MECHNOTES

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

LECTURE NOTES

Prepared by
Hemanth Kumar. R
Assistant Professor
SMVEC
Contents
MODULES .................................................................................................................................. iv

SYLLABUS .................................................................................................................................. v

UNIT – I ........................................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION TO CAD......................................................................................................... 1
Design Process: ......................................................................................................................... 1
MORPHOLOGY OF DESIGN................................................................................................. 3
Design Models .......................................................................................................................... 5
Concurrent engineering:.......................................................................................................... 12
CAD system architecture: ....................................................................................................... 16
DISPLAY DEVICES: ............................................................................................................. 23

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UNIT - II ........................................................................................................................................ 28
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BRESENHAM’S ALGORITHM ............................................................... 28
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BRESENHAM’S LINE ALGORITHM ................................................................................. 28

BRESENHAM’S CIRCLE ALGORITHM ............................................................................ 31
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TRANSFORMATION IN GRAPHICS ...................................................................................... 36

CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS USED IN GRAPHICS ............................................................. 36
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WINDOWING ........................................................................................................................ 37
VIEW PORT ........................................................................................................................... 37
CLIPPING............................................................................................................................... 38
HIDDEN SURFACE REMOVAL ......................................................................................... 38
2-D & 3-D TRANSFORMATION ............................................................................................. 39
2-D TRANSFORMATIONS .................................................................................................. 39
3-D TRANSFORMATIONS .................................................................................................. 46
PROJECTIONS .......................................................................................................................... 47
PARALLEL (ORTHOGONAL) PROJECTION .................................................................... 47
PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION.............................................................................................. 47
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION .................................................................................................. 49

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof i SMVEC

UNIT – III ...................................................................................................................................... 50

GEOMETRIC MODELLING .................................................................................................... 50

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 50
CLASSIFICATION OF GEOMETRIC MODELING ........................................................... 51
REPRESENTATION OF CURVES AND SURFACES ............................................................ 58
DESIGN OF CURVED SHAPES .......................................................................................... 60
REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES .................................................................................. 66
SURFACE MODELING ........................................................................................................ 69
SURFACE MODELING IN COMMERCIAL DRAFTING AND MODELING .................. 71
FEATURES OF SURFACE MODELING PACKAGE ......................................................... 72
Creating 3D objects from 2D profiles:.................................................................................... 77

Unit – IV......................................................................................................................................... 80
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VISUAL REALISM & MODELING SOFTWARES ................................................................ 80
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VISUAL REALISM ............................................................................................................... 80
HIDDEN LINE REMOVAL .................................................................................................. 82
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HIDDEN LINE REMOVAL ALGORITHMS ....................................................................... 87

Hidden surface removal .......................................................................................................... 89
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Hidden Solid Removal ............................................................................................................ 91

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Shading ................................................................................................................................... 93
COLOURING ......................................................................................................................... 94
COMPUTER ANIMATION ................................................................................................... 99
Parametric and variational modeling ........................................................................................ 100
Feature based modeling ........................................................................................................ 101
Behavior Modeling ............................................................................................................... 102
Overview of Modeling Softwares: ........................................................................................ 103
PRO-E ................................................................................................................................... 103
CATIA .................................................................................................................................. 105
Demo on CATIA V6 Software ............................................................................................. 105

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof ii SMVEC

UNIT – V ...................................................................................................................................... 106

STANDARDS FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS ...................................................................... 106

EXCHANGE OF CAD DATA BETWEEN SOFTWARE PACKAGES ............................ 106
Graphical Kernel System (GKS) .......................................................................................... 107
IGES GRAPHICS STANDARD .......................................................................................... 109
PRODUCT DATA EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION (PDES) ............................................. 113
Standard for the Exchange of Product model data (STEP)................................................... 113
OPENGL ............................................................................................................................... 114
OTHER DATA EXCHANGE FORMATS .......................................................................... 114
Demo on how to exchange data between CATIA & ANSYS .............................................. 115
Database .................................................................................................................................... 118
Database Management System ............................................................................................. 118

PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK............................................................ 125

APRIL 2011 .............................................................................................................................. 125
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NOVEMBER 2012 ................................................................................................................... 126
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APRIL 2013 .............................................................................................................................. 127
November 2013 ......................................................................................................................... 128
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APRIL 2014 .............................................................................................................................. 129

november 2014.......................................................................................................................... 130
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APRIL 2015 .............................................................................................................................. 131

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november 2015.......................................................................................................................... 132

Two Marks with Answers .......................................................................................................... 133

UNIT – I .................................................................................................................................... 133
UNIT – II .................................................................................................................................. 135
UNIT – III ................................................................................................................................. 136
UNIT – IV ................................................................................................................................. 137
UNIT – V .................................................................................................................................. 138

CAD PPT HANDOUTS .............................................................................................................. 140

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof iii SMVEC

 MODULES
Module No. Topics to be covered
Unit – I (09 hours)
1. Introduction to CAD, Design process
2. Morphology of design
3. Types of design models
4. Application of design models
5. Concurrent Engineering – CAD system architecture.
6. CAD Hardware: workstation – CPU
7. Input devices & Output devices
8. Display Devices: storage tube – raster scan,
9. Display Devices: vector refresh, plasma panel and LCD.
Unit – II (09 hours)
1. Bresenham’s line and circle algorithms.
2. Bresenham’s line and circle algorithms.
3. Transformation in Graphics: co-ordinate system, windowing and view port
4. Clipping , hidden line elimination,
5. 2D transformations: rotation, scaling,
6. 2D transformations: translation, mirror, reflection and shear
7. Homogeneous transformations – concatenation,
8. 3D Transformations
9. Orthographic and Perspective Projectionses
Unit - III (09 hours)
1. Classification of Geometric Modeling – Wire frame, Surface and Solid Modeling
2. Representation of curves and surfaces
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3. Parametric form – Design of curved shapes- Cubic spline
4. Bezier curve – B-spline
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5. Design of Surfaces
6. Features of Surface Modeling Package - Solid Primitives,
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CSG, B-rep and description of other modeling techniques like Pure primitive
7.
instancing, cell decomposition,
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8. spatial occupancy enumeration, Boolean Operations (join, cut, intersection),

9. Creating 3D objects from 2D profiles (extrusion, revolving etc)
Unit - IV (09 hours)
1. Introduction to Visual Realism- Hidden Line, Surface & Solid Removal,
2. Hidden Line Removal Algorithms- Depth or Priority Algorithm
3. Hidden Surface Removal- Z buffer, Warnock algorithm
4. Hidden Solid Removal- Ray-Tracing algorithm
5. Shading & Colouring- Colouring Models
6. Colouring Models & Animation
7. Parametric and variational modeling, Feature based modeling,
8. Overview of Modeling Softwares- PRO-E, CATIA
9. Demo of CATIA V6 Software
Unit - V (09 hours)
1. Standards for computer graphics and
2. Data exchange standards
3. GKS, IGES
4. STEP & PDES
5. OPENGL & Other Data Exchange formats
6. Demo on how to exchange data between two Softwares (CATIA to ANSYS)
7. Data structures for Entity storage
8. Data structures for interactive modelling
9. Relational databases

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof iv SMVEC

SYLLABUS
MET71 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (3 1 0 4)
COURSE OBJECTIVES
 To understand the principles of Graphics

 To develop the knowledge of computer assisted drawing and modelling techniques

UNIT – I
Design process - Morphology of design, Types of design models, Application of design models,
concurrent Engineering – CAD system architecture. CAD Hardware: workstation – CPU, mass
storage, input devices (keyboard, light pen, thumb wheel joy stick, mouse, digitizer etc.,) and
output devices (printers, plotters) Display Devices: storage tube – raster scan, vector refresh,
plasma panel and LCD. (09 hours)

UNIT – II
Bresenham’s line and circle algorithms. Transformation in Graphics: co-ordinate system used in
Graphics and windowing and view port transformations, Clipping, hidden line elimination, 2D
transformations – rotation, scaling, translation, mirror, reflection and shear – homogeneous
transformations – concatenation, 3D Transformation – orthographic and Perspective Projections.
(09 hours)

UNIT – III
Classification of Geometric Modeling – Wire frame, Surface and Solid Modeling, applications –
representation of curves and surfaces – Parametric form – Design of curved shapes- Cubic
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spline –Bezier curve – B-spline – Design of Surfaces – features of Surface Modeling Package –
Solid Primitives, CSG, B-rep and description of other modeling techniques like Pure primitive
instancing, cell decomposition, spatial occupancy enumeration, Boolean Operations (join, cut,
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intersection), Creating 3D objects from 2D profiles (extrusion, revolving etc) (09 hours)
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UNIT – IV
Hidden line-surface-solid removal algorithm- shading- colouring- animation.
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Parametric and variational modeling, Feature based modeling, An overview of modeling software
like PRO-E, CATIA, IDEAS, SOLID EDGE and other advanced Softwares. (09 hours)
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UNIT – V
Standards for computer graphics (GKS) and Data exchange standards – IGES, STEP. Standard
for exchange images (open GL) Data structures for Entity storage – Data structures for interactive
modelling- Relational databases (09 hours)

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Chris Mcmahon and Jimmie Browne - CAD/CAM – Principle Practice and Manufacturing
Management, 2nd Edition, Addison Wesley England, 2000.

2. Sadhu Singh - Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing, II Edition, Khanna Publishers,
New Delhi, 2008.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. P.Radhakrishnan et al - CAD/CAM/CIM, New Age International P Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.

2. M.P.Groover and E.W.Zimmers - CAD/CAM; Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing,

Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.

3. Ibrahim Zeid - CAD/CAM Theory and Practice, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New
Delhi, 2005.

E-LEARNING SOURCES:
1. www.nptel.iitm.ac.in
2. https://sites.google.com/site/rhkmech/smvec.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof v SMVEC

 UNIT – I

MODULE - 1
INTRODUCTION TO CAD
Computer Aided Design (CAD) is assistance of computer in engineering processes such
as creation, optimization, analysis and modifications.
CAD involves creating computer models defined by geometrical parameters which can be
readily altered by changing relevant parameters. CAD systems enable designers to view objects
under a wide variety of representations and to test these objects by simulating real-world
conditions.
It is an integration of Mechanical and Computer technology to aid in the design process like
Modelling, Assembly, Drafting, Die Design, Tool Design, Sheet metal, analysis of products.

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CAD software packages provide the designer with a multi window environment with animation
which is regularly used in Digital Content Creation. The animations using wire frame modelling
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helps the designer to see into the interior of object and to observe the behaviors of the inner
components of the assembly during the motion.
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DESIGN PROCESS:
Design Process is a series of steps that engineers follow to come up with a solution to a
problem. The design of any component includes two things,
 Product design - development of specification for a product
 Process design - developing methods of manufacture of the products
Product Development and Manufacture:
Machines involved – Computers
Tasks – information processing
Use – assist in the definition and processing of information connected with design of products
Uses of CAD
 CAD - designers - view objects variety of representations - test & simulating real-world
conditions.
 Aid - design process like Modelling, Assembly, Drafting, Die Design, Tool Design, Sheet
metal, analysis of products.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 1 SMVEC

Process involved in bringing the product to Market

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In recent years there have been several attempts to provide a formal description of these
stages or elements of the design process. Some variation in these descriptions, both in
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terminology and in detail, but in general the agree that design progress in a step – by – step
manner from some statement of need through identification of the problem , a search for solution
and development of the chosen solution to manufacture, test and use. These descriptions of
design are often called models of the design process.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 2 SMVEC

 MODULE - 2
MORPHOLOGY OF DESIGN
A design project goes through a number of time phases. Morphology of design refers to the
collection of these time phases. The morphology of design as put forward by Morris Asimow can
be elaborated as given below. It consists of seven phases.
Phase 1. Feasibility Study.
This stage is also called conceptual design. A design project always begins with a
feasibility study. The purpose and activities during feasibility study are
 To ascertain there really exists a need (ie. the existence of need must be supported by
necessary evidences, rather than the outcome of one's fancy)
 Search for a number of possible solutions
 Evaluate the solutions
i.e. is it physically realisable?
Is it economically worthwhile?
Is it within our financial capacity?
Phase 2 Preliminary (Embodiment) Design. es
This is the stage art which the concept generated in the feasibility study is carefully
developed. The important activities done at this stage are:
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 Model building & testing
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 Study the advantages and disadvantages of different solutions.

 Check for performance, quality strength, aesthetics etc.
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Phase I Feasibility Study

Phase II Preliminary (Embodiment) Design

Phase III Detail Design

Phase IV Planning for manufacture

Phase V Planning for Distribution

Phase VI Planning for Consumption/use

Phase VII Planning for Retirement

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 3 SMVEC

Phase III: Detail Design
Its purpose is to furnish the complete engineering description of the tested product. The
arrangement, from, dimensions, tolerances and surface properties of all individual parts are
determined. Also, the materials to be used and the manufacturing process to be adopted etc. are
decided. Finally, complete prototype is tested.
Phase IV: Planning for manufacture
This phase includes all the production planning and control activities necessary for the
manufacture of the product. The main tasks at this phase are
 Preparation of process sheet, i.e. the document containing a sequential list of manufacturing
processes.
 Specify the condition of row materials.
 Specify tools & machine requirements.
 Estimation of production cost.
 Specify the requirement in the plant.
 Planning QC systems.
 Planning for production control.
 Planning for information flow system etc.
Phase V: Planning for Distribution
The economic success of a design depends on the skill exercised in marketing. Hence,
this phase aims at planning an effective distribution system. Different activities of this phase are
 Designing the packing of the product.
 Planning effective and economic warehousing systems. es
 Planning advertisement techniques
 Designing the product for effective distribution in the prevailing conditions.
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Phase VI Planning for Consumption/use
The purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the design all necessary user- oriented
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features. The various steps are

 Design for maintenance
 Design for reliability
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 Design for convenience in use

 Design for aesthetic features
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 Design for prolonged life

 Design for product improvement on the basis of service data.
Phase VII: Planning for Retirement.
This is the phase that takes into account when the product has reached the end of useful
life. A product may retire when
 It does not function properly
 Another competitive design emerges
 Changes of taste or fashion
The various steps in this phase are
 Design for several levels of use
 Design to reduce the rate of obsolescence.
 Examine service-terminated products to obtain useful information.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 4 SMVEC

 MODULE - 3
DESIGN MODELS
There are four models in the design process, which are iterative in nature. These models are
defined by Shigley, Pahl & Beitz, Ohsuga and Earle. The four design models are:
I. Shiegly Design Model
II. Pahl and Beitz Model (1984)
III. Ohsuga Model
IV. Earle Model
I. Shiegly Design Model
The process of designing something is characterized as an interactive procedure, which consists
of six identifiable steps or phases:
1. Recognition of need
2. Definition of problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis and optimization
5. Evaluation es
6. Presentation
 Recognition of need
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 Recognition of need involves the realization by someone that a problem exists for which
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some corrective action should be taken

 This might be the identification of some defect in a current machine design by an engineer
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or the perception of a new product marketing opportunity by a salesperson

 Definition of problem
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 Definition of the problem involves a thorough specification of the item to be designed

 This specification includes physical and functional characteristics, cost, quality and
operating performance
 Synthesis, Analysis and optimization
 Synthesis and Analysis are closely related and highly iterative in the design process
 A certain component or subsystem of the overall system is conceptualized by the
designer, subjected to analysis, improved through this analysis procedure and redesigned
 This process is repeated until the design has been optimized within the constraints
imposed on the designer
 The components and subsystems are synthesized into the final overall system in a similar
iterative manner

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 5 SMVEC

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The general design process by shiegly
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 Evaluation and Presentation

 Evaluation is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications established
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in the problem definition phase

 This evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype model to assess
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operating performance, quality, reliability and other criteria

 The final phase in the design process is the presentation of the design
 This includes documentation of the design by means of drawings, material specifications,
assembly lists and so on
 Essentially, the documentation requires that a design data base be created
 Figure below illustrates the basic steps in the design process, indicating its iterative nature

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 6 SMVEC

II. Pahl and Beitz Model (1984)

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In this model the design process is described by a flow diagram comprising four main phases
which may be summarized as:

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 7 SMVEC

 Although it presents a straightforward sequence of stages through the process, in practice
the main phase are not always so clearly defined, and there is invariable feedback to previous
stages and often iteration between stages.
III. Ohsuga Model
The design process according to Ohsuga es
 Ohsuga again describes design as a series of stages, in this case progressing from
requirements through conceptual design and preliminary design to detail design.
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 In this case however the various stages of design process are generalized into common
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form in which models of design are developed through a process of analysis and
evaluation leading to modification and refinement of the model.
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 In the early stage the tentative solution is proposed by designer. In this stage the design
refined and evolution and modification repeated at a greater level of detail.
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 8 SMVEC

IV. Earle Model
The steps in the design process prepared by Earle are shown in figure below
Problem Identification

Preliminary Ideas

Problem Refinement

Analysis

Decision

Implementation

1. Problem identification: need to gather data of several types: Fixed data, opinion surveys,
historical records, personal observations, experimental data and physical measurements and
characteristics as shown in Fig. below. Problem identification can be of two general types: (i)
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Identification of a need or (ii) Identification of design criteria.
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Fig. Problem identification needs.

Identification of a need is the beginning point of the process. It may be a defect or a
shortcoming in an existing product or a new product.
Identification of design criteria is that part of the problem where the designer conducts an
in-depth investigation of the specifications that must be met by a new design. Types of
problem identification are shown in Fig. 1.7.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 9 SMVEC

 Fig. 1.7 Types of problem identification.
The problem identification requires the designer to analyze the requirements, limitations and
other background information without becoming involved with the solution to the problem. The
following steps should be used in problem identification (Fig. 1.8):
a) Problem statement Write down the problem statement to begin the thinking process. The
statement should be complete and comprehensive, but concise.
b) Problem requirements List the positive requirements that must be achieved in the design.
c) Problem limitations List negative factors that confine the problem specified limitations.
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Fig. 1.8 Steps in problem identification.

d) Sketches Make sketches of physical characteristics of the problem. Add notes and
dimensions that would make these sketches more understandable.
e) Gather data The data might be population trends of related designs, physical
characteristics, sales records and market studies. This data should be graphed for easy
interpretation.
2. Preliminary ideas: Preliminary ideas is the generation of as many ideas for solution as
possible (Fig. 1.9). These ideas should be sufficiently broad to allow for unique solutions that
could revolutionize present methods. All ideas should be recorded in written form with
sketches. A systematic approach should be used to gather preliminary ideas for the design
problem. The following sequence of steps is suggested
a) Hold brainstorming session
b) Prepare sketches and notes
c) Research existing design
d) Conduct surveys
3. Design refinement: Several of the better preliminary ideas are selected for further refinement
to determine their true merits. Rough sketches are converted to scale drawings that will
permit space analysis, critical measurements and the calculation of ideas and volumes
affecting the design. Consideration is given to spatial relationships, angles between planes,
lengths of structural members, intersection of surfaces and planes. The determination of
physical properties of the proposed solutions is the important concern of the designer.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 10 SMVEC

 Descriptive geometry can be applied for this purpose. Computer graphics is a powerful tool
that can be used to refine the preliminary idea.
4. Analysis: It involves the evaluation of the best designs to determine the comparative merits of
each with respect to cost, strength, function and market-appeal. The analysis phase of design
is shown in Fig. 1.11.

Analysis phase of design

The general areas of analysis are:
a) Functional analysis
b) Human engineering
c) Market and product analysis
d) Specification analysis
e) Strength analysis
f) Economic analysis es
g) Model analysis
5. Decision: At this stage, a single design is accepted as the solution of the design problem.
Graphics is a primary means of presenting the proposed design for a decision. The graphs
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must compare costs of manufacturing, weights, operational characteristics and other data that
would be considered in arriving at the final decision. Figure 1.12 shows the decision phase of
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the design process.

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Decision phase of design process

6. Implementation: It is the presentation of the final design concept in a workable form, primarily
as working drawings and specifications that are used as the actual instruments for fabrication
of a product implementation phase of the design process as shown in Fig. 1.13.

Implementation phase of design process

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 11 SMVEC

 MODULE - 4
Application of design models:
 Application of design model is to the receiver of the communication and considers the sort
of actions that are taken with the design information that is received.
 This may be divided into two main classification
i. Evaluating actions
ii. Generative actions
 In each case the actions involve the extraction of information from the design
representation and the combination of this with further information to form a new model.
This is shown diagrammatically in figure.
 A design analyst might use this for the following assessments:
o A visual assessment
o An assessment of the mass of the components, by using the CAD model
o An evaluation of loads in the components, by considering them as parts of a
mechanism
o An evaluation of stresses, for example using the finite element model.
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 At the later stage, detailed drawings will exist of the components of the design, and from
these, manufacturing engineers will extract information for tooling and for the control of
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production machines.
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MODULE - 5
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CONCURRENT ENGINEERING:
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Concurrent engineering or Simultaneous Engineering is a methodology of restructuring

the product development activity in a manufacturing organization using a cross functional team
approach and is a technique adopted to improve the efficiency of product design and reduce the
product development cycle time.
This is also sometimes referred to as Parallel Engineering. Concurrent Engineering brings
together a wide spectrum of people from several functional areas in the design and manufacture
of a product. Representatives from R & D, engineering, manufacturing, materials management,
quality assurance, marketing etc. develop the product as a team.
Everyone interacts with each other from the start, and they perform their tasks in parallel.
The team reviews the design from the point of view of marketing, process, tool design and
procurement, operation, facility and capacity planning, design for manufacturability, assembly,
testing and maintenance, standardization, procurement of components and sub-assemblies,
quality assurance etc as the design is evolved.
Even the vendor development department is associated with the prototype development.
Any possible bottleneck in the development process is thoroughly studied and rectified. All the
departments get a chance to review the design and identify delays and difficulties.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 12 SMVEC

 The departments can start their own processes simultaneously. For example, the tool
design, procurement of material and machinery and recruitment and training of manpower which
contributes to considerable delay can be taken up simultaneously as the design development is
in progress. Issues are debated thoroughly and conflicts are resolved amicably.
Concurrent Engineering (CE) gives marketing and other groups the opportunity to review
the design during the modeling, prototyping and soft tooling phases of development. CAD
systems especially 3D modelers can play an important role in early product development phases.
In fact, they can become the core of the CE.
They offer a visual check when design changes cost the least. Intensive teamwork
between product development, production planning and manufacturing is essential for
satisfactory implementation of concurrent engineering.
The teamwork also brings additional advantages ; the co-operation between various
specialists and systematic application of special methods such as QFD (Quality Function
Deployment), DFMA (Design for Manufacture and Assembly) and FMEA (Failure Mode and
Effect Analysis) ensures quick optimization of design and early detection of possible faults in
product and production planning. This additionally leads to reduction in lead time which reduces
cost of production and guarantees better quality.
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Comparison of Concurrent Engineering and Sequential Engineering
A comparison of concurrent and sequential engineering based on cost is attempted in this
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section. The distribution of the product development cost during the product development cycle is
shown in Fig. This figure shows that though only about 15% of the budget is spent at the time of
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design completion, whereas the remaining 85% is already committed.

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Sequential or Series Engineering

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Concurrent or Parallel or Simultaneous Engineering

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 13 SMVEC

 The decisions taken during the design stage have an important bearing on the cost of the
development of the product. Therefore the development cost and product cost can be reduced by
proper and careful design. CE facilitates this. The significantly large number of nonconformities
detected in the later stages of product development cycle in sequential engineering results in
large time and cost overrun.
Concurrent Vs Sequential Engineering

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Cash Flow after implementing Concurrent Engineering Technique
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 14 SMVEC

IMPLEMENTATION OF CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
The cycle of engineering design and manufacturing planning involves interrelated
activities in different engineering disciplines simultaneously, than sequentially as shown in Fig.
(A). In addition, the activities necessary to complete a particular task within a specific engineering
discipline have to emerge wherever possible from their sequential flow into a concurrent workflow
with a high degree of parallelism as illustrated in Fig. (B).

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Concurrency implies that members of the multidisciplinary project team work in parallel.
This also means that there is no strict demarcation of jobs among various departments. The
multi-disciplinary approach has the advantage of several inputs which can be focused effectively
early in the design process. Presently engineering departments are practicing this approach but
still with a high degree of manual involvement and redundancy.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 15 SMVEC

 MODULE - 6
CAD SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE:

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 Hardware: the computer and associated peripheral equipment
 Software: the computer programs running on the hardware
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 Data: the data structure created and manipulated by the software:
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 Human Knowledge and activates

CAD systems are no more than computer programs, perhaps using specialized computing
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hardware. The software normally comprises a number of different elements or functions that
process the data stored in the database in different ways. Those elements or functions are:
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 Model definition: for example, to add geometric elements to a model of the form of a
component;
 Model manipulation: to move, copy, delete, edit or otherwise modify elements in design
models;
 Picture generation: to generate images of the design model on a computer screen or on
some hard-copy device;
 User interaction: to handle commands input by user and to present output to the user
about the operation of the system;
 Database management: for the management of the files that make up the database;
 Application: these elements of the software do not modify the design model, but use it to
generate information for evaluation, analysis or manufacture;
 Utilities: a ‘catch-all’ term for parts of the software that do not directly affect the design
model, but modify the operation of the system in some way (e.g to set the color to be used
for display, or the units to be used for construction of a part model).
These features may be provided by multiple programs operating on a common database or
by a single program encompassing all of these elements.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 16 SMVEC

CAD Hardware
Workstation – CPU
Mass storage – Magnetic tape storage, Magnetic Disc Storage, Magnetic drum storage
Input devices - (keyboard, light pen, thumb wheel, joy stick, mouse, digitizer, Touch Screen,
Track Ball) Output devices - (printers, plotters)
Display Devices- (storage tube – raster scan, vector refresh, plasma panel and LCD)
Central Processing Unit:
The CPU is the Heart of the digital Computer, since it coordinates and controls the
activities of all other units. The CPU consists of three separate subsections;
1. Control Unit
2. Arithmetic Logic unit
3. Memory

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Control Unit:
The control unit is basically acts as an administrator in a computer. It coordinates the
operations of all other components. It controls the input and output of information between the
computer and the outside world through I/O devices, synchronizes the transfer of signals
between the various sections of the computer and regulates the other section to perform their
individual functions. The capability of the control unit to accomplish these operations is provided
by a set of instructions called executive program, which is stored in memory.
Arithmetic Logic unit
The ALU provides the circuitry required to perform the various calculations and
manipulations of data. Most ALU’s can add and subtract, but there are now some ALU’s that are
capable of performing multifunction and division and even other complex mathematical functions.
ALU’s with simplex circuits are capable of being programmed to perform these more complicated
operations, but more computing time is required. The more complex arithmetic logic units are
faster, but these units are more costly.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 17 SMVEC

Memory
The memory section consists of binary storage units, which are organised into bytes. The
memory section stores all the instructions and data of a program. Therefore the CPU must
transfer these instructions and data. Two types of memory
Main memory (primary storage)
Auxiliary memory (Secondary storage)
Mass storage
The most common device used for computer storage technologies are
 Magnetic tape storage
 Magnetic Disc Storage
 Magnetic drum storage
1) Magnetic tape storage
Magnetic storage is a good example of sequential access storage technology. Data are
stored on magnetic tape, similar to that used in audio systems.
The major advantages of magnetic tapes are that is relatively cheap when compared with
other types of storage medium and that it can easily hold large amount of data for its size.
Magnetic tape unlike punched paper tapes or cards can be used again by simply overwriting
previously stored data.
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Since data are stored sequentially access time is relatively slow. However, the low cost
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per bit and high capacity of magnetic tape make it ideal for system backup.
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It is most suitable for applications, which may be required in payroll, personnel management,
inventory control and customer invoicing where a large amount of data is to be processed
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sequentially.
2) Magnetic Disc Storage
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Magnetic disk storage is also known as a random access storage device. The storage
medium is a magnetically coated disk. There are several types and sizes of disks each best
suited to a particular set of applications.
3) Floppy Disc
Floppy disks come in two standard sizes: the larger one is 8 inches in diameter and
smaller is 5 ¼ inches and is referred to as mini floppy.
4) Magnetic Drum Storage
The magnetic drum is direct access storage device with high capacity and high access
rates. The magnetic drum consists of a magnetically coated cylinder during operation.
The drum is rotated at a constant speed and data are recorded in the form of magnetized
spots. The drum can be read repeatedly without causing data loss.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 18 SMVEC

 MODULE - 7
Input devices
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Light pen
 Thumb wheel
 Joy stick
 Digitizer
 Touch Screen
 Track Ball
Keyboard
The keyboard interacts with the computer on a hardware and software level. The
keyboard contains a keyboard controller (like 8042 or 8048) to check if any key is pressed or
released. If any key remains closed for more than half a second the controller sends a repeat
action at specific intervals. It has limited diagnostic and error checking capabilities. A buffer is
normally available to store a certain number of key actions if the computer is busy.
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Mouse
Mouse is today one of the widely used input devices in graphics applications. Mouse can
be moved around by the operator on any flat surface to provide graphic input. Its ability to rapidly
position the cursor on the screen is its most important advantage. Mouse is available as a
mechanical or optical graphic input device. In the case of a mechanical mouse, the rolling ball at
the bottoms of the mouse causes two encoders to rotate. The movement of the mouse is thus
converted into pulses which move the cursor in the X and Y direction in proportion to the
movement of the mouse. Mouse can be operated in a limited space. Since the mouse can be
used without looking at it, the user can concentrate on the screen and hence design productivity
can be considerably increased.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 19 SMVEC

Light pen
 A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive wand used in
conjunction with a computer's CRT display.
 It allows the user to point to displayed objects or draw on the screen in a similar way to a
touch screen but with greater positional accuracy. It was long thought that a light pen can
work with any CRT-based display, but not with LCDs and other display technologies.

