Chapter 3

Basic Instruments
Introduction
Instruments mechanically measure physical quantities or
properties with varying degrees of accuracy. Much of a
navigator’s work consists of applying corrections to the
indications of various instruments and interpreting the results.
Therefore, navigators must be familiar with the capabilities
and limitations of the instruments available to them.

A navigator obtains the following flight information from

basic instruments: direction, altitude, temperature, airspeed,
drift, and groundspeed (GS). Some of the basic instruments
are discussed in this chapter. The more complex instruments
that make accurate and long distance navigation possible are
discussed in later chapters.

3-1
Direction The force of the magnetic field of the earth can be divided
into two components: the vertical and the horizontal. The
Basic Instruments
relative intensity of these two components varies over the
The navigator must have a fundamental background in
earth so that, at the magnetic poles, the vertical component
navigation to ensure accurate positioning of the aircraft. Dead
is at maximum strength and the horizontal component is
reckoning (DR) procedures aided by basic instruments give
minimum strength. At approximately the midpoint between
the navigator the tools to solve the three basic problems of
the poles, the horizontal component is at maximum strength
navigation: position of the aircraft, direction to destination,
and the vertical component is at minimum strength. Only
and time of arrival. Using only a basic instrument, such as the
the horizontal component is used as a directive force for a
compass and drift information, you can navigate directly to
magnetic compass. Therefore, a magnetic compass loses its
any place in the world. Various fixing aids, such as celestial
usefulness in an area of weak horizontal force, such as the
and radar, can greatly improve the accuracy of basic DR
area around the magnetic poles. The vertical component
procedures. This chapter discusses the basic instruments used
causes the end of the needle nearer to the magnetic pole to
for DR and then reviews the mechanics of DR, plotting, wind
tip as the pole is approached. [Figure 3-1] This departure
effect, and computer solutions.
from the horizontal is called magnetic dip.
Directional information needed to navigate is obtained by
Compasses
use of the earth’s magnetic lines of force. A compass system
uses a device that detects and converts the energy from these A compass may be defined as an instrument that indicates
lines of force to an indicator reading. The magnetic compass direction over the earth’s surface with reference to a known
operates independently of the aircraft electrical systems. datum. Various types of compasses have been developed,
Later developed compass systems require electrical power each of which is distinguished by the particular datum used
to convert these lines of force to an aircraft heading. as the reference from which direction is measured. Two
basic types of compasses are in current use: the magnetic
Earth’s Magnetic Field and gyrocompass.
The earth has some of the properties of a bar magnet;
however, its magnetic poles are not located at the geographic The magnetic compass uses the lines of force of the earth’s
poles, nor are the two magnetic poles located exactly opposite magnetic field as a primary reference. Even though the
each other as on a straight bar. The north magnetic pole is earth’s field is usually distorted by the pressure of other
located approximately at 73° N latitude and 100° W longitude local magnetic fields, it is the most widely used directional
on Prince of Wales Island. The south magnetic pole is located reference. The gyrocompass uses as its datum an arbitrary
at 68° S latitude and 144° E longitude on Antarctica. fixed point in space determined by the initial alignment of the
gyroscope axis. Compasses of this type are widely used today
The earth’s magnetic poles, like those of any magnet, can be and may eventually replace the magnetic compass entirely.
considered to be connected by a number of lines of force. These
lines result from the magnetic field that envelops the earth. Magnetic Compass
They are considered Earth’s magneticfrom
to be emanating field the south magnetic The magnetic compass indicates direction in the horizontal
pole and terminating at the north magnetic pole. [Figure 3-1] plane with reference to the horizontal component of the
earth’s magnetic field. This field is made up of the earth’s
field in combination with other magnetic fields in the vicinity
Magnetic north pole of the compass. These secondary fields are caused by the
presence of ferromagnetic objects.

