Suggested Methods for Geophysical Logging 69

Suggested Methods for Geophysical

Logging of Boreholes
P A R T 1. T E C H N I C A L GEOPHYSICAL BOREHOLE LOGGING
MEASUREMENTS
INTRODUCTION
6. The different types of logging probes fall into four
1. Geophysical borehole logging may be used to major classes:
measure a number of physical properties of the geologi- (a) Electric logs, including the electrical resistivity
cal formations intersected by boreholes. The informa- (normal, microlog and focussed devices), spontaneous
tion gained may then be employed to determine, inter potential (SP) and induction logs.
alia, the geometry of major subsurface structural dis- (b) Radiation logs. including the natural gamma ray,
continuities and to estimate the mechanical properties neutron and gamma-gamma density logs.
of the formations surrounding the borehole. (c) Sonic logs, including the borehole televiewer.
2. Owing to the high cost of the specialized equip- (d) Miscellaneous logs, including the caliper and tem-
ment and experience in interpretation required for geo- perature logs, the directional survey, dipmeter and TV
physical borehole logging, these are usually provided as logs.
a service by specialist organizations. However, some
relatively simple borehole logging systems are also mar- ELECTRIC LOGS
keted for use in small-diameter boreholes (< 80 ram) to
7. Electric log probes are used to measure the electri-
depths of less then 1000 m.
cal resistivity of the formations surrounding the bore-
WIRELINE EQUIPMENT 1. hole, and the spontaneous potentials existing within the
borehole itself. With the exception of rocks containing
3, Wireline equipment is generally used to perform electrically-conductive minerals, the electrical resistivity
geophysical borehole logging. While all wireline equip- of formations is governed by the presence and salinity
ment is similar in its essential elements, it differs in of interstitial water and by the size and continuity of
detail among the specialist logging organizations. the interstices. Spontaneous potentials in boreholes are
4. A geophysical borehole logging system is com- caused chiefly by the differences in salinity existing
prised essentially of the following elements: between the fluid filling the borehole and that saturat-
(a) A downhole probe (or sonde) containing the ing the adjacent formation. The response of electric logs
appropriate sensing systems. A probe may contain a is therefore strongly affected by the nature of the water
number of sensing devices, so that several physical contained in the interstices of the adjacent formation,
measurements can be made simultaneously. and by the nature of the interstices themselves.
(b) An armoured, multi-conductor electric cable (the 8. The conventional resistivity logs include the single-
wireline), to which the probe is attached, and through point resistance, and the normal and lateral resistivity
which signals from the probe are transmitted from devices. These probes are responsive to the electrical
within the borehole to the surface. resistivity of the formations surrounding the borehole.
(c) A winch and mast, or tripod, for lowering and The normal devices are often used for stratigraphic
raising the probe in the borehole. control purposes, and under certain conditions may
(d) A calibrated sheave on the mast or tripod for provide an estimate of the porosity of porous, per-
measuring the length of cable in the borehole. meable zones.
(e) A surface power unit. 9. The spontaneous potential (SP) log responds to
(f) An electronic system for recording the signals differences in electrical potential occurring opposite
received from the probe. The resulting signals are boundaries between different formations down the
recorded as a function of depth, and constitute the geo- borehole. These potentials are of electrochemical ori-
physical borehole log. gin; their presence requires a contrast in resistivity
5. These elements are assembled as a unit best suited between the fluid filling the borehole and the naturally-
for the site at which the borehole logging is to be per- occurring fluid in the formation. The SP log is
formed. Trucks are employed where the site is access- employed with the resistivity devices for correlation
ible, but the equipment may be disassembled into purposes and for defining the boundaries between for-
several skid-mounted components for helicopter trans- mations. The magnitude of the SP can, under certain
port to remote sites or transport underground. circumstances, be used to determine the resistivity, and
hence the salinity, of the naturally-occurring formation
* N u m b e r s refer t o N o t e s at the e n d of P a r t 1. water.
70 International Society for Rock Mechanics

10. The microresistivity devices are comprised of the centration of hydrogen nuclei in the surrounding for-
microlog, microlateralog and proximity devices. These mation, and it therefore provides a good indication of
are proprietary miniature resistivity probes contained porosity.
in a pad pressed against and conforming to the bore- 16. The gamma-gamma density probe measures the
hole wall. They provide extremely detailed information response of the surrounding formation to bombard-
on the boundaries between formations intersected by ment by medium-energy gamma rays. The latter are
the borehole. They are generally used to locate and slowed down and back-scattered by electrons in the
delineate porous, permeable beds and to provide an formation. The amount of back-scattered gamma radi-
estimate of the porosity of these beds. ation measured by the probe is inversely proportional
I1. The focussed-current resistivity logs are pro- to the bulk density of the surrounding formation.
prietary and include the lateralog, guard log and spher-
ically-focussed log (also the microlateralog, referred to ACOUSTIC LOGS
in paragraph 10). These devices were introduced by the
17. The acoustic or sonic probe measures the velocity
specialist geophysical borehole logging service compa-
of propagation of elastic compressional waves travel-
nies to provide estimates of the true resistivity of
ling through the formation immediately adjacent to the
highly-resistive formations intersected by the borehole,
borehole. Shear-wave velocities and the attenuation
in the presence of a saline fluid filling the borehole. The
characteristics of both types of wave may be measured
presence of fracturing m highly-resistive crystalline
under certain conditions. Measurements of the veloci-
rocks is often indicated by a reduction in true resis-
ties and attenuation of compressional and shear waves
tivity.
may be correlated with the mechanical properties and
12. The induction log is a device employing electro-
degree of fracturing of the formation.
magnetic waves to determine the conductivity (recipro-
18. The borehole televiewer (or seisviewer), a pro-
cal of resistivity) of formations intersected by the bore-
prietary instrument, measures the amplitude of ultra-
hole. Since it does not require an electrically-conductive
sonic waves reflected from the borehole wall. The
fluid in the borehole to provide coupling with the adja-
amplitudes measured are a function of the smoothness
cent formation, the induction log can be used in dry
of the borehole wall and the presence of discontinuities
boreholes and in those filled with fresh water or oil.
intersecting the borehole. The resulting record is essen-
The induction device is unique in that the medium im-
tially an expanded black-and-white picture of the bore-
mediately surrounding the borehole usually contributes
hole wal [.
little to its response. Since it responds to the presence of
thin beds of low resistivity, the induction log may often
MISCELLANEOUS LOGS
be used to indicate the presence of fractures in crystal-
line rocks. 19. The caliper probe continuously measures the
average borehote diameter over its length. The caliper
log is required to correct the interpretation of other
RADIATION LOGS
logs which are affected by changes in borehole diam-
13. Radiation probes are used to measure the natural eter. Changes in the borehole diameter may also indi-
radioactivity of the formations adjacent to the bore- cate changes in lithology encountered. Certain caliper
hole, and the response of the latter to bombardment by probes are sufficiently sensitive to locate individual
neutrons or gamma rays. Since the response of these fractures intersected by the borehole.
probes is statistical in nature, the speed at which the 20. The temperature probe measures the temperature
borehole is logged is critical in obtaining reliable of the borehole fluid adjacent to the formations of
records. Radiation logs comprise essentially the follow- interest. Anomalous temperatures will be measured
ing: natural gamma ray, neutron and gamma-gamma under certain circumstances: e.g., if there is ground-
density probes. water or.gas flow into the borehole.
14. The gamma-ray probe measures the natural 21. The directional survey provides the dip and dip
emission of gamma radiation from formations adjacent direction of the borehole.
to the borehole. Since radioactive elements are present 22. The continuous dipmeter (or diplog), a pro-
in all rocks and tend to concentrate in clays and shales, prietary instrument, measures the dip and dip direction
the gamma-ray probe can be used for stratigraphic con- of discontinuities intersected by the borehole. It
trol purposes, reflecting the clay and shale content of employs either three or four identical miniature electric
sedimentary formations and discontinuities in crystal- logs mounted in rubber pads at equal intervals around
line rocks. the borehol¢ circumference. During operation of the
15. The neutron probe measures the response of the dipmeter, the rubber pads are forced into contact with
surrounding formation to bombardment by high- the borehole wall. The information is recorded in digi-
energy neutrons. The latter are slowed down most effec- tal form and computer-processed to yield dips and dip
tively by hydrogen nuclei. Depending'on the type of directions of discontinuities intersected at intervals
neutron probe, either gamma rays or capture of the along the borehole. The inclinometer, included as an
slowed-down neutrons themselves are measured. The integral part of the dipmeter probe, records the data
response of the probe is largely governed by the con- necessary to determine the magnitude and direction of
 Suggested Methods for Geophysical Logging 71

