Fluids and Solids Handling

Handle Bulk Solids

Safely and Effectively
Greg Mehos Follow these guidelines for proper design of
Eric Maynard
Jenike & Johanson, Inc. bins, hoppers, and feeders
to avoid operational and safety problems.

C
ompared with chemical processes that handle liquids rial to roll toward the periphery. If the bulk solid is used as a
or gases, those involving powders and other bulk reactant or catalyst in a downstream process, an unsafe condi-
solids present unique hazards. Solids are prone to tion may arise if the particle size of the solids stream dis-
arching (the formation of an arch-shaped obstruction above a charged is variable, since reaction kinetics generally depend
vessel outlet) and ratholing (the formation of an empty flow on the specific surface area of the reactive components.
channel in the center of a vessel with stagnant material along • dusting. If a sufficient amount of material becomes
the walls) in improperly designed vessels (Figure 1). Opera- dispersed in air, a series of events resulting in a fire or
tors attempting to clear such obstructions using hammers, air explosion can occur. If an ignition source and an oxidant are
lances, or other devices to reinitiate flow risk injury. Eccen- present and the concentration of fines in the air is above the
tric loads caused by non-uniform flow can lead to buckling bulk material’s minimum explosible concentration (MEC),
and, in extreme cases, the collapse of a silo. Even bulk solids combustion can take place rapidly and produce a dust explo-
that are considered benign and nonreactive (such as sugar) sion or flash fire. Recall the dust explosion at the Imperial
can be dangerous if they become dispersed in air and are Sugar Co. refinery in Port Wentworth, GA, where a benign
vulnerable to dust explosions.
The most prevalent cause of problems in solids-process-
ing plants is the improper design of bulk solids handling
equipment, specifically hoppers, bins, silos, and feeders. An
understanding of the material’s fundamental flow properties
and how they affect solids flow patterns is essential to han-
dling bulk solids safely. This article discusses how properties
of bulk solids affect flow patterns in a silo, and provides
guidelines for vessel design.

Hazardous conditions
Solids handling problems can cause a variety of hazard-
ous process conditions, including:
• segregation. Although fluid mixtures tend to remain
homogenous, mixtures of solids are prone to segregation due
to differences in particle size, shape, or density. For example,
sifting segregation (Figure 2) occurs when smaller particles No Obstructions Arching Ratholing
move through a mixture of larger particles, causing fines to S Figure 1. Obstructions such as arches and ratholes prevent the
accumulate in the center of a storage vessel and coarser mate- flow of material.

38 www.aiche.org/cep September 2009 CEP

powder — ordinary sugar — caused the loss of more than i.e., the number of contacts, rubbing/contact velocities, con-
a dozen lives (1). tact area, and the frequency of contacts between materials.
• flooding. The discharge rate from a storage vessel is Hence, the flow pattern in which a bulk solid travels inside a
typically controlled by a feeder, such as a screw feeder or vessel, as well as how the vessel was filled (e.g., pneumatic
belt feeder. When entrained in air, a fine powder can some- conveying), can significantly influence the amount of elec-
times behave like a fluid. Since feeders are usually designed trostatic charge that can accumulate.
to handle solids rather than fluids, discharge may become
uncontrollable; in extreme cases, the hopper may empty Hopper flow patterns
completely. This safety problem has occurred in several lime- There are two types of flow patterns in a vessel: funnel
slaking operations, where fine lime flooded into the slaker flow and mass flow (Figure 3).
and caused an uncontrolled exothermic reaction. Funnel flow. In funnel flow, only a portion of the bulk
• non-uniform flow. An improperly designed hopper or material above the outlet is in motion while some material
feeder can have an unpredictable discharge rate. Flow may remains stagnant at the periphery as the material is dis-
become erratic or stop entirely. If solids discharged from a charged. Funnel flow occurs when the sloping hopper walls
hopper are reactive or act as a diluent, a disruption of flow can are not steep enough and low enough in friction for particles
lead to unsafe operating conditions in downstream processes. to move along them. Under these conditions, the particles
• charge accumulation. When insulating materials such as slide on each other rather than on the hopper walls, and an
plastics are handled in silos, bins, or hoppers, static charges internal flow channel develops.
can develop, causing such problems as blend non-uniformity, Funnel flow can cause erratic flow, exacerbate segrega-
unwanted agglomeration, and material adhesion to the tion, reduce the usable (or live) capacity of the vessel, allow
surfaces of processing equipment. In extreme cases, a fire or particle degradation (e.g., caking, spoilage) in stagnant
explosion can occur if a static discharge occurs in the pres- regions, and (depending on the vessel size) induce high
ence of flammable vapors or dust clouds of powders with low loads on the structure and downstream equipment due to col-
minimum ignition energy (MIE). lapsing ratholes and eccentric flow channels. Fine powders
The severity of hazards associated with bulk solids will flood if the rathole collapses or if fresh material is added
handling depends on the flow patterns inside the hopper, bin, to the vessel.
or silo. For example, when two solids come into contact, The velocity of the solids in the flow channel of a funnel-
electrons may become separated from atoms on the surface flow vessel can be rapid, especially in conical hoppers with
of one material and transferred to atoms on another, creating a flow channel diameter that is only slightly larger than the
a positive charge on the electron donor and a negative charge outlet diameter. Compared with mass-flow bins, the number
on the electron acceptor. If a material is insulating, it will of contacts and the frequency of contacts between indi-
remain charged when the materials are separated. Even if the vidual particles are high, so the potential for static charge
substance is an electrical conductor, it will remain charged if accumulation is higher. Furthermore, when the bulk solid is
it remains isolated from ground. The amount of charge gen- insulating, the stagnant material along the periphery of the
erated depends on the chemical composition of the material, vessel will limit the effectiveness of bonding the charge to
how it is introduced into the vessel, its electrical properties
(e.g., resistivity), and its particle size. The magnitude of the
charge also depends on the work done on the material —