Magnetic compasses may be divided into two classes:

N
1. The direct-indicating magnetic compass in which
the measurement of direction is made by a direct
observation of the position of a pivoted magnetic
S Magnetic lines
of force needle; and
2. The remote-indicating gyro-stabilized magnetic
compass.
South magnetic pole
Magnetic direction is sensed by an element located at
positions where local magnetic fields are at a minimum,
Figure 3-1. Earth’s magnetic field.

The Earth’s magnetic field compared to a bar magnet

3-2
such as the vertical stabilizer and wing tips. The direction meridian and the geographic meridian is called the magnetic
is then transmitted electrically to repeater indicators on the variation. Variation is listed on charts as east or west.
instrument panels. When variation is east, magnetic north (MN) is east of
true north (TN). Similarly, when variation is west, MN is
Direct-Indicating Magnetic Compass west of TN. [Figure 3-3] Lines connecting points having
Basically, the magnetic compass is a magnetized rod pivoted the same magnetic variation are called isogonic lines.
at its middle, with several features incorporated to improve [Figure 3-4] Compensate for magnetic variation to convert
its performance. One type of direct-indicating magnetic a compass direction to true direction.
compass, the B-16 compass (often called the whiskey
compass), is illustrated in Figure 3-2. It is used as a standby Compass error is caused by nearby magnetic influences, such
compass in case of failure of the electrical system that as magnetic material in the structure of the aircraft and its
operates the remote compasses. It is a reliable compass and electrical systems. These magnetic forces deflect a compass
gives good navigational results if used carefully. needle from its normal alignment. The amount of such
deflection is called deviation which, like variation, is labeled
Magnetic Variation and Compass Errors “east” or “west” as the north-seeking end of the compass is
The earth’s magnetic poles are joined by irregular curves deflected east or west of MN, respectively.
called magnetic meridians. The angle between the magnetic

Instrument lamp Float Filler hole and plug

Lubber line

Compass card N 33 30 27
Lens
Fluid
chamber
Sensing magnet

N-S E-W

Compensating screws Expansion unit

Pivot assembly Outer case

Compensating magnet

Figure 3-2. Magnetic compass.

NP NP NP
East West
variation MP MP variation
MP

Zero
variation

N N N
33 33 33
3 3 3
3

3
6

6
0

0
W

W
E

E
24

24

24
2

2
1

2 2 2
1 1 1
15 15 15
S S S

SP SP SP

Figure 3-3. Effects of variation.

3-3
 105˚E 120˚E 135˚E 150˚E 165˚E 180˚ 165˚W 150˚W 135˚W 120˚W 105˚W 90˚W 75˚W 60˚W 45˚W 30˚W 15˚W 0˚ 15˚E 30˚E 45˚E 60˚E 75˚E

80˚ 100˚ 120˚ 140˚ 160˚ 180˚ 160˚ 140˚ 120˚ 100˚ 80˚ 60˚ 40˚ 20˚ 0˚ 20˚ 40˚ 60˚ 80˚ 100˚