any borehole deviation. This knowledge is combined borehole logging equipment used is in satisfactory con-
with relative dip and caliper data to determine the true dition, and that certain criteria whereby the standard of
formation dip and azimuth. logging records is judged are met. Specialist geophysi-
23. The TV log provides a picture of the borehole cal borehole logging companies will usually welcome
wall, with the cylindrical surface expanded to fill an such checking, since it will be in addition to the strin-
oscilloscope screen. The picture may be videotaped for gent precautions they design themselves to ensure opti-
further analysis. Successful use requires an empty or mum results.
clear-water filled borehole.
INTERPRETATION
PROCEDURE: BOREHOLE D R I L L I N G
30. The interpretation of geophysical borehole logs
24. Boreholes may be drilled by either of two calls for specialist experience. The interpretation gener-
methods, percussion or rotary-hydraulic, or by a com- ally will be more reliable when the results of logging a
bination of both. The rotary-hydraulic method is most borehole with several different types of probe are con-
widely used, although percussion drilling is still sidered together. Specialist geophysical borehole log-
employed in areas underlain by hard rock. For geo- ging organizations generally offer the services of pro-
physical logging, the borehole should be of a diameter fessional log analysts.
such that there is sufficient clearance for the largest 31. A clear distinction should be made between the
probe employed to pass freely without fear of sticking. geophysical measurements themselves, those physical
Since the downhole probe usually contains a number of or mechanical properties computed indirectly using
sensing devices, each recording measurements at a dif- theoretical formulae and those properties derived in-
ferent position on the probe, the length of the borehole directly on the basis of an established correlation
will determine to what depth it can be logged. The between the computed and the required property.
recording point may be several metres above the Theoretical formulae should only be applied after care-
l:ottom of the probe. ful examination of their validity for the case in ques-
25. In order to prepare a borehole for logging, it is tion; established correlations are generally to be pre-
necessary to have it filled with a fluid, usually drilling ferred.
mud or water. The type of borehole fluid is of particu- 32. The first step in the interpretation is to make any
lar importance in electric logging, for which it is advis- necessary corrections to the probe readings for bore-
able to use water or water-based drilling fluid of fairly hole diameter and for borehole fluid characteristics.
low salinity to obtain good records. The various geophysical observations in each of several
26. Often it is necessary to support the borehole wall boreholes may then be compared and correlated to de-
with casing. Lining of the borehole with steel casing termine the subsurface geometry of structural features
restricts the range of useful geophysical measurements intersected by the boreholes. If dipmeter or borehole
essentially to those of the radiation logs. The presence televiewer surveys have also been made in the bore-
of plastic casing, unless it has a large number of ports holes, the interpretation is made considerably easier,
communicating with the formation, inhibits the re- and quite complicated structural features may then be
sponse of the resistivity and SP logs. identified.
33. The mechanical properties of strength and defor-
LOGGING PROCEDURE mability of the formations encountered can be esti-
27. The boreholes will usually be logged as the probe mated from the sonic and density logs. The results of
field trials have indicated that the electric and neutron
is raised in the borehole. The speed at which the bore-
hole is logged depends on the type of measurement logs can, under certain circumstances, yield information
being made, ranging from approximately 4 m/min for on the strength of crystalline rocks.
the radiation and caliper logs to 30 m/rain for the elec- 34. Cross-plots of the measurements made by differ-
tric and sonic logs. Particular attention should be paid ent logging devices (e.g. neutron-sonic and density-
to the nature of the borehole fluid if satisfactory electric sonic logs) can yield much useful information on the
logs are to be recorded. If the borehole is steel-cased, lithology, degree of fracturing and porosity of forma-
only the radiation logs will be effective opposite the tions adjacent to the borehole. Considerable effort has
cased sections of the borehole. been devoted by the specialist geophysical borehole
28. In order to evaluate the quality of the geophysical logging companies to the applications of computer-
borehole logging in a borehole it is advisable to incor- generated cross-plots to different aspects of log inter-
pretation.
porate a 'repeat section' of 10-30 m, which is logged a
second time later in the programme.
29. It must be stressed that the success of any geo-
physical borehole logging programme is dependent on SERVICES AVAILABLE
the correct choice of probes for the lithologic con- 35. Services available from specialist geophysical log-
ditions expected to be encountered, and upon the tech- ging organizations fall iffto the following three groups.
nical quality of the borehole logging records them- It should be noted that the logging systems described
selves. It is important, therefore, to ensure that the under I and II below may be purchased.
 72 International Society for Rock Mechanics

(I) Shallow-depth {to 200 m), hand-operated, portable intersecting the borehole. These are the dipmeter tor
logging systems capable of measuring and recording diplog) and the borehole televiewer lot seisviewerl.
single-point resistance. SP and, in some cases, natural 38. The smallest dipmeter offered by the specialist
gamma radiation as a function of depth in boreholes of logging companies has a dia of 100 mm and can oper-
approximately 50mm dia. The probes are approxi- ate in boreholes of 113 mm dia or larger. Usually, how-
mately 41 mm in diameter. Typically, such a unit would ever. boreholes of 140 mm alia or larger are required for
weigh 80 kg. dipmeter surveys. The dipmeters generally incorporate
1II) Medium-depth (to 1000mk motor-operated. a borehole directional survey. The smallest borehole
portable borehole logging systems capable of recording televiewer is 86 mm in dia and can operate in boreholes
the following logs as a function of depth in boreholes of of 100 mm dia or larger. Other televiewer probes are
approximately 75 mm dia: larger, and require boreholes of at least 120 mm dia.
(a) Electrical resistivity, SP and single point resist-
ance; probe dia 38-50 mm.
(b) Gamma ray and neutron; probe dia 43 mm. NOTES
(c) Density tborehole compensated); probe dia (I) Reference
43 mm. Sheriff R. J. Glossary of terms used in well logging. Geophysics 35,.
(d) Sonic (borehole uncompensated); probe dia 11t6--1139 [1970).
54 mm.
(e) Caliper; probe dia 32 mm.
(f) Temperature; probe dia 37 mm. PART 2. S U G G E S T E D METHODS
Typically, such a unit would weigh 200kg skid-
mounted. It should be noted that the hazard associated
FOR SINGLE-POINT
with the neutron and density logs precludes their use by RESISTANCE A N D
other than licensed personnel.
{III) Full-size. mobile truck or skid-mounted, bore-
CONVENTIONAL
hole logging systems offering a complete range of log- RESISTIVITY LOGS
ging services for deep boreholes. The records are
usually obtained in digitized form for subsequent com-
SCOPE
puter analysis. Since these systems were originally de-
veloped for use in the oil industry, the probe sizes I The single point resistance tog consists of a record
generally used are larger (greater than 100 mm in dia) of the electrical resistance between a reference electrode
than those referred to above under group II, and conse- B grounded at the surface, and a second electrode A
quently require boreholes of 140 mm or greater in di- located in a probe free to move in an electrically-con-
ameter. However. the following small-diameter probes ductive fluid-filled borehole. The resistance measured
have recently been developed for use with these systems reflects the resistivities of formations adjacent to the
in boreholes of approximately 75 mm in dia. borehole. It is possible, therefore, to obtain a qualitat-
(i) Electrical resistivity and SP; probe dia 38 mm. ive measure from a single point resistance log of the
(ii) Induction, electrical resistivity and SP; probe variation of formation resistivities as the probe is raised
dia 56 mm. m the borehole.
(iii) Gamma ray and neutron; probe dia 43 mm. 2. The conventional (normal and lateral) resistivity
[ivj Density (borehole compensated); probe dia logs are recordings of the apparent resistivities of the
43 mm. formations adjacent to an electrically-conductive fluid-
(v) Sonic (borehole uncompensated); probe dia filled borehole. They are obtained by passing a current
43mm. Sonic (borehole compensated); probe dia into the formation between two electrodes A and B.
50 mm. and measuring the potential difference between two
(vi) Caliper; probe dia 44 mm. further electrodes M and N.
(vii) Temperature; probe dia 43mm. 3. For the normal device, electrodes A, M and N are
These services are provided by a small group of located in the probe in the borehole, and electrode B
specialist borehole logging companies only. may be grounded at the surface or placed in the bore-
36. It should be noted that. when the services of hole at a distance greater than the spacing AN. Elec-
specialist borehole logging companies are employed, trodes B and N are assumed to be at infinity, since their
the customer is invariably responsible for recovering or distance from electrode A is much greater than the dis-
replacing logging probes lost due to caving of the bore- tance AM. The spacing AM is approximately half the
hole or to some other misfortune. In the case of neu- radius of investigation of the normal device. Although a
tron or density probes, such a loss can also involve a number of different spacings are used, those of 0.4 m
serious safety hazard. (16 in.) for the 'short normal' and 1.6 m (64 in3 for the
37. In addition to the logs described above, the major 'log normal' are commonly used.
specialist logging companies offer the services of the 4. For the lateral device, electrodes A, B and M are
two proprietary geophysical borehole probes which located in the probe in the borehole, with the distance
measure the dip and dip direction of discontinuities AB being small compared with AM. Electrode N is
 Suggested Methods for Geophysical Logging. 73