Thumb wheel
Thumb wheels are potentiometric devices. Two of them are provided for X and Y
movements of cursor. These also have the advantage that one can look at the screen and move
the cursor.
Joy stick
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Joystick is a potentiometric device that contains sets of variable resistors which feed
signals that indicates the device position to the computer. These devices rely on the operator’s
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sense of touch and hand-eye co-ordination to control the position of the cursor on the screen.
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Joystick devices are normally set so that side-to-side movement produces change in X Co-
ordinates and front to back movements produce change in Y Co-ordinates.
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Digitizer
Digitizer boards or tablets are electro-mechanical vector graphic input devices that
resemble a drafting board. These are used together with a movable stylus or reticule called a
cursor or a puck. They are used to enter drawings into computer graphics systems by taping the
drawing to the surface of the digitizing board and placing the cursor over points whose co-
ordinates are to be entered. Figure shows a digitizer.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 20 SMVEC

Touch Screen
Touch screens are direct devices. They are used by simply touching CRT display with
one’s finger or a pointing device. Two types of touch screens (mechanical and optical) are used
in CAD applications. Mechanical type is a transparent screen overlay which detects the location
of the touch.
Track Ball
Track ball has a ball and socket construction but the ball must be rolled with fingers or the
palm of the hand. The cursor moves in the direction of the roll at a rate corresponding to
rotational speed. The user must rely heavily on the tactile sense when using a trackball since
there is no correspondence between the position of the cursor and the ball. The ball momentum
provides a tactile feedback.

OUTPUT DEVICES
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A CAD system is not complete unless it can make hard copies of designs or analysis
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created on the computer. Determining the best output device for a typical CIM application is a
three-step process: specifying how hard copies will be used, identifying quality and cost criteria
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and selecting equipment most suitable for the application.

Hard copies are used for a variety of purposes, including shop use, file storage, reports
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and presentations. Design iterations can be reduced by making hard copies at crucial stages and
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distributing them to key personnel for review. Documents and drawings are required for archival
purposes, to be used in proposals, reports, as well as illustrations. Quality of the hard copy
depends on the resolution of the hard copy unit. Speed and frequency of operation of hard copy
equipment are also of importance.
 Printers
 Plotters
PLOTTERS
Plotters are classified based several factors. Depending on the maximum size of the
drawing plotters are designated as A0, A1, A2, A3 and A4. There are plotters capable of creating
drawings larger than A0 size. Generally plotters plot drawings on cut sheets. Some special
plotters are capable of creating drawings on rolls also. Drawings are created through a series of
short vectors which requires movement to the pen in X and Y direction.
Plotters can be classified on the basis of their construction. A flat bed plotter has the pen
moving on a flat surface on which the drawing paper is fixed. The linear movements in the X and
Y direction generate the required drawing. In the case of a drum plotter, the paper is wound
around on a cylindrical drum. The pen holder is attached to a moving slide.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 21 SMVEC

 The co-ordinate motion generated by the rotation of the drum and linear movement draws
the pictures on the paper. In the third type, i.e. the pinch roller plotter, the paper is tightly held
between two sets of rollers. One roller in each pair has a rough surface and the linear motion to
the paper in one direction is imparted by the rotation of the roller. The movement in the other
direction is through a linear motion imparted to the pen holder. Plotters can also classify as pen
plotters and electrostatic plotters. Pen plotters use 1, 4, 8 or more different color pens. The
drawings thus can be made in several colors. Pencil plotters are also available. Electrostatic
plotters are faster but there is no color variety. They are also cheaper.

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PRINTERS
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Several types of printers are available:
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(i) Impact printers: They use small hammers or print heads containing small pins to strike a
ribbon to form dot matrix images. Colors are introduced through the use of multiple ribbons or
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single ribbons with different color bands. Color intensity is fixed and creating shades is almost
impossible. Because of the low resolution, copy quality is poor. Impact printers are suitable for
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high speed, low cost, high volume hard copies.

(ii) Inkjet printer: Inkjet printers produce images by propelling fine droplets of ink on to the
medium to be printed. Droplets can be generated in continuous streams or pulses. Some of the
droplets get charged and are returned to the reservoir, while uncharged droplets attach to the
printing surface to form graphics. The laser jet printers are capable of giving good quality color
prints with shading at reasonable cost.
(iii) Laser printer: Laser printer is one of the most widely used output devices. This type
combines high speed with high resolution and the quality of output is very fine.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 22 SMVEC

 MODULE - 8
DISPLAY DEVICES:
 The graphics display of a workstation is considered its most important component
because the quality of the displayed image influences the perception of generated design
on the CAD/CAM system.
 In addition to viewing images, the graphics display enables the user to communicate with
the displayed image by adding, deleting, blanking, and moving graphics entities on the
display screen.
 As a matter of fact, this communication process is what gives interactive graphics its
name to differentiate it from passive graphics, as in the case of a home television set,
that the user cannot change.
 Variable display technologies are now available to the user to choose from. They are all
based on the concept of converting computer’s electrical signals, controlled by the
corresponding digital information, into visible images at high speed.
Technologies
 Cathode Ray Tube(CRT) es
 Laser Display
 Flat Panel Display or Plasma panel Display
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1. In the first a laser beam instead of an electron beam is used to trace an image in a film.
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2. In the second a liquid crystal display (LCD) and light emitting diodes (LEDs) are used to
generate images
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3. The plasma display uses small neon bulbs arranged in a panel which provides a medium
resolution display.
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Thus far, none of these display technologies has been able to displace the CRT as the dominant
graphics display device.
CATHODE RAYS TUBE:
The operation of CRT is based on the concept of energizing an electron beam that strikes
the phosphor coating at very high speed. The energy transfer from the electron to the phosphor
due to the impact causes it to illuminate and glow.
The electrons are generated via the electron gun that contains the cathode and focused
into a beam via the focusing unit shown in figure. By controlling the beam direction and intensity
in a way related to the graphics information generated in the computer, meaningful and desired
graphics can be displayed on the screen.
The graphics display can be divided into two types based on the scan technology used to
control the electron beam.
 Random Scan
 Raster Scan

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 23 SMVEC

 es
In Random scan graphics can be generated by drawing vectors or line segments on the screen
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in a random order which is controlled by the user input and the software. The word “random”
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indicates that the screen is not scanned in a particular order.

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 24 SMVEC

Raster Scan system, the screen is scanned from top to bottom, left to right all the time to
generate graphics. This is similar to home television scan system, thus suggesting the name
digital scan.
The three existing CRT display that are based on these techniques are
i. Refresh display (calligraphic)
ii. Direct view storage tube
iii. Raster display
Refresh Display
The refresh buffer stores the display file or program, which contains points, lines,
characters and other attributes of picture to drawn. These commands are interpreted and
processed by the display processor.
The electron beam accordingly excites the phosphor, which glows for a short period. To
maintain a steady flicker – free image, the screen must be refreshed or redrawn at least 30 to 60
times per second, that is, at a rate of 30 to 60 Hz.

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Changes made to the display file by the software must be synchronized with the display
refresh cycle to prevent the display of an incomplete picture. If the software updates the file fast
enough, then it is possible to use the dynamic techniques such as animation to simulate
movements as well as developing responsive user interfaces.
The principal advantage to refresh displays is its high resolution (4096 x 4096) and thus
its generation of high quality pictures. However, the need to refresh the picture places a limit on
the number of vectors that can be displayed without flicker
In addition, being a binary display, the refresh display is able to generate only two level of
color intensity. In some displays, the intensity of the electron beam can vary to provide better
color capabilities.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 25 SMVEC

 MODULE - 9
Direct View Storage Tube (DVST):
Refresh display were very expensive in the 1960s due to the required refresh buffer
memory and fast display processor, and could only display a few hundred vectors on the screen
without flicker. At the end of 1960s the DVST was introduced by Tektronix as an alternative and
inexpensive solution.
The DVST eliminates refresh processors completely and consequently the refresh buffer
used with refreshes display.

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It also uses a special type of phosphor that has a long – lasting glowing effect. The
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phosphor is embedded in a storage tube. In addition, the speed of the electron beam in the DVST
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is slower than in the refresh display due to elimination of refresh cycle.

In the DVST the picture is stored as a charge in the phosphor mesh located behind the
screen’s surface. Therefore, complex pictures could be drawn without flicker at high resolution.
Once displayed, the picture remains on the screen until it is explicitly erased. This
is why the name “storage tube” was suggested.
In addition to the lack of selective erasure, the DVST cannot provide colors, animation
and use of light pen as an input device.
Raster Display:
The inability of the DVST to meet the increasing demands by various CAD/CAM
applications for colors, shaded images and animation motivated hardware designer to continue
searching for a solution.
During the late 1970s raster display based on the standard television technology began to
emerge as a viable alternative. The drop in memory price due to advances in solid states made
large enough refresh buffers available support high resolution display.
A typical resolution of raster display is 1280 x 1204 with a possibility to reach 4096 x 4096
as the DVST. Raster displays are very popular and nearly al recent display research and
development focus on them.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 26 SMVEC

In raster display, the display screen area is divided horizontally and vertically into matrix of small
elements called picture element or pixel. A pixel is a small addressable area on the screen. An N
x M resolution defines on a screen with N rows and M Columns. Each row defines a scan line. A
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rasterization process is needed in order to display either a shaded area or graphics entities.
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In this process the area or entities are converted into their corresponding pixels whose
intensity and color are controlled by the image processing system.
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Working:
Images are displayed by converting geometric information into pixel values which then
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converted into electron beam deflection through display processor and deflection system. If the
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display is monochrome, the pixel value is used to control the intensity level or the gray level on
the screen. For color displays, the value is used to control the color mapping into a color map.
The creation of transfer format data from geometric information is known as scan
conversion or rasterization. A rasterizer that forms the mage-creation system is mainly a set of
scan conversion algorithms. Due to the universal need for these algorithms, the scan conversion
or rasterization process is implemented.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 27 SMVEC

 UNIT - II

MODULE – 1
BRESENHAM’S ALGORITHM
BRESENHAM’S LINE ALGORITHM
Bresenham’s algorithm enables the selection of optimum raster locations to represent a
straight line. In this algorithm either pixels along X or Y directions are incremented by one unit
depending upon the slope of the line. The increment in the other direction is determined by
examining the error or distance between actual line location and the nearest grid locations.
The principle of Bresenham’s algorithm can be explained with the aid of Fig a. If the slope
of the line (in the first octant) is more than 1/2, the pixel point in the Y direction is shifted by one.
Thus lines L1 and L2 passes through pixel (0, 0). For line L2 slope is greater than 1/2; hence the
pixel point is (1, 1) whereas for L1 the slope is less than 1/2 and hence (1, 0) is the pixel point.
Bresenham’s algorithm selects optimum raster locations with minimum computation. To
accomplish this, the algorithm always increments by one unit in either X or Y depending upon the
slope of the line. The increment in the other variable either zero or one is determined by
examining the distance (error) between the actual line location and the nearest grid location. Only
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the sign of this error needs be examined.
Consider the line of slope m = 0.4 and passing through (0, 0) in Fig (a). The error team e
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is initialized to –1/2. The next raster point can be determined by adding the slope (m) to the error
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term.
i.e. e=e+m
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e = – 0.5 + 0.4 = – 0.1

Since e is negative, the line will pass below the middle of the pixel. Hence the pixel is at
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the same horizontal level i.e., (0, 1). For the next location X is incremented to 2. Error e = -0.1 +
0.4 = 0.3. Since e is positive the line passes above the middle of the raster line. Hence the
location of pixel is (2, 1). Before examining the next pixel location the error term has to be re-
initialized as its value is positive. Re-initialization is done by subtracting one from the current e
value. Hence e = 0.3 - 1 = -0.7. Adding the slope 0.4 we get e = -0.3. Table 3.2 shows the
computed values and the location of pixels. A plot of the pixel location is shown in Fig. (b).
Table: Calculation of Pixel Position

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 28 SMVEC

 Fig. a Location of Pixels Using Fig. b Pixels for Line of
Bresenham Algorithm Slope, m = 0.4
The speed of the Bresenham’s algorithm can be increased by using integer arithmetic and
eliminating division to determine slope.The pseudo code and a C-program for implementing
Bresenham’s algorithm are given below:
Pseudo code for Bresenham’s line-drawing algorithm
Given a line from x1, y1 to x2, y2...
dx is the difference between the x components of end points
dy is the difference between the y components of end points
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ix is the absolute value of dx
iy is the absolute value of dy
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inc is the larger of dx, dy
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plotx is x1
ploty is y1 (the beginning of line)
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x starts at 0
y starts at 0
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plot a pixel at plotx, ploty

increment x using ix
increment y using iy
plot is false
if x is greater than inc
plot is true
decrement x using inc
increment plotx if dx is positive
decrement plotx id dx is negative
if y is greater than inc
plot is true
decrement y using inc
increment ploty if dy is positive
decrement ploty if dy is negative
if plot is true, plot a pixel at plotx, ploty
increment i.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 29 SMVEC

Program in Turbo-C to draw a line
# include <stdio. h>
# include <graphics. h>
# include <stdlb. h>
void draw line (int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2),
void main (void)
{
draw line (100, 100, 50, 50) ;
}
void draw line (int x1, int y1, int x2 m int y2)
{
int dx, dy, inc, ix, iy, x, y, plot, plotx, ploty, i ;
int gd, gm ;
gd = DETECT ;
initgraph (&gd, &gm, “ “) ;
dx = x1 – x2 ;
dy = y1 – y2 ;
ix = abs (dx) ;
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iy = abs (dy) ;
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inc = max (ix, iy) ;
x=y=0;
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plot x = x1 ;
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plot y = y1 ;
for (i = 0 ; i <inc ; i ++)
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{
x + = ix ;
y + iy ;
plot = 0
if (x > inc)
{
plot = 1 ;
x – = inc ;
if (dx < 0)
plot x – = 1 ;
else
plotx + = 1 ;
}
if (y > inc)
{
plot = 1 ;
y – = inc ;

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 30 SMVEC

 if (dy)
ploty – = 1 ;
else
ploty + = 1 ;
}
if (plot)
putpixel (plotx, ploty, 1)
else
}
getch ( ) ;
closegraph ( ) ;

MODULE - 2
BRESENHAM’S CIRCLE ALGORITHM
An efficient algorithm for generating a circle has been developed by J. Bresenham.
Values of a circle centered at the origin are computed in the sector X = 0 to X = R /2 where R is
the radius of the circle. The symmetry of the circle is used to obtain the pixels corresponding to
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other sectors.
Bresenham’s circle algorithm can be explained as follows:
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Consider an origin-centred circle. The algorithm begins at X = 0 and Y = R. In the first
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quadrant of the circle, Y is a monotonically decreasing function of X. Referring to Fig., (Xi, Yi) is a
point on the circle. For clockwise generation of the circle there are only three possible selections
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of the next pixel, which represents the circle. These positions are also shown in Fig. 3.4. The
algorithm is designed to choose the pixel which minimizes the square of the distance between
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one of these pixels and the true circle, i.e., the minimum of
H = [ (Xi + 1) 2 + (Yi)2 – R 2]
V = [ (Xi ) 2 + ( Yi – 1) 2 – R 2 ]
D = [ ( Xi + 1) 2 + ( Yi – 1 ) 2 – R 2 ]

Fig. First Quadrant Pixel Position

A flow chart to obtain the pixel values for representing a circle is given in Fig. It is
sufficient to obtain the pixel values for 1/8th of a circle, the remaining obtained by
symmetry.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 31 SMVEC

A program which implements Bresenham’s algorithm follows.
include <stdio.h>
include <graphics.h>
Void draw circle (int xc, int yc, int y) ;
Void symmetry (int x, int y, int xc, int yc) ;
double ratio ;
Void main (void)
{
draw circle (300, 150, 50) ;
}
int d, x ;
int gd, gm ;
gd = DETECT ;
initgraph (&gd, &gm, “ “) ;
d=3-2*y;
ratio = 1.5
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x=0;
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while (x < y)
{
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symmetry (x, y, xc, yc) ;

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if (d < 0)
d+=4*x+6;
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else
{
d + = 4 * (X – Y) + 10 ;
y-:
}
x++ ;
if (x = = y)
symmetry (x, y, xc, yc) ;
}
getch ( ) ;
closegraph ( ) ;
}

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 32 SMVEC

 void symmetry (int x, int y, int xc, int yc)
{
int x start, x end, x out ;
int y start, y end, y out ;
x start = x * ratio
x end = (x + 1) * ratio ;
y start = y * ratio ;
y end = (y + 1) * ratio
for (x out = x start ; x out < x end ; ++ x out)
{
put pixel (x out + xc, y + yc, 1 ) ;
put pixel (x out + xc, –y + yc, 1) ;
put pixel (-x out + xc, –y + yc, 1) ;
put pixel (-x out + xc, y + yc, 1) ;
}
(y out = y start ; y out < y end ; ++y out)
{
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put pixel (y out + xc, x + yc, 1 ) ;
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put pixel (y out + xc, –x + yc, 1) ;
put pixel (-y out + xc, –x + yc, 2) ;
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put pixel (-y out + xc, x + yc, 1) ;

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}
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 33 SMVEC

 es
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Flow Chart to Determine Pixel Values

EXAMPLE OF BRESENHAM’S ALGORITHM
Consider a circle with centre at the origin and radius equal to 10 units. Because of
symmetry only the first octant is considered here.
X=0
Y = 10
i = 2 (1–10) = –18
LIMIT = 0
PLOT (0, 10)
Y1 > LIMIT CONTINUE
i < 0 GOTO 2
2 = 2 (–18) + 2 (10) –1 = –17 < 0 GOTO 10
10 X = 0 + 1 = 1

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 34 SMVEC

 i = –17 + 2 + 1 = –14
GOTO 1
1 PLOT (1, 10)
Yi > LIMIT CONTINUE
i<0
= 2 (–14) + 2 (10) –1
= –9 < 0 GOTO 10
X=1+1
i = –14 + 2 (2) + 1
= –9
GOTO 1
PLOT (2, 10)
The procedure is to be continued till the required point is reached. The results are given in Table
and are plotted in Fig. shown below.
Pixel Values for Circle

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Plot of First Octant of a Circle

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 35 SMVEC

 MODULE - 3
TRANSFORMATION IN GRAPHICS
Geometric transformations provide a means by which an image can be enlarged in size,
or reduced, rotated, or moved. These changes are brought about by changing the co-ordinates of
the picture to a new set of values depending upon the requirements.
CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS USED IN GRAPHICS
The idea of a coordinate system, or coordinate frame is pervasive in computer graphics.
For example, it is usual to build a model in its own modeling frame, and later place this model into
a scene in the world coordinate frame. In a typical graphics program, we may need to deal with a
number of different coordinate systems, and a good part of the work is the conversion of
coordinates from one system to another. Some of the co-ordinate systems used in graphics are:
1) World Coordinate System
Also known as the "universe" or sometimes "model" coordinate system. This is the base
reference system for the overall model, ( generally in 3D ), to which all other model coordinates
relate.
2) Object Coordinate System
When each object is created in a modelling program, the modeller must pick some point
to be the origin of that particular object, and the orientation of the object to a set of model axes.
For example when modelling a desk, the modeller might choose a point in the center of the desk
top for the origin, or the point in the center of the desk at floor level, or the bottom of one of the
legs of the desk.
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When this object is moved to a point in the world coordinate system, it is really the origin
of the object (in object coordinate system) that is moved to the new world coordinates, and all
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other points in the model are moved by an equal amount. Note that while the origin of the object
model is usually somewhere on the model itself, it does not have to be. For example, the origin of
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a doughnut or a tire might be in the vacant space in the middle.

3) Hierarchical Coordinate Systems
Sometimes objects in a scene are arranged in a hierarchy, so that the "position" of one
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object in the hierarchy is relative to its parent in the hierarchy scheme, rather than to the world
coordinate system. For example, a hand may be positioned relative to an arm, and the arm
relative to the torso. When the arm moves, the hand moves with it, and when the torso moves, all
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three objects move together.

4) Viewpoint Coordinate System
Also known as the "camera" coordinate system. This coordinate system is based upon the
viewpoint of the observer, and changes as they change their view. Moving an object "forward" in
this coordinate system moves it along the direction that the viewer happens to be looking at the
time.
5) Model Window Coordinate System
Not to be confused with desktop windowing systems (MS Windows or X Windows), this
coordinate system refers to the subset of the overall model world that is to be displayed on the
screen. Depending on the viewing parameters selected, the model window may be rectalinear or
a distorted viewing frustrum of some kind.
6) Screen Coordinate System
This 2D coordinate system refers to the physical coordinates of the pixels on the
computer screen, based on current screen resolution. ( E.g. 1024x768 )
7) Viewport Coordinate System
This coordinate system refers to a subset of the screen space where the model window is
to be displayed. Typically the viewport will occupy the entire screen window, or even the entire
screen, but it is also possible to set up multiple smaller viewports within a single screen window.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 36 SMVEC

WINDOWING
Transformations can be carried out either in 2-dimensions or in 3-dimensions. The theory
of two-dimensional transformations is discussed first in this chapter. This is then extended to
three dimensions. When a design package is initiated, the display will have a set of co-ordinate
values. These are called default co-ordinates. A user co-ordinate system is one in which the
designer can specify his own co-ordinates for a specific design application. These screen
independent coordinates can have large or small numeric range, or even negative values, so that
the model can be represented in a natural way. It may, however, happen that the picture is too
crowded with several features to be viewed clearly on the display screen. Therefore, the designer
may want to view only a portion of the image, enclosed in a rectangular region called a window.
Different parts of the drawing can thus be selected for viewing by placing the windows. Portions
inside the window can be enlarged, reduced or edited depending upon the requirements. Figure
shows the use of windowing to enlarge the picture.

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VIEW PORT
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It may be sometimes desirable to display different portions or views of the drawing in

different regions of the screen. A portion of the screen where the contents of the window are
displayed is called a view port. Let the screen size be X = 0 to 200 and Y = 0 to 130. A view port
can be defined by the co-ordinates say X1 = 65, X2 = 130, Y1 = 50 and Y2 = 100. If we use the
same window as in Fig., the definition of this view port will display the image in the right hand top
quarter of the screen (Fig.) choosing different view ports multiple views can be placed on the
screen. Fig. shows four views of a component displayed using view port commands.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 37 SMVEC

CLIPPING
Clipping is the process of determining the visible portions of a drawing lying within a
window. In clipping each graphic element of the display is examined to determine whether or not
it is completely inside the window, completely outside the window or crosses a window boundary.
Portions outside the boundary are not drawn. If the element of a drawing crosses the boundary
the point of inter-section is determined and only portions which lie inside are drawn. Readers are
advised to refer to books on computer graphics for typical clipping algorithms like Cohen-
Sutherland clipping algorithm. Fig. Shows an example of clipping.

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MODULE - 4
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HIDDEN SURFACE REMOVAL

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One of the difficult problems in computer graphics is the removal of hidden surfaces from
the images of solid objects. In Fig. (a) An opaque cube is shown in wire frame representation.
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Edges 15, 48, 37, 14, 12, 23, 58 and 87 are visible whereas edges 56, 67 and 26 are not visible.
Correspondingly, surfaces 1265, 2673 and 5678 are not visible since the object is opaque. The
actual representation of the cube must be as shown in Fig. (b).

There are a number of algorithms available for removal of hidden lines and hidden surfaces.
Table gives a list of algorithms for hidden line removal and hidden surface removal.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 38 SMVEC

Table Algorithms for Hidden Line and Hidden Surface

There are two popular approaches to hidden surface removal. These are scan line based
systems and Z-buffer based systems. Other important approaches are area subdivision and
depth list schemes.

MODULE - 5
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2-D & 3-D TRANSFORMATION
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2-D TRANSFORMATIONS
In computer graphics, drawings are created by a series of primitives which are
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represented by the co-ordinates of their end points. Certain changes in these drawings can be
made by performing some mathematical operations on these co-ordinates. The basic
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transformations are scaling, translation and rotation.

ROTATION
Another useful transformation is the rotation of a drawing about a pivot point. Consider
Fig. Point P1 (40, 20) can be seen being rotated about the origin through an angle, ϴ=45°, in the
anti-clockwise direction to position P2. The co-ordinates of P2 can be obtained by multiplying the
co-ordinates of P1 by the matrix:

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 39 SMVEC

SCALING
Changing the dimensions of window and view port, it is possible to alter the size of
drawings. This technique is not satisfactory in all cases. A drawing can be made bigger by
increasing the distance between the points of the drawing. In general, this can be done by
multiplying the co-ordinates of the drawing by an enlargement or reduction factor called scaling
factor and the operation is called scaling. Referring to Fig., P1 (30, 20) represents a point in the
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XY plane. In matrix form, P1 can be represented as:P1 = [30, 20]
If we multiply this by a matrix
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 40 SMVEC

An example of scaling in the case of a triangle is shown in Fig. Fig. (a) Shows the original picture
before scaling. Fig. (b) Shows the triangle after the co-ordinates are multiplied by the scaling
matrix.

MODULE - 6
TRANSLATION
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Moving drawing or model across the screen is called translation. This is accomplished by adding
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to the co-ordinates of each corner point the distance through which the drawing is to be moved
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(translated). Fig. shows a rectangle (Fig.(a)) being moved to a new position (Fig.(b)) by adding 40
units to X co-ordinate values and 30 units to Y coordinate values. In general, in order to translate
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drawing by (TX , TY ) every point X, Y will be replaced by a point X1 , Y1 where

X1 = X + TX
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Y1 = Y + TY

SHEARING
A shearing transformation produces distortion of an object or an entire image. There are two
types of shears: X-shear and Y-shear. A Y-shear transforms the point (X, Y) to the point (X1, Y1)
by a factor Sh1, where
X1 = X

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 41 SMVEC

 Y1 = Sh1. X + Y
Fig. shows Y shear applied to a drawing.

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REFLECTION
Shading is an important element in 3-D computer graphics, as it gives the necessary
realism to the representation of the object. Fig. shows what happens when light is incident on a
surface. Light gets partly reflected, partly scattered, partly absorbed and partly transmitted. The
relative magnitudes of these are influenced by many factors like the opaqueness of the solid,
surface texture etc. The intensity and wave length of light reflected from a surface depends on
the incident angle, the surface roughness, incident wave length and the electrical properties of
the surface. In computer graphics designer can model reflected light and transmitted light.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 42 SMVEC

Reflected light could be categorized into two types:
Diffuse reflection: Diffuse light is scattered in all directions and is responsible for the color of the
object. The light is reflected from a surface due to molecular interaction between incident light
and the surface material. A yellow object for example, absorbs white light and reflects yellow
component of the light. This property is attributed to diffuse reflection. When light from a point
source is incident on a solid object, the diffuse reflection depends upon the angle of inclination of
the surface with that of the incident beam. More important source of illumination of the objects is
ambient light, which is the result of multiple reflections from the walls and other objects in the
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vicinity and is incident on a surface in all directions.
Specular reflection: A perfectly matt surface scatters light in all directions. Most of the surfaces
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that we deal with, however, have different levels of glossiness. The specular deflection deals with
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the reflection of the surface due to glossiness. Consider Fig. which shows the reflection of light
on a surface. If the surface is perfectly glossy the reflected light is in the direction of R. If the
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surface becomes more and more matt, the reflection intensity varies as in a profile shown as the
shaded area of the figure.
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A technique to model reflection from an object based on specular reflection has been proposed
by Phong. This model assumes that:
• Light sources are point sources.
• All geometry except the surface normal is ignored.
• Diffuse and specular components are modeled as local components
• The model to simulate the specular term is empirical.
• The color of specular reflection is that of the light source
• The ambient lighting is constant.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 43 SMVEC

 MODULE - 7
HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATIONS
Each of the above transformations with the exception of translation can be represented as
a row vector X, Y and a 2 X 2 matrix. However, all the four transformations discussed above can
be represented as a product of a 1 X 3 row vector and an appropriate 3 X 3 matrix.