Stagnant
Material

Funnel Flow Mass Flow

S Figure 2. In sifting segregation, smaller particles accumulate in the S Figure 3. Material inside a hopper, bin, or silo may move in a
center of the vessel, larger particles at the sides. funnel-flow or mass-flow pattern.

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Fluids and Solids Handling

the vessel walls. If a rathole collapses, the solids can become the wall yield locus. The coefficient of sliding friction is
entrained in air inside the emptying channel, creating an calculated from the tangent of the wall friction angle.
atmosphere conducive to a dust explosion. The hopper angles that allow mass flow can then be
Mass flow. In mass flow, all the material in the vessel obtained using design charts originally developed by Jenike
moves during discharge, with particles sliding along the hop- (3). Example design charts for conical hoppers and for hop-
per wall. Mass flow eliminates ratholing and maximizes the pers with planar geometries (e.g., wedge-shaped and transi-
usable capacity of the vessel. In order to achieve mass flow, tion hoppers) are shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. Val-
two conditions must be met: ues of the allowable hopper angle θʹ (measured from vertical)
• the sloping hopper walls must be steep enough and are on the abscissa, and values of the wall friction angle φʹ are
have low enough friction for the particles to slide along them on the ordinate. Any combination of φʹ and θʹ that falls within
• the outlet must be large enough to prevent arching. the mass-flow region of the chart will provide mass flow.
A mass-flow hopper has a first-in-first-out flow sequence Conical hoppers should not be designed at the limit of
that minimizes sifting segregation effects. Because the entire the mass flow region. Notice that there is an area on the chart
bed of material is in motion, the velocity of the solids in a in Figure 5 that lies between the funnel-flow and mass-flow
vessel designed for mass flow is much lower than that in a regions. This represents a margin of safety to account for
funnel-flow hopper, thereby typically reducing the amount slight differences in material flow properties and wall sur-
of static charge generation. faces. If the combination of hopper angle and wall friction
Thus, vessels designed for mass flow are preferable angle lies too close to the funnel-flow line, a switch to funnel
when handling materials prone to static charge accumula- 40
tion. This assumes that the charge is the result of particle-
to-particle contacts and not particle-to-wall contacts. For
instance, plastic liners used in mass-flow hoppers can readily
Wall Friction Angle, deg.

30
generate static charge during filling and discharge of bulk
Funnel Flow
materials, so either static-dissipative or properly bonded/
grounded liners must be installed. Un
20
ce
rta
Design of mass-flow hoppers Mass Flow
in
Re
Hopper angle. The first step in designing vessels for gi
on
10
mass flow is to measure the wall friction between the bulk
material and the wall surface by a method described in
ASTM D-6128 (2). In this test, a sample of bulk material is
0
placed inside a ring on a wall coupon and a load is applied. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Material is then forced to slide on the stationary coupon, Hopper Angle from Vertical, deg.
and the resultant shear force is measured as a function of
the applied normal load. A wall yield locus is constructed S Figure 5. Design charts, such as these examples for conical hoppers …
by plotting shear force against normal force (Figure 4). T Figure 6. … and planar hoppers, reveal the combinations of hopper
The angle of wall friction, φʹ, is the horizontal angle that is angle and wall friction angle that will result in mass flow.
formed between a line drawn from the origin to a point on 40

Funnel Flow
Wall Friction Angle, deg.