assumed to be at infinity and is grounded at the surface in the borehole. The fluid should be circulated immedi-
or in the borehole with the distance AN much greater ately before logging is commenced. While the probe is
than AM. The midpoint between electrodes A and B is lowered in the borehole, a suitable scale for displaying
considered as the reference point 0, with OM the spac- the record is chosen.
ing which is approximately the radius of investigation 9. The probe is then raised at a constant rate over the
of the lateral device. Although a number of different uncased length of the borehole, and measurements of
spacings OM are used, those of 5.7 m (18 ft 8 in.), or less the apparent resistance or resistivity are recorded con-
frequently 1.8 m (6 It), are commonly used. tinuously. The rate of travel in the borehole is approxi-
5. Normal resistivity togs (usually the short normal) mately 4-30 m m i n . These logs are usually recorded
may be used in correlations, lithologic determinations with others, such as the SP log.
and to indicate boundaries of beds. The short normal 10. The resistivity of the mud filtrate or water is
may also be used to measure the resistivity of porous, measured in a fluid resistivity meter at a given tempera-
permeable zones invaded by the mud filtrate, while the ture. The mud filtrate resistivity may also be calculated
long normal yields a value of resistivity intermediate if its salinity is known.
between that of the invaded zone and of the true forma-
tion resistivity. Under certain circumstances, the short
normal may be used to obtain an estimate of the poro-
sity of porous, permeable zones. C A L C U L A T I O N AND
6. The lateral device may be used to provide an esti- I N T E R P R E T A T I O N O F RESULTS
mate of the true formation restivity, provided the re- 11. In porous, permeable formations, the apparent
sponse is not affected by mud filtrate invasion effects. In resistance or resistivity measured by the device depends
contrast to the response of the normal logs, that of the on a number of factors, such as the true formation
lateral device is not symmetrical opposite uniform beds, resistivity R,, invaded zone resistivity Ri, diameter of
and it is highly distorted in thin beds. the invaded zone d~, resistivity of the adjacent forma-
tions Rs, drilling fluid resistivity R,,, bed thickness e,
APPARATUS electrode spacing and borehole diameter d. The shape
7. The apparatus consists essentially of the following: of the curve recorded is influenced by the ratio of the
formation thickness to the electrode spacing. For the
(a) Single point resistance: a movable probe in which
electrode A is located. normal resistivity and single-point resistance devices,
Ib) Normal resistivity: a movable probe with elec- the curves are symmetrical about the centre of the for-
trode A located near the base, electrode M at 0.4 or mation; for the lateral devices, however, the curves are
asymmetrical.
1.6 m (or some other spacing) above A, and electrode N
at a distance many times the spacing AM. 12. Qualitative interpretations of these logs, such as
(c) Lateral device: a movable probe with electrode B the identification of lithology, correlations of forma-
located near the base, electrode A above B (0.8 m for tions between boreholes and the positioning of forma-
the 5.7 m spacing OM), electrode M 5.7 m above the tion boundaries require no calculations.
midpoint of electrodes A and B, and electrode N at a 13. For quantitative interpretation, the true forma-
distance much greater than OM. tion resistivity can be obtained directly from the resis-
(d) An electronic circuit with which to apply a con- tivity togs if the formation is a t least 5 times {for the
stant current between electrodes A and B. normal device) and 3 times (for the lateral device)
(e) A galvanometer with a recorder to measure the thicker than the spacing, and provided the diameter of
potential difference between electrodes M and N in the invasion and the borehole are small compared with the
case of the resistivity devices and between A and B for spacing. Otherwise, the apparent resistivity measured
the single-point resistance log. must be corrected for formation thickness, effects of
(f) Electronic circuits for scale selecting. ~* adjacent formations and for borehole and invasion di-
(g) A power or manually-operated winch and multi- ameters. These corrections may be made using depar-
conductor armoured cable connecting the probe to the ture curves or interpretation charts.'-
surface, together with a means of measuring the depth 14. The formation factor F is defined as the ratio of
of the probe in the borehole. The movement of the the resistivity of a fully water-saturated porous, per-
probe in the borehole should be coupled with the meable formation to the resistivity of the water saturat-
recorder to ensure synchronism between depth in the ing it. The formation factor is related to the formation
borehole and that displayed on the recorder. porosity q~ by the Archie relation F = a 6 - " , in which
(h) A fluid resistivity meter. the value of a is approximately unity and m is approxi-
mately 2. The formation factor may, under certain cir-
PROCEDURE cumstances, be estimated from the ratio of the apparent
resistivity measured by the normal device to the resis-
8. As soon as the borehole has been drilled and filled tivity of the borehole fluid escaping to the formation. It
with electrically-conductive fluid, the probe is lowered is also given by the ratio of the true resistivity of the
formation to the resistivity of the formation water fully
* N u m b e r s refer to N o t e s at the end of Part 2. saturating it.
74 International Society for Rock Mechanics

R E P O R T I N G O F RESULTS APPARATUS
15. The report should contain the following data: 3. The apparatus consists essentially of the following:
(a) The borehole location and length, diameter, incli- (a) A movable electrode or probe in the borehole and
nation and direction, also the characteristics of the a fixed electrode grounded at the surface. Both elec-
drilling fluid and location of any casing. trodes must be made of stable metals, e.g. oxidized lead.
(b) The resistance or resistivity logs to an appropriate to avoid bimetallic corrosion.
scale, together with core or cutting logs where avail- (b) A power or manually-operated winch and isolat-
able. fully annotated with details of instrument settings. ing cable connecting the electrode to the ground sur-
(c) Possible correlations with other logs. face, together with a method for measuring the depth of
(d) Correlations of apparent resistivity made by dif- the electrode in the hole. T h e movement of the cable
ferent logs at a particular point. should be coupled to the recorder to ensure synchro-
(e) Calculations of true formation resistivity, invaded nism between actual depth of the probe in the borehole
zone resistivity and the porosity of porous, permeable and that displayed on the recorder.
zones. (c) A galvanometer, usually with a recorder and elec-
tric circuits for sensitivity adjustments, scale selecting ~*
NOTES and positioning the base line.
Ill The horizontal scale may vary from 20 to 1000f~M for the (d) A fluid resistivity meter.
whole recording track for the resistivity devices and to 200fl for the
single.point resistance log. Depth scales are usually 1/200 or 1/1000.
but scales such as 1/50 or I 100 are used in logging shallow bore- PROCEDURE
holes. Other depth scales are 1/120. 1/240and 1/600.
12) References 4. Once the hole has been drilled and filled with elec-
Dresser Atlas. Log Review l: Review of Well Logging Principles. trically-conductive fluid, the fixed electrode is grounded
Dresser Atlas Inc.. Houston 11971). at the surface ~usually in the mud pit/tank or in a
Pirson S. J. Handbook of Well Log Analysis for Oil and Gas Formation special mud-filled holel and the movable electrode is
Et'aluation. Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs. NJ (19631.
Schlumberger. Log Interpretation: Vol. I. Principles. Schlumberger lowered along the borehole. The fluid should be circu-
Inc.. New York {19721. lated and conditioned before logging.
Schlumberger. Lo# Interpretation Charts. Schlumbcrger Inc.. New 5. When lowering the electrode, the horizontal scale
York (1972).
Schlumberger. Log Interpretation: Vol. II. Applications. Schlumberger is chosen so that the largest deflection does not go
Inc.. New York 11974~. off-scale, and the base line is positioned in the same
way. Care should be taken to avoid disturbance due to
such external influences as electric welders and trains,
electrolytic corrosion of nearby cased wells, chemical
PART 3. S U G G E S T E D changes in the borehole fluid and magnetization of the
winch.
M E T H O D FOR THE 6. The electrode is raised at a constant rate along the
uncased length of the borehole and measurements are
SPONTANEOUS recorded continuously. The rate of travel in the hole is
POTENTIAL LOG about 4 to 30 m/rain. Usually this log is recorded
together with other logs, such as the resistivity or sonic
logs.
SCOPE
7. The resistivity of the mud filtrate or water is
1. The Spontaneous Potential or Polarization curve measured in the fluid resistivity meter at a given tem-
(SP), is a record of the potential difference between a perature if it is necessary to determine the formation
movable electrode in the borehole and a fixed surface water resistivity or salinity. It is also possible to calcu-
electrode, due to electrochemical (membrane and liquid late the mud filtrate resistivity if its salinity is known.
junction) and electrokinetic potentials in porous, per-
meable formations in mud or water-filled and uncased
boreholes, when the resistivities (and salinities) of the CALCULATION AND
formation water and of the mud filtrate {or borehole INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
water) are different.
8. Deflections and the shape of the SP curve depend
2. This method can be used for geologic correlation,
on several factors, such as the relationship between
to locate bed boundaries, to detect permeable zones
mud filtrate and formation water resistivities, thickness
and to measure the formation water resistivity. The
and resistivity of the permeable bed, mud resistivity,
readings of the SP curve opposite shales and clays
diameter of the zone invaded by the mud filtrate, bore-
usually give a straight line called the 'shale base line';
hole diameter and resistivity of the adjacent formations.
opposite porous, permeable formations a deflection of
9. Deflections of the SP curve are either to the left or
the curve occurs, usually in the negative direction.
to the right of the baseline associated with shales or
clays. If in a porous, permeable zone the formation
Numbers refer to Notes at the end of Part 3 water resistivity Rw is lower than the borehole water or
 Suggested Methods for Geophysical Logging 75