The conversion of a two-dimensional co-ordinate pair (X, Y) into a 3-dimensional vector

can be achieved by representing the point as [X Y 1]. After multiplying this vector by a 3 X 3
matrix, another homogeneous row vector is obtained [X1 Y1 1]. The first two terms in this vector
are the co-ordinate pair which is the transform of (X, Y).

This three dimensional representation of a two dimensional plane is called homogeneous

coordinates and the transformation using the homogeneous co-ordinates is called homogeneous
transformation. The matrix representations of the four basic transformations are given below.

Translation:
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 44 SMVEC

COMBINATION TRANSFORMATIONS

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Sequences of transformations can be combined into a single transformation using the
concatenation process. For example, consider the rotation of a line about an arbitrary point. Line
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AB is to be rotated through 45° in anticlockwise direction about point A (Fig (a)). Fig. (b) Shows
an inverse translation of AB to A1B1. A1B1 is then rotated through 45° to A2B2. The line A2B2 is
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then translated to A3B3

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Since matrix operations are not commutative, care must be taken to preserve the order in which
they are performed while combining the matrices.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 45 SMVEC

 MODULE - 8
3-D TRANSFORMATIONS
It is often necessary to display objects in 3-D on the graphics screen. The transformation
matrices developed for 2-dimensions can be extended to 3-D.

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 46 SMVEC

 MODULE - 9
PROJECTIONS
In drawing practice, a 3-dimensional object is represented on a plane paper. Similarly in
computer graphics a 3-dimensional object is viewed on a 2-dimensional display. A projection is a
transformation that performs this conversion. Three types of projections are commonly used in
engineering practice: parallel, perspective and isometric.
PARALLEL (ORTHOGONAL) PROJECTION
This is the simplest of the projection methods. Fig. shows the projection of a cube on to a
projection plane. The projectors, which are lines passing through the corners of the object are all
parallel to each other. It is only necessary to project the end points of a line in 3-D and then join
these projected points. This speeds up the transformation process. However a major
disadvantage of parallel projection is lack of depth information.

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PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
The perspective projection enhances the realism of displayed image by providing the
viewer with a sense of depth. Portions of the object farther away from the viewer are drawn
smaller than those in the foreground. This is more realistic as it is the way we see an object. In
perspective projection the projections connect the eye with every point of the object and therefore
all projections converge to the eye.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 47 SMVEC

 As the display screen is a two-dimensional space, we cannot display three-dimensional
objects but only their projections. Computationally, projection transformations are in general quite
expensive. Since the generation of a perspective view of a given object may require the
projection transformation of a considerable number of points, the projection applied is usually
restricted to the central projection and sometimes to even simpler parallel or orthographic
projection in order to keep the execution time for the generation of a perspective view within
reasonable limits.
Figure explains the central projection as it is usually applied in computer graphics. The
problem is to determine the projection of an object point, located somewhere in a three-
dimensional space, onto a plane in that space, called the image plane. This projection is called
the image point of the corresponding object point. In a central projection, the center of projection,
also called the viewpoint, is located on one of the axes of the three dimensional orthogonal co-
ordinate systems. In Figure the viewpoint is arbitrarily located on the Z-axis. This fact can also be
expressed by saying that the optical axis is aligned with the Z-axis of the co-ordinate system.
The image plane is perpendicular to the optical axis; i.e., in figure it is parallel to the xy-
plane of the co-ordinate system. This fact accounts for the simplicity of a central projection. Let
the co-ordinates in the two-dimensional co-ordinate system of the image plane, which we may
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call the image co-ordinate system, be denoted by X and Y. Let the distance of the image plane to
the origin of the spatial co-ordinate system be denoted by Z and the distance of the viewpoint to
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the origin of the co-ordinate system by Z.
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This projection is called orthographic. The orthographic projection is a special form of the
parallel projection by which parallel lines of the three-dimensional object are transformed into
parallel lines of its image.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 48 SMVEC

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
In isometric projection the three orthogonal edges of an object are inclined equally to the
projection plane. Because of the relative ease of projection and the ability to give 3-D perception,
isometric projection is widely used in computer aided design. In computer aided design the co-
ordinates of the drawing are available in their natural co-ordinate system. These are transformed
suitably to enable the viewer different views or rotate the object in such away that all the faces of
the object are made visible continuously.
There are several uses for this technique in product design. Hence good design packages
incorporate several viewing transformation techniques. The viewing parameters depend upon the
system graphics standard followed in developing the graphics package. The algorithms for these
viewing transformations are available in literature.
Isometric Projection to Orthographic Projection

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 49 SMVEC

 UNIT – III

MODULE - 1
GEOMETRIC MODELLING
Geometric modeling techniques like wire frame, surface and solid modeling have totally
changed not only the drawing office practices but also have helped to integrate design with
analysis, simulation and optimization as well as to seamlessly integrate design with downstream
manufacturing applications. Data created in geometric models can thus be directly passed on to
all the application software packages like finite element analysis, mechanism analysis, CNC
programming, inspection etc. Geometric modeling has therefore paved the way for CIM. The
salient features of the different modeling techniques are discussed in this chapter. The starting
point of new product development is conceptual design. The designer has to develop the shape
of the product which in turn has to accommodate the functional parts inside. Whether it is a
consumer durable like a camera, and an electric iron, a washing machine, an automobile, an
entertainment electronic item like television or a sports item like a golf club, shape design is a
critical activity in product design. This chapter also discusses conceptual design techniques and
transfer of data to modeling software. es
INTRODUCTION
Product development activity starts with the design of the product. As mentioned in
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Chapter 2 this is a very critical activity which will influence the cost, performance, service life,
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quality, manufacturability, maintainability etc. The challenges before the product designers today
are listed below:
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• Higher customer quality expectations

• Need to have innovation and originality in design
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• Need for global collaboration across and beyond the enterprise among designers,
customers and vendors to reduce development lead times
• Need to evaluate feasibility throughout the design process
• Ability to react quickly to design changes as and when change requests are made
• Ability to express the design intent in terms of shape and function using the tools
available as well as the ability of the tools to transfer data back and forth seamlessly.
Manufacturing of machine parts and components is carried out with the help of drawings.
The machine operator is provided with the drawing of the finished part and an operation sheet
which gives step by step instructions to produce the part. Drawings are also required for process
planning, tool design, production planning, and CNC programming, inspection, assembly, costing
and vendor development. Thus, drawings are essential documents for product development as
well as for regular production. However, with the introduction of computer integrated
manufacturing the importance of drawing as the basic document for product development and
manufacture has diminished. In addition to production drawings of components, the design
department has to create layout drawings, assembly drawings, and tool drawings (Jigs, fixtures,
templates, special tools, inspection fixtures etc). The number of drawings required for a product

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 50 SMVEC

varies with the complexity of the product. In the case of the development of a centre lathe, it may
be necessary to create about 400-500 drawings. For an aircraft, the number of drawings will be of
the order of 30,000 to 60,000. In addition to component drawings, it is necessary to create
hundreds of tool drawings and jig and fixture drawings for manufacture, assembly and inspection.
Considerable manpower and time will be required to create such a large volume of drawings and
the time required for this task represents a significant portion of the lead time required for product
development.
Computer aided design and drafting (CADD) is a powerful technique to create the
drawings. Traditionally, the components and assemblies are represented in drawings with the
help of elevation, plan, and end views and cross sectional views. In the early stages of
development of CADD, several software packages were developed to create such drawings
using computers. Figure shows four views (plan, elevation, end view and isometric view) of a
part. Since any entity in this type of representation requires only two co-ordinates (X and Y) such
software packages were called two-dimensional (2-D) drafting packages. With the evolution of
CAD, most of these packages have been upgraded to enable 3-D representation.

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CLASSIFICATION OF GEOMETRIC MODELING

Computer representation of the geometry of a component using software is called a
geometric model. Geometric modeling is done in three principal ways. They are:
i. Wire frame modeling
ii. Surface modeling
iii. Solid modeling
These modeling methods have distinct features and applications.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 51 SMVEC

WIRE FRAME MODELING
In wire frame modeling the object is represented by its edges. In the initial stages of CAD,
wire frame models were in 2-D. Subsequently 3-D wire frame modeling software was introduced.
The wire frame model of a box is shown in Fig. (a). The object appears as if it is made out of thin
wires. Fig. (b), (c) and 6.2(d) show three objects which can have the same wire frame model of
the box. Thus in the case of complex parts wire frame models can be confusing. Some clarity can
be obtained through hidden line elimination. Though this type of modeling may not provide
unambiguous understanding of the object, this has been the method traditionally used in the 2-D
representation of the object, where orthographic views like plan, elevation, end view etc are used
to describe the object graphically.

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Fig. Ambiguity in Wire Frame Modeling

A comparison between 2-D and 3-D models is given below:

2 - D Models 3-D Wire Frame Models

Ends (vertices) of lines are represented by their X Ends of lines are represented by their X, Y
and Y coordinates and Z coordinates.
Curved edges are represented by circles, ellipses, Curved surfaces are represented by suitably
splines etc. Additional views and sectional views are spaced generators. Hidden line or hidden
necessary to represent a complex object with clarity. surface elimination is a must to interpret
3-D image reconstruction is tedious. complex components correctly.
Uses only one global coordinate system 2-D views as well as various pictorial views
can be generated easily.
May require the use of several user
coordinate systems to create features on
different faces of the component.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 52 SMVEC

SURFACE MODELING
In this approach, a component is represented by its surfaces which in turn are
represented by their vertices and edges. For example, eight surfaces are put together to create a
box, as shown in Fig. Surface modeling has been very popular in aerospace product design and
automotive design. Surface modeling has been particularly useful in the development of
manufacturing codes for automobile panels and the complex doubly curved shapes of aerospace
structures and dies and moulds.

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Apart from standard surface types available for surface modeling (box, pyramid, wedge,
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dome, sphere, cone, torus, dish and mesh) techniques are available for interactive modeling and
editing of curved surface geometry. Surfaces can be created through an assembly of polygonal
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meshes or using advanced curve and surface modeling techniques like B-splines or NURBS
(Non-Uniform Rational B-splines). Standard primitives used in a typical surface modeling
software are shown in Fig.. Tabulated surfaces, ruled surfaces and edge surfaces and revolved
are simple ways in which curved geometry could be created and edited. Surface modeling is
discussed in detail later in this chapter.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 53 SMVEC

SOLID MODELING
The representation of solid models uses the fundamental idea that a physical object
divides the 3-D Euclidean space into two regions, one exterior and one interior, separated by the
boundary of the solid. Solid models are:
• bounded
• Homogeneously three dimensional
• Finite
There are six common representations in solid modeling.
i. Spatial Enumeration: In this simplest form of 3D volumetric raster model, a section of 3D
space is described by a matrix of evenly spaced cubic volume elements called voxels.
ii. Cell Decomposition: This is a hierarchical adaptation of spatial enumeration. 3D space
is sub-divided into cells. Cells could be of different sizes. These simple cells are glued
together to describe a solid object.
iii. Boundary Representation: The solid is represented by its boundary which consists of a
set of faces, a set of edges and a set of vertices as well as their topological relations.
iv. Sweep Methods: In this technique a planar shape is moved along a curve.
Translational sweep can be used to create prismatic objects and rotational sweep could
be used for axisymmetric components.
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v. Primitive Instancing: This modeling scheme provides a set of possible object shapes
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which are described by a set of parameters. Instances of object shape can be created by
varying these parameters.
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vi. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG): Primitive instances are combined using Boolean
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set operations to create complex objects.

In most of the modeling packages, the approach used for modeling uses any one of the following
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three techniques:
i. Constructive solid geometry (CSG or C-Rep)
ii. Boundary representation (B-Rep)
iii. Hybrid method which is a combination of B-Rep and CSG.
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
In a CSG model, physical objects are created by combining basic elementary shapes
known as primitives like blocks, cylinders, cones, pyramids and spheres. The Boolean operations
like union (∪), difference (–
us assume that we are using two primitives, a block and a cylinder which are located in space as
shown in Fig.
A “union” operation (A∪B) will combine the two to convert them into a new solid. (Fig.(c))
The difference operation (A – B) will create a block with a hole (Fig. (D)). an intersection
operation (A ∩B) will yield the portion common to the two primitives. (Fig. (E)).

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 54 SMVEC

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Boundary Representation
Boundary representation is built on the concept that a physical object is enclosed by a set
of faces which themselves are closed and orient able surfaces. Fig. Shows a B-rep model of an
object. In this model, face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded by vertices. The
entities which constitute a B-rep model are:
Geometric entities Topological entities
Point Vertex
Curve, line Edge
Surface Face

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 55 SMVEC

 A solid model is a 3-D representation of an object. It is an accurate geometric description
which includes not only the external surfaces of part, but also the part’s internal structure. A solid
model allows the designer to determine information like the object’s mass properties,
interferences, and internal cross sections. Solid models differ from wire frame and surface
models in the kind of geometric information they provide. Wire frame models only show the edge
geometry of an object. They say nothing about what is inside an object. Surface models provide
surface information, but they too lack information about an object’s internal structure. Solid
models provide complete geometric descriptions of objects. Engineers use solid models in
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different ways at different stages of the design process. They can modify a design as they
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develop it. Since computer-based solid models are a lotA solid model is a 3-D representation of
an object. It is an accurate geometric description which includes not only the external surfaces of
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part, but also the part’s internal structure. A solid model allows the designer to determine
information like the object’s mass properties, interferences, and internal cross sections. Solid
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models differ from wire frame and surface models in the kind of geometric information they
provide. Wire frame models only show the edge geometry of an object. They say nothing about
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what is inside an object. Surface models provide surface information, but they too lack
information about an object’s internal structure. Solid models provide complete geometric
descriptions of objects.
Engineers use solid models in different ways at different stages of the design process.
They can modify a design as they develop it. Since computer-based solid models are a lot easier
to change and manipulate than the physical mock-ups or prototypes, more design iterations and
modifications can be easily carried out as a part of the design process. Using solid modeling
techniques a design engineer can modify a design several times while optimizing geometry. This
means that designers can produce more finished designs in less time than by using traditional
design methods or 2-D CAD drafting tools.
Solid models can be used for quick and reliable design analysis. Solid models apart from
geometric information provide important data such as volume, mass, mass properties and centre
of gravity. The designer can also export models created to other applications for finite element
analysis (FEA), rapid prototyping and other special engineering applications.
Finally designers can generate detailed production drawings directly from the solid model. This
capability increases design productivity considerably. Another important feature of solid modeling

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 56 SMVEC

is associativity. Detailed drawings are linked to solid model through the associativity feature. This
is a powerful function - as an engineer modifies a design, the drawings get updated automatically.
In bidirectional associativity, any modifications made to geometry in the drawing are reflected in
the model. In more advanced design and manufacturing environments, solid models are used for
rapid prototyping and automated manufacturing applications. The salient features of the solid
modeling approach to design are discussed in the following sections.
FEATURE-BASED DESIGN- SOLID MODELING
The most fundamental aspect in creating a solid model is the concept of feature-based
design. In typical 2-D CAD applications, a designer draws a part by adding basic geometric
elements such as lines, arcs, circles and splines. Then dimensions are added. In solid modeling a
3-D design is created by starting a base feature and then adding other features, one at a time,
until the accurate and complete representation of the part’s geometry is achieved.
A feature is a basic building block that describes the design, like a keyway on a shaft.
Each feature indicates how to add material (like a rib) or remove a portion of material (like a cut
or a hole). Features adjust automatically to changes in the design thereby allowing the capture of
design intent. This also saves time when design changes are made. Because features have the
ability to intelligently reference other features, the changes made will navigate through design,
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updating the 3-D model in all affected areas. Figure shows a ribbed structure. It consists of
feature like ribs and holes.
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Similarly, if a flanged part shown in Fig. (A) is to be created, the one approach is to sketch the
cross section as shown in Fig. (B) and then revolve through 360°.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 57 SMVEC

 In typical solid modeling software the designer can create a feature in two basic ways.
One is to sketch a section of the shape to be added and then extrude, revolve, or sweep it to
create the shape. These are called sketched features. Another type of feature is the pick-and-
place feature. Here the designer simply performs an engineering operation such as placing a
hole, chamfering or rounding a set of edges, or shelling out the model.
An important component of every feature is its dimensions. Dimensions are the variables
that one changes in order to make the design update automatically. When a dimension is
changed the solid modeling software recalculates the geometry. Design of a part always begins
with a base feature. This is a basic shape, such as a block or a cylinder that approximates the
shape of the part one wants to design. Then by adding familiar design features like protrusions,
cuts, ribs, keyways, rounds, holes, and others the geometry of a part is created.
This process represents true design. Unlike many CAD applications in which designing
means drawing a picture of the part, working with the feature-based solid modeling method is
more like sculpting designs from solid material.

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MODULE - 2
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REPRESENTATION OF CURVES AND SURFACES

A curve or a surface may be described or represented by a set of equations. These
equations can be categorized into two forms:
i. Generic form
The generic form in which any generic point (x, y, z) satisfies a relationship in implicit form in x, y,
and z i.e. f(x, y, z) = 0. A single such constraint generally describes a surface while two
constraints considered together can be thought of as a curve which is the intersection of two
surfaces. This may be expressed in an explicit form in the following manner:
x = g1(y, z)
y = g2(x, z)
z = g3(x, y)
ii. Parametric form
A parametric curve is one whose defining equations are in terms of a simple, common
independent variable known as parametric variable. In the parametric form, the representation is
done by a set of functions. A curve may be represented by
x = x (u)

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 58 SMVEC

y = y (u)
z = z (u)
where x, y, z are co-ordinates of the points on the curve which are functions of some parameter u
and the parametric variable is constrained in the interval. For example, a point (x, y) is located at
an angle θ from +X axis on a circle with centre at (0, 0) and radius = 1 can be described in
parametric form as:
x = Cos θ
y = Sin θ
where θ is the parameter. Surfaces are described similarly for which x, y and z are functionstwo
independent parameters u and v. Parametric design is very popular in computer aided design for
a variety of reasons, which are listed below:
• Separation of variables
• Each variable is treated alike
• More degrees of freedom/control
• Parametric equations can be transformed directly
• Infinite slopes can be handled without computational breakdown
• Easy to express as vectors
• Amenable to plotting and digitizing
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• Inherently bounded
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CURVE ALGORITHM
General curve shape may be generated using method of
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 Interpolation (also known as curve fitting)

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Curve will pass through control points

 Approximation
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Curve will pass near control points may interpolate the start and end points.

Interpolation Approximation

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 59 SMVEC

 MODULE - 2
DESIGN OF CURVED SHAPES
Design of curved shapes should satisfy the following requirements:
i. It should be possible to represent the shape mathematically.
ii. The modeling should involve minimum computation.
iii. It should be possible to generate a CNC program to machine the surfaces (2, 3, 4 and 5 axis
machining) or to prepare a mould or die to make the part (as in plastic injection molding or
casting or automobile panel pressing).
A component can be designed using the curves and shapes which can be mathematically
described e.g. arc, circle, conics, ellipsoid, hyperbolic paraboloid, sphere, and cone, cylinder,
linear, conical - and circular swept surfaces etc. Two approaches are available to designers to
model curves and surfaces in such cases: interpolation and approximation. The interpolation
essentially tries to pass a curve on a surface called interpolant through all these points.
Approximation tries to fit a smoother curve on surface which may be close to these points but
may not actually pass through each of them. Fig. Illustrates the difference between interpolation
(a) and approximation (b). es
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One of the popular methods of interpolation is to use the Lagrange polynomial, which is the
unique polynomial of degree n passing through n + 1 points. However, Lagrange polynomial is
unsuitable in modeling of curves because of:
i. Large number of computations involved and
ii. Tendency for the curve to oscillate between data points when the data points are large.
Another approach is to look for a polynomial of fewer degrees than W passing through these W +
1 data points. This is done by combining polynomials of lesser degree passing through several
consecutive data points and smoothly piecing several such curve segments together by blending.
In general, the modeling of curves is done to satisfy the following:
i. Axis independence
ii. Global and local control
iii. Smoothness of curves
iv. Versatility

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 60 SMVEC

v. Continuity between adjoining segments of curve.
Major types of curves:
 Hermit or cubic
- defined by two endpoints and two tangent vectors
 Bezier
- defined by two endpoints and two other points that control the endpoint tangent vectors
 Splines
- several kinds, each defined by four points
- uniform B-splines, non-uniform B-splines, ß-splines.
CUBIC SPLINES
Splines are functions that are used for fitting a curve through a number of data points. A cubic
spline has the property that the three co-ordinate functions x (u), y (u), and z (u) are each cubic
polynomials in the variable u:
x (u) = a u3 + b u2 + c u + d
y (u) = e u3 + f u2 + g u + h
z (u) = j u3 + k u2 + l u + m
Whereas parametric curves are generally considered to be defined over an infinite range of
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parameter values of u, it is always necessary to limit these to a finite interval when modeling
shapes on a computer. The domain u is, therefore taken as 0 < u < = 1 in the discussion that
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follows:
A spline passes through two end points and satisfies differentiality condition at these end points.
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These four conditions require a polynomial degree of at least 3. The derivations of cubic splines
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for x, y and z are similar. The difference will be only in the end point coordinates and derivatives
at the end points. Therefore only the derivation of x(u) is considered here.
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Let x(0), x(1), x’(0) and x’(1) are the end points and the derivatives at the end points respectively.
Since x(u) = au3 + bu2 + cu + d, we get
x (0) = d
x (1) = a + b + c + d
x’(0) = c
x’(1) = 3a + 2b + c
The above equations can be solved to obtain the four equations given below:
a = 2X(0) – 2X(1) + X’(0) + X’(1)
b = –3X(0) + 3X(1) – 2X’(0) – X’(1)
c = X’(0)
d = X(0)

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 61 SMVEC

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 62 SMVEC

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 63 SMVEC

BEZIER CURVES
Bezier curves, developed by P.Bezier at Ranault Automobile Company and P. de Casteljau at
Citreon, France are used for curve and surface design of automobile panels. A Bezier curve is
blended at the joints and is completely defined by four consecutive points (X0, Y0), (X1,y1),
(X2,Y2), (X3,Y3). The curve passes only through the first and fourth point. The two intermediate
points are used to define the slope of the curve at the end points. If X0, X1, X2 and X3 are the X-
co-ordinates of the control points, it is assumed that:
i. The curve passes through the end points X0 and X3
ii. The slope at the points are:
X’(0) = 3(X1 – X0)

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The advantages of Bezier curve over cubic spline is that the direction of the curve at the
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joints can be defined and changed simply by specifying the position of the second and third data
points. Changing a control point not only affects the shape of the curve near the control point but
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has an influence throughout the curve. This lack of local control is a major weakness of Bezier
curve. Fig. shows Bezier cubic segments for two sets of values of X.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 64 SMVEC

β -SPLINES
This form of cubic segments uses a third set of basis functions different from the types discussed
earlier. A cubic β-spline curve is a special case of spline curve. The equation for this curve can be
written as:

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When the control points are distinct, this curve is continuous in slope and in curvature
between successive segments but it does not pass through any of the intermediate control points.
The cubic β-spline has the advantage that the control points may be moved without affecting
slope and curvature continuity and only four spans of the overall curve will be affected by the
change. Moreover, by allowing two control points to coincide it is possible to create a curvature
discontinuity. A slope discontinuity, similarly, can be introduced by choosing three successive
control points to be coincident.
It is possible to represent complex curve shapes by considering composite curves constructed
from individual segments, in the case of cubic spline, Bezier and B-spline techniques.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 65 SMVEC

NURBS AND β-SPLINES
Two important surface representation schemes exist that extend the control of shape
beyond movement of control vertices. These are NURBS (Non Uniform Rational β -Splines) and
β - splines. In the case of NURBS a local vertex is extended to a four dimensional co-ordinate,
the extra parameter being a weight that allows a subtle form of control which is different in effect
to moving a control vertex. In the simplest form of β -spline control two global parameters (bias
and tension) are introduced which affect the whole curve.
NURBS
A non-uniform β -spline curve is defined on a knot vector where the interior knot spans are
not equal. A rational β -spline is defined by a set of four dimensional control points.

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Wi associated with each control point is called a weight and can be viewed as an extra shape
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parameter. Wi affects the curve only locally and can be interpreted geometrically as a coupling
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factor. The curve is pulled towards a control point if W increases.

β- SPLINES
β - splines are obtained from β -splines by introducing two new degrees of freedom: bias
and tension. These can be applied uniformly or non-uniformly.
REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES
A surface can be defined as the locus of points which satisfy a constraint equation in the form of
F(X, Y, Z) = 0. In parametric form a surface may be represented as

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 66 SMVEC

 MODULE - 3
DESIGN OF SURFACES
The design of surfaces may be based on quadrics like ellipsoid, hyperboloid, cone, hyperbolic
cylinder, parabolic cylinder, elliptic cylinder and elliptic paraboloid. A surface may be generated
by sweeping a pattern curve along a spline curve. The swept surface may also be linear, conical
linear or circular swept surface.
PARAMETRIC DESIGN OF SURFACES
Parametric surfaces may be defined in one of the following methods:
i. In terms of points of data (positions, tangents, normal’s)
ii. In terms of data on a number of space curves lying in these surfaces.
The resulting surface will either interpolate or approximate the data. Surfaces are normally
designed in patches, each patch corresponding to a rectangular domain in u-v space. A surface
patch defined in terms of point data will usually be based on a rectangular array of data points
which may be regarded as defining a series of curves in one parameter direction which in turn are
interpolated or approximated in the direction of the other parameter to generate the surface. Fig.
shows the parameter curves on a surface patch defined by a rectangular array of data points.
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BICUBIC POLYNOMIAL SURFACE PATCHES

A bicubic polynomial surface can be represented in the form:

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 67 SMVEC

 MODULE - 4
BEZIER BICUBIC SURFACE PATCHES
The Bezier bicubic surface patch uses the basis matrix:
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The vector coefficients are given by a 4 × 4 matrix of position vectors for sixteen points forming a
characteristic polyhedron. Fig. shows the characteristic polyhedron for a Bezier surface. The four
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corner points R (0,0), R (3,0), R (3,3) and R (0,3) lie at the corners of the surface patch itself
whereas remaining points do not lie on the patch. The four points along each edge of the
polyhedron define the four edge curves of the patch. The four interior points determine the cross
derivatives at the corner and cross slopes along the nearest edges to them.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 68 SMVEC

CUBIC B-SPLINE SURFACES
The basis function for a cubic B-spline surface is the same as that of cubic B-spline curve.
As in the case of B-spline curve, none of the control points forming the characteristic polyhedron
lies on the surface. Composite surfaces can be obtained by combining several surface patches.
Table gives the properties of the surfaces generated by the common methods.

The surfaces patches described above cover a rectangular domain in u-v space. There are also
methods proposed for interpolation on triangular and pentagonal domains.

