Food preservation

Preservation usually involves

 preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi (such as yeasts), and other micro-organisms
(although some methods work by introducing benign bacteria, or fungi to the food), as
well as
 retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity.
 inhibiting visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after
they are cut, which can occur during food preparation.

Many processes designed to preserve food will involve a number of food preservation
methods.

 Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves

o boiling (to reduce the fruit’s moisture content and to kill bacteria, yeasts, etc.)
o sugaring (to prevent their re-growth) and sealing within an airtight jar (to
prevent recontamination).
o There are many traditional methods of preserving food that limit the energy
inputs and reduce carbon footprint.[1]

Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavour is an important aspect of food
preservation, although, historically, some methods drastically altered the character of the food
being preserved. In many cases these changes have now come to be seen as desirable
qualities – cheese, yoghurt and pickled onions being common examples.

 1 Drying
 2 Refrigeration
 3 Freezing
 4 Vacuum packing
 5 Salt
 6 Sugar
 7 Smoking
 8 Artificial food additives
 9 Pickling
 10 Lye
 11 Canning and bottling
 12 Jellying
 13 Jugging
 14 Irradiation
 15 Pulsed electric field electroporation
 16 Modified atmosphere
 17 Nonthermal plasma
 18 High pressure food preservation
 19 Burial in the ground
 20 Controlled use of micro-organism
 21 Biopreservation
  22 Hurdle technology



[edit] Drying
Drying is one of the most ancient food preservation techniques, which reduces water activity
sufficiently to prevent bacterial growth.

[edit] Refrigeration
Main article: Refrigeration

Refrigeration preserve foods by slowing down the growth and reproduction of micro-
organisms and the action of enzymes which cause food to rot. The introduction of
commercial and domestic refrigerators drastically improved the diets of many in the Western
world by allowing foods such as fresh fruit, salads and dairy products to be stored safely for
longer periods, particularly during warm weather.

[edit] Freezing

Pictorial guide inside a freezer door

Main article: Frozen food

Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes commercially and domestically
for preserving a very wide range of food including prepared food stuffs which would not
have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in the
freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months'
storage. Cold stores provide large volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in
case of national emergency in many countries.

[edit] Vacuum packing

Main article: Vacuum packing
Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle.
The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival, slowing spoiling.
Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to reduce loss of flavour from oxidation.

[edit] Salt

Bag of Prague powder #1, also known as "curing salt" or "pink salt." It's typically a
combination of salt and sodium nitrite, with the pink color added to distinguish it from
ordinary salt.
Main article: Curing (food preservation)

Salting or curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of osmosis. Meat is cured
with salt or sugar, or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are also often used to cure
meat and contribute the characteristic pink color, as well as inhibition of Clostridium
botulinum.

[edit] Sugar
Main article: Sugaring

Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches,
apricots, plums or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the
point of crystallisation and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for
the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica and ginger.

[edit] Smoking
Main article: Smoking (cooking)

Smoking is used to lengthen the shelf life of perishable food items. This effect is achieved by
exposing the food to smoke from burning plant materials such as wood. Most commonly
subjected to this method of food preservation are meats and fish that have undergone curing.
Fruits and vegetables like paprika, cheeses, spices, and ingredients for making drinks such as
malt and tea leaves are also smoked, but mainly for cooking or flavoring them. It is one of the
oldest food preservation methods, which probably arose after the development of cooking
with fire.

[edit] Artificial food additives

Main article: Preservatives
Preservative food additives can be antimicrobial; which inhibit the growth of bacteria or
fungi, including mold, or antioxidant; such as oxygen absorbers, which inhibit the oxidation
of food constituents. Common antimicrobial preservatives include calcium propionate,
sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sulfites (sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen
sulfite, etc.) and disodium EDTA. Antioxidants include BHA and BHT. Other preservatives
include formaldehyde (usually in solution), glutaraldehyde (kills insects), ethanol and
methylchloroisothiazolinone.

