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PHYS 352 Energy Loss by Electrons

This document discusses energy loss by electrons passing through matter. It describes two main processes that cause electrons to lose energy during passage: inelastic collisions with atomic electrons and elastic scattering off nuclei. The document then focuses specifically on differences in how electrons and heavy charged particles lose energy. It modifies the Bethe-Bloch formula to account for electrons, and discusses factors like large energy losses, bremsstrahlung emission, and quantum effects for electrons. Graphs compare the energy loss spectra of electrons to alphas and show broader distributions for electrons due to ionization energy losses.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
34 views8 pages

PHYS 352 Energy Loss by Electrons

This document discusses energy loss by electrons passing through matter. It describes two main processes that cause electrons to lose energy during passage: inelastic collisions with atomic electrons and elastic scattering off nuclei. The document then focuses specifically on differences in how electrons and heavy charged particles lose energy. It modifies the Bethe-Bloch formula to account for electrons, and discusses factors like large energy losses, bremsstrahlung emission, and quantum effects for electrons. Graphs compare the energy loss spectra of electrons to alphas and show broader distributions for electrons due to ionization energy losses.

Uploaded by

samuel_07
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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PHYS 352

Energy Loss by Electrons

Passage of Charged Particles through Matter

• two things happen: a) the particle loses energy traversing matter and b)
particle is deflected from its initial direction
• two main processes cause this: 1) inelastic collisions with atomic electrons in
the material and 2) elastic scattering off nuclei
• other processes also cause energy loss: 3) bremsstrahlung, 4) emission of
Cherenkov radiation (relative of bremsstrahlung), 5) nuclear reactions (rare,
lower probability)
• makes sense to separate the consideration of heavy charged particles and
light charged particles (i.e. electrons)
• heavy particles don’t undergo 3) and 4); 5) is rare; 2) is again less common
compared to 1)...and heavy particles don’t deflect much off electrons
• basically need only consider inelastic collision with atomic electrons for
energy loss of heavy charged particles
Differences between Electrons and
Heavy Charged Particles

• electrons are light and collide with other (atomic) electrons


• assumption that they are undeflected as they plow through matter is
invalid (i.e. large angle multiple scattering does occur)
• assumption that each energy loss event is a small fraction of the incident
energy is invalid (large energy loss possible electrons off electrons)
• scattering off identical particles; must take into account indistinguishability
(in the quantum sense)
• electrons are definitely relativistic, at nuclear energies
• electrons emit radiation as they lose energy, contributing to the energy loss
• bremsstrahlung
• Cherenkov radiation

Collision Energy Loss for Electrons

• modify the normal Bethe-Bloch formula


dE 4π k 2 e4 z 2 ρ Z N A 1 2meγ 2 v 2Wmax δ (βγ ) C(I, βγ )
− = B(v); B(v) = ln( ) − β2 − −
dx me c β
2 2
A 2 I 2
2 Z
• and it becomes, for electrons
dE 4π k 2 e4 z 2 ρ Z N A 1 τ 2 (τ + 2) F(τ ) δ (β ) C(I, β )
− = B(v); B(v) = ln + − −
dx me c β
2 2
A 2 2(I / me c )2 2
2 2 Z
• where τ=γ–1 is equal to the kinetic energy of the electron divided by mec2
τ2
• and the function F(τ): − (2τ + 1)ln 2
F(τ ) = 1 − β 2 + 8 , for electrons
(τ + 1)2
β2 14 10 4
F(τ ) = 2 ln 2 − [23 + + + ], for positrons
12 τ + 2 (τ + 2) (τ + 2)3
2

• why are electrons and positrons different?


• what’s the maximum energy transfer: electron colliding with an electron?
• what’s the maximum energy transfer: positron colliding with an electron?
answer: 1/2 K.E.incoming and 1 K.E.incoming
Straggling for Electrons

• previous slide accounted for the possibility of large energy loss in a single
collision and the effect of indistinguishability on the scattering cross section !"#$%&$'()*
and kinematics in the modified Bethe-Bloch formula
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Straggling Comparison: Electrons and Alphas


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Radiative Energy Loss for Electrons

• Cherenkov radiation – small, but will look at because it is interesting


• bremsstrahlung – radiative loss becomes dominant at high energies

Cherenkov Radiation

• EM “shock wave” occurs when vparticle > c/n; with emission at cos θ = 1/βn
• the electric field of the particle interacts with atoms in the material and the
particle is “right at” the atom before the field gets there

• Cherenkov spectrum goes as 1/λ2 (thus is peaked in the UV-blue)


• it’s the blue glow of a nuclear reactor
Aside: Radioactivity/Radiation, Does it Glow?

fiction

fact

Energy Loss from Cherenkov Radiation

• is already included in the Bethe-Bloch formula! how?