MODULE - 5
SURFACE MODELING
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All physical objects are 3-dimensional. In a number of cases, it is sufficient to describe the
boundary of a solid object in order to specify its shape without ambiguity. This fact is illustrated in
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Fig.. The boundary is a collection of faces forming a closed surface. The space is divided into two
parts by the boundary - one part containing the points that lie inside and forming the object and
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the other the environment in which the object is placed. The boundary of a solid object may
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consist of surfaces which are bounded by straight lines and curves, either singly or in
combination.
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Figure is typical of several components, one comes across in engineering. The surface of
this component can be produced by revolving a profile about an axis of rotation. A surface model
is defined in terms of points, lines and faces. This type of modeling is superior to wire frame
modeling discussed earlier in this chapter. A major advantage of surface modeling is its ability to
differentiate flat and curved surfaces. In graphics, this helps to create shaded image of the
product. In manufacture, surface model helps to generate the NC tool path for complex shaped
components that are encountered in aerospace structures, dies and moulds and automobile body
panels.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 69 SMVEC

A surface can be created in several ways:
i. Creating a plane surface by the linear sweep of a line or series of lines.
ii. Revolving a straight line about an axis. Cylindrical, conical surfaces etc. can be generated by
this technique.
iii. Revolving a curve about an axis.
iv. Combination of plane surfaces.
v. Analytic surfaces: Planes, cylinders, cones, ellipsoid, parabolic hyperboloid etc can be defined
by mathematical equations in terms of X, Y and Z co-ordinates.
vi. Sculptured surfaces: These are also called free form surfaces. These are created by spline
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curves in one or both directions in a 3-D space. These surfaces are used in the manufacture of
car body panels, aircraft structures, mixed flow impellers, telephone instruments, plastic
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containers and several consumer and engineering products.
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Modeling of curves and surfaces is essential to describe objects that are encountered in several
areas of mechanical engineering design. Curves and surfaces are the basic building blocks in the
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following designs:
i. Body panels of passenger cars
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ii. Aircraft bulk heads and other fuselage structures, slats, flaps, wings etc.
iii. Marine structures
iv. Consumer products like plastic containers, telephones etc.
v. Engineering products like mixed flow impellers, foundry patterns etc A curve has one degree of
freedom while a surface has two degrees of freedom. This means that a point on a curve can be
moved in only one independent direction while on surfaces it has two independent directions to
move. This is shown in Fig.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 70 SMVEC

SURFACE MODELING IN COMMERCIAL DRAFTING AND MODELING
SOFTWARE
Surface types available for geometric modeling range from simple planes to complex
sculptured surfaces. These surfaces are usually represented on the workstation terminals as a
set of ruled lines. However, computer recognizes these lines as continuous surfaces. Users
select surface types from a menu to model individual details or fully envelope parts. Some of the
features of surface modeling packages are given below:
SURFACE MODELING COMMANDS
There are a number of commands to create a surface model
i. 3-D face: The different faces of an object can be modeled using this command. The X,Y,Z co-
ordinates of each vertex are input one after another to model a face and each of the faces is
defined one after another in this manner.
ii. P face: The P-face command produces a general polygon mesh of a arbitrary topology. Using
this command, it is possible to avoid defining a single vertex several times as is done in 3-D face
command. The user defines all vertices and then defines the faces in terms of the vertices.
iii. Rulesurf: This command creates a polygon representing the ruled surface between two
curves. Figure shows an example of ruled surfaces.
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v. Rev surf: A surface of revolution is created by rotating a path curve or profileabout an axis. The
rotation can be through 360 degrees or part of it.
vi. Edge surf: This command constructs a Coon’s surface patch using four adjoining curved
edges, an example of edge surf commands is shown in Fig.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 71 SMVEC

 MODULE - 6
FEATURES OF SURFACE MODELING PACKAGE
Solid primitive
Solid primitives are predefined blocks that can be accessed from a dedicated toolbar or dragged
and dropped from a library or palette to create a model using Boolean operations (eg. addition,
subtraction, and intersection). When inserted into a drawing, the user can enter values for length,
breadth, height, etc. Solid primitives are not created by drawing circles, rectangles, etc and then
extruding - this is defined as an ‘object created through extrusion’. The most common solid
primitives are box, cylinder, cone, sphere and torus, although there are others subject to the
software package being used.
Where to find solid primitives
Each software package has its own way of using solid primitives and our verifiers have found
that, although various packages are used in schools across the country, the most commonly used
packages in NQ Graphic Communication are AutoCAD, Pro Desktop
AutoCAD
The solid primitives can be accessed from the Modeling toolbar as shown. Later versions of
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AutoCAD have a Dashboard from which the primitives can be dragged.
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Pro Desktop
The solid primitives can be accessed from a Palette of Base Shapes that can be dragged into a
drawing and edited to create a model.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 72 SMVEC

 MODULE - 7
CSG:
Constructive solid geometry (CSG) is a technique used in solid modelling. Constructive solid
geometry allows a modeller to create a complex surface or object by using Boolean operators to
combine objects. Often CSG presents a model or surface that appears visually complex, but is
actually little more than cleverly combined or de-combined objects.
In 3D computer graphics and CAD CSG is often used in procedural modelling. CSG can also be
performed on polygonal meshes, and may or may not be procedural and/or parametric.
Workings of CSG
The simplest solid objects used for the representation are called primitives. Typically they are
the objects of simple shape: cuboids, cylinders, prisms, pyramids, spheres, cones. The set of
allowable primitives is limited by each software package. Some software packages allow CSG on
curved objects while other packages do not.
It is said that an object is constructed from primitives by means of allowable operations, which
are typically Boolean operations on sets: union, intersection and difference. A primitive can
typically be described by a procedure which accepts some number of parameters; for example, a
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sphere may be described by the coordinates of its center point, along with a radius value. These
primitives can be combined into compound objects using operations like these:
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Union
Intersection: Portion common to
Merger of two objects into one Difference: Subtraction of one
both objects
object from another

Combining these elementary operations, it is possible to build up objects with high complexity
starting from simple ones.
Applications of CSG
Constructive solid geometry has a number of practical uses. It is used in cases where simple
geometric objects are desired, or where mathematical accuracy is important. The Quake engine
and Unreal engine both use this system, as does Hammer (the native Source engine level editor),
and Torque Game Engine/Torque Game Engine Advanced. CSG is popular because a modeler
can use a set of relatively simple objects to create very complicated geometry. When CSG is
procedural or parametric, the user can revise their complex geometry by changing the position of
objects or by changing the Boolean operation used to combine those objects.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 73 SMVEC

One of the advantages of CSG is that it can easily assure that objects are "solid" or water-tight if
all of the primitive shapes are water-tight. This can be important for some manufacturing or
engineering computation applications. By comparison, when creating geometry based upon
boundary representations, additional topological data is required, or consistency checks must be
performed to assure that the given boundary description specifies a valid solid object.
A convenient property of CSG shapes is that it is easy to classify arbitrary points as being either
inside or outside the shape created by CSG. The point is simply classified against all the
underlying primitives and the resulting Boolean expression is evaluated. This is a desirable
quality for some applications such as collision detection.
B-Rep model
 « Boundary representation »
 Model based on the representation of surfaces
 Model of exchange (STEP format) and definition
 The “natural” set of operators is richer than for CSG Extrusion, chamfer etc...
 Does not carry the history of construction of the model (whereas CSG usually does)
Consists of two type of information
1. Geometric es
 Geometric information is used for defining the spatial position, the curvatures,
etc... That's what we have seen until now – Nurbs curves and surfaces
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2. Topological
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 This allows making links between geometrical entities.

 Two types of entities
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o Geometric entities: surface, curve, point

o Topological entities : volume, face, edge, vertex
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 A topological entity “lies on” a geometric entity, which is its geometrical support
Complete hierarchical model

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 74 SMVEC

 MODULE - 8
Description of other modeling techniques:
 Pure primitive instancing
 Cell Decomposition
 Spatial occupancy enumeration
 Boolean Operation
 Creating 3D operation from 2D profile
Pure Primitive Instancing
This scheme is based on the notion of families of objects, each member of a family
distinguishable from the other by a few parameters. Each object family is called a generic
primitive, and individual objects within a family are called primitive instances. For example a
family of bolts is a generic primitive, and a single bolt specified by a particular set of parameters
is a primitive instance. The distinguishing characteristic of pure parameterized instancing
schemes is the lack of means for combining instances to create new structures which represent
new and more complex objects.
The other main drawback of this scheme is the difficulty of writing algorithms for
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computing properties of represented solids. A considerable amount of family-specific information
must be built into the algorithms and therefore each generic primitive must be treated as a special
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case, allowing no uniform overall treatment.
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Cell Decomposing:
This scheme follows from the combinatoric (algebraic topological) descriptions of solids
detailed above. A solid can be represented by its decomposition into several cells. Spatial
occupancy enumeration schemes are a particular case of cell decompositions where all the cells
are cubical and lie in a regular grid. Cell decompositions provide convenient ways for computing
certain topological properties of solids such as its connectedness (number of pieces) and genus
(number of holes).
Cell decompositions in the form of triangulations are the representations used in 3d finite
elements for the numerical solution of partial differential equations. Other cell decompositions
such as a Whitney regular stratification or Morse decompositions may be used for applications in
robot motion planning.
Spatial occupancy enumeration:
This scheme is essentially a list of spatial cells occupied by the solid. The cells, also
called voxels are cubes of a fixed size and are arranged in a fixed spatial grid (other polyhedral

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 75 SMVEC

arrangements are also possible but cubes are the simplest). Each cell may be represented by the
coordinates of a single point, such as the cell's centroid. Usually a specific scanning order is
imposed and the corresponding ordered set of coordinates is called a spatial array.
Spatial arrays are unambiguous and unique solid representations but are too verbose for
use as 'master' or definitional representations. They can, however, represent coarse
approximations of parts and can be used to improve the performance of geometric algorithms,
especially when used in conjunction with other representations such as constructive solid
geometry.

Sweep Volume method

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Boolean operations:
Boolean operations are used to make more complicated shapes by combining simpler
shapes.
Three types of operations are possible
 Union (‘’) or join
 Intersection (‘’)
 Difference (‘-‘) or subtract or cut
Union or Join:
Two or more solids combined to form a single solid.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 76 SMVEC

Intersection:
Obtaining single composed from the common part of two or more solids.
Difference or subtract or cut:
Obtaining single solid composed by mathematical subtracting of the common part of two
or more solids.

Union Difference: Subtraction of one Intersection: Portion common to

Merger of two objects into one object from another both objects

MODULE - 9 es
CREATING 3D OBJECTS FROM 2D PROFILES:
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Creating Solids
Many 3D solids can be created by extruding, rotating or lofting 2D profiles. Other basic
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solids such as cylinders, boxes, cones or pyramids can be defined by entering dimensions.
Nearly all mechanical parts are comprised of basic solids, which can be joined and/or trimmed.
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Combining and subtracting solids are called Boolean operations, and resulting solids are called
“Boolean Trees.” Vari CAD provides tools to add solids and to use one solid to cut another, either
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keeping or deleting the cutting solid. Commonly-used Boolean operations such as drilling holes,
creating grooves, and cutting by a large box are also available. Blending functions are provided
for rounding and chamfering solid edges.
Creating 3D Solids from 2D Profiles
Using 2D profiles to create solids enables you to model a wide range of objects. The solid shape
can be edited by modifying the original 2D profile.
Defining a 2D Profile
When using a 3D function that requires a 2D profile as input, you will be optionally switched to
the 2D drawing area. You can stay in 3D and create the profile using 2D drawing in 3D. In this
case, you can define a drawing plane:
 As an existing plane at a solid
 Plane created by selected axes at a selected solid
 Plane defined by 3 points
 Plane created by selected axes of 3D space
If you create a new profile used for extrusion, rotation or other similar method of solid
creation, the created solid is pre-inserted according to the profile’s location in 3D space.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 77 SMVEC

 If you edit an existing profile of a solid, you will always stay in 3D and the profile will be edited
with 2D drawing methods in 3D.
Profiles are created by 2D lines, arc segments or NURBS 2D curves. There are two methods of
profile detection:
Detect Profile Segments (or press E) - define the profile segment by segment
Detect Profile (or press F) - select one segment and the entire chained profile is detected
Apart of automatic detection of profile’s segments, you can select objects with standard
methods of 2D selection – see selecting 2D Objects. Press Enter or right-click to finish the profile
definition, When the solid is created, you return to 3D space and define the object location, See
Transforming and Copying Solids.
Profiles used for 3D solids must be continuous. If multiple profiles are used, they cannot
intersect; one profile must completely encompass the other profiles. Profiles used in a Revolve
operation cannot intersect the revolving axis.
Lines, circles or circular arcs can be selected for all type of solid creations.
If a profile contains gaps or intersections of segments, you can optionally highlight a
location of the error.

Solid Insertion Point

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Prior to selecting a 2D profile, most solid functions require you to enter the solid height or
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revolving angle. Along with these parameters, you can also identify the solid insertion point and
set the X axis direction. If you do not select an insertion point, the point at lower left point of
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profile will be used. If you do not set the X axis, the default 2D X axis will be used. The insertion
point and X axis direction are used when inserting the solid into 3D space.
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Example of Insertion Points

Run “CFG” command to set solid insertion point relative to its creation profile. Although this
setting can be done within the profile definition, not all functions offer this. Insertion point setting
during profile definition is possible only when the solid height or rotation angle is defined. You can
use this function at any time, and it will set the insertion point for subsequent solids. You can also
choose whether to define the insertion point and X axis direction automatically.
Revolving, Extruding, and Lofting Profiles

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 78 SMVEC

Full Revolve - RSO
Revolves one open or closed profile 360 degrees about a revolving axis. For an open profile, the
axis is defined by the profile endpoints. For a closed profile, you must define the axis. If the
insertion point is defined automatically, it is located at the first defined point of the revolving axis.
When selecting closed profiles, multiple profiles are allowed inside one outer profile - this will
create holes in the solid.

Example of Full Revolve using an open profile

Partial Revolve - RSOP

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Similar to Full Revolve, except that you can enter a revolving angle less than 360 degrees.
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Example of Partial Revolve using closed profiles

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 79 SMVEC

 Unit – IV

MODULE - 1
VISUAL REALISM & MODELING SOFTWARES
VISUAL REALISM
The most effective way to communicate new ideas and designs of engineers are
visualization and hence, the visualization plays an important role in CAD/CAM. The performance
of any CAD/CAM systems is evaluated on the basis of their ability of displaying realistic visual
image. Visualization can be defined as a technique for creating images, diagrams or animations
to communicate ideas. The visual realism concentrates basically on the visual appearance of
objects. In this approach, various techniques of computer graphics are applied on the model to
make it appear as realistic as possible.
Projection and shading are two most common methods for visualizing geometric models.
Orthographic projection is one of the oldest methods to represent new design ideas for complete
dimensional referencing. But, it has the disadvantage of difficulty in interpreting various views and
also time consuming. CAD uses isometric and perspective projections in addition to orthographic
projections for generating rich visual images with complete design information. Visual realism can
also convey appearance characteristics of the model such as colour and texture. By using such
visual realism techniques, it is possible to make the user to feel that the images are real objects.
It is also useful in determining the spatial relationship between objects as in the case of assembly
modeling.
There are two important and popular form of visualization methods such as animation and
simulation. The various kinematic mechanisms with number of links can be modeled and their
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motion can be simulated by using visual realism. Similarly, by using FEA technique, we can
model and simulate the heat flow in a pipe, deformation in a beam or structure, electromagnetic
field, etc. The heat flow can be simulated frame-by-frame for different time steps. In a similar way,
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it is also possible to verify the tool path of the numerical control (NC) by generating and
displaying the motion of the tool path. It can be achieved by entering the numerical data of the
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path of the cutting tool as NC part programming. Also, the virtual realistic model may be used for
marketing to access its acceptability before actually manufacture it.
Most of the cases, 3D models are used to create the visual real effect. An object may
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consist of number of vertices, edges, surfaces which are represented realistically in 3D modeling.
The major problem in visualization of object is representing the depth of 3D object into 2D
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screens. Projecting 3D object into 2D screen displays the complex lines and curves which may
not give a clear picture to interpret. The first step towards visual realism is to eliminate these
ambiguities which can be obtained using hidden line removal (HLR), hidden surface removal
(HSR) and hidden solid removal approaches.
There are further more approaches to achieve the visual realism such as shading,
lighting, transparency and colouring. Surface and solid models can be shaded with two-step
process. First, we need to remove the hidden surfaces and then shade only the visible portions.
The highest level of visual realism can be achieved by shading. Lighting such as source and
ambient lights flashed on the objects can be simulated. Lighting gives more clear and better
shading representation for the object. Various colouring schemes can be modeled for different
components of the assembly model based on the material of components. This approach is
useful in identifying materials of the parts and it differentiates various assembled components.
Transparency of the face enables the inner details to be viewed by reducing the intensity of the
face. However, these approaches consume a lot of computing time and occupy plenty of memory
space of the computer. But, now-a-days, computers with advanced and faster processors are
available which makes these processes easier.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 80 SMVEC

 Fig.4.1 Isometric view
Another basic method to achieve the visual realism is model clean-up. Model clean-up consists of
three processes in sequence: (1) generating orthographic views of the model, (2) eliminating
hidden lines in each view by applying visual realism principle and (3) changing the necessary
hidden lines as dashed line and/or adding dimensions and text to the different views without
redundant dimensions. A model clean-up can be done either manually or automatically using a
suitable algorithm. Manual method provides a better control over the selection of lines to be
removed. However, it is time-consuming, tedious and error-prone method. While implementing
the automatic model clean-up, care should be taken to provide the control over various clean-up
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activities such as dimensioning, texting, hidden line removal etc. to the user so that they may feel
more comfortable. Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 shows examples of a model before and after clean-
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up process.
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Fig.4.2 A model before clean-up process

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 81 SMVEC

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Fig.4.3 A model after clean-up process
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HIDDEN LINE REMOVAL
As stated earlier, removing hidden line and surfaces greatly improve the visualization of objects
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by displaying clear and more realistic images. A typical example of an object before and after
removal of hidden lines is shown in Figure 4.4. As it is shown, the appearance of the object is
greatly complicated by the visibility of hidden details. Therefore, it is necessary to remove hidden
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details such as edges and surfaces. The edges and surfaces which need to be removed
depending on its view port, viewing direction and viewing window. One of the most challenging
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problems considered in computer graphics is the determination of hidden edges and surfaces.

Fig.4.4 Hidden line removal

The hidden line elimination can be stated as, "For a given three dimensional scene, a
given viewing point and a given direction eliminate from an appropriate two dimensional
projection of the edges and faces which the observer cannot see".
Various hidden line and hidden surface removal algorithms have been developed over the
years and a wide variety of algorithms exists today. The development of these algorithms is
based on the types of graphic display devices that they support and by the type of data structure,

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 82 SMVEC

they operate on. These algorithms may be classified into object-space method and image-
space method.
In object-space method, the object is described in the physical coordinate system. It
compares the objects and parts of objects to each other within the scene definition to determine
which surfaces are visible. This method performs the geometric calculation using floating point
precision of the computer.
Algorithms developed using this method are more accurate which is based on an image-
space method. Object-space methods are generally used in hidden line removal algorithms.
Image-space method is implemented in the screen coordinate system in which the objects are
viewed. Hence, it performs the calculations with accuracy equal to the resolution.
In an image-space algorithm, the visibility is decided point by point at each pixel position
on the view plane. Hence, zooming of the object does not degrade its quality of display. Most of
the hidden line and hidden surface algorithms use the image-space method.
Hidden Line Elimination Process
The procedure for hidden line elimination process is shown in Figure 4.5. Three-
dimensional data is a set of three-dimensional objects. Each object is defined by its geometry and
topology. Example: Solid model of objects. The first step in the hidden line elimination process is
that the 3D models have to be modified in such a way that it can identify faces and the order of
their edges.
The next step is to apply a proper geometric transformation such as translation, rotation,
reflection, mirroring to the 3D data to obtain the 2D image data. At this stage, the image contains
all visible and invisible edges.
Then sorting operation is performed. Sorting is an operation which arranges a given set of
records according to the selected criterion. The elements obtained in 2D image data are sorted
using sorting techniques. These elements of a scene or its image have some interrelationship.
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The interrelationship between these basic elements is called coherence.
The coherence determines the speed at which a 2D image can be changed. It can speed
up the process under the dynamic conditions of model visualization.
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The visibility technique normally checks for overlapping of pairs of polygons in the viewing
plane. If the overlapping occurs, depth comparisons are used to determine if part or all of one
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polygon is hidden by another polygon.

Three dimensional object data

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Two-dimensional (2D) image data

Sorting of 2D image data

Applications of visibility techniques

Elimination of hidden lines

Display the results

Fig.4.5 Hidden line Elimination process
The surface test to eliminate the back faces is usually sufficient to solve the hidden line if
the image has no holes. Otherwise, a combination of techniques is required. In order to apply the
visibility technique to the image data, the sorting of this data is required.
With the completions of sorting according to the visibility criteria set by the visibility
techniques, the hidden edges have been identified and removed from the image data. The final
step in this algorithm is to display the final images.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 83 SMVEC

Visibility Techniques
As discussed earlier, the visibility technique normally checks the overlapping of pairs of
polygons in the viewing plane. There are different types of visibility techniques and algorithms
exist to differentiate 2D elements. The simplest approach involves in evaluating the depth
elements from the view point along the viewing direction. However, it leads to a situation where
every single element needs to be compared with other elements on a view. Therefore, the
following Visibility techniques are developed:
 Minimax test
 Containment test
 Surface test
 Computing Silhouettes
 Edge intersection
 Segment comparisons
 Homogeneity test.
(a) Minintax test:
This test compares whether two polygons overlap or not. Here, each polygon is enclosed in a
box by finding its maximum and minimum x and y coordinates. Therefore, it is termed as minimax
test. Then these boxes are compared with each other to identify the intersection for any two
boxes. If there is no intersection of two boxes as shown in Figure 4.6 (a), their surrounding
polygons do not overlap and hence, no elements are removed. If two boxes intersect, the
polygons may or may not overlap as shown in Figure 4.6 (b) & (C). If polygons do not overlap,
hence, no elements are removed. If polygons overlap, a further technique of hidden line removal
is applied. This test helps to reduce the number of comparison between all elements.

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Fig.4.6 Minimax test

(b) Containment test:
This test checks whether the location of a given point is inside or outside of a given polygon.
For a convex polygon, x and y coordinates value of the points is substituted into the line equation
to see the results on the given edge. If the result of the sign is same, the points lie on the same
side and vice versa.
For non-convex polygons, there are two methods used. The first method uses the sum of
angle subtended by each edge of the polygon used to determine whether the location of a given
point is inside or outside. If the sum of the subtended angle is 2π, the point is inside the polygon.
If the subtended angle is zero, the point is outside the polygon. In the second method, a line is
drawn from the point under testing it to infinity. If the lines are not intersecting with the polygon,
the containment test for both extreme point of the edge generates similar results i.e. either both
are inside or outside. If the line is intersected with the Polygon, the line will be segmented first
and then the containment test is performed on each segment. Therefore, determining points on

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 84 SMVEC

an element surrounded by other elements can help to decide whether the element is visible or
not.
Example:
To check the vertices of one polygon for containment in the other.

Containment proceeds:
If the sum of the angles is equal to zero, point P is outside the polygon.
(b) If the sum is equal to 360°, point P is inside the polygon.

(c) Back face /Surface test:

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In a solid object, there are surfaces which are facing the viewer (front faces) and there are
surfaces which are opposite to the viewer (back faces). These back faces contribute to
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approximately half of the total number of surfaces. A back face test is used to determine the
location of a surface with respect to other surface. Therefore, this test can provide an efficient
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way of implementing the depth comparison to remove the faces which are not visible in a specific
view port. As we know, every surface has a surface normal. According to this test principle, the
viewing direction needs to be correlated with its surface normal. Faces whose surface normal has
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a positive component in z direction are visible and those whose surface normal has a negative z
component are not visible.
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Fig.4.7 Surface test

Example:
To remove faces in the back of an object

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 85 SMVEC

Faces whose surface normal has a
 Positive component in z direction are visible and
 Negative z component are not visible
(d) Computing silhouettes:
Silhouettes are a set of edges which separate a visible faces from invisible faces of an object with
respect to the viewing direction as shown in Figure 4.8. An edge is the intersection of one visible
face and one invisible face is termed as silhouettes. The intersection of two invisible faces
generates an invisible edge where as an edge produced by the intersection of two visible faces is
visible. Silhouettes are computed by using the sign of component of surface normal along the
viewing direction.

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Fig.4.8 Silhouettes
Example:
Silhouettes – the edges that separate visible from invisible faces in an object.
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If an edge belongs to two visible faces, it is visible but not a part of the silhouette.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 86 SMVEC

 MODULE - 2
HIDDEN LINE REMOVAL ALGORITHMS
The visibility techniques discussed so far can identify the visibility in a 2D image space for
the displayed image. Algorithms are used to finalize these hidden lines and surfaces and it is to
remove them in a specific view. The wide varieties of hidden line elimination algorithms exist.
These algorithms are based on one of the following three approaches.
i. Edge-oriented approach
ii. Silhouette (contour) originated approach or
iii. Area-Oriented approach.
The various algorithms that utilize one or more of visibility techniques discussed earlier d
follow one of the above three approaches are as follows.
i. Depth algorithm or z algorithm or Priority algorithm
ii. Area-oriented algorithms.
iii. Overlay algorithm
iv. Robert's algorithm
v. Depth-buffer algorithm or z-buffer algorithm
vi. Area-coherence algorithm or Warnock's algorithm
vii. Ray tracing algorithm
Depth or Priority Algorithm
This algorithm is based on sorting of all faces of polygon in the scene according to its
depth in viewing direction. It can be done by the following steps.
 All surfaces of polygons are sorted (ordered) according to the smallest z- coordinate on
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each surface.
 The surface with the largest depth (z-value) is compared with all other surfaces in the list
to compare if there is any overlap in the z-coordinate.
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 Any ambiguities can be resolved by splitting the polygons when z-coordinate of polygons
overlap (refer Figure 4.9).
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Figure 4.9 Depth-sort Algorithm overlapping of polygons in the depth direction

 If there is no overlap, then its scan is converted to fill the frame buffer.
 The same procedure is followed for all other surfaces in the list till and there is no overlap.
 Scan converts each polygon in ascending order from back to front in terms of z-
coordinate.
When any face intersects more than one face, other visibility tests are required to resolve
ambiguities. No priority is assigned if no face / edge intersect. The priority is higher for a face
coming first in viewing direction. So, this algorithm is called priority algorithm. This algorithm is
also called painter's algorithm because it utilizes the procedure followed by painting artists during
oil painting. An oil painter paints the background colours first and then it adds the distant objects.
Then he adds the nearer objects in the order of decreasing depth. At the end, the foreground
objects are drawn to the canvas over the background and others are already drawn objects. Each
layer of paint covers up the previous layer. Using a similar technique, we first sort surfaces
according to their distance from the view plane.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 87 SMVEC

 Fig.4.10 Painter’s algorithm
In this algorithm, the following tests are made for each surface that overlaps with the other
surface P. The tests are listed in the order of increasing difficulty. If any one of these tests is true,
no reordering is necessary for that surface and it is scan converted. For example two surfaces
that overlap in the xy plane but have no depth overlap are shown in Figure 4.10 Since, there is no
depth overlaps occurring in this case, the surface P is scan-converted.
Assume that surface P is currently at the head of the sorted list before scan converting it to
the frame buffer and it is tested against each surface Q whose z-extent overlaps that is P. The
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following tests of increasing complexity are then carried out.
(1) The bounding rectangles in the xy plane for the two surfaces do not overlap.
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(2) Surface P is completely behind the overlapping surface relative to the viewing position.
(3) The overlapping surface is completely in front of P relative to the viewing position.
(4) The projections of the two surfaces onto the view plane do not overlap.
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Fig.4.11 Two surfaces with depth overlap but no overlap in z direction

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 88 SMVEC

 Fig.4.12 Two surfaces with depth overlap but no overlap in x direction
Among these tests, test 1 is performed in two parts. The surfaces are checked for overlap in the x
direction first and then these are checked for overlap in the y direction. If the surfaces of P and Q
do not overlap, then the surfaces do not overlap, hence, their ordering is immaterial. For
example, surfaces that overlap in the z direction but not in the x direction are shown in Figure
4.11 and Figure 4.12.

MODULE - 3
HIDDEN SURFACE REMOVAL
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The hidden surface removal is the procedure used to find which surfaces are not visible
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from a certain view. A hidden surface removal algorithm is a solution to the visibility issue, which
was one of the first key issues in the field of three dimensional graphics. The procedure of hidden
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surface identification is called as hiding, and such an algorithm is called a 'hider'. Hidden surface
identification is essential to render a 3D image properly, so that one cannot see through walls in
virtual reality.
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Hidden surface identification is a method by which surfaces which should not be visible to
the user are prohibited from being rendered. In spite of benefits in hardware potential there is still
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a requirement for difficult rendering algorithms. The accountability of a rendering engine is to

permit for bigger world spaces and as the world's size approaches infinity the rendering engine
should not slow down but maintain at constant speed.
There are many methods for hidden surface identification. They are basically a work out in
sorting, and generally vary in the order in which the sort is executed and how the problem is
subdivided. Sorting more values of graphics primitives is generally done by divide.
Z - buffer algorithm
In Z-buffering, the depth of 'Z' value is verified against available depth value. If the present pixel is
behind the pixel in the Z-buffer, the pixel is eliminated, or else it is shaded and its depth value
changes the one in the Z-buffer. Z-buffering helps dynamic visuals easily, and is presently
introduced effectively in graphics hardware.
 Depth buffering is one of the easiest hidden surface algorithms
 It keeps follow of the space to nearest object at every pixel position.
 Initialized to most negative z value.
 when image being drawn, if its z coordinate at a position is higher than z buffer value, it is
drawn, and new z coordinate value is stored; or else, it is not drawn
 If a line in three dimensional is being drawn, then the middle z values are interpolated:
linear interpolation for polygons, and can calculate z for more difficult surfaces.
Basic operations:
1. compute y range of an obj ect
2. compute x range of a given scan line of an object
3. Calculate intersection point of a object with ray through pixel position (x,y).

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 89 SMVEC

Warnock algorithm
The Warnock algorithm is a hidden surface algorithm developed by John Warnock that is
classically used in the area of graphics. It explains the issues of rendering a difficult image by
recursive subdivision of a view until regions are attained that is trivial to evaluate.
Similarly, if the view is simple to compute effectively then it is rendered; else it is split into
tiny parts which are likewise evaluated for simplicity. This is a algorithm with run-time of O(np),
where p is the number of pixels in the viewport and n is the number of polygons.
The inputs for Warnock algorithm are detail of polygons and a viewport. The good case is
that if the detail of polygons is very simple then creates the polygons in the viewport. The
continuous step is to divide the viewport into four equally sized quadrants and to recursively
identify the algorithm for each quadrant, with a polygon list changed such that it contains
polygons that are detectable in that quadrant.

