O p t i c s — 567

Optics Formulas

WINDOWS
Light Right-Hand Rule The quantity η0 is the wave Intensity Nomogram
impedance of vacuum, and η is the
Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave impedance of a medium with The nomogram below relates E, H,
wave. The electric E and magnetic M refractive index n. and the light intensity I in vacuum.
fields are perpendicular to each You may also use it for other area
other and to the propagation vector Wave Quantity Relationship units, for example, [V/mm], [A/mm]

BEAMSPLITTERS
k, as shown below. and [W/mm2]. If you change the
2π 2πn electrical units, remember to change
Power density is given by Poynting’s k= = the units of I by the product of the
vector, P, the vector product of E λ λ0 units of E and H: for example [V/m],
and H. You can easily remember the 2πnν nω [mA/m], [mW/m2] or [kV/m], [kA/m],
= =
directions if you “curl” E into H with c c [MW/m2].
the fingers of the right hand: your
thumb points in the direction of E I H

FILTERS & ATTENUATORS

c c [V/m] [W/m2] [A/m]
propagation. ν= =
λ 0 nλ 1000
k kc ω 1000
= = 2
E
2πn 2π 500
500

λ0
200 1
P c
P = E x H λ= =
nν n 100

2π 2πc

POLARIZATION OPTICS
H
= =
200 50 0.5
k nω
20
100
Light Intensity k: wave vector [radians/m] 10
0.2
5
The light intensity, I is measured in ν: frequency [Hertz] 50
Watts/m2, E in Volts/m, and H in 2
Amperes/m. The equations relating I ω: angular frequency [radians/sec] 0.1

ULTRAFAST LASER OPTICS

to E and H are quite analogous to 1
OHMS LAW. For peak values these λ: wavelength [m] 20 0.5 0.05
equations are:
λ0: wavelength in vacuum [m]
E E
E = ηH, H = , η=
η H n: refractive index
EH E2 ηH2
I= , I= , I= Energy Conversions
2 2η 2

( )[ ]
2I
E = 2ηI , H = Wave Number ν cm −1
η
ACCESSORIES

( )
4
η0 = 377 ohms Ω 10
=
λ 0 [ µm ]
η0
η=
n
( )
Electron volts eV per photon
1.242
=
λ 0 [ µm ]
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WINDOWS 568 — O p t i c s

Wavelength Conversions The nomogram relates wavenumber, Snell’s Law

photon energy and wavelength.
1 nm = 10 Angstroms(Å) Snell’s Law describes how a light ray
1/λ hv
= 10–9m = 10–7cm = 10–3µm [cm—1] [µm] [nm] [eV]
behaves when it passes from a
medium with index of refraction n1,
Plane Polarized Light 106 0.01 100 10
to a medium with a different index
SOFT X—RAY
100 of refraction, n2. In general the light
For plane polarized light the E and will enter the interface between the
BEAMSPLITTERS

H fields remain in perpendicular two medii at an angle. This angle is

planes parallel to the propagation called the angle of incidence. It is
vector k as shown below. VACCUM UV the angle measured between the
105 0.1 103 102 normal to the surface (interface) and
10
the incoming light beam (see
x
NEAR UV figure). In the case that n1 is smaller
λ k VIOLET than n2, the light is bent towards the
normal. If n1 is greater than n2, the
FILTERS & ATTENUATORS

RED
104 1 104 103 light is bent away from the normal
1 (see figure below). Snell’s Law is
E
NEAR IR expressed as n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2.

H
103 10 105 104 n1
0.1
θ1
n2
POLARIZATION OPTICS

Both E and H oscillate in time and

FAR IR
space as:
102 102 106 105
0.01
sin (ωt-kx)
θ2

n2 > n1
ULTRAFAST LASER OPTICS

n1
n2

θ1

θ2
ACCESSORIES

n1 > n2
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 O p t i c s — 569

WINDOWS
Beam Displacement Beam Deviation Angular Deviation of a Prism

A flat piece of glass can be used to Both displacement and deviation Angular deviation of a prism
displace a light ray laterally without occur if the media on the two sides depends on the prism angle α, the
changing its direction. The of the tilted flat are different—for refractive index, n, and the angle of
displacement varies with the angle example, a tilted window in a fish incidence θi. Minimum deviation
of incidence; it is zero at normal tank. The displacement is the same, occurs when the ray within the
incidence and equals the thickness but the angular deviation δ is given prism is normal to the bisector of