78˚
78˚

20˚
30˚E

30
30˚
E
75˚N 75˚N

10˚E

˚E
50

10˚W
20˚W
E
˚E 70˚W

˚W
˚E

40˚

60
20

˚W
E 20

50
˚E

˚W

60˚
60˚

40
˚E

30˚E
10

˚W
10˚E
60˚N 60˚N

30
10˚W
N
IO

20˚E

NO
AT

40˚
40˚

RI

VA
VA

45˚N 45˚N

RIA
NO

TIO

20˚
20˚

10˚E

N
30˚N 30˚N

NO

0˚
0˚

E
10 10˚
15˚N 15˚N

VAR
˚W
10˚W
NO

IATI

20˚
20˚

0˚ 20˚W 0˚

20˚W
VA

30

ON
RI

20
˚W ˚W
30
A

˚W
40
TIO

15˚S 15˚S

40˚
40˚

˚W

10
20˚E
N

˚W
50 ˚W
˚W
40
30˚S 30˚S

˚W
30˚E

50

60˚
60˚

40˚E

˚W
˚W
45˚S 45˚S

60
70

˚W
50˚E

˚W
70

69˚
69˚

60˚E

80
60˚ 80˚ 100˚ 120˚ 140˚ 160˚ 180˚ 160˚ 140˚ 120˚ 100˚ 80˚ 60˚ 40˚ 20˚ 0˚ 20˚ 40˚ 60˚ 80˚ 100˚
105˚E 120˚E 135˚E 150˚E 165˚E 180˚ 165˚W 150˚W 135˚W 120˚W 105˚W 90˚W 75˚W 60˚W 45˚W 30˚W 15˚W 0˚ 15˚E 30˚E 45˚E 60˚E 75˚E

Figure 3-4. Isogonic lines show same magnetic variation.

The correction for variation and deviation is usually expressed

as a plus or minus value and is computed as a correction to True north
Magnetic north
true heading (TH). If variation or deviation is east, the sign
Compass north
of the correction is minus; if west, the sign is plus. A rule
E

of thumb for this correction is easily remembered as east is

n 3°

TO FIND COMPASS HEADING

10°E

least and west is best. TH VAR MH DEV CH

iatio
Variation

138 −10 ? −3 ?
Dev

Aircraft headings are expressed as TH or magnetic headings C 138 −10 128 −3 125
(MH). If the heading is measured in relation to geographical
om
pa
M

north, it is a TH. If the heading is in reference to MN, it is

ag

ss
ne

a MH; if it is in reference to the compass lubber line, it is

hea
tic
Tr

a compass heading (CH). CH corrected for variation and

ue

ding
hea
hea

deviation is TH. MH corrected for variation is TH.

ding
ding

This relationship is best expressed by reference to the

navigator’s log, where the various headings and corrections
are listed as TH, variation (var), MH, deviation (dev), and
CH. [Figure 3-5] Thus, if an aircraft is flying in an area where
the variation is 10° E and the compass has a deviation of 3°
E, the relationship would be expressed as follows, assuming
TO FIND TRUE HEADING
a CH of 125°:
TH VAR MH DEV CH
? −10 ? −3 125
TH var MH dev CH
138 −10 128 −3 125
138 – 10 = 128 – 3 = 125
Figure 3-5. Find true heading by working backwards.
Variation
Variation has been measured throughout the world and the
values found have been plotted on charts. Isogonic lines are

3-4
printed on most charts used in aerial navigation so that, if Deviation can be reduced (but not eliminated) in some
the aircraft’s approximate position is known, the amount of direct-indicating magnetic compasses by adjusting the small
variation can be determined by visual interpolation between compensating magnets in the compass case. Remaining
the printed lines. At high altitudes, these values can be deviation is referred to as residual deviation and can be
considered quite realistic. Conversely, at low altitudes, these determined by comparison with true values. This residual
magnetic values are less reliable because of local anomalies. deviation is recorded on a compass correction card showing
actual deviation on various headings or the compass headings.
Variation changes slowly over a period of years and the yearly From the compass correction card illustrated in Figure 3-7,
amount of such change is printed on most charts. Variation the navigator knows that to fly a magnetic heading (MH) of
is also subject to small diurnal (daily) changes that may 270°, the pilot must steer a CH of 268°.
generally be neglected in air navigation.