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1. Initialize the region.

2. Generate list of polygons by sorting them with their z values.
3. Remove polygons which are outside the area.
4. Identify relationship of each polygon.
5. Execute visibility decision analysis:
a) Fill area with background color if all polygons are disjoint,
b) Fill entire area with background color and fill part of polygon contained in area with
color of polygon if there is only one contained polygon,
c) If there is a single surrounding polygon but not contained then fill area with color of
surrounding polygon.
d) Set pixel to the color of polygon which is closer to view if region of the pixel (x,y) and if
neither of (a) to (d) applies calculate z- coordinate at pixel (x,y) of polygons.
6. If none of above is correct then subdivide the area and Go to Step 2.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 90 SMVEC

 MODULE - 4
HIDDEN SOLID REMOVAL
The hidden solid removal issue involves the view of solid models with hidden line or surface
eliminated. Available hidden line algorithm and hidden surface algorithms are useable to hidden
solid elimination of B-rep models.
The following techniques to display CSG models:
1. Transfer the CSG model into a boundary model.
2. Use a spatial subdivision strategy.
3. Based on ray sorting.
Ray-Tracing algorithm
A ray tracing is a method for creating an image by tracing the path of light via pixels in an image
plane and reproducing the effects of its meets with virtual objects. The procedure is capable of
creating a high degree of visual realism, generally higher than that of usual scan line techniques,
but at a better computational. This creates ray tracing excellent suited for uses where the image
can be rendered gradually ahead of time, similar to still images and film and TV visual effects,
and more badly suited for real time environment like video games where speed is very important.
Ray tracing is simulating a wide range of optical effects, such as scattering, reflection and
refraction.

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Ray-Tracing algorithm
Ray-Tracing algorithm
For every pixel in image
{
Generate ray from eye point passing via this pixel
Initialize Nearest ‘T’ to ‘INFINITY’
Initialize Nearest Object to NULL For each object in scene
{
If ray intersects this image
{
If t of intersection is less than Nearest T
{
Set Nearest T to t of the intersection
Set Nearest image to this object
}
}
}

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 91 SMVEC

 If Nearest image is NULL
{
Paint this pixel with background color
}
Else
{
Shoot a ray to every light source to check if in shadow
If surface is reflective, generate reflection ray
If transparent, generate refraction ray
Apply Nearest Object and Nearest T to execute shading function
Paint this pixel with color result of shading function
}
}
Optical ray tracing explains a technique for creating visual images constructed in three
dimensional graphics environments, with higher photorealism than either ray casting rendering
practices. It executes by tracing a path from an imaginary eye via every pixel in a virtual display,
and computing the color of the object visible via it.
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Displays in ray tracing are explained mathematically by a programmer. Displays may also
incorporate data from 3D models and images captured like a digital photography.
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In general, every ray must be tested for intersection with a few subsets of all the objects in the
view. Once the nearest object has been selected, the algorithm will calculate the receiving light at
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the point of intersection, study the material properties of the object, and join this information to
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compute the finishing color of the pixel. One of the major limitations of algorithm, the reflective or
translucent materials may need additional rays to be re-cast into the scene.
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Advantages of Ray tracing:

1. A realistic simulation of lighting over other rendering.
2. An effect such as reflections and shadows is easy and effective.
3. Simple to implement yet yielding impressive visual results.
Limitation of ray tracing:
Scan line algorithms use data consistency to divide computations between pixels, while
ray tracing normally begins the process a new, treating every eye ray separately.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 92 SMVEC

 MODULE - 5
SHADING
Shading defines to describe depth perception in three dimensioning models by different
levels of darkness. Shading is applied in drawing for describes levels of darkness on paper by
adding media heavy densely shade for darker regions, and less densely for lighter regions.
There are different techniques of shading with cross hatching where perpendicular lines of
changing closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an object. The closer the lines are
combining, the darker the area appears. Similarly, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the
area shows.

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Shading
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Image with edge lines

The image shown in figure 3.8 has the faces of the box rendered, but all in the similar
color. Edge lines have been rendered here as well which creates the image easier to view.

The image shown in figure 3.9 is the same model rendered without edge lines. It is
complicated to advise where one face of the box ends and the next starts.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 93 SMVEC

 The image shown in figure 3.10 has shading enabled which makes the image extra
realistic and makes it easier to view which face is which.
Shading techniques:
In computer graphics, shading submits to the procedure of changing the color of an object
in the 3D view, a photorealistic effect to be based on its angle to lights and its distance from
lights. Shading is performed through the rendering procedure by a program called a ‘Shader’. Flat
shading and Smooth shading are the two major techniques using in Computer graphics.

MODULE - 6
COLOURING
Colouring is useful for creating geometry and displaying images. It is also possible to
differentiate the different geometry by assigning different colours to each of them. The use of
colour may be extended to finite element analysis in which it is used to display the different heat
intensities or stress intensities in the model.
There are two types of colours: chromatic colour and achromatic colour. Chromatic
colours are provided multi-colour image in the display whereas achromatic colours provide only
black-and-white displays. Achromatic colour can have the variation of three different patterns
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such as white, black, and various levels of gray which is a combination of white and black.
These variations are achieved by assigning the different intensity values. The intensity
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value of 1 provides white colour whereas 0 displays the black colour. More pleasing effects to the
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human vision system can be produced by chromatic colours. But they are very complex subject
which deals both physics and physiology. However, fundamental concepts are discussed here.
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The human vision system interprets electromagnetic energy with wavelengths between
400 and 700 nanometers as visible light. The various colours produced by different wavelengths
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are given in Table 3.1.

Wave-Length
S. No. Colour
Nanometer
1. Violet 400
2. Blue 450
3. Cyan 500
4. Green 550
5. Yellow 600
6. Orange 650
7. Red 700
A method for explaining the properties or behavior of colour within some particular context
is called colour models. Single colour model cannot describe all aspects of colour, so different
colour models are used in computer graphics to help in describing the different perceived
characteristics of colour.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 94 SMVEC

Colour Models
A colour model is an orderly system for creating a whole range of colours from a small set
of primary colours. There are two types of colour models: subtractive and additive. Additive colour
models use light to display colour while subtractive models use printing inks. Examples of
additive light are the electro-luminance produced by CRT or TV monitors, LCD projectors.
Colours perceived in additive models are the result of transmitted light. Colours perceived in
subtractive models are the result of reflected light. There are number of colour models available.
Some of the important colour models are as follows:
(i) RGB model
(ii) CMY model
(iii) YIQ model
(iv) HSV model
(v) HSL model.
i. RGB model
The RGB model is additive. In the RGB model, the convergence of the three primary additive
colours such as red (R), green (G) and blue (B) produces white. For a light, the numbers
correspond to a percentage of full intensity for each colour. If R, G, and B values are I then it will
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produce white colour. If R » G = B = 0, the colour is black. If the values are 0.5, the colour is still
white but only at half intensity, so it appears gray. If R = G = 1 and B = 0 (full red and green with
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no blue), the light appears yellow. Figure 3.33 shows the RGB colour model which is described in
Cartesian coordinates. The main diagonal of the cube is the locus of equal amount of each
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primary colour. Hence, it represents the gray scale value.

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RGB model is more suitable for quantifying direct light such as the one generated in a CRT
monitor, TV screens.
ii. CMY model:
The CMY model is subtractive. In the CMY model, the convergence of the three primary
colours such as cyan (C), magenta (M) and yellow (Y) produces white as shown in Figure 3.34. In
contrast to colour on the monitor, the colour in printing acts subtractive and not additive. A printed
colour which looks red absorbs the other two components G and B and it reflects R. Thus, its

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 95 SMVEC

(internal) colour is G + B = Cyan. Similarly, R + B = Magenta and R + G = Yellow. Thus, the CMY
coordinates are just the complements of the RGB. In the CMY model, point (1, 1, 1) represents
black because all components of the incident light are subtracted. The origin represents the white
light. Equal amounts of each of the primary colours produce grays along the main diagonal of the
cube. A combination of cyan and magenta ink produces blue because the red and green
components of the incident light are absorbed. Other colour combinations are obtained by a
similar subtractive process.

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The conversion from an RGB representation to a CMY representation with the matrix
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transformation can be expressed by
𝐶 1 𝑅
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[𝑀] = [1] − [𝐺 ]
𝑌 1 𝐵
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Where the white is represented in the RGB system as the unit column vector. Similarly, we
convert from a CMY colour representation to an RGB representation with the matrix
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transformation.
𝑅 1 𝐶
[ 𝐺 ] = [ 1] − [ 𝑀 ]
𝐵 1 𝑌
Where black is represented in the CMY system as the unit column vector.
iii. YIQ model:
The YIQ model is used for raster colour graphics. In this colour model, the parameter Y is
same as in XYZ model. Brightness information is contained in Y parameter while chromaticity
information (hue and saturation) is incorporated into I and Q parameters. Combinations of red,
green and blue intensities are chosen for the Y parameter to yield the standard luminosity curve.
Since Y contains the luminance information, black and white television monitors use only Y
signal. Parameter I contains orange-cyan hue information which provides the flesh-tone shading
and the parameter Q carries green-magenta hue information.
The conversion from RGB values to YIQ values is accomplished with the following
transformation.
𝑌 0.299 0.587 0.144 𝑅
[ 𝐼 ] = [0.596 −0.275 −0.321] − [𝐺 ]
𝑄 0.212 −0.528 0.311 𝐵

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 96 SMVEC

 Similarly, we convert from a YIQ colour representation to an RGB representation the matrix
transformation.
𝑅 0.299 0.587 0.144 𝑌
[𝐺 ] = [0.596 −0.275 −0.321] − [ 𝐼 ]
𝐵 0.212 −0.528 0.311 𝑄
iv. HSV model:
Both RGB and CMY colour models described earlier are hardware oriented models whereas
the HSV model is user oriented. It uses the colour descriptions which have more intuitive appeal
to a user. The colour specification in this model can be given by selecting a spectral colour and
the amounts of white and black.
Colour parameters in this model are hue (H), saturation (S) and value (V). The boundary of
the hexagon represents the various hues and it is used as the top of the HSV hexcone (i.e. six-
sided pyramid) as shown in Figure 3.33. The top of the hexcone is derived from the RGB cube.

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Hue H is represented as an angle about the vertical axis ranging from 0° at red through 360°.
Vertices of the hexagon are separated by 60° intervals. Yellow is at 60°, green at 120°, and cyan
opposite red at H = 180°. Complementary colours are 180° apart.
Saturation S varies from 0 to 1. It is represented in this model as the ratio of the purity of a
selected hue to its maximum purity at S = 1. A selected hue is said to be half pure at the value
S=0.5. At S = 0, the gray scale is produced.
The value V varies from 0 at the apex of the hexcone to 1 at the top. The apex represents
black. At the top of the hexcone, colours have their maximum intensity. When V=1 and S=1, we
have the "pure" hues. White is the point at V = 1 and S = 0.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 97 SMVEC

 v. HSL model:
This model is also based on intuitive colour parameters. Colour parameters in this model
are hue (H), saturation (S) and lightness (L). This model has the double-cone representation as
shown in Figure 3.36.

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The hue specifies the angle around the vertical axis of the double hexcone.
In this model, H=0° corresponds to blue. The remaining colours are specified around the
perimeter of the cone in the same order as in the HSV model. Magenta is at 60°, red is at 120°
and cyan is located at 180°. Again, the complementary colours are 180° apart on the double
cone.
Saturation parameter S specifies the relative purity of a colour. This parameter varies from
0 to 1, and pure hues are produced for S = 1 and L = 0.5. As S decreases, the hues are become
less pure. At S = 0, the gray scale is produced.
The lightness L is represented in the vertical axis. If L = 0, black colour is produced and
white is produced at L = 1. Gray scale is along L axis and the "pure hues" lie on the L = 0.5 plane.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 98 SMVEC

COMPUTER ANIMATION
Animation is the process of illusion of continuous movement of objects created by a series
of still images with elements that appear to have motion. Each still image is called a frame.
Animation may also be defined as the process of dynamically creating a series of frames of a set
of objects in which each frame is an alteration of the previous frame. In order to animate
something, the animator has to be able to specify directly or indirectly how the 'thing' has to move
through time and space. Animation can be achieved by the following ways.
(a) By changing the position of various elements in the scene at different time frames in a
particular sequence
(b) By transforming an object to other object at different time frames in a particular
sequence
(c) By changing the colour of the object at different time frames in a particular sequence
(d) By changing the light intensities of the scene at different time frames in & particular
sequence.
Among these different methods, the most effective way is the first one.
The animation can be achieved either conventionally or traditionally using manual work or
using computer multimedia for producing movies, cartoons, logos and advertisements. In
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conventional or traditional method, most of the animation was done by hand. All frames in 8
animation had to be drawn by hand.
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Since each second of animation requires 24 frames (film), the amount of work required to
create even the shortest of movies can be tremendous, however, there are no calculations or
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physical principles required in this method. The motion should look like real one which is the only
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criteria to create this type of animation. Animations created during early days to create cartoon
characters are the example of this type of animation.
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The computer animations are mostly used now-a-day as the computer techniques evolved
over the years. This technique produces more realistic images and motions as real one. In this
type of animation, physical laws using variety of calculations arc utilized. Hence, the animation
creation is considered as a science rather than art. There are number of animation software
available in the market for producing human body motion based on Kinematic or dynamic
analysis. Typical applications of computer animation are entertainment (motion pictures and
cartoons), advertising, scientific and engineering studies, and training and education.
Animation is also useful for modeling and simulation of engineering problems where large
amount of calculations and scientific data are involved. For example, in finite element analysis we
may need to create series of images with different colouring plots at different time intervals to
display the result in sequence. It can be achieved by computer animation techniques. There are
number of entertainment animations used in movies, advertisements and computer games.
These animations use modeling of muscles and human body kinematics to create facial
expressions, deformable body shape, unrealistic fight sequence, transformations etc.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 99 SMVEC

Applications of Animation
There are several areas where the animation can be extensively used. These areas can be
arbitrarily divided into five categories.
1. Television:
TV has used it for titles, logos and inserts as a powerful motivator for the rapid development
of animation. But its main uses are in cartoons for children and commercials for a general
audience.
2. Cinema:
Animation as a cinematic technique has always held an important role in this industry.
Complete animation films are still produced by the cinema industry. But, it is also a good way of
making special effects and it is frequently used for titles and generics.
3. Government:
Animation is an excellent method of mass communication and governments are of course,
great consumer of such techniques for the publicity.
4. Education and research:
Animation can be extensively used for educational purposes. Fundamentals concepts are
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easily explained to students using visual effects involving motion. Finally, animation can be a
great help to research teams because it can simulate the situations, e.g., in medicine or science.
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5. Business:
The role of animation in business is very similar to its role in government. Animation is useful
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for marketing, personnel education and public relations.

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6. Engineering:
Engineers do not require the realistic images the entertainment field demands. It must be
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possible to identity unambiguously each separate part and the animation must be produced
quickly.

MODULE - 7
PARAMETRIC AND VARIATIONAL MODELING
The term parametric modeling denotes the use of parameters to control the dimensions
and shape of CAD models. Think of a rubber CAD model that can be stretched and deformed
through various controls, but cannot be ripped or torn. The manipulation of a CAD model of a
single part could be through overall part dimensions or through the dimensions of features.
Things get considerably more interesting if a parameterized assembly model is constructed.
Changes in assembly dimensions or in part dimensions can cause changes in assembly and part
shapes or in parts' assembled positions. Generally, it can be very useful to explore design spaces
by manipulating parametric CAD models - creating multiple instantiations of a design and
analyzing their properties.
There are two broad approaches parametric modeling:
 parametric geometry

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 100 SMVEC

  variational geometry
In general, the term parametric geometry refers to a 1-way evaluation of parametric relationships,
much like a spreadsheet. On the other hand, the relationships in variational geometry models can
be bi-directional.
Variational geometry solvers are typically nonlinear, simultaneous equation solvers. The
underlying mathematics suggests that variational geometry is more general and powerful, but in
practice it is the command set in CAD systems that really controls modeling generality and power
Parametric modeling solves constraints by replacing symbolic variables by values that are
computed sequentially from previously computed variables. Variational modeling uses equations
to represent constraints and solve them simultaneously. The difference is captured by the
difference between defining a variable via a formula or implicitly.
FEATURE BASED MODELING
Feature-based modeling approach is more desirable in constructing solid models, in which
designers use features that correspond to physical entities to construct solid models, instead of
dealing with primitive geometric entities, such as points, curves, and solid primitives. The features
available in CAD are usually designed to relate to how engineers think in their design and
manufacturing work. The parametric modeling method allows designers to create solid models in
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such a way that by varying a few parameters (e.g., geometric dimensions), the solid models
rebuild automatically as intended (i.e., capturing design intent). For example, a hole in the block
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shown in Figure 3.12a is intended to stay at the middle of the block when the width of the block
changes. To capture this design intent, first the sketch profile of the base block must be fully
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defined (Figure 3.12b), with dimension d2 as a design variable that is to vary. The hole must be
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placed to the profile of the base block with its width dimension (d1 in Figure 3.12c) related to that
of block width d2, as dl = 0.5d2. This one-way parameter assignment is essentially parametric
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modeling.
In most CAD, the base block is a protrusion feature generated by extruding the sketch profile
shown in Figure 3.12b along an extrusion direction that is normal to the sketch profile. The hole is
an extrude cut feature that does not require users to sketch its profile, which is called a pick-and-
place feature.

FIGURE 3.12 (a) The Block Example for the Illustration of Design Intent Capturing Using
Feature-based Parametric Solid Modeling Method, (b) Sketch Profile of the Base Block with
Width Dimension d2 Shown, (c) Position of the Hole by Dimension d1, which can be
Parametrically Related to Dimension d2.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 101 SMVEC

S.No Parametric & Feature based CAD Conventional CAD Systems
. Systems
1. Solid Model Wireframe and Solid Model
2. Parametric Model Fixed-dimension Model
3. Feature-based Modeling Primitive-based Modeling
A Single Data Structure and Full Function-Oriented Data Structures with
4.
Associativity Format Interpreters
5. Subject-oriented Sub-modeling Systems A Single Geometry-Based System
Manufacturing Information Associated with Texts Attached to Geometry Entities
6.
Features
Generation of an Assembly by Assembling Generation of an Assembly by Positioning
7.
Components Components

BEHAVIOR MODELING
Behavior modeling is the latest development in mechanical CAD. It gives the designers
more efficient and adaptable ways of creating designs. It helps to synthesize required functional
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behavior, design context and geometry. Through an intelligent process of knowledge capture and
iterative solving behavior modeling allows engineers to pursue highly innovative and robust
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designs. The process of behavior modeling involves: Smart models: These encapsulate
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engineering intelligence. Designs are created using feature based techniques, which capture
geometry, specifications, design intent, and process knowledge-all at the design level.
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Engineering objective based design: Design tools use feature based design specifications within
the smart model to drive and adapt product design. Using objective driven functions, engineers
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can arrive at an optimum design, even in designs with several variables and constraints and
multiple objective criteria. Open extensible environment: This facilitates associative bi-directional
communication to any external application like analysis, manufacturing etc. at the feature level of
the design ensuring that model reflects the changes incorporated in other applications.
Behavior modeling helps to create designs which are more innovative, differentiable and
more responsive to customers’ requirements. With the help of objective driven design process
engineers can focus on key design issues, and evolve optimal design solutions for better
performance and functionality.
Behavior modeling helps to make electronic product designs more complete.
Behavior modeling strategy advances feature-based modeling to accommodate a set of
adaptive process features that go beyond the traditional core geometric features. These features
accommodate a variety of information that further specifies the intent and performance of the
design. There are two distinct categories of adaptive design. Application features describe
process information. Behavioral features contain engineering and functional specifications.
Application features encapsulate product and process information.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 102 SMVEC

 Behavioral features define component assembly connectivity, using welds, or pins or
slider joints. When behavioral features consist of assembly connectivity information, including any
assembly constraints, the assembly design process automatically implements that information to
execute functional behavior and purpose. By capturing original design intent, product designs
retain their integrity, robustness, and performance while adapting to market and engineering
changes. The adaptive process features make smart models highly flexible. As the engineers
make changes to the smart models, the models regenerate to accommodate all their features and
context. This highly flexible adaptation makes smart models to respond to changes in their
environment. Objective driven design automatically optimizes designs to meet any number of
objectives captured in the smart model by adaptive process features. It can automatically resolve
conflicting objectives. In smart models the specifications can be used to drive the design process.

MODULE - 8
OVERVIEW OF MODELING SOFTWARES:
In 3D computer graphics, 3D modeling (or modelling) is the process of developing a
mathematical representation of any three-dimensional surface of an object (either inanimate or
living) via specialized software. The product is called a 3D model. It can be displayed as a two-
dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or used in a computer simulation of
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physical phenomena. The model can also be physically created using 3D printing devices.
Models may be created automatically or manually. The manual modeling process of
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preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D
modeling software is a class of 3D computer graphics software used to produce 3D models.
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Individual programs of this class are called modeling applications or modelers.

List of 3D modeling software
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1. PRO-E,
2. CATIA,
3. IDEAS,
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4. SOLID EDGE
5. Autodesk Inventor etc.
PRO-E
Pro/ENGINEER is a computer graphics system for modeling various mechanical designs
and for performing related design and manufacturing operations. The system uses a 3D solid
modeling system as the core, and applies the feature-based, parametric modeling method. In
short, Pro/ENGINEER is a feature-based, parametric solid modeling system with many extended
design and manufacturing applications.
Pro/ENGINEER is the first commercial CAD system entirely based upon the feature-
based design and parametric modeling philosophy. Today many software producers have
recognized the advantage of this approach and started to shift their product onto this platform.
Pro/ENGINEER Functionality
The basic functionality of Pro/ENGINEER is broken into several areas:
 Part Design
 Assembly Design
 Design Documentation (Drawings)
 General Functionality

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 103 SMVEC

An Overview (by Parametric Technology Corp.)
Ease of Use:
Pro/ENGINEER was designed to begin where the design engineer begins with features
and design criteria. Pro/ENGINEER's cascading menus flow in an intuitive manner, providing
logical choices and pre-selecting most common options, in addition to short menu descriptions
and full on-line help. This makes it simple to learn and utilize even for the most casual user.
Expert users employ Pro/ENGINEER's "map keys" to combine frequently used commands along
with customized menus to exponentially increase their speed in use. Because Pro/ENGINEER
provides the ability to sketch directly on the solid model, feature placement is simple and
accurate.
Full Associativity: Pro/ENGINEER is based on a single data structure, with the ability to make
change built into the system. Therefore, when a change is made anywhere in the development
process, it is propagated throughout the entire design-through-manufacturing process, ensuring
consistency in all engineering deliverables.
Parametric, Feature-Based Modeling: Pro/ENGINEER's features are process plans with
imbedded intelligence and are easy to use, while at the same time, powerful enough to fillet,
round, and shell even the most complex geometry. These features contain non-geometric
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information, such as manufacturing processes and associated costs, as well as information about
location and relationships. This means that features do not require coordinate systems for
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placement, and they "know" how they are related to the rest of the model. As a result, changes
are made quickly and always adhere to the original design intent.
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Powerful Assembly Capabilities: Assembling components is easy with Pro/ENGINEER simply tell
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the system to "mate," "insert," or "align" the components and they are assembled, always
maintaining the design intent. Also, the components "know" how they are related, so if one
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changes, either positionally or geometrically, the other will change accordingly. Parts can be
designed right in the assembly and defined by other components, so if they move or change size,
the part will automatically update to reflect the change.
Robustness: The Pro/ENGINEER family of products is based on a double precision, nonfaceted
solid modeling core. This provides the engineer with the most accurate representation of
geometry, mass properties, and interference checking available.
Change Management: Powerful change capabilities are inherent with Pro/ENGlNEER full
associativity, enabling design-through-manufacturing disciplines to execute their functions in
parallel. Tools for parametric data management successfully manage these simultaneous
processes and promote an organized, controlled workflow.
Hardware Independence: Pro/ENGINEER runs on all of the major UNIX and Windows NT
platforms, maintaining the same look and feel on every system. Users can select the most
economical hardware configuration for their needs, and mix and match any combination of
platforms. Information can be easily exchanged from one machine to the other, with
Pro/ENGINEER managing any architectural differences.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 104 SMVEC

CATIA
CATIA- Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application
CATIA is the most powerful multi-platform CAD/CAM/CAE/PLM software package of its
kind in the world. It provides a single platform to design, analyse, and manufacture a product; this
makes the product development faster and easier.
 Developed by Dassault Systèmes, the largest player in the global CAD market.
 The owner of Solid Works and the ACIS kernel. CATIA is Solid Works’ big brother.
 Handles any conceivable modeling task, such as:
o Part modelling
o Assembly modelling
o Surface modelling
o PDM
o FEM
o Optimization
o CAM
o Photo rendering
o Mechanism simulation
o Ergonomic simulation
CATIA V5 Documents
 All files created using CATIA V5 are referred to as documents. The basis of most CATIA
V5 documents is the part document. The part document is similar to the *.model file in
CATIA V4. Different CATIA V5 Workbenches generate different types of documents
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(extension types). The following is a list of different workbenches and the extension types:
 Part Design *.CATPart
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 Sketcher *.CATPart
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 Surface Design *.CATPart

 Drafting *.CATDrawing
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 Assembly Design *.CATProduct


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GSA *.CATAnalyis
 NC *.CATProcess
 Material *.CATMaterial
 Shape *.CATShape

MODULE - 9
DEMO ON CATIA V6 SOFTWARE

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 105 SMVEC

 UNIT – V
MODULE - 1
STANDARDS FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Graphic software needs standards since the software becomes inevitably device-
dependent. If input/output devices change or become obsolete, its related software becomes
obsolete. If the existing software to run on the new equipment is prohibitive, the procedure to
make it run is time consuming. There are four major benefits of introducing standards for basic
computer graphics. They are
 Application program portability. This avoids hardware dependence of the program.
 Picture data portability. Description and storage of pictures should be independent of
different graphics devices.
 Text portability.
 Object data base portability.
EXCHANGE OF CAD DATA BETWEEN SOFTWARE PACKAGES
Necessity to translate drawings created in one drafting package to another often arises.
For example you may have a CAD model created in PRO/E package and you may wish that this
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might be transferred to I-DEAS or Unigraphics. It may also be necessary to transfer geometric
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data from one software to another. This situation arises when you would want to carry out
modeling in one software, say PRO/E and analysis in another software, say ANSYS. One method
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to meet this need is to write direct translators from one software to another. This means that each
system developer will have to produce its own translators.
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This will necessitate a large number of translators. If we have three software packages we may
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require six translators among them. This is shown in Fig. below.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 106 SMVEC

A solution to this problem of direct translators is to use neutral files. These neutral files will have
standard formats and software packages can have pre-processors to convert drawing data to
neutral file and postprocessors to convert neutral file data to drawing file.

Figure 17.4 illustrates how the CAD data transfer is accomplished using neutral file.
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Three types of neutral files are discussed in this chapter. They are:
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i. Drawing exchange files (DXF)
ii. IGES files
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iii. STEP files etc.

MODULE - 2
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GRAPHICAL KERNEL SYSTEM (GKS)

GKS (Graphical Kernel System) is an ANSI and ISO standard. GKS standardizes
twodimensional graphics functionality at a relatively low level. The primary purposes of the
standard are:
 To provide for portability of graphics application programs.
 To aid in the understanding of graphics method by application programmers.
 To provide guidelines for manufacturers in describing useful graphics capabilities.
The GKS (ANSI X3.124-1985) consists of three basic parts:
i. An informal exposition of contents of the standard, which includes such things as
positioning of text, filling of polygons etc.
ii. A formalization of the expository material outlined in (i) by way of abstracting the ideas into
functional descriptions (input/output parameters, effect of each function etc.).
iii. Language bindings, which are the implementations of the abstract functions, described in
(ii) in a specific computer language like FORTRAN, Ada or C.
Figure 17.2 shows the GKS implementation in a CAD workstation. The features of GKS include:

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 107 SMVEC

 a. Device independence: The standard does not assume that the input or output devices
have any particular features or restrictions.
b. Text/Annotations: All text or annotations are in a natural language like English.
c. Display management: A complete suite of display management functions, cursor control
and other features are provided.
d. Graphics Functions: Graphics functions are defined in 2D or 3D.
The drivers in GKS also include metafile drivers. Metafiles are devices with no graphic
capability like a disc unit. The GKS always works in a rectangular window or world coordinate
system. The window also defines a scaling factor used to map the created picture into the internal
co-ordinate system of GKS called normalized device co-ordinates. Windows and view ports can
then work in this co-ordinate system.