Wall Yield Locus 30

Shear Force

Mass Flow
20

φ' 10

Normal Load
0
S Figure 4. A plot of the wall yield locus illustrates the angle of wall 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
friction, yielding the coefficient of sliding friction. Hopper Angle from Vertical, deg.

40 www.aiche.org/cep September 2009 CEP

flow can occur. Hence, a 4–5-deg. margin of safety with angle, and the angle of wall friction. Values of the flow fac-
respect to the mass-flow boundary is recommended (3). tor can be found in charts developed by Jenike (3).
No uncertainty region exists for vessels with planar Plotting both the flow function and the flow factor on the
geometries. A switch to funnel flow will likely not occur same graph (Figure 8) allows comparison of the cohesive
unless the conditions lie substantially past the boundary strength and the arch stress. Three situations are possible:
line. In addition, the sloping walls required for mass flow • The flow factor lies above the flow function and the
in wedge-shaped hoppers can be 10–12 deg. less steep than two curves do not intersect. In this case, the stress imparted
those required to ensure mass flow in conical hoppers, pro- on the arch is always greater than the material’s cohesive
vided the outlet is at least three times as long as it is wide. strength, and cohesive arching is not a factor in determin-
If wall friction testing shows that the walls must be ing outlet size. Instead, the outlet size should be selected by
fabricated or lined with a polymeric material to achieve consideration of flowrate, particle interlocking, etc.
mass flow, a polymer grade filled with carbon black or other • The flow function lies above the flow factor and the
conductive filler should be used to eliminate the possibility curves do not intersect. The bulk solid will not flow under
of static charge accumulation. gravity conditions alone. Therefore, measures such as vibra-
Hopper outlet size. The second requirement for mass tion, agitation, or aeration may be necessary to induce flow.
flow is that the outlet must be large enough to prevent arch- • The flow function and flow factor intersect, as shown in
ing. Two types of arches are possible — interlocking arches Figure 8. At the point where the two lines intersect, the arch
and cohesive arches (Figure 7). stress and the cohesive strength of the bulk solid are equal to
Interlocking arches can be overcome by ensuring that the the critical stress, σcritical. The minimum outlet diameter to
diameter of a circular outlet is at least six times the largest prevent a cohesive arch from developing in a hopper, Bmin,
particle size. If the outlet is a slotted opening, the width must can then be calculated:
be at least three times the largest particle size and the length
at least three times the width. Bmin = H(θʹ)σcritical/ρbg (2)
A cohesive arch can be analyzed by measuring the
cohesive strength of the material. The cohesive strength is where ρb is the material’s bulk density, g is acceleration
determined by the method described in ASTM D-6128 (2), due to gravity, and the function H(θʹ) is approximately 2 for
in which a direct shear tester is used to measure the strength conical hoppers and 1 for wedge-shaped or transition hop-
of a material under varying consolidation pressures. The pers, as given in Ref. 3.
relationship between strength and major consolidation pres-
sure is called the flow function (Figure 8). Flowrate considerations
Once a material’s flow function has been determined, the Although an outlet diameter larger than the minimum
minimum outlet diameter that will prevent cohesive arch- required will prevent cohesive arching, it may not necessar-
ing can be calculated using the bin’s flow factor, ff, which is ily be large enough to accommodate the desired discharge
defined as the ratio of the consolidating pressure, σ1, to the rate when fine powders are processed. When the bulk mate-
stress acting on an arch of material that forms at the outlet, σΑ: rial expands in the converging section of a mass flow vessel,

ff = σ1/σA (1)
Yield Strength or Arch Stress

The flow factor is a function of the internal friction of the

bulk solid (also determined by ASTM D-6128), the hopper

Slope = 1/ff

Flow Function

σcritical

Consolidation Pressure
Interlocking Arch Cohesive Arch
S Figure 8. A material’s flow function and flow factor are used to deter-
S Figure 7. Arching may produce interlocking arches or cohesive arches. mine the minimum outlet diameter required to prevent cohesive arching.