mud filtrate resistivity R,,.r, the deflection is to the left Schlumberger. Log Interpretation: Vol. I. Principles. Schlumberger
Inc., New York 119721.
(negative). Such is usually the case for deep boreholes Schlumberger. Log Interpretation Charts. Schlumberger Inc.. New
drilled with fresh-water drilling fluids. If Rw is larger York 11972).
than R,,,.r the deflection is to the right (positive). This is
usually the case for the upper zones of the borehole or
in shallow boreholes opposite fresh-water bearing for-
mations, or when using salt-water muds. The actual
PART 4. S U G G E S T E D
position of the base line has no meaning in itself. M E T H O D FOR THE
10. Correlations, the location of bed boundaries or a
qualitative identification of permeable beds do not
INDUCTION LOG
require calculations; these are provided by deflections
from the shale base line. The points of inflection of the
SCOPE
curves provide the exact level of bed boundaries.
11. Calculations of the formation water resistivity R,~ 1. The induction log is a record of the response of
may be made using the following expression, which is formations adjacent to the borehole to an alternating
valid for porous, permeable formations when they are magnetic field, which is created by a high-frequency
uninfluenced by the presence of disseminated clay min- alternating-current transmitter coil located in the
erals, probe. The magnetic field induces secondary currents in
electrically-conductive formations. These currents in
SP = 0.238- T . l o g (R"r)e
(Rw)e ' turn create magnetic fields, which induce signals in a
receiver coil located in the probe. The receiver signals
in which T is the absolute temperature of the forma-
are essentially proportional to the conductivity (reci-.
tion; (R,.¢)~ and (Rw)~ are equivalent resistivities which
procal of resistivity) of the formation. Any signal pro-
take into account the departure of actual chemical ac-
duced by direct coupling of transmitter and receiver
tivity from that predicted from salt content; SP is the
coils is balanced out in the measuring circuits.
deflection in millivolts read directly from the log oppo-
2. The induction log may be used in empty boreholes,
site thick beds. For thin beds, corrected values of SP
must be used. 2 The influence of disseminated clay min- or with conductive or non-conductive 1fresh water or
erals upon the interpretation of the SP log is discussed oil) fluids in the borehole. It may also be used in bore-
in the literature. 3 holes with non-conductive casing. Theory of the re-
sponse of the induction log shows that. provided it is of
high resistivity, the medium immediately surrounding
R E P O R T I N G O F RESULTS the borehole contributes very little to its response; the
log therefore reflects the true resistivity of the surround-
12. The report should include the following data:
ing formations.
(a) The borehole location and length, diameter, incli-
nation and direction, also the characteristics of the
drilling fluid and location of any casing. APPARATUS
(b) the SP log at an appropriate scale, together with
core or cutting logs where available, fully annotated 3. The apparatus consists essentially of the following:
with details of instrument settings. (a) A movable probe in the borehole with between
(c) Possible correlations with other logs. two and six coaxial coils. One of these is the main
(d) Indications of the permeable beds. transmitter coil and another is the receiver coil, spaced
(e) If calculated, results of the formation water resis- between 0.7 and 1.0 m apart. The remaining coils are
tivity or salinity, together with details of data used in employed to improve radial and vertical investigative
their calculations and any assumptions made. characteristics of the device.
(b) An electronic circuit to provide a high-frequency
(20-60 kHz) alternating current of constant intensity for
NOTES the transmitter coil.
(I) Horizontal sensitivities may vary from 10 to 500mV for the (c) An electric circuit to select signals of the correct
whole recording track. Depth scales are usually 1/200 or 1/1000. but phase and to amplify them before transmitting to the
scales such as 1/50 or l/t00 are used in logging shallow boreholes. surface for measuring with a galvanometer and display-
Other depth scales are 1/120, 1/240 and 1/600.
(2) For this correction,the relationship between adjacent formation ing on a recorder.
resistivity R5 to mud resistivity R,. borehole diameter and bed thick- (d) Electronic circuits for scale selecting ~* and cali-
ness are needed.
bration adjustments.
(3) References (e) A winch and multi-conductor armoured cable
Dresser Atlas. Log Review I: Review of Well Logging Principles. connecting the probe to the surface, together with a
Dresser Atlas Inc., Houston (1971).
Pirson S. J. Handbook of Well Log Analysis for Oil and Gas Formation means of measuring the depth of the probe in the bore-
Ecaluation. Prentice-Hall, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ (1963). hole. The movement of the probe in the borehole
Pirson S. J. Geologic Well Log Analysis. Gulf, Houston (1970). should be coupled with the recorder to ensure synchro-
nism between actual depth of the probe in the borehole
* Numbers refer to Notes at the end of Part 4. and that displayed on the recorder.
76 International Society for Rock Mechanics

if) A mechanical centralizer for the probe in the bore- lb) The induction log conductivity and resistivity
hole. measurements to appropriate scales, together with core
(g) A fluid resistivity meter. or cutting logs where available, fully annotated with
details of instrument settings.
tct Any other logs of the borehole, in order to facili-
PROCEDURE
tate interpretation of the induction log in porous, per-
4. As soon as the borehole has been drilled, the probe meable formations and to establish possible corre-
is lowered in the borehole. While the probe is lowered lations.
in the borehole, a suitable scale for displaying the Id} An interpretation of the results in terms of peru-
record is chosen. nent geological characteristics of the formations sur-
5. The probe is then raised at a constant rate over the rounding the borehole.
section of the borehole to be logged, and measurements
are recorded continuously. The rate of travel in the
NOTES
borehole is approximately 4--30 m/min. The induction
log is usually recorded with others, such as the short t ll The horizontal scale is calibrated linearly in units of conducti-
normal and SP logs, or a second induction log of differ- vity Imitlisiemens/m. mS/m) or of resistivity (ohm. m, f~m). Often both
the resistivity and conductivity are recorded and displayed simul-
ent coil spacing and a lateralog. taneously on the log. In certain cases the resistivity scale is logarith-
6, The resistivity of the mud filtrate or water is mtc, and covers four decades typically from 0.1 to 1000fire. This
measured in a fluid resistivity meter at a given tempera- presentation enhances the interpretation of low resistivities, while
preventing high resistivities measured from going off scale. Depth
ture. The mud filtrate resistivity may also be calculated scales are typically 1,/200 or 1/1003. but scales such as 1/50 or 1 100
if its salinity is known. are used in logging shallow boreholes. Other depth scales are 1/120.
1/240 and 1/600.
12} References
CALCULATION AND
Dresser Atlas. Log Reriew I: Reriew of Well Logging Principles.
INTERPRETATION O F RESULTS Dresser Atlas Inc., Houston ~1971).
Moran 1. H. & Kunz K. S, Basic theory of induction logging. Geophy-
7. In porous, permeable formations, the resistivity sics 27. 829-858 11962).
measured by the induction log is close in value to the Schlumberger. Log Interpretation: Vol. I, Principles. Schlumberger
true resistivity of the formation, provided the formation Inc.. New York 11972).
Schlumberger. Loy Interpretation Charts. Schtumberger Inc., New
has not been deeply invaded by the drilling fluid, When York 119721.
the formation has been deeply invaded, the apparent Schlumberger. Log Interpretation: Vol. II. Applications. Schlumberger
Inc,. New York {1974).
resistivity recorded by the device deviates from the true
resistivity. The amount by which it deviates depends
upon the depth of invasion, and upon the contrast
between the resistivity of the invaded zone and the true PART 5. S U G G E S T E D
resistivity of the formation. Interpretation under these M E T H O D FOR THE
circumstances is facilitated when a shallow-investiga-
tion device, such as the short normal resistivity log, is GAMMA-RAY LOG
run together with the induction log. z
8. The formation factor F, defined by the ratio of the
SCOPE
true resistivity of the formation to that of the connate
water fully saturating it, may also be determined if the 1. The gamma-ray log provides a continuous
connate water resistivity is obtained from the SP log. measurement of the natural radioactivity of formations
The formation factor is related to the formation poro- intersected by the borehole. In most sedimentary rocks,
sity ~b by the Archie relation F -- aq~-', in which the the log reflects the shale and clay content of formations.
value of a is approximately unity and m is approxi- This is because the radioactive elements tend to con-
mately 2. centrate in rocks containing clay minerals. Sandstones,
9. Fracture zones in rocks of low porosity drilled limestones and dolomites tend to have a low level of
with fresh water are often identified by the induction radioactivity, unless radioactive contaminants such as
log. volcanic ash or granite wash are present. Because of
I0. The bed definition is good when the formauon absorption, most of the gamma rays counted by the log
thickness is greater than the spacing between the main originate within the first 150ram of formation sur-
transmitter and receiver coils. rounding the borehole.
2. In mineral exploration, the gamma-ray log .is
employed to detect and evaluate deposits of radioactive
REPORTING OF RESULTS minerals such as potash and uranium ore.
11. The report should contain the following data: 3. The gamma-ray log may be employed in wells with
(a) The borehole location and length, diameter, incli- steel casing, since the presence of steel easing only
nation and direction, also the characteristics of the partly reduces the total number of gamma rays
drilling fluid and location and description of any cas- counted. However, corrections must be made to
ing. account for the presence of casing.
 Suggested Methods for Geophysical Logging 77