• remember the density effect? was the result of polarization and screening
of distant atoms from the charged particle; more important at higher
energies and more important for dense material
• as the charged particle zips through the material, polarization is induced and
then relaxes to zero after the particle has gone by - results in an EM
oscillation (or wave)
• the coherent sum at the shock wavefront, when the conditions are possible
for Cherenkov emission, is part of the density effect calculation
• the dE/dx for the Cherenkov portion of the energy loss is only about 1% of
the typical dE/dx value (in condensed materials)
Energy Loss from Bremsstrahlung

• occurs near the nucleus Coulomb field


not significant for heavy particles
• electron-electron bremsstrahlung is also possible until very high energies

σ ∝ ( mce 2 )2
2
• emission probability (bremsstrahlung cross section):
• bremsstrahlung cross section dσ/dν can be calculated from first principles
but there is screening of the nuclear charge
by the surrounding atomic electrons energy loss for e– and p in Cu
2
dσ 2⎛ e ⎞ 1
2
= 4α Z ⎜ {screening plus…}
dν ⎝ me c 2 ⎟⎠ ν 1 MeV
ν0
1 dσ
Φ rad =
E0 ∫ hν dν (E ,ν )dν
0
0

⎛ dE ⎞
− ⎜ ⎟ = N E0 Φ rad
⎝ dx ⎠ rad
ν 0 = E0 / h

Bremsstrahlung Energy Loss Clarified

• bremsstrahlung cross
2
section depends on mostly these terms
dσ ⎛ e2 ⎞ 1
= 4α Z 2 ⎜ {screening plus…}
dν ⎝ me c 2 ⎟⎠ ν
• with only a weak dependence on E0, the incident electron energy which is in
the { } in the equation above
• the fine structure constant α=1/137
• ν is the frequency of the emitted bremsstrahlung photon
• the total energy loss by bremsstrahlung radiation would be the number of
nuclear targets in the slice dx times
ν
the integral of the cross section times the
energy per photon − ⎛ dE ⎞ d σ 0

⎜⎝ = N hν

dx ⎠ rad ∫
(E , ν )dν
0

0

• and since the cross section goes approximately as 1/ν, inside the integral there
is no ν dependence and so integrates to terms times hν0 = E0
• thus, we can write ν
⎛ dE ⎞ 1 0

−⎜
⎝ dx ⎟⎠ rad
= N E0 Φ rad ; Φ rad =
E0 ∫ hν dν (E ,ν )dν
0
0

• which is just a way to say that dE/dX depends on E0 and an integral that
doesn’t because it is written so that E0 cancels (approximately)
Bremsstrahlung versus Ionization Energy Loss

• radiation loss increases linearly with E and goes as the square of Z


• ionization loss increases logarithmically with E and linearly with Z
• define critical energy: ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎛ dE ⎞
dE
=⎜ ⎟ for E = Ec
⎝ dx ⎠ rad ⎝ dx ⎠ collision
1600me c 2
• approximate formula for Ec (Bethe and Heitler): Ec 
Z

material Ec [MeV] material Lrad [cm]


Cu 24.8 Cu 1.43
Pb 9.51 Pb 0.56
air (STP) 102 air (STP) 30050
plastic 100 plastic 42.9
water 92 water 36.1

dE
• for E>Ec, radiation loss dominates and we re-write: − = N Φ rad dx
E
• defines the quantity radiation length Lrad: ⎛ −x ⎞
E(x) = E0 exp ⎜
⎝ Lrad ⎟⎠