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GKS Implementation in a CAD Workstation

GKS offers two routines to define the user created pictures. They are primitive functions and
attribute functions. Examples of primitive functions are:
 POLYLINE to draw a set of connected straight-line vectors
 POLYMARKER to draw a set of markers or shapes
 FILL AREA to draw a closed polygon with interior fill
 TEXT to create characters
 GDP (Generalized Drawing Primitive) to specify the standard drawing entities like circle,
ellipse etc.
The attribute functions define the appearance of the image e.g. color, line-type etc. Current level
of GKS is GKS-3D, which provides several other functions. GKS-3D is an extension to GKS,
which allows the production of 3-D objects.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 108 SMVEC

 MODULE - 3
IGES GRAPHICS STANDARD
INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION (IGES) GRAPHICS STANDARD. The
IGES committee was established in the year 1979. The CAD/CAM Integrated Information
Network (CIIN) of Boeing served as the preliminary basis of IGES. IGES version 1.0 was
released in 1980. IGES continues to undergo revisions. IGES is a popular data exchange
standard today. Figure shows a CAD model of a plate with a centre hole. The wire frame model
of the component is shown in Fig. There are eight vertices (marked as PNT 0 - PNT 8), 12 edges
and two circles that form the entities of the model. Table shows the IGES output of the wire frame
model.

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Fig. 3-D Model of a Plate

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 109 SMVEC

 es
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IGES files can also be generated for:

i. Surfaces ii. Datum curves and points

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 110 SMVEC

IGES & its entities
Similar to the most CAD systems, IGES is based on the concept of entities. Entities
could range from simple geometric objects, such as points, lines, plane, and arcs, to
more sophisticated entities, such as subfigures and dimensions. Entities in IGES are
divided in three categories:
a. Geometric entities: such as arcs, lines, and points that define the object.
b. Annotation entities: such as dimensions and notes that aid in the
documentation and visualization of the object.
c. Structure entities: Those define the associations between other entities in
IGES file.
An IGES file is a sequential file consisting of a sequence of records. The file formats treat
the product definition to be exchanged as a file of entities, each entity being represented
in a standard format, to and from which the native representation of a specific CAD/CAM
system can be mapped. IGES file is written in terms of ASCII characters as a sequence
of 80 character records.
An IGES file consists of five sections which must appear in the following order: Start
section, Global section, Directory Entry (DE) section, Parameter Data (PD) section, and
Terminate section, as shown in figure. The role of these sections is summarized in the
following subsections.

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a) Start Section
The Start section is a human readable introduction to the file. It is commonly described
as a "prologue" to the IGES file. This section contains information such as the names of
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the sending (source) and receiving (target) CAD/CAM systems, and a brief description of
the product being converted.
b) Global Section
The Global section includes information that describe the preprocessor and information
needed by the postprocessor to interpret the file. Some of the parameters that are
specified in this section are:
1. Characters used as delimiters between individual entries and between records
(usually commas and semicolons respectively),
2. The name of the IGES file itself,
3. Vendor and software version of sending (source) system,
4. Number of significant digits in the representation of integers and single and double
precision floating point numbers on the sending systems,
5. Date and time of file generation,
6. Model space scale,
7. Model units,
8. Minimum resolution and maximum coordinate values,
9. Name of the author of IGES file.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 111 SMVEC

c) Directory Entry Section (DE)
The DE section is a list of all the entities defined in the IGES file together with certain
attributes associated with them. The entry for each entity occupies two 80-character
records which are divided into a total of twenty 8-character fields as shown in figure.

d) Parameter Data Section (PD)

The PD section contains the actual data defining each entity listed in the DE section as
shown in figure.

e) Terminate Section es
The Terminate section contains a single record which specifies the number of
records in each of the four preceding sections for checking purposes.
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 112 SMVEC

 MODULE - 4
PRODUCT DATA EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION (PDES)
A likely alternative to IGES is the product data exchange specification (PDES) developed
by IGES organization. PDES is aimed at defining a more conceptual model. Parts will be based
on solids and defined in terms of features such as holes, flanges, or ribs. Instead of dimensions
PDES will define a tolerance envelope for the parts to be manufactured. PDES will also contain
non-geometric information such as materials used, manufacturing process and suppliers. PDES
will be a complete computer model of the part.

STANDARD FOR THE EXCHANGE OF PRODUCT MODEL DATA (STEP)

STEP is the name of the international standard ISO-10303 on Industrial automation systems and
integration - Product data representation and exchange. STEP is often viewed as a replacement
for IGES, though IGES is still expected to be in active use for some more time in the future.
STEP ARCHITECTURE
STEP architecture has four main components:
 EXPRESS modeling language es
 Data schemes including attributes such as geometry, topology, features and tolerance.

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Application interface called Standard Data Access Interface (SDAI), which is a standard
interface to enable applications to access and manipulate STEP data
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 STEP database, which has the following forms:

o ASCII format file for data exchange
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o Working from file, usually in binary format, that can be shared by multiple systems
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o Shared database, involving object oriented database management system or

relational database system
o Knowledge base, with a database management system as a base coupled to an
expert shell
STEP data export in a CAD modeling package has the following options:
(i) wire frame edges
(ii) surfaces
(iii) solids
(iv) shells
(v) Datum curves and points

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 113 SMVEC

 MODULE - 5
OPENGL
Silicon Graphics (SGI) developed the OpenGL application-programming interface (API) for the
development of 2D and 3D graphics applications. It is a low-level vendor-neutral software
interface. It is often referred to as the assembler language of computer graphics. It provides
enormous flexibility and functionality. It is used on a variety of platforms.
OpenGL is a low-level graphics library specification. OpenGL makes available to the
programmer a small set of geometric primitives - points, lines, polygons, images, and bitmaps.
OpenGL provides a set of commands that allow the specification of geometric objects in two or
three dimensions, using the provided primitives, together with commands that control how these
objects are rendered into the frame buffer.
The OpenGL API was designed for use with the C and C++ programming languages but
there are also bindings for a number of other programming languages such as Java, Ada, and
FORTRAN. OpenGL provides primitives for modelling in 3D. Its capabilities include viewing and
modelling transformation, viewport transformation, projections (orthographic and perspective),
animation, lighting etc. es
OTHER DATA EXCHANGE FORMATS
There are several existing alternative data exchange formats. These include the Standard
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Product Data Exchange Format (SDF) of Vought Corporation (available for CADAM, CADDS-5,
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PATRAN, and PRIME etc.) Standard Interchange Format (SIF) of Intergraph Corporation
(available for Applicon, Autotrol, and Calma etc.), ICAM Product Data Definition Interface (PDDI),
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and VDA sculptured surface Interface (VDAFS), Electronic Design Interchange Format (EDIF),
Transfer and Archiving of Product Definition Data (TAP) etc. Another alternative to IGES is the
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neutral format outlined in ANSI Y14.26M standard. It must be noted here that some of the
features of many of these alternatives are superior to that of IGES.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 114 SMVEC

 MODULE - 6
DEMO ON HOW TO EXCHANGE DATA BETWEEN CATIA & ANSYS
Step1:
Draw a 3D model using CATIA V5:

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Step2:
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Save it to any standard, say IGES or STEP standard
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OR

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 115 SMVEC

Step3:
Open that saved file using ANSYS (Import option).

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 116 SMVEC

Step4:
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Imported geometry viewed in ANSYS.
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 117 SMVEC

 MODULE - 7
DATABASE
A database can be summarily described as a repository for data. This makes clear that
building databases is really a continuation of a human activity that has existed since writing
began; it can be applied to the result of any bookkeeping or recording activity that occurred long
before the advent of the computer era. However, this description is too vague for some of our
purposes, and we refine it as we go along.
The creation of a database is required by the operation of an enterprise. We use the term
enterprise to designate a variety of endeavors that range from an airline, a bank, or a
manufacturing company to a stamp collection or keeping track of people to whom you want to
write New Year cards.
An Example
The college keeps track of its students, its instructors, the courses taught by the college,
grades received by students, and the assignment of advisors to students, as well as other
aspects of the activity of the institution that we discuss later. These data items constitute the
operational data — that is, the data that the college needs to function. Operational data are built
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from various input data (application forms for students, registration forms, grade lists, schedules)
and is used for generating output data (transcripts, registration records, administrative reports,
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etc.) Note that no computer is necessary for using such a database; a college of the 1930’s would
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have kept the same database in paper form. However, the existence of computers to store and
manipulate the data does change user expectations: we expect to store more data and make
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more sophisticated use of these data.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
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A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables users

to create and maintain a database.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 118 SMVEC

Database management systems provide several functions in addition to simple file management:
 allow concurrency
 control security
 maintain data integrity
 provide for backup and recovery
 control redundancy
 allow data independence
 provide non-procedural query language
 perform automatic query optimization
According to the ANSI/SPARC DBMS Report (1977), a DBMS should be envisioned as a multi-
layered system:
Components of a Database System

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 119 SMVEC

 MODULE - 8
CLASSIFICATION OF DATABASE
Active database

An active database is a database that includes an event-driven architecture which can

respond to conditions both inside and outside the database. Possible uses include security
monitoring, alerting, statistics gathering and authorization.
Most modern relational databases include active database features in the form
of database trigger.
Cloud database

A Cloud database is a database that relies on cloud technology. Both the database and
most of its DBMS reside remotely, "in the cloud," while its applications are both developed by
programmers and later maintained and utilized by (application's) end-users through a Web
browser and Open APIs. More and more such database products are emerging, both of new
vendors and by virtually all established database vendors.
Data warehouse

Data warehouses archive data from operational databases and often from external
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sources such as market research firms. Often operational data undergoes transformation on its
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way into the warehouse, getting summarized, anonym zed, reclassified, etc.
The warehouse becomes the central source of data for use by managers and other end-
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users who may not have access to operational data. For example, sales data might be
aggregated to weekly totals and converted from internal product codes to use UPCs so that it can
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be compared with ACNielsen data.

Some basic and essential components of data warehousing include retrieving, analyzing,
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and mining data, transforming, loading and managing data so as to make it available for further
use.
Operations in a data warehouse are typically concerned with bulk data manipulation, and
as such, it is unusual and inefficient to target individual rows for update, insert or delete. Bulk
native loaders for input data and bulk SQL passes for aggregation are the norm.
Distributed database

The definition of a distributed database is broad, and may be utilized in different

meanings. In general it typically refers to a modular DBMS architecture that allows distinct DBMS
instances to cooperate as a single DBMS over processes, computers, and sites, while managing
a single database distributed itself over multiple computers, and different sites.
Examples are databases of local work-groups and departments at regional offices, branch
offices, manufacturing plants and other work sites. These databases can include both segments
shared by multiple sites, and segments specific to one site and used only locally in that site.
Document-oriented database

Utilized to conveniently store, manage, edit and retrieve documents.

Embedded database

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 120 SMVEC

 An embedded database system is a DBMS which is tightly integrated with an application
software that requires access to stored data in a way that the DBMS is “hidden” from the
application’s end-user and requires little or no ongoing maintenance.
It is actually a broad technology category that includes DBMSs with differing properties and target
markets. The term "embedded database" can be confusing because only a small subset of
embedded database products is used in real-time embedded systems such
as telecommunications switches and consumer electronics devices

MODULE - 9
RELATIONAL DATABASE
A relational database is a collection of data items organized as a set of formally-described
tables from which data can be accessed or reassembled in many different ways without having to
reorganize the database tables. The relational database was invented by E. F. Codd at IBM in
1970.
 A relational database is a set of tables containing data fitted into predefined categories.
 Each table (which is sometimes called a relation) contains one or more data categories in
columns. es
 Each row contains a unique instance of data for the categories defined by the columns.
 For example, a typical business order entry database would include a table that described
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a customer with columns for name, address, phone number, and so forth.
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 121 SMVEC

 QUESTION BANK
TWO MARKS:
UNIT – I
1. Define design process.
2. Define morphology of design.
3. What are the types of design models?
4. What are the applications of design models?
5. Define concurrent engineering.
6. What are the applications of concurrent engineering?
7. What are the difference between sequential engineering and concurrent engineering?
8. What are the advantages of concurrent engineering?
9. What are the steps in CAD system architecture?
10. Define CAD hardware?
11. What are the types of mass storage devices?
12. Name some input devices.
13. Name some output devices.
14. What are the types of display devices?
15. Define raster scan.
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16. Define random scan.
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17. What are the advantages of storage tube?
18. What are the disadvantages of storage tube?
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19. What are the advantages of vector refresh?

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20. What are the disadvantages of vector refresh?

UNIT – II
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1. Define transformation graphics.

2. What are the coordinate systems used in graphics?
3. Define windowing.
4. Define View port transformation.
5. Define clipping.
6. Define hidden line elimination.
7. What are types of 2D transformation?
8. Define rotation.
9. Define scaling.
10. Define reflection.
11. Define shearing.
12. What is meant by homogeneous transformation?
13. Define concatenation.
14. What are the types of 3D transformation?
15. What are the differences between orthographic and perspective projections?
16. Define orthographic projections.
17. What are the advantages of perspective projections?

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 122 SMVEC

 18. Define isometric projections.
19. Define perspective projections.
20. What are the advantages and disadvantages of perspective projections?
UNIT – III
1. What are the classifications of geometric modelling?
2. What are the differences between 2D models and 3D wire frame Models?
3. What are the applications of wire frame modelling?
4. What are the applications of solid modelling?
5. What are the applications of surface modelling?
6. What are the six common representations in solid modelling?
7. Define spatial enumeration.
8. Define cell decomposition.
9. Define boundary representation.
10. Define primitive instancing.
11. Define CSG.
12. Define spatial occupancy enumeration.
13. What are the three types of Boolean operations?
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14. What are the steps involved in creating 3D objects from 2D?
15. Define Cubic spline.
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16. Define Bezier curve.
17. Define B-spline.
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18. What are the steps involved in design of surface?

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19. What are the features of surface modelling package?

20. Define revolving.
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UNIT – IV
1. What are the standards for computer graphics?
2. Classification of data exchange standards.
3. Define data structures.
4. Define IGES.
5. Define STEP.
6. Define entity storage.
7. What is the interactive modelling for data structures?
8. Define relational database.
9. Define SQL.
10. Role of oops in CAD.
11. What are types of languages used in CAD?
12. What are the uses of Computer in CAD?
13. What is the software’s used in CAD?
14. What are the advantages of CAD in manufacturing?
15. What are processes involved in STEP?
16. How Information technology is applicable in CAD?

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 123 SMVEC

 17. What are the types of standards in CAD?
18. What are the numbers of commercial database in SQL?
19. Define IMS.
20. Define Oracle.
UNIT – V
1. Define parametric modelling.
2. Define variational modelling.
3. Define the feature based modelling?
4. Define information based system.
5. What is the latest software’s used in modelling?
6. Define the advantages of PRO- E.

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 124 SMVEC

 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK
APRIL 2011
PART – A
Answer all the questions (10X2=20)
1. What is the design process?
2. Define hardware.
3. What are entity manipulation facilities?
4. What is EDMS?
5. Write the use of Wire frame models.
6. Define CSG for representing the solids.
7. Define GKS.
8. What is IGES?
9. Define PRO-E.
10. Define SOLID EDGE
PART- B
Answer ONE question from each unit (5X11=55)
UNIT I
11. (a) Explain the various steps for the design process as outlined by Shigley. (5)
(b) How computer-aided design differs from conventional design? List the benefits and
applications of CAD. (6)
Or
12. (a) Explain the modern computer communication methods. (6)
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(b) Explain the various methods of data representation. (5)
UNIT II
13. (a) Write short notes on the following (i) GKS (ii) PHIGS (iii) CGM. (6)
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(b) Explain Windowing and Zooming. (5)
Or
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14. (a) Explain the basic transformation of translation in 2-D transformation. (6)
(b) Discuss about isometric projection. (5)
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UNIT III
15. (a) Describe surface modeling. (6)
(b) Discuss about cross hatching and pattern filling. (5)
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Or
16. (a) Write some designs used to modeling of curves and surfaces. (5)
(b) Distinguish the model creation features for curves and surfaces. (6)
UNIT IV
17. (a) Explain the exchange of CAD data between software packages. (6)
(b) Describe modeling functionalities of parasolid. (5)
Or
18. (a) Discuss about the standard for computer graphics. (6)
(b) Discuss about Data exchange standards. (5)
UNIT V
19. (a) Discuss about strategies for knowledge Acquisition. (6)
(b) Explain the Inference schemes. (5)
Or
20. (a) Discuss the approaches to the application AI in design. (6)
(b) Describe the overview of modelling software. (5)

Note:
The Striked questions are old regulation.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 125 SMVEC

 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK
NOVEMBER 2012
PART – A
Answer all the questions (10X2=20)
1. What are the advantages of concurrent engineering?
2. Differentiate between stroke writing and raster scan displays.
3. Distinguish between windowing and viewport transformation.
4. Why Bresenham's algorithm is widely used for line drawing?
5. List different methods of solid modeling.
6. List some-popular geometric modelers.
7. List some graphical primitives used in GKS.
8. What are the advantages of STEP?
9. Define expert system.
10. What are the different inference schemes available in CAD?
PART- B
Answer ONE question from each unit (5X11=55)
UNIT I
11. (a) Discuss the computer graphics display devices. (5)
(b) Describe the step by step procedure of models of the design process. (6)
Or
12. (a) Briefly explain various input devices used for computer graphics. (5)
(b) Explain the modeling using CAD with an example. (6)
UNIT II
es
13. Discuss the various 3D display control facilities. (11)
Or
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14. (a) Explain the various 2D transformations. (6) 4
(b) Determine the mirroring of three points through a line at an angle of 30° to the OX axis
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with its origin at x = 16, y = 24 using object transformation method. (5)

UNIT III
15. Explain in detail spatial partitioning representation. (11)
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Or
16. Explain different representations of curves and surface with adequate equations. (11)
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UNIT IV
17. Explain the function of Simple data structure. How these data structures support interactive
modeling? (11)
Or
18. (a) Briefly explain the SQL query with its basic expressions. (5)
(b) Discuss the role of object oriented program in CAD. (6)
UNIT V
19. (a) How modeling done by CATIA software? Briefly explain with necessary steps. (6)
(b) Briefly describe any four applications of AI in design. (5)
Or
20. Describe in detail about different inference process schemes. (11)

Note:
The Striked questions are old regulation.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 126 SMVEC

 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK
APRIL 2013
PART – A
Answer all the questions (10X2=20)
1. What are the different assessments should follow in design modeling?
2. List the four main phase in models of the design process.
3. What are the steps involving in 2D graphics?
4. How the user computer interface is accomplished?
5. Distinguish global coordinate system and work coordinate system.
6. Distinguish ruled surface and swept surface representation.
7. List different standards for computer graphics.
8. What are the different sections of IGES standard?
9. What are the characteristics of an expert system?
10. List some applications of feature based modeling.
PART- B
Answer ONE question from each unit (5X11=55)
UNIT I
11. (a) Explain in detail the architecture of a computer aided design system. (6)
(b) Write short notes on computer output devices. (5)
Or
12. (a) Explain the role of modeling and communication in CAD. (6)
(b) Write short notes on Mass storage devices. (5)
UNIT II
es
13. What are the 2D display control facilities? Explain with sketches. (11)
Or
14. (a) Briefly discuss the various 2D transformations. (6)
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(b) A circle of radius 25 mm, centered at x = 111 y = 150 is to be drawn as a series of lines by
two Dimensional draughting system. The maximum display tolerance is 10 mm. calculate the
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number of lines required to display the circle and Calculate the screen coordinates of the first-
of the lines. The window bounds are (40, 100) and (160, 200) and the viewport bounds are at
(0, 50), (480, 450) (5)
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UNIT III
15. Explain different representations of curves and surface with adequate equations. (11)
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Or
16. Discuss briefly the three dimensional modeling. (11)
UNIT IV
17. Discuss the different data exchange standards used in CAD. (11)
Or
18. What are the different standards for graphics and computing? Explain any three standards in
detail.
UNIT V
19. (a) How artificial intelligence is used in CAD? Explain in detail. (5)
(b) Write short notes on PRO-E. How modeling done by this software?
Or
20. Discuss in detail about different strategies for knowledge acquisition.

Note:
The Striked questions are old regulation.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 127 SMVEC

 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK
NOVEMBER 2013
PART – A
Answer all the questions (10X2=20)
1. What is meant by Computer graphics?
2. Define the term Random scan/Raster scan displays.
3. What is meant by Transformation?
4. Define the term clipping.
5. Define the term geometric modelling.
6. What is Bezier Basis Function?
7. What is meant by PDES?
8. Define the term data structure.
9. Define an expert system.
10. List out some commercially available packages for 3D modelling.
PART- B
Answer ONE question from each unit (5X11=55)
UNIT I
11. Explain phases of CAD process. What is the importance of concurrent engineering in product
development cycle?
Or
12. What are the various techniques used in current computer graphics for generating the image
on CRT screen?
UNIT II
es
13. Explain 3-D Scaling, Rotation, Reflection and Translation with suitable example.
Or
14. Explain Sutherland Hodgeman algorithm for polygon clipping with an example.
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UNIT III
15. Explain the basic concept of geometric and solid modelling used in CAD application?
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Or
16. What are the limitations found in the general wireframe modelling system? Explain with
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example.
UNIT IV
17. (a) Describe the requirements of product data exchange between dissimilar CAD/CAM
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systems.
(b) Compare IGES and STEP.
Or
18. Explain the any one of the data structure organisation.
UNIT V
19. Explain the structure of an expert system.
Or
20. Explain the forward chaining inference models.

Note:
The Striked questions are old regulation.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 128 SMVEC

 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK
APRIL 2014
PART – A
Answer all the questions (10X2=20)
1. What are the input devices more commonly employed for general graphics application?
2. What do you mean by scan conversion?
3. What is meant by translation?
4. What is the need of homogeneous coordinates?
5. Classify the Geometric modelling.
6. Define the B-Spline curve.
7. Give some examples for computer graphics standards.
8. Write the use of data structure in interactive modelling.
9. Describe some of the limitations of expert systems.
10. What is meant by parametric modelling?

PART- B
Answer ONE question from each unit (5X11=55)
UNIT I
11. How Raster scan graphics system works? Explain with neat sketches.
Or
12. Explain in detail the Morphology o£ Design Phases.
UNIT II
13. A triangle is defined in a two dimensional by its vertices (0, 2), (0, 3) and (1, 2). Translate the
es
triangle in space by 2 units in the x-direction and 5 units in the y-directions.
Or
14. Explain any one Hidden surface removal algorithm.
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UNIT III
15. Explain the basic concept of geometric and solid modelling used in CAD application.
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Or
16. What are the basic elements of a boundary represented solid model scheme? Explain briefly.
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UNIT IV
17. (a) Explain in detail IGES file structure (b) Describe the STEP methodology.
Or
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18. Explain the relational data structure and its characterization.

UNIT V
19. Explain the typical architecture of expert systems.
Or
20. Explain the forward chaining inference models.

Note:
The Striked questions are old regulation.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 129 SMVEC

 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK
NOVEMBER 2014
PART – A
Answer all the questions (10X2=20)
1. What are the important output devices used in CAD?
2. Distinguish between models of the design process and models of designs. '
3. What is homogeneous transformation?
4. Differentiate between window and view port.
5. What are the advantages of parametric programming in designing curves and surfaces?
6. How do you classify modeling packages?
7. What are the salient features of STEP?
8. What is SQL?
9. What is text oriented data base system?
10. What do you mean by unidirectional parametric model?

PART- B
Answer ONE question from each unit (5X11=55)
UNIT I
11. What do you understand by raster scanning? Why is it preferred to the storage tube in the
display of graphics information? Explain with neat sketches.
Or
12. Explain the various steps involved in the design process in detail.
UNIT II
es
13. A rectangle has corner co-ordinates (10, 20), (40, 20), (40, 40), (10, 40). This rectangle is
rotated by 30° anticlockwise about (a) Origin and (b) about the point (40, 20). Compute the
new co-ordinates in both cases. (5 + 6)
ot
Or
14. Explain any one Hidden line removal algorithm.
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UNIT III
15. What are the limitations found in the general wire frame modeling systems? Explain with an
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example.
Or
16. Describe briefly the following:
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(a) Pure primitive instancing (4)

(b) CeII decomposition arid (3)
(c) Spatial occupancy enumeration (4)
UNIT IV
17. (a) What are the salient features of GKS? (5)
(b) Discuss the need for standardization in computer graphics. (6)
Or
18. Explain why the STEP standard has been developed to replace the IGES standard, and then
outline the approach and structure of STEP.
UNIT V
19. What are the functions of the knowledge base and the inference mechanism in knowledge
based systems?
Or
20. Outline the principles of forward and backward- chaining inference in a knowledge base
comprising production rules.

Note:
The Striked questions are old regulation.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 130 SMVEC

 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK
APRIL 2015
PART – A
Answer all the questions (10X2=20)

1. Write the steps in the design process.

2. What is the basic principle of vector refresh graphics terminal?
3. What is meant by perspective projections?
4. What is meant by hidden line elimination?
5. Write the advantages of wire frame modelling.
6. Write the Euler's rule in B- Rep Representation.
7. Write the steps used for transfer CAD data from one system to another.
8. Write the use of data structure in interactive modelling.
9. What is meant by knowledge acquisition?
10. What is meant by parametric modelling?

PART- B
Answer ONE question from each unit (5X11=55)
UNIT I
11. Explain the design process in the model of Earle Model.
Or
12. Explain the construction and operation of a Cathode Ray Tube.
UNIT II
es
13. Explain the mid- point circle algorithm with an example.
Or
14. Explain the 2D and 3D transformations with an example.
ot
UNIT III
15. Explain the boundary representations in solid modelling with an example.
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Or
16. What are control points? State the importance characteristics of Bezier curves.
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UNIT IV
17. What is IGES exchange format? Explain the file structure of an IGES files with an example.
Or
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18. Explain the relational data structure and its characterization.

UNIT V
19. Explain the structure of an expert system.
Or
20. Explain the forward chaining inferencing models.

Note:
The Striked questions are old regulation.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 131 SMVEC

 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY QUESTION BANK
NOVEMBER 2015
PART – A
Answer all the questions (10X2=20)

Answer ALL questions. All questions carry equal marks.

1. Write the four models in the design process.
2. List the common types of graphic display terminals.
3. What is meant by clipping transformation?
4. What is meant by concatenation transformation?
5. Write the classification of geometric modelling.
6. Write the methods to generate the solid models.
7. Write the name of neutral files used in data exchange formats.
8. Define the term data structure.
9. Define the term expert systems.
10. Define the feature based modelling.
PART- B
Answer ONE question from each unit (5X11=55)
UNIT I
11. Explain the shigley model of design process.
Or
12. Explain the components of a computer hardware system with a block diagram.
UNIT II
es
13. Explain Bresenhams line drawing algorithm.
Or
14. Explain Sutherland Hodgeman polygon clipping.
ot
UNIT III
15. Explain the Difference between Bezier curve and cubic spline curve.
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Or
16. Describe the Boolean expression formation of constructive solid geometry model with a
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suitable sketch.
UNIT IV
17. Explain the concepts of product data exchange using step in detail.
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Or
18. Explain the any one of the data structure organization.
UNIT V
19. Explain the typical architecture of an expert system.
Or
20. Explain the structure of knowledge base acquisition.

Note:
The Striked questions are old regulation.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 132 SMVEC

 Two Marks with Answers
UNIT – I
PART – A
Answer all the questions (10X2=20)
1. What is the design process? / Write the steps in the design process.
The process of designing something is characterized as an interactive procedure, which
consists of six identifiable steps or phases:
1. Recognition of need
2. Definition of problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis and optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation
2. Write the four models in the design process.
There are four models in the design process, which are iterative in nature. These models
are defined by Shigley, Pahl & Beitz, Ohsuga and Earle.
3. List the four main phase in models of the design process.
According to Pahl & Beitz Model the four main phase in models of the design process are:
 Clarification of the task
 Conceptual design es
 Embodiment Design
 Detail Design
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4. What are the different assessments one should follow in design modeling?
Identify the need for design, evaluate the problem in current Technique & gather intel for
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various scenarios of the product usage.

5. Distinguish between models of the design process and models of designs.
6. What are the advantages of concurrent engineering?
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 Both product and process design run in parallel and take place in the same time.
 Process and Product are coordinated to attain optimal matching of requirements for
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effective quality and delivery.