BEAMSPLITTERS
h of the flat at grazing incidence. by the formula. Note that δ is the prism angle. For small prism
independent of the index of the flat; angles (optical wedges), the
(Grazing incidence: light incident at it is the same as if a single boundary deviation is constant over a fairly
almost or close to 90° to the normal existed between media 1 and 3. wide range of angles around normal
of the surface). incidence. For such wedges the
Example: The refractive index of air deviation is:
n1 at STP is about 1.0003. The deviation
of a light ray passing through a glass δ ≈ (n - 1)α

FILTERS & ATTENUATORS

n2
θ1 Brewster’s angle window on a HeNe
n1 laser is then:
α
d
δ= (n3 - n1) tan θ
θi
h
At Brewster’s angle, tan θ= n2

δ= (0.0003) x 1.5 = 0.45 mrad δ

 

POLARIZATION OPTICS
 
1 − cos θ1 
At 10,000 ft. altitude, air pressure is n
d = h sin θ1 2/3 that at sea level; the deviation is
 2 
  n2   0.30 mrad. This change may misalign
  − sin θ1 
2
 the laser if its two windows are
  n1   symmetrical rather than parallel.
  90

The relationship between the tilt n1

θ1

ULTRAFAST LASER OPTICS

DEVIATION (DEGREES)

angle of the flat and the two n2 60

different refractive indices is shown n3 α
in the graph below. 60¡

45¡
1.0 30 30¡
δ
DISPLACEMENT/THICKNESS (d/h)

10¡

N2
= 4 0
N1 0 30 60 90
2 n  INCIDENT ANGLE (DEGREES)
0.5
δ = θ1 − sin −1  1 sin θ1 
ACCESSORIES

1.5
 n3 
( )
≅ n3 − n 1 tan θ1 , if n3 ⊕n 1

0
0 30 60 90
TILT ANGLE (DEGREES)
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WINDOWS 570 — O p t i c s

Prism Total Internal Field Reflection and Polarization

Reflection (TIR) Transmission Coefficients:
To simplify reflection and
TIR depends on a clean glass-air The field reflection and transmission transmission calculations, the
interface. Reflective surfaces must coefficients are given by: incident electric field is broken into
be free of foreign materials. TIR may two plane polarized components.
also be defeated by decreasing the r = Er/Ei t = Et/Ei The plane of incidence is denoted by
incidence angle beyond a critical the “wheel” in the pictures below.
BEAMSPLITTERS

value. For a right angle prism of Non-normal Incidence: The normal to the surface and all
index n, rays should enter the prism propagation vectors (ki, kr, kt) lie in
face at an angle θ: rs = (nicosθi -ntcosθt)/(nicosθi + this plane.
ntcosθt)
θ < arcsin (((n2-1)1/2-1)/√2) E parallel to the plane of incidence;
rp = (ntcos θi -nicosθt)/ntcosθi + p-polarized.
In the visible range, θ = 5.8° for BK 7 nicosθt)
(n = 1.517) and 2.6° for fused silica
FILTERS & ATTENUATORS

NORMAL TO SURFACE
(n = 1.46). Finally, prisms increase ts = 2nicosθi/(nicosθi + ntcosθt)
the optical path. Although effects PLANE OF
INCIDENCE
Er
kr
are minimal in laser applications, tp = 2nicosθi/(ntcosθi + nicosθt) θr

θi
focus shift and chromatic effects in Hr

divergent beams should be Power Reflection: Ei

considered. ki SURFACE

The power reflection and Hi

Et
Fresnel Equations: transmission coefficients are θt Ht

denoted by capital letters: Kt

POLARIZATION OPTICS

i - incident medium
R = r2 T = t2(ntcosθt)/(nicosθi)
t - transmitted medium
The refractive indices account for E normal to the plane of incidence;
use Snell’s law to find θt the different light velocities in the s-polarized.
two media; the cosine ratio corrects
Normal Incidence: for the different cross sectional
areas of the beams on the two sides PLANE OF Hr
ULTRAFAST LASER OPTICS

r = (ni-nt)/(ni + nt) of the boundary. INCIDENCE

θr
Er
kr

θi

t = 2ni/(ni + nt) The intensities (watts/area) must Hi

also be corrected by this geometric Ei ki SURFACE
Brewster's Angle: obliquity factor: Ht
Et