4. The gamma-ray log may be employed in empty 10. The response of the gamma-ray log is influenced
boreholes. also by the conditions existing within the borehole.
such as the presence of casing and borehole diameter,
APPARATUS
since the materials present between the detector and the
5. The apparatus consists essentially of the following: adjacent formations absorb g a m m a rays. The log must
la) A probe containing the device for detecting therefore be corrected for hole diameter, probe eccentri-
g a m m a rays originating in the formation adjacent to city in the borehole, casing and cement thickness and
the borehole, together with a preamplifier. Scintillation density of the fluid filling the borehole." A correction
counters are usually preferred for this purpose for their must also be made on the depth scale to account for the
short active length and efficiency, although Geiger- time constant lag of the gamma-ray log response.
Mtiller counters are still used. 11. Some gamma-ray logs permit the analysis of the
Ib) An armoured cable to transmit the signal to the spectrum of energy levels of gamma-ray emission from
surface, and on which to suspend the probe. the surrounding formations. In this way the presence of
(c) Electronic circuits for averaging the signal, for different radioactive elements (e.g. potassium, thorium
time-constant selecting and for calibration purposes. and uranium) may be detected.
(d) A recorder displaying the gamma-ray intensity in
API units as a function of depth, t* R E P O R T I N G O F RESULTS
le) A power or manually-operated winch with a
12. The report should contain the following data:
means of measuring the depth of the probe in the bore-
(a) The borehole location and length, diameter, incli-
hole. The movement of the probe in the borehole
nation and direction, also the characteristics of the
should be coupled with the recorder to ensure synchro-
drilling fluid and location and details of any casing and
nism between actual depth of the probe in the borehole
cement.
and that displayed on the recorder.
(b) Details and calibration procedures followed.
(c) The gamma-ray log to an appropriate scale in
PROCEDURES API units, together with core and cutting logs where
available, fully annotated with details of instrument
6. Since the rate of emission of g a m m a rays is statisti-
settings.
cal in nature, the rate of counting by the detector will
(d) An interpretation of the results in terms of perti-
depend upon the basic time unit over which the count-
nent geological characteristics of the formation sur-
ing takes place. Fluctuations in the rate of counting will
rounding the borehole, noting any assumptions and
be smaller if the counting time or time constant (T.C.) is
corrections made to the gamma-ray tog.
longer, or if the level of radioactivity is higher. The T.C.
is selected to an appropriate value (normally between 2 NOTES
and 4 sec) to avoid high statistical fluctuations in the
rate of counting. (I) 16.SAPI units are equivalent to [~g Ra-equiv.ton. The hori-
zontal scale varies from 100 to 200API units for the whole scale.
7. The probe is raised in the borehole at a sufficiently Depth scales are usually 1200 or 1, 1000. but scales of 1 50 or 1 100
slow speed, which depends on the T.C, selected and on may be used in shallow boreholes. Other depth scales are 1 120. 1:2-10
the minimum bed thickness to be detected. Normally and 1/600.
the speed is chosen so that the probe travels approxi- (2) References
mately 0.3 m during one T.C. (e.g. 9 m/min for a T.C. of American Petroleum Institute. Recommended Practice Jbr Standard
2 sec). It is recommended that the log be run over cer- Calibration and Form for Nuclear Logs. API RP 33 (1959).
Dresser Atlas. Log Review I: Reriew of Well Logging Principles.
tain sections of a few metres of the borehole twice to Dresser Atlas Inc., Houston [1971).
check the statistical fluctuations. Pirson, S. J. Handbook of Well Log Analysis for Oil and Gas Forma-
8. If a quantitative interpretation is to be made, cali- tion Evaluation. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. t19631.
Schlumberger. Log Interpretation: Vol. I, Principles. Schlumberger Inc..
bration must be performed, before or after running the New York (1972).
log, with a gamma-ray source of known intensity at a Schlumberger. Log Interpretation Charts. Schlumberger Inc.. New
fixed distance from the detector in the probe. It is York (1972).
Schlumberger. Log Interpretation: Vol. II. Applications. Schlumberger
recommended that the API recommended practice be Inc., New York [1974).
used for this purpose.-'

CALCULATION AND PART 6. S U G G E S T E D

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
M E T H O D FOR THE
9. In the absence of radioactive mineral deposits, the
gamma-ray log responds to the presence of clays, shales NEUTRON LOG
and acidic volcanic rocks. In sedimentary rocks the
g a m m a - r a y log may often be correlated with the clay SCOPE
mineral content. 1. The neutron log responds to the amount of hydro-
gen in the formations surrounding the borehole. In
* Numbers refer to Notes at the end of Part 5. water- or hydrocarbon-saturated porous formations,
78 International Society for Rock Mechanics

where disseminated clay minerals are absent, the neu- PROCEDURE

tron log may be used to estimate the porosity. In crys-
7. Since the rate of formation of slow neutrons and of
talline rocks the log may be used to detect fracture
emission of gamma rays of capture is statistical in
zones close to the borehole. It should be noted that
nature, the rate of counting by the detector or detectors
where water of crystallization or hydrogen chemically
will depend upon the basic time unit over which the
combined in formation materials is present, it contrib-
counting takes place. Fluctuations in the rate of count-
utes to the response of the neutron log.
ing will be smaller if the counting time or time constant
2. Fast neutrons emitted by a high-energy source
(T.C.) is longer, or if the level of measured radioactivity
located in the probe bombard the formation adjacent
is higher. The T.C. is selected to an appropriate value
to the borehole, On emission from the source the neu-
(normally between 2 and 4 secJ to avoid high statistical
trons are slowed to thermal velocities by collisions with
fluctuations in the rate of counting.
atomic nuclei, of which hydrogen nuclei are the most
8. The probe is raised in the borehole at a sufficiently
effective, After the neutrons have been slowed down
slow speed, which depends on the T.C. selected. Nor-
they are captured by atomic nuclei in the formation.
mally the speed is chosen so that the probe travels
and a gamma ray of capture is emitted by the capturing
approximately 0.3 m during one T.C. (e.g. 9 m/min for a
nucleus, These gamma rays of capture or slowed-down
T.C. of 2 secl.
neutrons are counted by a detector mounted in the
9. In certain situations it may be desirable to raise
probe. For the long spacings commonly used. the the probe in the borehole in discrete steps, obtaining a
counting rate increases for decreased hydrogen content. count while the probe is maintained at a constant
because the fast neutrons travel further from the source depth. In this case the total count should be at least
before being slowed down and captured. 2500 gamma rays of capture or slowed-down neutrons
3. The neutron log may be employed in boreholes to reduce fluctuations to approximately + t~',o.
with steel casing, since the presence of steel casing only 10. If a quantitative interpretation is to be made.
partly reduces the sensitivity of the neutron log. How- calibration must be performed, before or after running
ever, corrections must be made for the presence of the log, with a standard neutron log calibrator. This
casing. secondary standard must have previously been cali-
4. The neutron log may be employed in empty bore- brated itself in an equivalent of the API neutron log
holes. calibration pit.
5. When used in combination with the gamma-ray
log, the neutron log provides a means for identifying
C A L C U L A T I O N AND
lithologies and for obtaining the porosities of porous
I N T E R P R E T A T I O N O F RESULTS
zones. In combination with the density or acoustic logs,
the neutron log can also be used to indicate the pres- 11. The response of the neutron log in API units is
ence and degree of fracturing in crystalline rocks. converted to porosity, with calibration and correction
curves to account for borehote effects and lithology. 3
The calculated porosity reflects the total hydrogen
APPARATUS present, in the case of partial water saturation on the
6. The apparatus consists essentially of the following: one hand and the presence of water of crystallization
(a) A probe containing a shielded source of fast neu- on the other, the porosity calculated will, respectively,
trons ~*, a detector or detectors of gamma rays of cap- be artifically low or artificially high.
ture or of slow neutrons, together with preamplifiers. 12. The records of neutron logs with two or more
The distance from source to detector is usually 170 mm detectors are usually processed automatically to yield a
or less for short spacing, or 300 mm or greater for the linearly-scaled recording or porosity directly.
long spacing apparatus more commonly used. Two 13. A correction must be made on the depth scale to
detectors with these spacings are used with some neu- account for the lag in the neutron log response due to
tron logs. the time constant chosen.
(b) An armoured cable to transmit the signals from
the detector or detectors to the surface, and on which R E P O R T I N G O F RESULTS
to suspend the probe.
(c) Electronic circuits for averaging the signal, for 14. The report should contain the following data:
time-constant selecting and for calibration purposes. (a) The borehole location and length, diameter, direc-
(d) A recorder displaying the gamma-ray or slow- tion and inclination, also the characteristics of the drill-
neutron intensity in API units as a function of depth. 2 ing fluid and location and details of any casing and
(e) A winch with a means of measuring the depth of cement.
the probe in the borehole. The movement of the probe (b) Details of the neutron source and detectors used,
in the borehole should be coupled with the recorder to and of the calibration procedures followed.
ensure synchronism between actual depth of the probe (c) The neutron log to an appropriate scale in API
in the borehole and that displayed on the recorder, units or units of porosity, together with core and cut-
ting logs where available, fully annotated with details of
* N u m b e r s refer t o N o t e s at t h e e n d o f P a r t 6. instrument settings.
 Suggested Methods for Geophysical Logging 79