 Decision making involves full team involvement.
7. How the user computer interface is accomplished?
A combination of computer hardware and software elements of the computer enables user
computer interface.
8. What is meant by Computer graphics?
Computer graphics is the use of a computer to define, store, manipulate, interrogate and
present pictorial output. Computer graphics allows communication through pictures, charts
and diagrams to the people.
9. Define hardware.
CAD Hardware is hardware is the physical aspect of computers, telecommunications, and
other devices which comprises the following equipment:
 Workstation – CPU
 Mass storage – Magnetic tape storage, Magnetic Disc Storage, Magnetic drum storage
 Input devices - (keyboard, light pen, thumb wheel, joy stick, mouse, digitizer, Touch
Screen, Track Ball) Output devices - (printers, plotters)
 Display Devices- (storage tube – raster scan, vector refresh, plasma panel and LCD)
10. What are the input devices more commonly employed for general graphics
application?
Input devices are Keyboard, Mouse, Light pen, Thumb wheel, Joy stick, Digitizer, Touch
Screen and Track Ball.
11. What are the important output devices used in CAD?
Printers, Plotters and various 3D Printers are all the Output devices that are used in CAD.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 133 SMVEC

12. Differentiate between stroke writing and raster scan displays.
S.No. Stroke Writing or Random Scan Raster Scan Displays
1. Confined to just line or calligraphic Raster display gives a realistic image.
drawings.
2. Higher Resolution Lower Resolution
13. Define the term Random scan/Raster scan displays.
In Random scan graphics can be generated by drawing vectors or line segments on the
screen in a random order which is controlled by the user input and the software. The word
“random” indicates that the screen is not scanned in a particular order.

Raster Scan system, the screen is scanned from top to bottom, left to right all the time to
generate graphics. This is similar to home television scan system, thus suggesting the name
digital scan.
14. What do you mean by scan conversion?
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The graphic system digitizes a specific model into a frame of discrete color points saved in a
piece of memory called the frame buffer. This digitalization process is called scan-conversion.
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15. What is the basic principle of vector refresh graphics terminal?
This type of terminal permits pictures to be easily modified and so is ideally suited to
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situations where scenes change dynamically.

16. List the common types of graphic display terminals.
There are three principle types of graphics terminal available, they are:
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Vector refresh displays, Storage tubes and raster refresh displays.

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 134 SMVEC

 UNIT – II
17. Why Bresenham's algorithm is widely used for line drawing?
It is commonly used to draw lines on a computer screen, as it uses only integer addition,
subtraction and bit shifting all of which are very cheap operations in standard computer
architectures. This is the reason for using Bresenham's algorithm for line drawing.
18. Distinguish global coordinate system and work coordinate system.
S.No. Global Coordinate System work Coordinate System
1. If you draw everything in the global A local coordinate system is just that
coordinate system, then everything is relative local to the object you are drawing.
to the global origin.

2.

19. Distinguish between windowing and viewport transformation. / Differentiate between

window and view port.
S.No. Windowing Viewport
1. Used to zoom in and view only a portion Used to display different portions or
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of the image, enclosed in a rectangular views of the drawing in different regions
region. of the screen.
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2.
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20. Define the term clipping. / What is meant by clipping transformation?

Clipping is the process of determining the visible portions of a drawing lying within a window.

21. What is meant by hidden line elimination?

Hidden line elimination is the method of Identifying and removing the lines(edges) of an object
that are not visible from a chosen viewing position.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 135 SMVEC

 - AGHB, GHEF, BHEC are invisible surfaces. Therefore, BH, HE, are
invisible and must be removed.
22. What are the steps involving in 2D graphics?
23. What is meant by Transformation?
Geometric transformations provide a means by which an image can be enlarged in size,
or reduced, rotated, or moved. These changes are brought about by changing the co-
ordinates of the picture to a new set of values depending upon the requirements.
24. What is the need of homogeneous coordinates?

25. What is homogeneous transformation?

26. What is meant by concatenation transformation?

Sequences of transformations can be combined into a single transformation using the
concatenation process. This method of combining various transformations is called as
concatenation transformation.
27. What is meant by perspective projections?
The perspective projection enhances the realism of displayed image by providing the viewer
with a sense of depth. Portions of the object farther away from the viewer are drawn smaller
than those in the foreground. es
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UNIT – III
28. Define the term geometric modelling.
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Geometric modelling is the technique by which different 3D objects are drawn and
visualized by a modeling software. Geometric modeling is done in three principal ways. They are:
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i. Wire frame modeling

ii. Surface modeling
iii. Solid modeling
29. Classify the Geometric modelling. / Write the classification of geometric modelling.
Geometric modeling is done in three principal ways. They are:
i. Wire frame modeling
ii. Surface modeling
iii. Solid modeling
30. Write the use of Wire frame models. / Write the advantages of wire frame modelling.
A wire-frame model allows visualization of the underlying design structure of a 3D model.
Wire-frame renderings are relatively simple and fast to calculate.
31. Distinguish ruled surface and swept surface representation.

32. What is Bezier Basis Function?

33. Define the B-Spline curve.

34. Write the Euler's rule in B- Rep Representation.

35. Define CSG for representing the solids.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 136 SMVEC

 Constructive solid geometry (CSG) is a method used in solid modeling for creating 3D
models in CAD. Constructive solid geometry permits a modeler to make a complex surface by
applying Boolean operators to join objects. Frequently CSG presents a model/surface that
appears visually complex, but is essentially little more than cleverly combined.
36. Write the methods to generate the solid models.
 Spatial Enumeration
 Cell Decomposition
 Boundary Representation
 Sweep Methods
 Primitive Instancing
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
37. List different methods of solid modeling.
i. Constructive solid geometry (CSG or C-Rep)
ii. Boundary representation (B-Rep)
iii. Hybrid method which is a combination of B-Rep and CSG.

UNIT – IV
38. List some-popular geometric modelers. / List out some commercially available
packages for 3D modelling.
List of 3D modeling software es
1. PRO-E,
2. CATIA,
3. IDEAS,
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4. SOLID EDGE
5. Autodesk Inventor etc.
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39. List some applications of feature based modeling.

Facilitates fast modeling, Parametric in nature thus enables easy editing works.
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40. What is meant by parametric modelling?

The term parametric modeling denotes the use of parameters to control the dimensions
and shape of CAD models. Think of a rubber CAD model that can be stretched and deformed
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through various controls, but cannot be ripped or torn.

41. What are the advantages of parametric programming in designing curves and
surfaces?
Can manipulate the function equation and change the curve dimension, parametric
programming facilitates the change of the curve according to the parent object.
42. What do you mean by unidirectional parametric model?
43. Define the feature based modelling.
Feature-based modeling approach is more desirable in constructing solid models, in
which designers use features that correspond to physical entities to construct solid models,
instead of dealing with primitive geometric entities, such as points, curves, and solid
primitives. The features available in CAD are usually designed to relate to how engineers
think in their design and manufacturing work.
44. How do you classify modeling packages?
Modeling Packages can be classified as
I. 2D Modeling Package and
II. 3D Modeling Package
a. Parametric &
b. Non- Parametric.
45. Define PRO-E.
Pro/ENGINEER is a computer graphics system for modeling various mechanical designs
and for performing related design and manufacturing operations. The system uses a 3D solid
modeling system as the core, and applies the feature-based, parametric modeling method.
46. Define SOLID EDGE

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 137 SMVEC

 Solid Edge is a 3D CAD, Parametric feature (history based) and synchronous technology
solid modeling software.
47. Define Visualization or Visual Realism.
Visualization can be defined as a technique for creating images, diagrams or animations
to communicate ideas. The visual realism concentrates basically on the visual appearance of
objects.
UNIT – V
48. Define GKS.
GKS (the Graphical Kernel System) is an ANSI and ISO standard. GKS standardizes two-
dimensional graphics functionality at a relatively low level. GKS offers a group of drawing
aspects for 2D vector graphics appropriate for mapping and related duties.
49. What is meant by PDES?
The Product Data Exchange Specification (PDES) was developed by IGES organization.
PDES is aimed at defining a more conceptual model. Parts will be based on solids and
defined in terms of features such as holes, flanges, or ribs. Instead of dimensions PDES will
define a tolerance envelope for the parts to be manufactured. PDES will also contain non-
geometric information such as materials used, manufacturing process and suppliers. PDES
will be a complete computer model of the part.
50. What is IGES?
IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) enables an exchange of model data basis
among CAD system.
51. List some graphical primitives used in GKS.
The five main primitives used in GKS are: es
Polyline, polymarker, fill area, text, cell array.
52. What are the advantages of STEP?
Step is a commonly used standard which is efficient. The step file doesn’t take up much
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memory space like some of the other standards. It has a shared database for all entities of a
drawing.
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53. List different standards for computer graphics.

GKS (Graphics Kernel System)
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IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification)

DXF (Drawing / Data Exchange Format)
STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data)
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PDES (Product Data Exchange Specification)

54. What are the different sections of IGES standard?
IGES file consists five sections Start, Global, Directory Entry, Parameter Data and Terminate.
55. Give some examples for computer graphics standards.
IGES or Step Standard generated from various modeling softwares like autocad, catia are
imported in Analysis softwares like ANSYS, Gambit.
56. Write the use of data structure in interactive modelling.
57. What are the salient features of STEP?
ASCII format file for data exchange file, Shared database and Knowledge base.
58. Write the steps used for transfer CAD data from one system to another.
Translate the CAD data to a neutral files and use it to convert to the required data
standard. These neutral files will have standard formats and software packages can have pre-
processors to convert drawing data to neutral file and postprocessors to convert neutral file
data to drawing file.
59. Write the name of neutral files used in data exchange formats.
Some of the neutral files used in data exchange formats are:
i. Drawing exchange files (DXF)
ii. IGES files
iii. STEP files etc.
60. Define the term data structure.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 138 SMVEC

 Data structure is a particular way of organizing data in a computer so that is can be used
efficiently. General data structure types include the array, the file, the record, the table, the
tree and so on.
61. What are entity manipulation facilities?
A database with the following facilities
 To insert or add new data entity
 To delete or erase existing data
 To modify or change data
62. What is EDMS?
EDMS - Electronic Document Management System is a software program that manages
the creation, storage and control of documents electronically. The primary function of an
EDMS is to manage electronic information within an organization workflow.
63. Write the use of data structure in interactive modelling.
 The user can search and identify the required data from the database.
 User can manipulate and test the parameters of a data by his or her own values.
64. What is text oriented data base system?
Text oriented data base system is the database which is designed only for storing texts or
details converted into text. It can’t be used for storing non-text data like graphical images.

es
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 139 SMVEC

 CAD PPT es
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HANDOUTS
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 140 SMVEC

 MET71 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (3 1 0 4)
Unit – I
Design process - Morphology of design, Types of design models,
Application of design models, concurrent Engineering – CAD system

CAD
architecture.
CAD Hardware: workstation – CPU, mass storage, input devices
(keyboard, light pen, thumb wheel joy stick, mouse, digitizer etc.,) and
output devices (printers, plotters) Display Devices : storage tube – raster
scan , vector refresh, plasma panel and LCD.
Presented by (09 hours)
Unit – II
R. Hemanth Kumar Bresenham’s line and circle algorithms. Transformation in Graphics: co-
ordinate system used in Graphics and windowing and view port
Asst. Professor transformations, Clipping , hidden line elimination,
2D transformations – rotation, scaling, translation, mirror, reflection and
Mechanical Engineering shear – homogeneous transformations – concatenation, 3D
Transformation – orthographic and Perspective Projections.
(09 hours)

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 2

es
Unit – III Unit – IV
Classification of Geometric Modeling – Wire frame, Surface and Solid Hidden line-surface-solid removal algorithm-shading-colouring-
Modeling, applications – representation of curves and surfaces – animation
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Parametric form – Design of curved shapes- Cubic spline – Bezier curve Parametric and variational modeling, Feature based modeling,
– B-spline – Design of Surfaces - features of Surface Modeling Package – An overview of modeling software like PRO-E, CATIA, IDEAS, SOLID
Solid Primitives, CSG, B-rep and description of other modeling EDGE and other advanced Softwares. (09 hours)
hn

techniques like Pure primitive instancing, cell decomposition, spatial Unit – V

occupancy enumeration, Boolean Operations (join, cut, intersection), Standards for computer graphics (GKS) and Data exchange standards
Creating 3D objects from 2D profiles (extrusion, revolving etc) (09 hours) – IGES, STEP. Standard for exchange images (open GL)
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Data structures for Entity storage – Data structures for interactive

modelling- Relational databases (09 hours)
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 3 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 4

Text Books : MET71 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (3 1 0 4)

1. Chris Mcmahon and Jimmie Browne - CAD/CAM – DESIGN PROCESS & HARDWARE
Principle Practice and Manufacturing Management, 2nd
Edition, Addision Wesley England, 2000. Unit – I
2. Sadhu Singh - Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing, Design process - Morphology of design, Types of design models,
II Edition, KhannaPublishers, New Delhi, 2008. Application of design models, concurrent Engineering – CAD system
architecture.
Reference Books:
CAD Hardware: workstation – CPU, mass storage, input devices
1. P.Radhakrishnan et al - CAD/CAM/CIM, New Age (keyboard, light pen, thumb wheel joy stick, mouse, digitizer etc.,) and
International P Ltd., New Delhi, 2006. output devices (printers, plotters) Display Devices : storage tube – raster
2. M.P.Groover and E.W.Zimmers - CAD/CAM; Computer scan , vector refresh, plasma panel and LCD. (09 hours)
Aided Design and Manufacturing, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
3. Ibrahim Zeid - CAD/CAM Theory and Practice, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 2005.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 5 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 6

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 1

 UNIT – I
Design Process
CAD = Computer Aided Design  Design Process is a series of steps that
CAD assists - engineering processes
engineers follow to come up with a solution to
CAD - models
a problem
 by geometrical parameters - altered by changing relevant
parameters.
 The design of any component includes two things,
Uses Product design - development of specification
 CAD - designers - view objects variety of representations - for a product
test & simulating real-world conditions. Process design - developing methods of
 Aid - design process like Modelling, Assembly, Drafting, Die
manufacture of the products
Design, Tool Design, Sheet metal, analysis of products.
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 7 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 8

Morphology of Design
Collection of time phases. It consists of seven phases Models of the Design Process
Phase I Feasibility Study
es
I. Shiegly Design
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Phase II Preliminary (Embodiment) Design

Phase III Detail Design II.Steps of the design process according to

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Phase IV Planning for manufacture Pahl and Beitz(1984)

Phase V Planning for Distribution III.The design process according to Ohsuga

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Phase VI Planning for Consumption/use IV.Earle Model

Phase VII Planning for Retirement

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 9 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 10

The general design process by shiegly

I. Shiegly Design Process:
consists of six identifiable steps or phases:
1. Recognition of need,
2. Definition of problem,
3. Synthesis,
4. Analysis and optimization ,
5. Evaluation,
6. Presentation
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 11 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 12

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 2

 1. Recognition of need
5, 6. Evaluation and Presentation
 problem exists for which some corrective action taken
 Evaluation is concerned with measuring the design against the
 defect in a current machine design
specifications in 2.
2. Definition of problem
 fabrication and testing of a prototype model to assess operating
 specification of the item to be designed
performance, quality, reliability and other criteria
 physical and functional characteristics, cost, quality and
 presentation of the design - documentation by - drawings,
operating performance
material specifications, assembly lists * design data base
2, 3, 4. Synthesis, Analysis and optimization
created
 highly iterative in the design process
Product Development and Manufacture:
 conceptualized, subjected to analysis, improved redesigned Machines involved – Computers
 design optimized within the constraints imposed on the Tasks – information processing
Use – assist in the definition and processing of information
designer R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 13 connected with design of products
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 14

II. Steps of the design process according to Pahl and Beitz (1984)

In this model the design process is described by a flow diagram

es
comprising four main phases which may be summarized as:
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 15 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 16

II. Ohsuga Model

IV. Earle Model

Problem Identification

Preliminary Ideas

Problem Refinement

Analysis

Decision

Implementation
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 17 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 18

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 3

 Process involved in bringing the product to Market
Application of design models:
 This may be divided into two main classification
i. Evaluating actions
ii. Generative actions
 Extract information + present model
 A design analyst might use this for the following assessments:
o A visual assessment
o An assessment of the mass of the components, by using the CAD model
o An evaluation of loads in the components, by considering them as parts of a
mechanism
o An evaluation of stresses, for example using the finite element model.
o detailed drawings with components of the design, and from these, manufacturing
engineers = information for tooling and for the control of production machines.
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 19 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 20

Sequential or Series Engineering

es
ot Concurrent Vs Sequential Engineering

Concurrent or Parallel or Simultaneous Engineering

hn
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 21 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 22

Cash Flow after implementing Teamwork Advantages

Concurrent Engineering Technique

 the co-operation between various specialists and systematic
application of special methods such as QFD (Quality Function
Deployment), DFMA (Design for Manufacture and Assembly)
and FMEA (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis) ensures quick
optimization of design and early detection of possible faults in
product and production planning.
 Reduction in lead time which reduces cost of production and
guarantees better quality.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 23 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 24

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 4

 CAD system architecture
Operating System CAD system architecture
(CAD model)
Database

Application
Software
 Hardware: the computer and associated peripheral equipment

Graphics utility
User Interface  Software: the computer programs running on the hardware

Device drivers  Data: the data structure created and manipulated by the software:

 Human Knowledge and activates

Input- Output
devices
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 25 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 26

Functions of CAD System Architecture

es CAD Hardware
• Model definition: to add geometric elements to a model of the form of a
component;
 Workstation – CPU
 Model manipulation: to move, copy, delete, edit or modify elements in models;
 Mass storage – Magnetic tape storage, Magnetic Disc
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 Picture generation: to generate images of the design model
 User interaction: to handle commands input by user and to present output to the Storage, Magnetic drum storage
user about the operation of the system;  Input devices - (keyboard, light pen, thumb wheel, joy stick,
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 Database management: for the management of the files that make database mouse, digitizer, Touch Screen, Track Ball) Output devices -
 Application: these elements of the software do not modify the design model, but
(printers, plotters)
use it to generate information for evaluation, analysis or manufacture;
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 Display Devices- (storage tube – raster scan, vector refresh,

 Utilities: a ‘catch-all’ term for parts of the software that do not directly affect the
design model, but modify the operation of the system in some way (e.g to set the plasma panel and LCD)
color to be used for display, or the units to be used for construction of a part
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model). R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 27 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 28

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT: Control Unit:

CPU consists of three separate subsections • The control unit = administrator in a computer.

1. Control Unit • It coordinates the operations of all other components.

2. Arithmetic Logic unit • It controls the input and output of information through I/O devices,
3. Memory synchronizes the transfer of signals between the various sections.
• Executive program, which is stored in memory.
Arithmetic Logic unit
• The ALU provides the circuitry required to perform the various calculations
and manipulations of data.
• Most ALU’s can add and subtract, but latest ALU’s = capable of
multifunctions and complex mathematical functions.
• ALU’s with simplex circuits are capable of being programmed to perform these
more complicated operations, but more computing time is required.
• The more complex arithmetic logic units are faster, but these units are more
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 29 costly. R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 30

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 5

 Magnetic tape storage
Memory
• Example of sequential access storage technology.
• Binary storage units, organised into bytes.
• Data are stored on magnetic tape, similar to that used in audio
• The memory section stores all the instructions and data of a program. systems.
• Therefore the CPU must transfer these instructions and data. Two types • The major advantages of magnetic tapes are that is relatively
of memory cheap when compared with other types of storage medium and

 Main memory (primary storage) that it can easily hold large amount of data for its size.
• Magnetic tape unlike punched paper tapes or cards can be used
 Auxiliary memory (Secondary storage)
again by simply overwriting previously stored data.
Mass storage • Since data are stored sequentially access time is relatively
The most common device used for computer storage technologies are slow.
 Magnetic tape storage • However, the low cost per bit and high capacity of magnetic

 Magnetic Disc Storage tape make it ideal for system backup.

• It is most suitable for applications, which may be required in payroll, personnel
 Magnetic drum storage management, inventory control and customer invoicing where a large amount of data is
to be processed sequentially
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 31 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 32

Magnetic Disc Storage

• Magnetic disk storage is also known as a random access storage device. Floppy Disc

• The storage medium is a magnetically coated disk. There are several types and sizes
of disks each best suited to a particular set of applications.
es Floppy disks come in two standard sizes: the larger one is 8 inches in diameter and
smaller is 5 ¼ inches and is referred to as mini floppy.

Magnetic Drum Storage

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The magnetic drum is direct access storage device with high capacity and
high access rates. The magnetic drum consists of a magnetically coated cylinder
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during operation. The drum is rotated at a constant speed and data are recorded in the
form of magnetized spots. The drum can be read repeatedly without causing data loss.
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 33 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 34

Input devices OUTPUT DEVICES

 Keyboard  Printers
 Mouse
 Plotters
 Light pen
 Thumb wheel PLOTTERS
 Joy stick
 Digitizer
 Touch Screen
 Track Ball

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 35 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 36

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 6

 PRINTERS 2. Inkjet printer

1. Impact printers
mechanical hammering device

Printing mechanisms: (a) with typebars, (b) and (c) without typebars; (1) typebar,
(2) inked ribbon, (3) paper (recording medium), (4) platen forpaper, (5) spherical
printing head, (6) hammer, (7) numeric (alphabetic) wheel

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 37 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 38

3. Laser printer
DISPLAY DEVICES

es The design is percieved as good as the display device.

Technologies
ot
 Cathode Ray Tube(CRT)
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 Laser Display

 Flat Panel Display or Plasma panel Display

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 39 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 40

CATHODE RAYS TUBE: In Random scan graphics can be generated by drawing vectors or line segments on the
screen in a random order which is controlled by the user input and the software. The word
“random” indicates that the screen is not scanned in a particular order.

Raster Scan system, the screen is scanned from top to bottom, left to right all the time to
generate graphics. This is similar to home television scan system, thus suggesting the name
The graphics display can be divided into two types based on the scan technology used to digital scan. The three existing CRT display that are based on these techniques are
control the electron beam. i. Refresh display (calligraphic)
 Random Scan ii. Direct view storage tube
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 41 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 42
 Raster Scan iii. Raster display

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 7

 Refresh Display: Refresh Display:
 The refresh buffer stores the display file or program, which contains points,
lines, characters and other attributes of picture to drawn. These commands are
interpreted and processed by the display processor.
 The electron beam accordingly excites the phosphor, which glows for a short
period. To maintain a steady flicker – free image, the screen must be refreshed
or redrawn at least 30 to 60 times per second, that is, at a rate of 30 to 60 Hz.
 The principal advantage to refresh displays is its high resolution (4096 x 4096)
and thus its generation of high quality pictures.
 the need to refresh the picture places a limit on the number of vectors that can be
displayed without flicker
 being a binary display, the refresh display is able to generate only two level of
color intensity.
 In some displays, the intensity of the electron beam can vary to provide better
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 43 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 44
color capabilities.

Direct View Storage Tube (DVST): Direct View Storage Tube (DVST):

es
 Refresh display were very expensive in the 1960s due to the required refresh
buffer memory and fast display processor, and could only display a few
hundred vectors on the screen without flicker.
 At the end of 1960s the DVST was introduced by Tektronix as an alternative
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and inexpensive solution.
 The DVST eliminates refresh processors completely and consequently the
refresh buffer used with refreshes display.
 It also uses a special type of phosphor that has a long – lasting glowing effect.
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 The phosphor is embedded in a storage tube.

 In addition, the speed of the electron beam in the DVST is slower than in the
refresh display due to elimination of refresh cycle.
 In the DVST the picture is stored as a charge in the phosphor mesh located
behind the screen’s surface.
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 Therefore, complex pictures could be drawn without flicker at high

resolution.
 Once displayed, the picture remains on the screen until it is explicitly erased.
 This is why the name “storage tube” was suggested.
 In addition to the lack of selective erasure, the DVST cannot provide colors,
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animation and use of light pen as anKumar,

R.Hemanth input Asstdevice.
Prof 45 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 46

 Raster displays are very popular and nearly all recent display research
Raster Display:
and development focus on them.
 The inability of the DVST to meet the increasing demands by
various CAD/CAM applications for colors, shaded images and  In raster display, the display screen area is divided horizontally and
animation motivated hardware designer to continue searching for vertically into matrix of small elements called picture element or pixel.
a solution.
 A pixel is a small addressable area on the screen.
 During the late 1970s raster display based on the standard
 An N x M resolution defines on a screen with N rows and M Columns.
television technology began to emerge as a viable alternative.
Each row defines a scan line.
 The drop in memory price due to advances in solid states made
large enough refresh buffers available support high resolution  A rasterization process is needed in order to display either a shaded
display. area or graphics entities.
 A typical resolution of raster display is 1280 x 1204 with a  In this process the area or entities are converted into their
possibility to reach 4096 x 4096 as the DVST. corresponding pixels whose intensity and color are controlled by the
image processing system.
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 47 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 48

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 8

 Working:
Raster Display:
 Images are displayed by converting geometric information into pixel values
which then converted into electron beam deflection through display processor
and deflection system.
 If the display is monochrome, the pixel value is used to control the intensity
level or the gray level on the screen.
 For color displays, the value is used to control the color mapping into a color
map.
 The creation of transfer format data from geometric information is known as
scan conversion or rasterization.
 A rasterizer that forms the image-creation system is mainly a set of scan
conversion algorithms.
 Due to the universal need for these algorithms, the scan conversion or
rasterization process is implemented.
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 49 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 50

TWO MARKS:
UNIT – I
1. Define design process.
2. Define morphology of design.
3. What are the types of design models?
es 11.What are the types of mass storage devices?
12.Name some input devices.
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13.Name some output devices.
4. What are the applications of design models? 14.What are the types of display devices?
5. Define concurrent engineering.
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15.Define raster scan.

6. What are the applications of concurrent engineering? 16.Define random scan.
7. What are the difference between sequential engineering and 17.What are the advantages of storage tube?
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concurrent engineering? 18.What are the disadvantages of storage tube?

8. What are the advantages of concurrent engineering? 19.What are the advantages of vector refresh?
9. What are the steps in CAD system architecture? 20.What are the disadvantages of vector refresh?
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10.Define CAD hardware?R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 51 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 52

UNIT II
MET71 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (3 1 0 4)
BRESENHAM’S LINE ALGORITHM
GRAPHICS & TRANSFORMATION Bresenham’s algorithm enables the selection of optimum raster locations to represent a
straight line

Unit – II
Bresenham’s line and circle algorithms. Transformation in Graphics: co-
ordinate system used in Graphics and windowing and view port
transformations, Clipping , hidden line elimination, 2D transformations –
rotation, scaling, translation, mirror, reflection and shear - homogeneous
transformations – concatenation, 3D Transformation – orthographic and
Perspective Projections.
(12 hours)

Fig. a Location of Pixels Using Fig. b Pixels for Line of

Bresenham Algorithm Slope, m = 0.4

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 53 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 54

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 9

 Pseudo code for Bresenham’s line-drawing algorithm Program in Turbo-C to draw a line for (i = 0 ; i <inc ; i ++)
{
Given a line from x1, y1 to x2, y2...
x + = ix ;
dx is the difference between the x components of end points # include <stdio. h> y + iy ;
dy is the difference between the y components of end points # include <graphics. h> plot = 0
ix is the absolute value of dx # include <stdlb. h> if (x > inc)
iy is the absolute value of dy void draw line (int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2), {
inc is the larger of dx, dy void main (void) plot = 1 ;
plotx is x1 { x – = inc ;
ploty is y1 (the beginning of line) draw line (100, 100, 50, 50) ; if (dx < 0)
x starts at 0 } plot x – = 1 ;
y starts at 0 void draw line (int x1, int y1, int x2 m int y2) else
{ plotx + = 1 ;
plot a pixel at plotx, ploty
int dx, dy, inc, ix, iy, x, y, plot, plotx, ploty, i ; }
increment x using ix
int gd, gm ; if (y > inc)
increment y using iy gd = DETECT ; {
plot is false initgraph (&gd, &gm, “ “) ; plot = 1 ;
if x is greater than inc dx = x1 – x2 ; y – = inc ;
plot is true dy = y1 – y2 ; if (dy)
decrement x using inc ix = abs (dx) ; ploty – = 1 ;
increment plotx if dx is positive iy = abs (dy) ; else
decrement plotx id dx is negative inc = max (ix, iy) ; ploty + = 1 ;
if y is greater than inc x=y=0; }
plot is true plot x = x1 ; if (plot)
decrement y using inc plot y = y1 ; putpixel (plotx, ploty, 1)
increment ploty if dy is positive else
decrement ploty if dy is negative }
if plot is true, plot a pixel at plotx, ploty getch ( ) ;
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 55 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof closegraph ( ) ; 56
increment i.