Deviation Compass: Magnetic

Because deviation depends upon the distribution of magnetic
forces in the aircraft itself, it must be obtained individually Swung: 12 APR 95 By: TTD
for each magnetic compass on each aircraft. The process of
determining deviation, known as compass swinging, should To Fly Steer To Fly Steer
be discussed in the technical order for each compass. N 001 180 179
15 016 195 194
Deviation changes with heading are shown in Figure 3-6. The
net result of all magnetic forces of the aircraft (those forces 30 131 210 209
excluding the earth’s field) is represented by a dot located 45 046 225 224
just behind the wings of the aircraft. If the aircraft is headed
60 062 240 238
toward MN, the dot attracts one pole of the magnetic compass
(in this case, the South Pole) but, on this heading, does 75 077 255 253
not change its direction. The only effect is to amplify the 90 092 270 268
directive force of the earth’s field. If the aircraft heads toward
magnetic east, the dot is now west of the compass, and attracts 105 107 285 283
the South Pole of the compass, causing easterly deviation. 120 122 300 298
Figure 3-6 also shows that the deviation is zero on a south 135 135 315 314
heading, and westerly when the aircraft is heading west.
150 149 330 330
165 164 345 346
Magnetic North
Total
deviation 0 10 Figure 3-7. Compass correction card.
350 20
effects 340 30
0
33
0 40
32 Errors in Flight
0

Unfortunately, deviation is not the only error of a magnetic

50
31

compass. Additional errors are introduced by the motion of

0

60
30

the aircraft itself. These errors have minimal effect on the use
260 270 280 290

70

of magnetic compasses and come into play normally during

80

turns or changes in speed. They are mentioned only to bring

90 100

awareness of the limitations of the basic compass. Although a

basic magnetic compass has some shortcomings, it is simple
and reliable. The compass is very useful to both the pilot
110
250

and navigator and is carried on all aircraft as an auxiliary

12
0

compass. Because compass systems are dependent upon

24

0
0

13

the electrical system of the aircraft, a loss of power means

23

0 14
a loss of the compass system. For this reason, an occasional
22 0
0 15
21 0
180 190 2
00 160
170 check on the standby compass provides an excellent backup
to the main systems.

Figure 3-6. Deviation changes with heading.

3-5
Remote-Indicating Gyro-Stabilized Magnetic possible, usually in a wing tip or the vertical stabilizer. The
Compass System transmitter senses the horizontal component of the earth’s
A chief disadvantage of the simple magnetic compass is magnetic field and electrically transmits it to the master
its susceptibility to deviation. In remote-indicating gyro- indicator. The compensator, an auxiliary unit of the remote
stabilized compass systems, this difficulty is overcome compass transmitter, is used to eliminate most of the magnetic
by locating the compass direction-sensing device outside deviation caused by the aircraft electrical equipment and
magnetic fields created by electrical circuits in the aircraft. ferrous metal when a deviation-free location for the remote
This is done by installing the direction-sensing device in a compass transmitter is not available.
remote part of the aircraft, such as the outer extremity of a
wing or vertical stabilizer. Indicators of the compass system Directional Gyro (DG)
can then be located throughout the aircraft without regard to The DG is the stabilizing component of the compass system
magnetic disturbances. when the system is in magnetic-slaved operation. When the
compass system is in DG operation, the gyro acts as the
Several kinds of compass system are used in aircraft systems. directional reference component of the system.
All include the following five basic components: remote
compass transmitter, directional gyro (DG), amplifier, heading Amplifier
indicators, and slaving control. Though the names of these The amplifier is the receiving and distributing center of the
components vary among systems, the principle of operation compass system. Azimuth correction and leveling signals
is identical for each. Thus, the N-1 compass system shown originating in the components of the system are each
in Figure 3-8 can be considered typical of all such systems. received, amplified, and transmitted by separate channels in
the amplifier. Primary power to operate the compass is fed
The N-1 compass system is designed for airborne use at all to the amplifier and distributed to the systems components.
latitudes. It can be used either as a magnetic-slaved compass
or as a DG. In addition, the N-1 generates an electric signal Master Indicator
that is used as an azimuth reference by the autopilot, the The master indicator is the heading-indicating component of
radar system, the navigation and bombing computers, and the compass system. The mechanism in the master indicator
various compass cards. integrates all data received from the directional gyro and the
remote compass transmitter, corrects the master indicator
Remote Compass Transmitter heading pointer for azimuth drift of the DG due to the earth’s
The remote compass transmitter is the magnetic-direction rotation, and provides takeoff signals for operating remote
sensing component of the compass system when the system indicators, radar, navigation computers, and directional
is in operation as a magnetic-slaved compass. The transmitter control of the autopilot.
is located as far from magnetic disturbances of the aircraft as