[edit] Pickling
Main article: Pickling

Pickling is a method of preserving food in an edible anti-microbial liquid. Pickling can be

broadly categorized into two categories: chemical pickling and fermentation pickling.

In chemical pickling, the food is placed in an edible liquid that inhibits or kills bacteria and
other micro-organisms. Typical pickling agents include brine (high in salt), vinegar, alcohol,
and vegetable oil, especially olive oil but also many other oils. Many chemical pickling
processes also involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated
with the pickling agent. Common chemically pickled foods include cucumbers, peppers,
corned beef, herring, and eggs, as well as mixed vegetables such as piccalilli.

In fermentation pickling, the food itself produces the preservation agent, typically by a
process that produces lactic acid. Fermented pickles include sauerkraut, nukazuke, kimchi,
surströmming, and curtido. Some pickled cucumbers are also fermented.

[edit] Lye
Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline for bacterial growth. Lye will saponify fats
in the food, which will change its flavor and texture. Lutefisk uses lye in its preparation, as do
some olive recipes. Modern recipes for century eggs also call for lye.

[edit] Canning and bottling

Spam is a canned and preserved meat product.

Preserved food
Main article: Canning
See also: Home canning

Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterile cans or jars, and boiling the containers to
kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form of sterilization. It was invented by Nicolas
Appert.[2] Foods have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require
that the final step occur in a pressure cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries require no
preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as tomatoes
require longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Low acid foods, such as
vegetables and meats require pressure canning. Food preserved by canning or bottling is at
immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened.

Lack of quality control in the canning process may allow ingress of water or micro-
organisms. Most such failures are rapidly detected as decomposition within the can causes
gas production and the can will swell or burst. However, there have been examples of poor
manufacture (underprocessing) and poor hygiene allowing contamination of canned food by
the obligate anaerobe Clostridium botulinum, which produces an acute toxin within the food,
leading to severe illness or death. This organism produces no gas or obvious taste and
remains undetected by taste or smell. Its toxin is denatured by cooking, though. Cooked
mushrooms, handled poorly and then canned, can support the growth of Staphylococcus
aureus, which produces a toxin that is not destroyed by canning or subsequent reheating.

[edit] Jellying
Main article: Aspic

Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such materials
include gelatine, agar, maize flour and arrowroot flour. Some foods naturally form a protein
gel when cooked such as eels and elvers, and sipunculid worms which are a delicacy in
Xiamen in Fujian province of the People's Republic of China. Jellied eels are a delicacy in the
East End of London where they are eaten with mashed potatoes. Potted meats in aspic, (a gel
made from gelatine and clarified meat broth) were a common way of serving meat off-cuts in
the UK until the 1950s. Many jugged meats are also jellied.

See also: Potted shrimps

A traditional British way of preserving meat (particularly shrimp) is by setting it in a pot and
sealing it with a layer of fat. Also common is potted chicken liver; compare pâté.

See also: Confit

[edit] Jugging
Main article: Jugging

Meat can be preserved by jugging, the process of stewing the meat (commonly game or fish)
in a covered earthenware jug or casserole. The animal to be jugged is usually cut into pieces,
placed into a tightly-sealed jug with brine or gravy, and stewed. Red wine and/or the animal's
own blood is sometimes added to the cooking liquid. Jugging was a popular method of
preserving meat up until the middle of the 20th century.

[edit] Irradiation
Main article: Food irradiation

Irradiation of food[3] is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation; either high-energy

electrons or X-rays from accelerators, or by gamma rays (emitted from radioactive sources as
Cobalt-60 or Caesium-137). The treatment has a range of effects, including killing bacteria,
molds and insect pests, reducing the ripening and spoiling of fruits, and at higher doses
inducing sterility. The technology may be compared to pasteurization; it is sometimes called
'cold pasteurization', as the product is not heated. Irradiation is not effective against viruses or
prions, it cannot eliminate toxins already formed by microorganisms.

