2 + 𝑗𝑝𝛾 + 𝜔02 )𝐴𝑒 𝑗(𝑝𝑡+𝛼) = 0

And this being a quadratic equation should have two solutions, we do write only 𝑝 = 𝑛 + 𝑗𝑠 and not,
instead, 𝑝 = 𝑛 ± 𝑗𝑠?

A Hardly Intuitive Scenario

𝐹𝑆 = −𝑚𝜔02 𝐴 cos(𝜔0 𝑡)
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹0 cos(𝜔𝑡) .
𝐹0
𝐹𝑆 = −𝑚𝜔02 ( ) cos(𝜔0 𝑡)
𝑚𝜔0
= −𝜔0 𝐹0 cos(𝜔0 𝑡)