BRESENHAM’S CIRCLE ALGORITHM TRANSFORMATION IN GRAPHICS

es
CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS USED IN GRAPHICS

1.
2.
World CS
Local CS
ot
3. Object CS – reference to an object
4. Heirarchical CS – relevant to a parent
hn

5. Viewport CS – camera based viewport based

6. Model Window CS- subset of a system
7. Screen CS- pixel based
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8. Viewport CS- multiple

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 57 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 58

WINDOWING VIEW PORT

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 59 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 60

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 10

 CLIPPING HIDDEN SURFACE REMOVAL

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 61 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 62

TRANSLATION

es
X1 = X + TX
2-D & 3-D TRANSFORMATION Y1 = Y + TY
translate drawing by (TX , TY )
TRANSLATION
ot
SHEARING
hn

ROTATION

SCALING
ec
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 63 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 64

SHEARING 2-D TRANSFORMATIONS

X- SHEAR Y- SHEAR ROTATION
P1 (40, 20) rotated about the origin through an angle, ϴ=45°
X1 = X
Y1 = Sh1. X + Y
Fig. shows Y shear applied to a drawing.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 65 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 66

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 11

 PROJECTIONS
SCALING
PARALLEL (ORTHOGONAL) PROJECTION

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 67 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 68

PROJECTIONS PROJECTIONS

es
PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION TO ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
ot
hn
ec
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 69 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 70

MET71 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (3 1 0 4) UNIT - III

GEOMETRIC MODELING TECHNIQUES GEOMETRIC MODELLING

Unit – III wire frame, surface and solid modeling

Classification of Geometric Modeling – Wire frame, Surface and Solid
Modeling, applications – CLASSIFICATION OF GEOMETRIC MODELING
representation of curves and surfaces – Parametric form – Design of
curved shapes- Cubic spline – Computer representation of the geometry of a component using software is called
Bezier curve – B-spline – Design of Surfaces - features of Surface a geometric model. Geometric modeling is done in three principal ways. They are:
Modeling Package - Solid 1. Wire frame modeling
Primitives, CSG, B-rep and description of other modeling techniques like
Pure primitive 2. Surface modeling
instancing, cell decomposition, spatial occupancy enumeration, Boolean 3. Solid modeling
Operations (join, cut, These modeling methods have distinct features and applications.
intersection), Creating 3D objects from 2D profiles (extrusion, revolving
etc)
(12 hours)

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 71 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 72

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 12

 A comparison between 2-D and 3-D models is given below:
WIRE FRAME MODELING
In wire frame modeling the object is represented by its edges 2 - D Models 3-D Wire Frame Models

1. Ends (vertices) of lines are represented 1. Ends of lines are represented by their
by their X and Y coordinates X, Y and Z coordinates.
2. Curved edges are represented by 2. Curved surfaces are represented by
circles, ellipses, splines etc. suitably spaced generators. Hidden
Additional views and sectional views line or hidden surface elimination is
are necessary to represent a complex a must to interpret complex
object with clarity. components correctly.
3. 3-D image reconstruction is tedious. 3. 2-D views as well as various pictorial
4. Uses only one global coordinate views can be generated easily.
system 4. May require the use of several user
coordinate systems to create features
on different faces of the component.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 73 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 74

SURFACE MODELING SOLID MODELING

es
In this approach, a component is represented by its surfaces which in turn are The representation of solid models uses the fundamental idea that a physical object
represented by their vertices and edges.
For example, eight surfaces are put together to create a box, as shown in divides the 3-D Euclidean space into two regions, one exterior and one interior,
Apart from standard surface types separated by the boundary of the solid. Solid models are:
available for surface modeling
• bounded
ot
(box, pyramid, wedge, dome,
sphere, cone, torus, dish and • Homogeneously three dimensional
mesh) techniques are available
• Finite
for interactive modeling and
hn

editing of curved surface There are six common representations in solid modeling.
geometry. i. Spatial Enumeration: In this simplest form of 3D volumetric raster model, a
section of 3D space is described by a matrix of evenly spaced cubic volume
elements called voxels.
ec

ii. Cell Decomposition: This is a hierarchical adaptation of spatial enumeration.

3D space is sub-divided into cells. Cells could be of different sizes. These simple
Surface modeling has been very popular in cells are glued together to describe a solid object.
aerospace product design and automotive
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design.
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 75 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 76

iii. Boundary Representation: The solid is represented by its boundary which

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
consists of a set of faces, a set of edges and a set of vertices as well as their
• In a CSG model, physical objects
topological relations.
are created by combining basic
iv. Sweep Methods: In this technique a planar shape is moved along a curve.
elementary shapes known as
Translational sweep can be used to create prismatic objects and rotational sweep
primitives like blocks, cylinders,
could be used for axisymmetric components.
cones, pyramids and spheres.
v. Primitive Instancing: This modeling scheme provides a set of possible object
• The Boolean operations like union
shapes which are described by a set of parameters. Instances of object shape can be
(∪), difference (–) and
created by varying these parameters.
intersection ∩ are used to carry out
vi. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG): Primitive instances are combined using
this task. For example, let us
Boolean set operations to create complex objects.
assume that we are using two
In most of the modeling packages, the approach used for modeling uses any one of the
primitives, a block and a cylinder
following three techniques:
which are located in space as
i. Constructive solid geometry (CSG or C-Rep)
shown in Fig.
ii. Boundary representation (B-Rep)
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 77 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 78
iii. Hybrid method which is a combination of B-Rep and CSG.

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 13

 Boundary Representation Workings of CSG
Boundary representation is built on
the concept that a physical object is
enclosed by a set of faces which
themselves are closed and orient able
surfaces. Fig. Shows a B-rep model of
an object. In this model, face is bounded
by edges and each edge is bounded by
vertices. The entities which constitute a
B-rep model are:
Geometric entities Topological entities
Point Vertex
Curve, line Edge
Surface Face

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 79 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 80

CSG Example
ADD SALIENT FEATURES OF SOLID MODELING

es
FEATURE-BASED DESIGN
• The most fundamental aspect in creating a solid model is the concept of feature-based
design.
• In typical 2-D CAD applications, a designer draws a part by adding basic geometric
+ =
ot
elements such as lines, arcs, circles and splines.
• In solid modeling a 3-D design is created by starting a base feature and then adding other
features, one at a time, until the accurate and complete representation of the part’s
geometry is achieved.
• A feature is a basic building block that describes the design, like a keyway on a shaft.
hn

Each feature indicates how to add material (like a rib) or remove a portion of material
REMOVE INTERSECT
(like a cut or a hole).
ec
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 81 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 82

SURFACE MODELING
Creating a Surface
• All physical objects are 3-dimensional.
• In a number of cases, it is sufficient to describe the boundary of a solid object in order A surface can be created in several ways:
to specify its shape without ambiguity. This fact is illustrated in Fig.. i. Creating a plane surface by the linear sweep of
• The boundary is a collection of faces forming a closed surface
a line or series of lines.
ii. Revolving a straight line about an axis.
Cylindrical, conical surfaces etc. can be generated
by this technique.
iii. Revolving a curve about an axis.
iv. Combination of plane surfaces.
v. Analytic surfaces: Planes, cylinders, cones, ellipsoid, parabolic hyperboloid etc can be
defined by mathematical equations in terms of X, Y and Z co-ordinates.
vi. Sculptured surfaces: These are also called free form surfaces. These are created by
spline curves in one or both directions in a 3-D space. These surfaces are used in the
manufacture of car body panels, aircraft structures, mixed flow impellers, telephone
instruments, plastic containers and several consumer and engineering products.
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 83 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 84

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 14

 Application of Surface modeling
Modeling of curves and surfaces is essential to describe objects
that are encountered in several areas of mechanical engineering
design. Curves and surfaces are the basic building blocks in the
following designs:
i. Body panels of passenger cars
ii. Aircraft bulk heads and other fuselage structures, slats,
flaps, wings etc.

iii. Marine structures

iv. Consumer products like plastic containers, telephones etc.
v. Engineering products like mixed flow impellers, foundry patterns etc A curve has one
degree of freedom while a surface has two degrees of freedom. This means that a point on
a curve can be moved in only one independent direction while on surfaces it has two
independent directions to move. This is shown in Fig.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 85 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 86

es
ot
hn
ec
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 87 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 88

Introduction
• We need smooth curves and surfaces in many
Representing Curves applications:
•
and Surfaces •
model real world objects
computer-aided design (CAD)
• high quality fonts
• data plots
• artists sketches

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 90

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 15

 Curve algorithm Curve algorithm
• General curve shape may be generated using
method of
• Interpolation (also known as curve fitting)
• Curve will pass through control points
• Approximation
• Curve will pass near control points may interpolate the start
and end points.

interpolation approximation

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 91 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 92

Parametric cubic curves

Interpolation vs approximation
f(x) f(x) es
1. Explicit functions:
ot
• y = f(x), z = g(x)
• impossible to get multiple values for a single x
• break curves like circles and ellipses into segments
hn

• not invariant with rotation

x x
curve must pass through curve is influenced by control • rotation might require further segment breaking
control points points • problem with curves with vertical tangents
• infinite slope is difficult to represent
f(x) f(x)
ec
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x
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof x 93 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 94

Parametric cubic curves Parametric cubic curves

2. Implicit equations: 3. Parametric representation:
• f(x,y,z) = 0 • x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t)
• equation may have more solutions than we want • overcomes problems with explicit and implicit forms
• circle: x² + y² = 1, half circle: ? • no geometric slopes (which may be infinite)
• problem to join curve segments together • parametric tangent vectors instead (never infinite)
• difficult to determine if their tangent directions agree at their • a curve is approximated by a piecewise polynomial curve
joint point

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 95 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 96

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 16

 Parametric cubic curves Parametric cubic curves
• Major types of curves: • General form:
• Hermit or cubic
• defined by two endpoints and two tangent vectors x(t )  a x t 3  bx t 2  c x t  d x
• Bezier y (t )  a y t 3  by t 2  c y t  d y
• defined by two endpoints and two other points that control the
endpoint tangent vectors z (t )  a z t 3  bz t 2  c z t  d z
• Splines ax ay az 
• several kinds, each defined by four points b by bz 
C T  [t 3
x
• uniform B-splines, non-uniform B-splines, ß-splines t2 t 1]
 cx cy cz 
 
d x dy d z 
Q(t )  [ x(t ) y (t ) z (t )]  T  C  T  M  G
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 97 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 98

Bezier curve
Hermit or cubic Spline Curve
es • 4 control points
• Curve passes through first & last control point
ot
• Curve is tangent at P1 to (P1-P2) and at P4 to (P4-P3)
hn

P1 P2
ec

P3
P0
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 99 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 100

REPRESENTATION OF CURVES AND SURFACES

A curve or a surface may be described or represented by a set of equations. These

Properties of a Bézier Curve equations can be categorized into two forms:

i. Generic form
The generic form in which any generic point (x, y, z) satisfies a relationship in implicit form in
x, y, and z i.e. f(x, y, z) = 0. A single such constraint generally describes a surface while two
constraints considered together can be thought of as a curve which is the intersection of two
surfaces. This may be expressed in an explicit form in the following manner:
x = g1(y, z) y = g2(x, z) z = g3(x, y)
Parabola Curve Cubic Curve
ii. Parametric form
A parametric curve is one whose defining equations are in terms of a simple, common
independent variable known as parametric variable. In the parametric form, the representation
is done by a set of functions. A curve may be represented by
Cubic Curve
x = x (u) y = y (u) z = z (u)
where x, y, z are co-ordinates of the points on the curve which are functions of some
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 101 parameter u and the parametric variable is constrained
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Profin the interval. 102

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 17

 For example, a point (x, y) is located at an angle θθfrom +X axis on a circle with
centre at (0, 0) and radius = 1 can be described in parametric form as:
x = Cos θ
Solid
y = Sin θ
where θ is the parameter. Surfaces are described similarly for which x, y
and z are functions two independent parameters u and v.
Modeling Techniques
Parametric design is very popular in computer aided design for a variety of reasons,
which are listed below:
• Separation of variables
• Each variable is treated alike
• More degrees of freedom/control
• Parametric equations can be transformed directly
• Infinite slopes can be handled without computational breakdown
• Easy to express as vectors
• Amenable to plotting and digitizing
• Inherently bounded

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 103 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 104

Solid Modeling Techniques

Six common Modeling Techniques: es

ot
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
Boundary Representation
hn

Spatial Enumeration
Cell Decomposition
ec

Sweep Methods
Primitive Instancing
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 105 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 106

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 107 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 108

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 18

 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 109 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 110

Spatial Occupancy Enumeration

es
• Space is described as a regular array of cells
(usually cubes). Each cell is called a Voxel
• A 3D object is represented as a list of filled voxels
ot
hn
ec
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 111 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 112

Spatial Occupancy Enumeration

• Pros:
–Easy to verify if a point (a voxel) is inside or
outside an object
– Boolean operations are easy to apply
• Cons:
– Memory costs are high
– Resolution is limited to size and shape of voxel

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 113 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 114

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 19

 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 115 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 116

Primitive Instancing
• Define a family of parameterized objects
• The definition is procedural (a routine defines it)
• Not general, must be individually defined for each
esRepresenting Curves and
ot
family of objects
Surfaces
hn
ec
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 117

Introduction Curve algorithm

• We need smooth curves and surfaces in many • General curve shape may be generated using
applications: method of
• Interpolation (also known as curve fitting)
• model real world objects
• Curve will pass through control points
• computer-aided design (CAD)
• Approximation
• high quality fonts • Curve will pass near control points may interpolate the start
• data plots and end points.
• artists sketches

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 119 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 120

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 20

 Curve algorithm Interpolation vs approximation
f(x) f(x)

x x
curve must pass through curve is influenced by control
control points points
f(x) f(x)
interpolation approximation

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 121 x

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof x 122

Parametric cubic curves

1. Explicit functions: es
Parametric cubic curves
2. Implicit equations:
ot
• y = f(x), z = g(x) • f(x,y,z) = 0
• impossible to get multiple values for a single x • equation may have more solutions than we want
• break curves like circles and ellipses into segments
• circle: x² + y² = 1, half circle: ?
hn

• not invariant with rotation • problem to join curve segments together

• rotation might require further segment breaking
• difficult to determine if their tangent directions agree at their
• problem with curves with vertical tangents joint point
• infinite slope is difficult to represent
ec
M

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 123 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 124

Parametric cubic curves Parametric cubic curves

3. Parametric representation: • Major types of curves:
• x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t) • Hermit or cubic
• overcomes problems with explicit and implicit forms • defined by two endpoints and two tangent vectors
• no geometric slopes (which may be infinite) • Bezier
• parametric tangent vectors instead (never infinite) • defined by two endpoints and two other points that control the
endpoint tangent vectors
• a curve is approximated by a piecewise polynomial curve
• Splines
• several kinds, each defined by four points
• uniform B-splines, non-uniform B-splines, ß-splines

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 125 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 126

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 21

 Parametric cubic curves Hermit or cubic Spline Curve
• General form:
x(t )  a x t 3  bx t 2  c x t  d x
y (t )  a y t 3  by t 2  c y t  d y
z (t )  a z t 3  bz t 2  c z t  d z
ax ay az 
b by bz 
C T  [t 3 t 2 t 1]
x

 cx cy cz 
 
d x dy d z 
Q(t )  [ x(t ) y (t ) z (t )]  T  C  T  M  G
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 127 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 128

Bezier curve
• 4 control points
• Curve passes through first & last control point es Properties of a Bézier Curve
ot
• Curve is tangent at P1 to (P1-P2) and at P4 to (P4-P3)
hn

P1 P2
Parabola Curve Cubic Curve
ec

P3
P0 Cubic Curve
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 129 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 130

MET71 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (3 1 0 4) Unit – IV

VISUAL REALISM
VISUAL REALISM & MODELING SOFTWARES
 Visualization can be defined as a technique for creating
Unit – IV images, diagrams or animations to communicate ideas.
Hidden line-surface-solid removal algorithm-shading-colouring-
 The visual realism concentrates basically on the visual
animation
appearance of objects.
Parametric and variational modeling, Feature based modeling,
An overview of modeling software like PRO-E, CATIA, IDEAS, SOLID
EDGE and other advanced Softwares. (09 hours)

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 131 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 132

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 22

 Unit – IV
 Visualization in  Visualization in scientific
VISUAL REALISM
geometric modeling computing
 Visualization can be defined as a technique for creating
images, diagrams or animations to communicate ideas.
 The visual realism concentrates basically on the visual
appearance of objects.
 Visualization can be classified as :
 Visualization in geometric modeling
 Visualization in scientific computing

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 133 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 134

Visibility Techniques

Existing visualization methods are:

Parallel projections es visibility technique normally checks the overlapping of
pairs of polygons in the viewing plane
ot
 Minimax test
Perspective projection
 Containment test
Hidden line removal
hn

 Surface test
Hidden surface removal
 Computing Silhouettes
Hidden solid removal  Edge intersection
ec

Shaded models  Segment comparisons

 Homogeneity test.
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 135 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 136

Minimax test
Containment test
Checks whether the polygons overlap or not. To check the vertices of one polygon for containment in the
other

Containment proceeds:
If the sum of the angles is equal to zero, point P is
outside the polygon.
These inequalities is true, the two polygons do not overlap (b) If the sum is equal to 360°, point P is inside the
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 137 polygon. R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 138

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 23

 Back face /Surface test Computing Silhouettes
Silhouettes – the edges that separate visible from
To remove faces in the back of an object invisible faces in an object

Faces whose surface normal has a

 positive component in z direction are visible and If an edge belongs to two visible faces, it is
visible but not a part of the silhouette
 negative z component are not visible
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 139 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 140

Hidden Line Elimination Process

Hidden Line Removal

es Three dimensional object data

Two-dimensional (2D) image data

ot
Sorting of 2D image data
hn

Applications of visibility techniques

ec

Elimination of hidden lines

Display the results

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 141 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 142

Hidden surface removal Hidden Solid Removal

Warnock’s Algorithm The hidden solid removal issue involves the view of solid
models with hidden line or surface eliminated.
2 3 2 2 • Regions labeled with case Ray-Tracing algorithm
used to classify them:
1) One polygon in front
3 3 3 2 2) Empty
3
3 3) One polygon inside,
3 1 3 surrounding or
1 intersecting
1 1 1 3 • Small regions not labeled
3
3 3
3
2 3 3 3

2 2 2 2

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 143 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 144

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 24

 Shading Techniques
Shading Constant Shading
• Calculate one lighting calculation (pick a vertex)
per triangle
• Color the entire triangle the same color
Gouraud Shading
• Calculate three lighting calculations (the vertices)
per triangle
• Linearly interpolate the colors as you scan convert
Phong Shading
Image with edge lines Image without edge lines Image with Shading
• While you scan convert, linearly interpolate the
normals.
• With the interpolated normal at each pixel,
calculate the lighting at each pixel
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 145 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 146

Constant Shading
Shading
• Shading is how we “color” a triangle. es
• Constant Intensity or Flat Shading
• One color for the entire triangle
• Fast
ot
• Constant Shading
• Good for some objects
• Gouraud Shading • What happens if triangles are small?
hn

• Phong Shading • Sudden intensity changes at borders

ec
M

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 147 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 148

Gouraud Shading Phong Shading

• Intensity Interpolation Shading • Interpolate the normal, since that is the information
• Calculate lighting at the vertices. Then interpolate that represents the “curvature”
the colors as you scan convert • Linearly interpolate the vertex normals. For each
pixel, as you scan convert, calculate the lighting per
pixel.
• True “per pixel” lighting
• Not done by most hardware/libraries/etc

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 149 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 150

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 25

 Colouring Color Models

Reflected light = color of object  RGB Color Model

 CMY Color Model
 YIQ Color Model
 HSV Color Model
 HSL Color Model
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 151 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 152

Color Cube
RGB Color Model

es
ot
hn
ec
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 153 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 154

CMY Color Model CMY Color Model

•CMY: Complements of RGB

•Used in light absorbing devices
•Hardcopy output devices
•Subtractive
•Color specified by what is subtracted from
white light
•Cyan absorbs red, magenta absorbs green,
and yellow absorbs blue

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 155 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 156

RHK Mech/ SMVEC 26

 CMY Color Model
RGB and CMY
• W = (0, 0, 0) B = (1, 1, 1)
• Conversion from RGB to CMY • Converting between RGB and CMY
C  R 
   
M
   1  G 
Y  B 

R  C 
• Conversion
  from CMY
 to RGB
G
   1  M 
B  Y 
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 157 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 158

YIQ Color Model

• Used in U.S. commercial color-TV broadcasting
• Recoding of RGB for transmission efficiency
es
YIQ Color Model

• YIQ
ot
• Backward compatible with black-and-white TV • Y: luminance
• Transmitted using NTSC (National Television System • I, Q: chromaticity
Committee) standard • Only Y shown in black-and-white TV
hn

• RGB  YIQ

Y   0.299 0.587 0.114  R 

    
ec

I 
   0.596  0 .275  0.321G 
Q   0.212  0.528 0.311  B 
    
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 159 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 160

HSV Color Model

• HSV = Hue, Saturation, and Value HSV Color Model
• A.k.a. HSB, where B is Brightness Color Cube Hexcone
• RGB, CMY, and YIQ: hardware-oriented
• HSV and HLS: user-oriented
• Cylinder coordinate system
• Space: hexcone
• hexagon is obtained from the color cube in
isometric projection
• (h, s, v), where h  [0, 360) and s, v  [0, 1]
• hue: angle round the hexagon
• saturation: distance from the center
• value: axis through the center
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RHK Mech/ SMVEC 27

 HLS Color Model HLS Color Model
• HLS: Hue, Lightness, and Saturation
• Double cones
• Cylinder coordinate system
• Space: double cone
• base is from the hexagon as in HSV
• (h, l, s), where h  [0, 360) and s, v  [0, 1]
• hue: angle round the base
• lightness: axis through the center
• saturation: distance from the center
• W = (-, 0, 1)
• B = (-, 0, 0)
• R = (0, 0.5, 1), Y = (60, 0.5, 1), …

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 163 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 164

Computer Animation
HSV Color Model
• W = (-, 0, 1)
• B = (-, 0, 0) es
The art of creating moving images via the use of
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computers
• R = (0, 1, 1)
Y = (60, 1, 1) The use of computers to create animations : also
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• Adding white pigments  S
The modeling, motion generation, addition of
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• Adding black pigments  V

• Creating tones  S and V surfaces and then rendering
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 165 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 166

Steps of a simple computer animation Displaying animation sequences

1. Creating animation sequences

• object definition
• Movies work by fooling our eyes
• path specification (for an object or a camera)
• key frames
• in-betweening • A sequence of static images presented in a quick
succession appears as continuous flow
2. Displaying the sequences
• raster animation
• colour-table animation
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RHK Mech/ SMVEC 28

 What techniques used for Wally B.? What do you think Wally B’s going to do?

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 169 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 170

The Action: Zooooooooooommmm!

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Termination: Poof! He’s gone!
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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 171 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 172

UNIT – V
MET71 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (3 1 0 4)
STANDARDS FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS

CAD STANDARDS & DATA STRUCTURES  Graphic software needs standards since the software becomes inevitably
device- dependent.
Unit – V  If input/output devices change or become obsolete, its related software
Standards for computer graphics (GKS) and Data exchange standards becomes obsolete.
 If the existing software to run on the new equipment is prohibitive (non-
– IGES, STEP. Standard for exchange images (open GL) compatible), the procedure to make it run is time consuming.
Data structures for Entity storage – Data structures for interactive  There are four major benefits of introducing standards for basic computer
graphics.
modelling- Relational databases (09 hours)  They are
 Application program portability. This avoids hardware dependence
of the program.
 Picture data portability. Description and storage of pictures should
be independent of different graphics devices.
 Text portability.
 Object data base portability.

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RHK Mech/ SMVEC 29

 Graphical Kernel System (GKS) Kernel System (GKS) Functional Description, ANSI X3.124-1985) consists of
three basic parts:
GKS (the Graphical Kernel System) is an ANSI and ISO standard. GKS 1. An informal exposition of the contents of the standard which includes such
things as how text is positioned, how polygonal areas are to be filled, and
standardizes two-dimensional graphics functionality at a relatively low level.
so forth.
The primary purposes of the standard are: 2. A formalization of the expository material in 1. by way of abstracting the
 To provide for portability of graphics application programs. ideas into discrete functional descriptions. These functional descriptions
contain such information as descriptions of input and output parameters,
 To aid in the understanding of graphics methods by application
precise descriptions of the effect each function should have, references into
programmers. the expository material in 1., and a description of error conditions. The
 To provide guidelines for manufacturers in describing useful functional descriptions in this section are language independent.
3. Language bindings. These bindings are an implementation of the abstract
graphics capabilities.
functions described in 2. in a specific computer language such as Fortran or
The GKS Standard (as described in the actual standard Ada or C.
document: Computer Graphics - Graphical GKS stratifies its functionality into twelve functional levels, depending on the
complexity of the graphical input and output. There are four levels of output (m,
0, 1, 2) and three levels of input (A, B, C). NCAR GKS contains a full
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 175
implementation of the GKS Fortran and C bindings at level 0A.
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 176

INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION (IGES) GRAPHICS Table shows the IGES output of the wire frame model.
STANDARD

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The IGES committee was established in the year 1979. The CAD/CAM Integrated
Information Network (CIIN) of Boeing served as the preliminary basis of IGES. IGES version 1.0
was released in 1980. IGES continues to undergo revisions. IGES is a popular data exchange
standard today.
Figure shows a CAD model of a plate with a centre hole.
The wire frame model of the component is shown in Fig.
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There are eight vertices (marked as PNT 0 - PNT 8), 12 edges and two circles that form the
entities of the model.
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IGES files can also be generated for:

3-D Model of a Plate R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 177 i. Surfaces ii. Datum curves and points
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 178

OTHER DATA EXCHANGE FORMATS

PRODUCT DATA EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION (PDES)
 There are several existing alternative data exchange formats.
 A likely alternative to IGES is the product data exchange specification
 These include the Standard Product Data Exchange Format (SDF) of Vought
(PDES) developed by IGES organization.
Corporation (available for CADAM, CADDS-5, PATRAN, and PRIME etc.)
 PDES is aimed at defining a more conceptual model.
 Standard Interchange Format (SIF) of Intergraph Corporation (available for
 Parts will be based on solids and defined in terms of features such as
Applicon, Autotrol, and Calma etc.), ICAM Product Data Definition
holes, flanges, or ribs.
Interface (PDDI), and VDA sculptured surface Interface (VDAFS),
 Instead of dimensions PDES will define a tolerance envelope for the
Electronic Design Interchange Format (EDIF), Transfer and Archiving of
parts to be manufactured.
Product Definition Data (TAP) etc.
 PDES will also contain non-geometric information such as materials
 Another alternative to IGES is the neutral format outlined in ANSI Y14.26M
used, manufacturing process and suppliers.
standard.
 PDES will be a complete computer model of the part.
 It must be noted here that some of the features of many of these alternatives
are superior to that of IGES.
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RHK Mech/ SMVEC 30

 Standard for the Exchange of Product model data (STEP)
STEP is an ISO STandard for the Exchange of Product Model Data. As such it
STEP is the name of the international standard ISO-10303 on is an internationally agreed-to method for data exchange with many benefits:
Industrial automation systems and integration - Product data
representation and exchange.  Users throughout the world can exchange data among application programs
STEP is developed and maintained by the Technical Committee TC184 written by different software developers without the need or cost of data
Technical Industrial automation systems and integration Sub- reentry or reformatting. For example, the exchange of CAD data files
Committee SC4 on Industrial data within the International Standard among users of different drawing systems was one of the first benefits of
Organization ISO. STEP.
 STEP is also often associated as an abbreviation for STandard for the  The data exchange methodology will be persistent, that is, its application will
Exchange of Product Model Data. enable future software developers to develop new software and applications
 The focus of STEP is the representation of product model data in a that can use and exchange data developed by current systems, eliminating the
computer sensible way. This allows: need to accommodate the new software or newer versions of software.
 exchange of data between different computer systems without human  All levels in the supply chain can now communicate unambiguously. Design
intervention. firms can exchange data with manufacturing firms without error or need for
 integration of data from different computer systems. interpretation. These manufacturers can then involve smaller enterprises as
 Of course STEP is also ideally suited for human interaction because it subcontractors and pass the information to them for use on their systems.
allows to unambiguously describe various kinds of product data.

R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 181

http://www.okstate.edu/ind-engr/step/WEBFILES/Pastactivities/handout.htm
R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 182

RELATIONAL DATABASE

A relational database is a collection of data items organized as a set of

formally-described tables from which data can be accessed or reassembled in
many different ways without having to reorganize the database tables. The es Revision
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 A relational database is a set of tables containing data fitted into predefined &
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categories.
 Each table (which is sometimes called a relation) contains one or more
data categories in columns.
 Each row contains a unique instance of data for the categories defined by
Question Bank
the columns.
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 For example, a typical business order entry database would include a

table that described a customer with columns for name, address, phone
number, and so forth.
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http://searchsqlserver.techtarget.com/definition/relational-database
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RHK Mech/ SMVEC 31

 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 187 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 188

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R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 189 R.Hemanth Kumar, Asst Prof 190

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RHK Mech/ SMVEC 32