Multiple Scattering

• multiple scattering causes the direction to change (and the total path length
travelled to be much longer than the penetration depth) and can be significant
for electrons
• normally dE/dx and scattering treated independently; but we know that’s not
true as large angle scattering comes from large momentum (energy) transfer
and a small angle scatter was a small energy transfer
• there are Gaussian approximation formulae describing angular distributions
no real point writing them out...
functions o f target atomic number Z. Values of eight constants to the equation is about 7 ~ .
ired. a function of Z only. Several equations to express the
s the relation between q and Z have been formulated through 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n energy region from about 10 to 100 keV, the coeffi
the simple theoretical treatments or semiempirical ap- In the detection and utilization of electrons, accurate fl is almost independent of T, and can be expresse
r of proaches 26-3°) (a brief review of previous works knowledge
is of backscattering is frequently required. a function of Z only. Several equations to express
s in- given in the appendix). At higher energies, the equa- One of the quantities featuring this phenomenon is the relation between q and Z have been formulated thro
ation
ange
Backscattering
tion for q should express the dependence on both Z
and T. Although such equations have also been pro-
backscattering coefficient defined as the ratio of the
number of backscattered electrons to the number of
simple theoretical treatments or semiempirical
proaches 26-3°) (a brief review of previous work
incident electrons. The backscattering coefficients in- given in the appendix). At higher energies, the e
cient posed,a, ~9,2~,3~), their regions of validity have rather
crease with increasing target thickness until saturation tion for q should express the dependence on bot
im- inconvenient limitations. The present paper describes and T. Although such equations have also been
is reached at a thickness around half the practical range
nce, a•new
because
empiricalthey are valid
equation so light,
in widerthe backscattering
regions of the incidentprobability
of Z is significant
electrons. The backscattering for
coefficient posed,a, ~9,2~,3~), their regions of validity have ra
been andelectrons and not so significant for heavy charged particles
T than the previous ones. r/ at saturation of the monoenergetic electrons im- inconvenient limitations. The present paper desc
pinging normally on the target is of general importance, a new empirical equation valid in wider regions
2. Formulation
trary • either from one large deflection orand multiple scattered
a good deal of experimental
When experimental data for r/ are plotted as reported
a i - 25),.
data for q have been and T than the previous ones.
netic
function of T on a semilogarithmic paper, the data for In order to obtain the value of r/ for the arbitrary 2 . F o r m u l a t i o n
o use
• this is an important consideration foratomic
T > 50 keV form S-shaped curves as shown in fig. 1.
electron
numberdetectors;
Z of the target the backscattered
and the incident kinetic When experimental data for r/ are plotted
most
the electron deposits only a fraction of its
These curves suggest that the relation between ~1and T energy
energy T of in
the the detector
electrons, it would be convenient to use function of T on a semilogarithmic paper, the data
the empirical equation which well reproduces the most T > 50 keV form S-shaped curves as shown in fi
may be expressed by an equation of the form
• backscatter fraction η depends on target thickness, reaching saturation at may be expressed by an equation of the form
probable values given by the existing data. In the These curves suggest that the relation between ~1an
T~ q = !al {1 - tgh [!(lna2 + a31nz)] },
half the practical range

~
* For energies below 50 keV, see the references listed in ref. 1. o.3 ~
0.6;7q-~--~7

0.5 ~ - ~ ~
Au I
.
i irqqqT~

,. "
r r ~ jlllll -.
j f iiiiiT----r ~ i Ill ir ! rT~ q = !al {1 - tgh [!(lna2 + a31nz)] },
* For energies below 50 keV, see the references listed in r
0.6;7q-~--~7 i irqqqT~ r r ~ jlllll

0.5 ~ - ~ ~ ,.
Au I
0.2 ~ . "
o 4 ! Agt " ~ ~ - \\
o 4 ! Agt " ~ ~
0:5
02 "" O.I 0:5
02 ""
0, I -- 0, I --

0 LLt_iO.I
l] I ! I[llrl 0 LLt_iO.I
l] I ! I[llrl

T (MeV) T T (MeV)
I IO o.I I lo I IO
(MeV)
(b) (a) (b)
Fig. I. Backscattering coefficient q of electrons as a function of incident energy 7". (a): C, AI, and Cu; (b): Ag and Au.
ion of incident energy 7". (a): C, AI, and Cu; (b): Ag and Au. Solid
circle: experiment 2 ~1); cross: M o n t e Carlo calculationa:3); solid line: present empirical equation. The dashed lines in (b) in
; solid line: present empirical equation. The dashed lines in (b) indicate
the lower limit T~ to the energy region considered in the least-squares fit. Experimental data around the curves of Ag an
e least-squares fit. Experimental data around the curves of Ag and Au at T > 15 MeV are for Cd and Pb, respectively.
e for Cd and Pb, respectively.
509
509

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