θβ = arctan (nt/ni) It = T x Ii(cosθi/cosθt) θt

Kt

Only s-polarized light reflected. Conservation of Energy:

Total Internal Reflection R+T=1

ACCESSORIES

(TIR):
This relation holds for p and s
θTIR > arcsin (nt/ni) components individually and for
total power.
nt < ni is required for TIR
TECHNICAL REFERENCE

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 O p t i c s — 571

Power Reflection Thin Lens Equations Magnification:

Coefficients

WINDOWS
y2 s
If a lens can be characterized by a Transverse: MT = =− 2
Power reflection coefficients Rs and single plane then the lens is “thin”. y1 s1
Rp are plotted linearly and Various relations hold among the
logarithmically for light traveling quantities shown in the figure. MT < 0, image inverted
from air (ni = 1) into BK 7 glass (nt = 1 1 1 ∆x 2 2
1.51673). Brewster’s angle = 56.60°. Gaussian: + = Longitudinal: ML = = −MT
s1 s2 F ∆x1
FRESNEL REFLECTION FOR BK 7
1.0 ML <0, no front to back inversion

BEAMSPLITTERS
1→N Newtonian: x1x2 = -F2
FRACTION REFLECTED

0.8

0.6
BREWSTER’S ANGLE
56.60
0.4 ∆X2
Rs Y1
0.2
Rp

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

FILTERS & ATTENUATORS

INCIDENT ANGLE (DEGREES)
∆X1 Y2
FRESNEL REFLECTION FOR BK 7
0
LOG FRACTION REFLECTED

1→N Rs X1 F F X2
-1
S1 S2
-2
Rp
-3

-4
BREWSTER’S ANGLE
Sign Conventions for Images Thick Lenses
56.60 and Lenses

POLARIZATION OPTICS
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 A thick lens cannot be characterized
Quantity + -
INCIDENT ANGLE (DEGREES)
by a single focal length measured
s1 real virtual
s2 real virtual
from a single plane. A single focal
The corresponding reflection F convex lens concave lens
length F may be retained if it is
coefficients are shown below for measured from two planes, H1, H2, at
light traveling from BK 7 glass into distances P1, P2 from the vertices of
air Brewster’s angle = 33.40°. Critical Lens Types for Minimum the lens, V1, V2. The two back focal
angle (TIR angle) = 41.25°. Aberration lengths, BFL1 and BFL2, are

ULTRAFAST LASER OPTICS

measured from the vertices. The thin
| s2/s1 | Best lens
1.0
FRESNEL REFLECTION FOR BK 7 lens equations may be used,
<0.2 plano-convex/concave
N→1
>5 plano-convex/concave
provided all quantities are
FRACTION REFLECTED

0.8
>0.2 or <5 bi-convex/concave measured from the principal planes.
CRITICAL ANGLE
0.6 41.25

BREWSTER’S
0.4 ANGLE
33.40 Rs
0.2
Rp BFL1 TC BFL2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
INCIDENT ANGLE (DEGREES) P1 P2
ACCESSORIES

FRESNEL REFLECTION FOR BK 7

0
N→1
LOG FRACTION REFLECTED

H2 V2
Rs
-1 V1 H1
CRITICAL ANGLE
Rp 41.25
-2

-3
BREWSTER’S ANGLE
33.40 F X2
-4 X1 F
TECHNICAL REFERENCE

S1 S2
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
INCIDENT ANGLE (DEGREES)

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 572 — O p t i c s

Lens Nomogram:
WINDOWS

This nomogram solves the Gaussian Lens equation. 10 The dotted line shows the example S1 = 12,
18 6
Enter any two of S1, S2 or F, and draw a straight F = 4, S2 = 6 or the example S1 = 4, F = 1.33,
3
6 16 line to find the third. Two different scales are S2 = 2. You may multiply by powers of 10 and 18
given, one on the clockwise sides of the 8 use any units. 5
14 axes and one on the counter- 16
5 clockwise sides. F
12 4 14
2 6
4 10 12
3
8 10
3 4
BEAMSPLITTERS

S1 S2
6 2 8
1
2 4 6
2 1
This nomogram is simply three 2 4 This nomogram may also be used to find
uniform scales intersecting at 60°. 1 the impedance of parallel resistors, parallel
You may make you r own in any size. 2 inductors or series capacitors, or their duals.
0
FILTERS & ATTENUATORS