Other equipment Gyro-magnetic Latitude

1 compass indicator correction control
Automatic N-1 master knob
Remote compass pilot Heading
pointer indicator
transmitter Slaving Latitude
control 33 3
correction
scale
30

Power 5 4 Latitude
input
24

I2

I5
correction
3
2I

33 pointer
30

0
6

AMPLIFIER
30 30
60 ALTITUDE 60 Correction
90 90 servo
OFF indicator
24

I2

R L

2I I5
Amplifier 33 3

4
30

3 Annunciator Synchronizer
pointer control knob
24

I2

2I I5

4
2 Directional gyro Gyro magnetic
compass indicator

Figure 3-8. N-1 compass system components.

3-6
The latitude correction control provides a means for selecting
either magnetic-slaved operation or DG operation of the
compass system, as well as the proper latitude correction rate. Drift
axis
The latitude correction pointer is mechanically connected to
Topple
the latitude correction control knob and indicates the latitude axis
setting on the latitude correction scale at the center of the
master indicator dial face.

The synchronizer control knob at the lower right-hand

Spin
corner of the master indicator face provides a means of axis
synchronizing the master indicator heading pointer with the
correct MH when the system is in magnetic-slaved operation.
It also provides a means of setting the master indicator
heading pointer on the desired gyro heading reference when
the system is in DG operation. The annunciator pointer
indicates the direction in which to rotate the synchronizer
control knob to align the heading pointer with the correct MH.
Figure 3-9. Gyroscope axes.
Gyro-Magnetic Compass Indicators
The gyro-magnetic compass indicators are remote-reading, axis about the topple axis. These two component drifts result
movable dial compass indicators. They are intended for in motion of the gyro called precession.
supplementary use as directional compass indicators when
used with the compass system. The indicators duplicate the A freely spinning gyro tends to maintain its axis in a constant
azimuth heading of the master indicator heading pointer. A direction in space, a property known as rigidity in space
setting knob is provided at the front of each indicator for or gyroscopic inertia. Thus, if the spin axis of a gyro were
rotating the dial 360° in either direction without changing pointed toward a star, it would keep pointing at the star.
the physical alignment of the pointer. Actually, the gyro does not move, but the earth moving
beneath it gives it an apparent motion. This apparent motion
Slaving Control is called apparent precession. [Figure 3-10] The magnitude
The slaving control is a gyro control rate switch that reduces of apparent precession is dependent upon latitude. The
errors in the compass system during turns. When the aircraft horizontal component, drift, is equal to 15° per hour times
turns at a rate of 23° or more per minute, the slaving control the sine of the latitude, and the vertical component, topple, is
prevents the remote compass transmitter signal from being equal to 15° per hour times the cosine of the latitude.
transmitted to the compass system during magnetic-slaved
operation. It also interrupts leveling action in the DG when
the system is in magnetic-slaved or DG operation.

Gyro Basics Equa

tor
0000 Hr

Any spinning body exhibits gyroscopic properties. A wheel

designed and mounted to use these properties is called a
r
03

H
00

00

gyroscope or gyro. Basically, a gyro is a rapidly rotating mass

21
H
r

that is free to move about one or both axes perpendicular to the North
axis of rotation and to each other. The three axes of a gyro (spin, 0600 Hr 1800 Hr

drift, and topple) shown in Figure 3-9 are defined as follows: Pole
r

15
H

1200 Hr

00
00

1. In a DG, the spin axis or axis of rotation is mounted

09

H
r

horizontally;
2. The topple axis is that axis in the horizontal plane that
is 90° from the spin axis;
3. The drift axis is that axis 90° vertically from the spin axis.

Gyroscopic drift is the horizontal rotation of the spin axis

about the drift axis. Topple is the vertical rotating of the spin Figure 3-10. Apparent precession.

3-7