(d) Any other logs of the borehole, in order to facili- probe have an appreciable effect on the response of the
tate interpretation of the neutron log. density log. To compensate for these effects a two-
(e) An interpretation of the results in terms of perti- detector arrangement is often used, and the probe is
nent geological characteristics of the formations sur- held against the borehole wall during logging.
rounding the borehole, noting any assumptions and 4. The density log may be employed in empty bore-
corrections made to the neutron log. holes.
5. When used in combination with the gamma-ray
log, the density log provides a means for identifying
NOTES
formation lithology and the presence of porous forma-
Ill Plutonium-Beryllium or Americium-Beryllium sources of fast tions, and for determining their porosity. In combina-
neutrons are normally employed, because of their long half life and tion with the neutron or acoustic logs, the density log
freedom from emission of g a m m a rays. Radioactive sources are dan-
gerous: they should be handled only in their shields and always with can also be used to indicate the presence and degree of
care. fracturing in crystalline rocks.
[2} One AP[ neutron unit is arbitrarily defined as 1/1000 the differ-
ence between instrument zero and the deflection opposite a limestone
flndiana) of porosity 0.19 contained in a pit at Houston. The horizon-
tal scale is linear in API units, with a range of 3200 for the whole APPARATUS
scale or in units of limestone porosity in the range typically - 0 . 1 0 to
0.30. Depth scales are usually 1/200 or 1/1000, but scales of 1/50 or 6. The apparatus consists essentially of the following:
1 100 may be used in shallow boreholes. Other depth scales are 1/120, (a) A probe containing a shielded source of medium-
1 240 and 1:600.
energy gamma rays t*, a detector or detectors Of back-
(3) References scattered gamma rays, together with preamplifiers. The
American Petroleum Institute. Recommended Practice for Standard probe is provided with some mechanical device for
Calibration and Form for Nuclear Logs, API RP33 0959).
Dresser Atlas. Lo 9 Review I: Review of Well Loqgin9 Principles. ensuring it is in contact with, or close to, the borehole
Dresser Atlas Inc., Houston (1971). wall during logging.
Pirson, S. J. Handbook of Well Lo 9 Analysis for Oil and Gas Forma- (b) An armoured cable to transmit the signals from
tion Evaluation. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1963).
Schlumberger. Lo 9 Interpretation: Vol. I, Principles. Schlumberger the detector or detectors to the surface, and on which
Inc., New York 11972). to suspend the probe.
Schlumberger. Log Interpretation Charts. Schlumberger Inc., New (c) Electronic circuits for averaging the signal, for
York (1972).
Schlumberger. Lo 9 Interpretation: Vol. It, Applications. Schlumberger time-constant selecting and for calibration purposes.
Inc., New York (1974). With two detectors, automatic compensation of the
data is made, and the bulk density of the formation is
calculated directly.
PART 7. S U G G E S T E D M E T H O D (d) A recorder displaying the bulk density as a func-
tion of depth.-'
FOR THE G A M M A - G A M M A (e) A winch with a means of measuring the depth of
DENSITY LOG the probe in the borehole. The movement of the probe
in the borehole should be coupled with the recorder to
ensure synchronism between actual depth of the probe
SCOPE in the borehole and that displayed on the recorder.
1. The gamma-gamma density log responds to the
gamma rays emitted by a source within the probe and
PROCEDURE
back-scattered by the formations surrounding the bore-
hole. The back-scattered gamma rays counted by a 7. Since the rate at which back-scattered gamma rays
detector are inversely proportional to the bulk density strike the detectors is statistical in nature, the rate of
of the material surrounding the probe. counting will depend upon the basic time unit over
2. Medium-energy gamma rays emitted by a source which the counting takes place. Fluctuations in the rate
located in the probe bombard the formation adjacent of counting will be smaller of the counting time or time
to the borehole. The gamma rays are back-scattered by constant (T.C.) is larger. The T.C. is selected to an
collisions with electrons in the formation, and some of appropriate value (normally between 2 and 4sec) to
these reach the detector. The source and detector are avoid high statistical fluctuations in the rate of count-
arranged so that the number of gamma rays counted is ing.
inversely proportional to the electron density of the 8. The probe is raised in the borehole at a sufficiently
surroundings. Since the bulk density is proportional to low speed, which depends on the T.C. selected. Nor-
the electron density for most elements of low atomic mally the speed is chosen so that the probe travels
mass, the gamma-gamma log provides a measure of the approximately 0.3 m during one T.C. (e.g. 9 m min for a
bulk density of the surroundings. T.C. of 2 sec).
3. Since the gamma rays are absorbed by the forma- 9. Under certain conditions it may be desirable to
tion quite close to the borehole, conditions close to the raise the probe in the borehole in discrete steps, obtain-
ing a count while the probe is maintained at a constant
* Numbers refer, to Notes at the end of Part 7. depth. In this case the total count of back-scattered
80 International Society for Rock Mechanics

gamma rays should be at least 2500 to reduce fluctua- rounding the borehole, noting any assumptions and
tions to approximately + 1~/o. corrections made to the density log.
10. A caliper log is usually run with the density log to
permit corrections to be made for any roughness of the NOTES
borehole wall. Ill t3"Caesium or 6°cobalt sources of g a m m a rays are normally
l 1. Before or after each logging run, the probe should employed, the former providing g a m m a rays of one energy level and
be carefully checked and calibrated with appropriate the latter two. Radioactive sources are dangerous: they should rse
handled only in their shields and al~ays with care.
secondary calibration devices, e.g. in blocks of I21 The horizontal scale is linear in bulk density, with a range from
aluminum, magnesium and sulphur. 2000 to 3 0 0 0 k g - m -3. Depth scales are usually t 2 0 0 or 1 [000. but
scales of 1 50 or 1. 100 may be used in shallow borehotes. Other depth
scales are I..'120. I;240 and I '600.
CALCULATION A N D 13) References
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS Dresser Atlas. Log Review l: Reriew of Well Logging Principles.
Dresser Atlas Inc.. Houston 11971).
12. The density probe equipped with two detectors Schlumberger. Log Interpretation: Vol. l. Principles. Schlumberger
provides a direct record of the bulk density of the for- Inc., New York {19721.
mations intersected by the borehole. In this case. cor- Schlumberger. Log Interpretation Charts. Schlumberger Inc.. New
York (1972).
rections must be made only for borehole roughness. Schlumberger, Log Interpretation: VoL II. Applications. Schlumberger
13. For single-detector density probes, the readings Inc.. New York (1974).
are converted to bulk density using calibration curves. Tittman J. & Wahl J. S. The physical foundations of formation den-
sity logging ( g a m m a - g a m m a ) . Geophysics 30. 284--294 (1965).
In uncased boreholes with the probe applied against
the borehole wall, corrections must be made for bore-
hole diameter, density of drilling fluid and. if present,
drilling mud-cake thickness. In cased boreholes, or PART 8. S U G G E S T E D
when the probe is not applied against the borehole
wall. special calibration curves must be employed. In
M E T H O D FOR THE
cased boreholes, the thickness and density of casing and ACOUSTIC OR
of materials between the casing and borehole wall
should be carefully evaluated for a quantitative inter-
SONIC LOG
pretation.
14. The formation bulk density p~ is related to the
SCOPE
porosity ~ through the relation
@ = P= - Pb 1. The acoustic or sonic log provides a measure of
Prn -- Pf" the time of travel of compressional waves over a certain
interval of the formation immediately adjacent to the
in which p,, = density of matrix material, py = density
borehole. From the travel time, the velocity of propaga-
of fluid filling the pore spaces. Given the matrix and
tion of compressional waves in the formation can be
pore fluid densities, the porosity can be calculated)
calculated. With appropriate devices and under suitable
15. A correction must be made on the depth scale to
geological conditions, the velocities Of propagation of
account for the lag in the density log response due to
shear and other secondary waves, and the attenuation
the time constant chosen.
characteristics may be measured.
2. Variations in the velocity of compressional waves
may be correlated with changes in lithotogy and the
REPORTING OF RESULTS porosity of formations adjacent to the borehole.
16. The report should contain the following data: Knowledge of the compressional and shear wave velo.
(a) The borehole location and length, diameter, direc- cities, together with the density of the formation, en-
tion and inclination, also the characteristics of the drill- ables the dynamic elastic properties of the formation to
ing fluid and location and details of and casing and be calculated. ** The attenuation characteristics of com-
current. pressional and shear waves may be correlated with the
(b) Details of the gamma-ray source and detectors mechanical properties and degree of fracturing and fis-
used, and of the calibration procedures followed. suring of the formation.
(c} The density log to an appropriate scale of bulk
density, together with core and cutting logs where APPARATUS
available, fully annotated with details of instrument
settings. 3. The apparatus consists essentially of the following:
(d) Any other logs of the borehole, in order to facili- (a) A transmitter of pulses of acoustic waves mounted
tate interpretation of the density logs. at one end of the probe. An acoustic receiver or
(e) An interpretation of the results in terms of perti- receivers, with associated preamplifiers, are mounted a
nent geological characteristics of the foundations sur- fixed distance at the other end of the probe, where they
are acoustically insulated from the transmitter. The
" N u m b e r s refer, to Notes at the end of Part 8. borehole compensated acoustic log consists of two
 Suggested Methods for Geophysical Logging 81