The Lensmaker’s Equation Numerical Aperture Constants and Prefixes

Convex surfaces facing left have φMAX is the full angle of the cone of Speed of light in vacuum c = 2.998108 m/s
Planck’s const. h = 6.625 x 10-34Js
positive radii. Below, R1>0, R2<0. light rays that can pass through the Boltzmann’s const. k = 1.308 x 10-23 J/K
Principal plane offsets, P, are system (below). Stefan-Boltzmann σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4
positive to the right. As illustrated, 1 electron volt eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J
P1>0, P2<0. The thin lens focal length φ  exa (E) 1018
NA = n0 sin  MAX 
is given when Tc = 0.  2  peta (P) 1015
tera (T) 1012
POLARIZATION OPTICS

giga (G) 109

TC mega (M) 106
P1 P2
D kilo (k) 103
milli (m) 10-3
n n
0 micro (µ) 10-6
V1 H2 H1 V2 nano (n) 10-9
R2 pico (p) 10-12
R1 femto (f) 10-15
atto (a) 10-18
ULTRAFAST LASER OPTICS

F
SYSTEM

1

( )1
= n −1  −
1
+
n − 1 Tc 
 ( ) For small φ:
F  R1 R2 nR1R2 
 
F 1
f /# = ≈

P1 = −
( )
F n − 1 Tc D 2 NA

nR2
Both f-number and NA refer to the

( )
system and not the exit lens.
ACCESSORIES

F n − 1 Tc
P2 = −
nR1
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 O p t i c s — 573

Wavelengths of Common Diffraction Depth of Focus (DOF)

WINDOWS
Lasers
The figure below compares the far- DOF = (8λ/π)(f/#)2
Source (nm) field intensity distributions of a
ArF 193
uniformly illuminated slit, a circular Only if DOF <F, then:
KrF 248
Nd:YAG(4) 266
hole, and Gaussian distributions
XeCl 308 with 1/e2 diameters of D and 0.66D New Waist Diameter
HeCd 325, 441.6 (99% of a 0.66D Gaussian will pass
N2 337.1, 427 through an aperture of diameter D).  4λ   4λ   F 
2ω0 =   (f /#) =    

BEAMSPLITTERS
XeF 351 The point of observation is Y off axis  π  π   D
Nd:YAG(3) 354.7 at a distance X>Y from the source.
Ar 488, 514.5, 351.1, 363.8
Cu 510.6, 578.2
Nd:YAG(2) 532 0
Beam Spread
0.66 D

HeNe 632.8, 543.5, 594.1, 611.9, 1153, 1523 D

Kr 647.1, 676.4
-1.0
θ = (f /#)−1
LOG INTENSITY

D
Ruby 694.3 -2.0

Nd:Glass 1060

FILTERS & ATTENUATORS

Nd:YAG 1064, 1319 -3.0 D

Ho:YAG 2100
-4.0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Er:YAG 2940 DY/ λX

Gaussian Intensity Focusing a Collimated

Distribution Gaussian Beam

The Gaussian intensity distribution: In the figure below the 1/e2 radius,
ω(x), and the wavefront curvature,

POLARIZATION OPTICS
I(r) = I(0) exp(-2r2/ω02) R(x), change with x through a beam
waist at x = 0. The governing
is shown below. equations are:

(
ω2(x) = ω20 1 + λx / ω20  )
1.0 0 2

 
RELATIVE INTENSITY


( 
)
2
R(x) = x 1 + πω 0 / λx
2
0.5 0.5
 
e-1 0.63

ULTRAFAST LASER OPTICS

0.01
e-2 0.865

0
0 1 2
1.0 2ω0 is the waist diameter at the 1/e2
0.23 0.59 0.71 1.52
NORMALIZED RADIUS (r/ω0) intensity points. The wavefronts are
planar at the waist [R(0) = ∞].
The right hand ordinate gives the
fraction of the total power encircled At the waist, the distance from the
at radius r: lens will be approximately the focal
length: s2≈F.
[
P(r) = P(∞) 1 − exp −2r2 / ω20 ( )]
D = collimated beam diameter or
diameter illuminated on lens.
ACCESSORIES

The total beam power, P(∞) [watts],

and the on-axis intensity I(0) F
f-number ≡ f/# =
[watts/area] are related by: D

(
P(∞) = πω20 / 2 I(0) )
( )
D ω(X)
ω0
I(0) = 2 / πω P(∞) 2
0 θ X
TECHNICAL REFERENCE

X=0
R(X)
S2

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