CEP September 2009 www.aiche.org/cep 41

Fluids and Solids Handling

S Figure 9. A constant-pitch, constant-diameter screw feeder (above left) can produce a

narrow flow channel in the vessel, leading to non-uniform discharge. A mass-flow screw
feeder (above right) can maintain uniform hopper discharge.

a slight vacuum forms, resulting in gas counterflow upward

through the outlet. At a critical discharge rate, the gas flow
will be high enough to retard the discharge rate, and efforts S Figure 10. A tapered interface (shown in blue), whose feed
to exceed this rate will result in erratic flow (4). For fine capacity increases in the direction of discharge, will maintain
mass flow with a belt feeder.
powders, permeability testing is recommended to determine
the outlet size required to achieve the desired discharge rate. hopper (Figure 9, left). A mass-flow screw feeder, comprised
In addition to ensuring that reliable flow takes place in of a tapered section followed by an increasing-pitch section,
the vessel, it is also necessary for the entire cross-sectional ensures that the capacity of the feeder increases in the direc-
area of the outlet to be active. A restricted outlet, such as one tion of flow (Figure 9, right). When using a belt feeder, the
due to a partially open slide gate, will result in funnel flow required increase in capacity is achieved by using a tapered
with a small active flow channel regardless of the hopper interface (Figure 10).
design. It is therefore imperative that the feeder be capable
of continuously withdrawing material from the entire outlet Concluding remarks
of the hopper. This allows mass flow to take place in the Although chemical engineers possess the education and
vessel (if it is so designed). It also reduces the potential for experience to safely handle liquids and gases, their training
ratholing in funnel flow by keeping the active flow channel on the fundamental principles that describe the flow of bulk
as large as possible. solids is sometimes lacking by comparison. By understand-
ing the flow properties of a bulk material and how equip-
Feeder considerations ment design affects flow patterns and the development of
A hopper with an elongated outlet is often a preferred obstructions, vessels and feeders for all types of solids can
geometry, because it is more effective at preventing arching be designed to handle bulk materials safely and reliably. Ves-
than a circular outlet and it allows mass flow to be achieved sels designed for mass flow are inherently safer to operate,
more easily than with a conical hopper. When using a slotted as the consequences of funnel flow often include high solids
outlet, it is essential that the feeder capacity increases in the velocities, degradation of stagnant material, dust formation
direction of flow. Constant-pitch, constant-diameter screws due to air entrainment, and sifting segregation. CEP
cause a flow channel to form preferentially at the back of the
GREG MEHOS is a project engineer for Jenike & Johanson, Inc. (400 Business
Literature Cited Park Dr., Tyngsboro, MA 01879; Phone: (978) 649-3300; Fax: (978) 649-
3399; E-mail: [email protected]). He has been involved in a wide
1. Shelley, S., “Preventing Dust Explosions: Are You Doing range of bulk solids handling projects, including hopper and feeder
Enough?,” Chem. Eng. Progress, 104 (3), pp. 8–14 (Mar. 2008). design, design of gravity reclaim systems, and analysis of purge col-
umns. He received BS and PhD degrees in chemical engineering from
2. ASTM International, “Standard Test Method for Shear Testing the Univ. of Colorado and a master’s degree in chemical engineering
of Bulk Solids Using the Jenike Shear Cell,” ASTM D-6128, from the Univ. of Delaware. He is a registered professional engineer in
ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA (2006). Colorado and Massachusetts. A member of AIChE, he currently serves
3. Jenike, A. W., “Storage and Flow of Solids,” Bulletin 123, Utah on the executive committee of AIChE’s Particle Technology Forum.
Engineering Experiment Station, Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City, ERIC P. MAYNARD is a senior consultant and the education coordinator for
UT (1964, rev. 1976). Jenike & Johanson (E-mail: [email protected]). He has designed
handling systems for bulk solids, including cement, coal, limestone,
4. Royal, T. A., and J. W. Carson, “Fine Powder Flow Phenomena plastic powder, food products, and pharmaceuticals, and is the com-
in Bins, Hoppers, and Processing Vessels,” presented at Bulk pany’s cement industry specialist. He frequently lectures on the storage
2000, Bulk Material Handling Towards the Year 2000, sponsored and flow of bulk solids for the American Society of Mechanical Engi-
by the Bulk Materials Handling Committee of the Process Indus- neers (ASME) and American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE),
tries Div. of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London individual companies, in-house courses, and numerous conferences.
He received a BS in mechanical engineering from Villanova Univ. and an
(Oct. 1991). MS in mechanical engineering from Worcester Polytechnic Institute.

42 www.aiche.org/cep September 2009 CEP