transmitters of acoustic waves, one above and one (c) Wat'e fl?rm display at the surJ'c~ce
below two pairs of receivers. The compressional and often the shear-wave arrivals
(b) A winch and multi-conductor armoured cable, at a particular depth can be identified, and an~ necess-
through which pass the electronic signals to and from ary corrections applied for the borehole size and liquid
the probe. The winch should be equipped with some filling the borehole. The compressional and shear-wave
method for measuring the depth of the probe in the velocities and attenuation characteristics may then be
borehole. The movement of the probe in the borehole calculated as a function of depth. If the density of the
should be coupled with the recorder to ensure synchro- formation is also known 3, the dynamic elastic constants
nism between actual depth of the probe in the borehole can also be calculated as a function of depth.
and that displayed on the recorder. 7. The velocities and attenuation of acoustic waves in
(c) Surface electronics for conditioning and a rocks depend upon a number of factors, including the
recorder for displaying the signal or signals from the rock type, porosity, persistence and aperture of fissures,
acoustic receiver or receivers.' degree of fracturing, etc. A number of specialist geo-
physical borehole logging service companies have out-
PROCEDURE lined t the procedure and prepared charts for the evalu-
4. The borehole must be filled with a liquid, usually ation of porosity in sedimentary rocks from sonic logs.
water or drilling mud. before the sonic log is run. The Other publications relate to the evaluation of fractures
liquid is essential for acoustically' coupling the trans- and determining the mechanical properties of the adja-
mitter and receivers in the probe to the formation sur- cent formation.
rounding the borehole. The probe is first lowered to the
depth at which logging is to commence. It is then raised
at a constant rate of 5 - 3 0 m m i n along the uncased R E P O R T I N G T H E RESULTS
length of the borehole and measurements are recorded
8. The report should include:
as a function of depth.
(a) The borehole location and length, diameter, incli-
5. The measurements can take any of several forms:
nation and direction, also the characteristics of the
ta) Transit time display at the surface. The time of
drilling fluid and the location and details of an) casing.
transit At of compressional waves over a certain dis-
(b) Details of the equipment used and method of dis-
tance of the formation, the receiver spacing, is plotted
play of the results. The spacings of the transmitter and
as a function of depth.
receiver or receivers in the probe must be reported.
(b) Variable intensity display at the surface. The
(c) The records obtained at an appropriate scale,
amplitudes of the elastic waves reaching the receiver are
together with core and cutting logs where available,
recorded photographically as a function of depth. The
fully annotated with details of instrument settings.
amplified signal from the receiver modulates the inten-
(d) Tabblated values of derived parameters, together
sity of an oscilloscope electron beam, the trace of which
with the formulae or correlations used in their deri-
is photographed.
vation, with full details or references to the limitations
(c) Waveform display at the surface. The complete
of these calculations and the assumptions made.
wave train at discrete intervals up the borehole is dis-
(e) An interpretation of the results in terms of perti-
played on an oscilloscope screen and photographed.
nent geological characteristics of the formations sur-
rounding the borehole.
C A L C U L A T I O N AND
I N T E R P R E T A T I O N O F RESULTS

NOTES
6. (a) Transit time display at the surface
The travel times are measured from the display, and (1) References
any necessary corrections applied for the boreholes size Geyer R. L. & Myung J. I. The 3-D velocity log: a tool for in situ
determination of the elastic moduli of rocks. Proc. 12th S.vmp. Rock
and liquid filling the borehole. The compressional-wave Mechanics 71-107, A.I.M.E., New York (1971).
velocity can then be calculated as a function of depth. Schlumberger Lo 9 Interpretation: Vol I, Principles. Schlumberger
Inc., New York (1972).
(b) Variable intensity display at the surfilce Schlumberger. Log Interpretation Charts. Schlumberger Inc., New
York {1972).
The compressional and often the shear-wave arrivals Schlumberger. Log lnterpremtiopl: Vol. II, Applications. Schlumberger
at a particular depth can be identified and any necess- Inc., New York (1974).
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts. 4cou.~tic Logqinq:
ary correction applied for the borehole size and liquid SPWLA Reprint Volume, S.P.W.L.A., Houston [19781.
filling the borehole. This is facilitated by running the Tixier M. P., Loveless, G. W. and Anderson R. A. Estimation of
log a second time with a different spacing between the formation strength from the mechanical properties log. J. Petrol.
Technol. 27, 283-293 (1975).
transmitter and receiver. The compressional and shear (2) The horizontal scales for the transit time display are typically
wave velocities may then be calculated as a function of linear from 500 to 100 l~sec/m. Depth scales are typically 1,200 or
depth. If the density of the formation is also known, 3 1/1000, but scales such as 150 or 1.,100 are used in logging shallow
boreholes. Other depth scales are 1:120, 1/240 and 1600.
the dynamic elastic constants can also be calculated as (3) Requires the running of a density log in addition to the acoustic
a function of depth. log.
R.~.~.S. 18, l - - F
 82 International Society for Rock Mechanics

PART 9. SUGGESTED 4. With the arms retracted, the probe is lowered m

METHOD FOR THE the borehole to the desired depth at which logging is
first to be performed. After releasing the arms. the
CALIPER LOG probe is then raised at a constant rate of 4-20 m/ram
along the uncased length of the borehole. Measure-
SCOPE ments of diameter are recorded and displayed continu-
1. The caliper log provides a measure of the diameter ously as a function of depth of the probe in the bore-
of a borehole as a function of depth. The borehole di- hole.
ameter or changes in diameter are required to provide
the accurate interpretation of the results from many of REPORTING OF RESULTS
the other types of logging device. The caliper log is
5. The report should include:
therefore run with almost all combinations of other log-
ging devices. Changes in borehole diameter indicate the (a) The borehole location and length, inclination and
build-up of mud cake opposite porous, permeable for- direction, and drill bit diameter, It should also include
mations or the tendency of boreholes to cave opposite the characteristics of the drilling fluid and the location
and diameter of any casing.
incompetent formations. Changes in diameter can also
indicate the presence of gross fissures or 'vuggy' zones, (b) Details of the equipment used, and the logging
speed.
'squeezing' of marls or clays, and dissolution of soluble
salts by the drilling fluid. (c) The record of borehole diameter, or difference
between measured diameter and drill bit diameter, as a
function of depth to a suitable scale.
APPARATUS
(d) If a record is made of the cross-section shape of
2. The apparatus consists of the following: the borehole as a function of depth, this should be illus-
(a) A number (between 3 and 6) of arms radiating trated at regular intervals.
from a central probe. These arms can either be
retracted so that they are flush with the probe, or they
can be spring-loaded so that they are in contact with NOTES
the borehole wall when the probe is raised in the bore-
hole. The distance each arm protrudes from the probe (1) Depth scales are typically 1/200 or I 1000, but scales such as
1/50 or 1/00 are used in logging shallow boreholes. Other depth
is measured mechanically and the distance converted to scales are I 120. 1~240 and 1 600.
an electrical signal, which in turn is transmitted to the
surface.
(b) A winch and multi.conductor armoured cable
through which pass the electronic signals from the
probe. The winch is equipped with some method for
PART 10. SUGGESTED
measuring the depth of the probe in the borehole. The METHOD FOR THE
movement of the probe in the borehole should be
coupled with the recorder to ensure synchronism
TEMPERATURE LOG
between actual depth of the probe in the borehole and
that displayed on the recorder.
SCOPE
(c) Surface electronics for conditioning the signals
from the several arms on the probe and displaying the 1. The temperature log provides a measure of the
mean borehole diameter, and with some devices the temperature of the borehole fluid as a function of
individual measures for different arms with correspond- depth. The differential temperature log provides a
ing directions, as a function of depth of the probe in the measure" of the difference in temperature between two
borehole)* points in the borehole fluid.
2. If the drilling fluid filling the borehole has been
PROCEDURE
allowed to rest a sufficiently long time it tends to come
3. The caliper probe should be accurately calibrated to thermal equilibrium with the surrounding forma-
before running in the borehole by placing metal rings of tions. In the absence of any disturbing influences, the
known internal diameter around the measuring arms. temperature then measured at a point in the borehole is
The actual diameters should be recorded. At least two close to that of the surrounding formation, and with
rings should be used, one greater and one smaller than depth will generally reflect the geothermal gradient (in
the expected maximum and minimum borehole diam- boreholes deeper than about 2Ore), which is very ap-
eters. This procedure should be repeated on completion proximately 1~C increase in temperature per 40 m in-
of the logging process. If the measuring probe has a crease in depth. If. however, there are disturbing
direction indicator it should also be tested before and influences, such as the influx of groundwater or gas to
after completing the logging process. the borehole or the setting of cement grout, these
occurrences will be reflected by abnormal changes in
* Numbers refer to Notes at the end of Part 9. the temperature recorded.
 Suggested Methods for Geophysical Logging 83

Bond L. O., Alger R. P. & Schmidt A. W. Well log applications in

APPARATUS coal mining and rock mechanics. Trans. Soc Min. En~4r~. Am. Soc.
Min. Engrs 2N), 355 362i1971L
3. The apparatus consists of the following: Dresser Atlas. Log Review 1 Reriew of Well Loqgin 9 Principles.
ta) A probe containing one or several resistance Dresser Atlas Inc., Houston 11971t.
thermometers, or preferably thermistors, spaced at fixed Evans H. B. Status and trends in logging. Geophysics 35, 93-112
intervals. (1970).
Jennings H. Y. & Timur A. Significant contributions in formation
(b) A winch and multi-conductor armoured cable evaluation and well testing. J. Petrol. Technot. 25, 1432-1446
through which pass the electronic signals from the (1973).
Kelley D. R. A Summary oj" Major Geophysical Logging Methods.
thermistors. The winch should be equipped with some Pennsylvania Geological Survey Bulletin M6I, Penn Geological
method for measuring the depth of the probe in the Survey, Harrisburg, PA 11969).
borehole. The movement of the probe in the borehole Lynch E. J. Formation Evaluation. Harper & Row. New York (1962~.
should be coupled with the recorder to ensure synchro- Pirson S. J. Handbook of Well Log Analysis for Oil and Gas Formation
Evalu,ttion. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1963).
nism between actual depth of the probe in the borehole Pirson S. J. Geologic Well Log Analysis. Gulf, Houston 11970).
and that displayed on the recorder. Pickett G. R. Applications for borehole geophysics in geophysical
(c) Surface electronics for conditioning the signals exploration. Geophysics 35, 81-92 (1970).
Schlumberger. Log Interpretation: Vol. I, Principles. Schlumberger
from the thermistors and displaying the temperature or Inc., New York (19721.
temperatures difference as a function of the depth of the Schlumberger. Log Interpretation Charts. Schlumberger Inc., New
probe in the boreholes. ~* York 11972).
Schlumberger. Log Interpretation: Vol. II, Applications. Schlumberger
Inc., New York (1974~.
PROCEDURE Schlumberger. Serrices Catalog. Schlumberger Inc., Ne~, York 11977).
Sherriff R. E. Glossary of terms used in well logging. Geophysics 35,
4. After first ensuring the borehole is filled with fluid, 1116-1139 (1970).
the temperature probe is lowered down the borehole as Society of Petroleum Engineers of A.I.M.E. Well Logging: SPE
Reprint Series No. I. A.I.M.E.. New York 11971).
slowly as is practicable and consistent with the time Society of Professional Well Log Analysts. Acoustic Logging:
constants of the thermometers or thermistors while the SPWLA Reprint Volumes. S.P.W.L.A., Houston (19781.
measurements are made. This procedure reduces the Tixier M. P. and Alger R. P. Log evaluation of non-metallic mineral
deposits. Geophysics 35, 124 142 (1970).
disturbing effect of the passage of the probe on the Wyllie M. R. J. The Fundamentals of Well Log Interpretation. 3rd ed.
thermal regime within the drilling mud. Measurements Academic Press. New York 11963).
of temperature or temperature difference are recorded
and displayed continuously as a function of depth of 2. STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS OF
the probe in the borehole. GEOPHYSICAL BOREHOLE LOGGING
Allaud L. A, & Ringot J. The high resolution dipmeter tool. The Log
REPORTING OF RESULTS Analyst 10, No. 3 (19691.
Campbell R. L. Stratigraphic applications of dipmeter data in mid-
5. The report should include: continent, Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 52, 1700-1719 11968).
(a) The borehole location and length, diameter, incli- Cox J. W. The high resolution dipmeter reveals dip-related borehole
nation and direction. It should also include the charac- and formation characteristics. Trans. S.P.W.LA. I lth Annual Log-
ging Syrup., Dl-D26 I1970).
teristics of the drilling fluid, the time allowed for the Dyck J. H., Keys W. S. & Meneley W. A. Application of geophysical
borehole fluid to rest and its level in the borehole, and logging to groundwater studies in Southern Saskatchewan. Can. J.
the location of any casing and its diameter. Earth Sci. 9, 78-94 I1972).
Evans H. B. See reference in Section 1 (1970).
(b) Details of the equipment used, including the log- Gilreath J. A. & Maricelli J. J. Detailed stratigraphic control through
ging speed and time constants of the thermometers or dip computations. Am. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 48, 1902-!'910 (1964).
thermistors. Holt O. R. & Hammack G. W. The diplog. In Log Review 1: Review
of Well Logging Principles, Sect. 9. Dresser Atlas Inc., Houston
(c) The record of temperatures or temperature differ- {1971).
ences as a function of depth to a suitable scale. King M. S., Stauffer M. R. & Pandit B. I. Quality of rock masses by
acoustic borehole logging. Proc. III Int. Congr. I.A.E.G., Sec. IV,
Vol. l, pp. 156-164 (1978).
NOTES Myung J. I, & Baltosser R. W. Fracture evaluation by the borehole
logging method. Proc. Idth Syrup. Rock Mechanics. pp. 31-56.
(1) Depth scales are typically 1/200 or 1 1000, but scales such as A.S.C.E., New York f1972).
l 50 or 1,100 are used in logging shallow boreholes. Other depth Pirson S. J. See reference in Section 1 (1970).
scales are 1,120, I 240 and 1600.
Zemanek J., Caldwell R. L., Glenn E. E., Hotcomb S. V., Norton L. J.
& Straus A. J. D. The borehole televiewer--a new logging concept
for fracture location and other types of borehole inspection. Trans.
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Zemanek J., Glenn E. E.. Norton L. J. & Caldwell R. L. Formation
evaluation by inspection with the borehole tele',ie~er. Geophysids
I. GENERAL GEOPHYSICAL 35, 254-269 (1970).
BOREHOLE LOGGING
3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FROM
Allaud L. A. & Martin M. H. Schlumberger: Tire History of a Techni-
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Baltosser R. W. & Lawrence H. W. Application of well logging tech-
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Stagg K. O. and Zienkie~icz O. C,). Chap. 7, pp. 20_~-236. Wiley,
* Numbers refer to Notes at the end of Part 10. New York (19681.
84 International Society for Rock Mechanics

Carroll R, D. Rock properties interpreted from sonic velocity logs. I. approach to sonic logging and other acoustic measurements. J.
Soil Mech. Fdns Dit'. Am. Soc. cir. Engrs 92, 43-51 {1966). Petrol. Technol. 17, 282-286 "19651.
Carroll R. D. The determination of the acoustic parameters of volca- Lawrence H. W. In situ measuremem of the elastic properues of
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Kokesh F. P.. Schwartz R. J. Wall W. B. & Morris R. L. A new