The radiation process is unrelated to nuclear energy, but it may use the radiation emitted from
radioactive nuclides produced in nuclear reactors. Ionizing radiation is hazardous to life
(hence its usefulness in sterilisation); for this reason irradiation facilities have a heavily
shielded irradiation room where the process takes place. Radiation safety procedures ensure
that neither the workers in such facility nor the environment receive any radiation dose from
the facility. Irradiated food does not become radioactive, and national and international expert
bodies have declared food irradiation as wholesome. However, the wholesomeness of
consuming such food is disputed by opponents[4] and consumer organizations.[5] National and
international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as 'wholesome'; UN-organizations
as WHO and FAO are endorsing to use food irradiation. International legislation on whether
food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to full banning.[6]
Irradiation may allow lower quality or contaminated foodstuffs to be rendered marketable.

It is estimated that about 500,000 tons of food items are irradiated per year worldwide in over
40 countries. These are mainly spices and condiments with an increasing segment of fresh
fruit irradiated for fruit fly quarantine.[7][8]
[edit] Pulsed electric field electroporation
Main article: Electroporation

Pulsed electric field (PEF) electroporation is a method for processing cells by means of brief
pulses of a strong electric field. PEF holds potential as a type of low temperature alternative
pasteurization process for sterilizing food products. In PEF processing, a substance is placed
between two electrodes, then the pulsed electric field is applied. The electric field enlarges
the pores of the cell membranes which kills the cells and releases their contents. PEF for food
processing is a developing technology still being researched. There have been limited
industrial applications of PEF processing for the pasteurization of fruit juices.

[edit] Modified atmosphere

Main article: Modified atmosphere

Modifying atmosphere is a way to preserve food by operating on the atmosphere around it.
Salad crops which are notoriously difficult to preserve are now being packaged in sealed bags
with an atmosphere modified to reduce the oxygen (O2) concentration and increase the
carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. There is concern that although salad vegetables retain
their appearance and texture in such conditions, this method of preservation may not retain
nutrients, especially vitamins. Grains may be preserved using carbon dioxide by one of two
methods; either using a block of dry ice placed in the bottom and the can is filled with grain
or the container can be purged from the bottom by gaseous carbon dioxide from a cylinder or
bulk supply vessel.

Carbon dioxide prevents insects, and depending on concentration, mold, and oxidation from
damaging the grain. Grain stored in this way can remain edible for five years.[citation needed]

Nitrogen gas (N2) at concentrations of 98% or higher is also used effectively to kill insects in
grain through hypoxia.[9] However, carbon dioxide has an advantage in this respect as it kills
organisms through hypercarbia and depending on concentration hypoxia and, requiring
concentrations of above 35%,[10] or so. This makes carbon dioxide preferable for fumigation
in situations where a hermetic seal cannot be maintained.

Air-tight storage of grains (sometimes called hermetic storage) relies on the respiration of
grain, insects and fungi which can modify the enclosed atmosphere sufficiently to control
insect pests. This is a method of great antiquity,[11] as well as having modern equivalents. The
success of the method relies on have the correct mix of sealing, grain moisture and
temperature.[12]

[edit] Nonthermal plasma

Main article: Nonthermal_plasma

This process subjects the surface of food to a 'flame' of ionised gas molecules such as helium
or nitrogen. This causes micro-organisms to die off on the surface.[13]
[edit] High pressure food preservation
Main article: Pascalization

High pressure food preservation or pascalization refers to the use of a food preservation
technique which makes use of high pressure. "Pressed inside a vessel exerting 70,000 pounds
per square inch (480 MPa) or more, food can be processed so that it retains its fresh
appearance, flavour, texture and nutrients while disabling harmful microorganisms and
slowing spoilage. By 2005 the process was being used for products ranging from orange juice
to guacamole to deli meats and widely sold.[14]

[edit] Burial in the ground

Burial of food can preserve it due to a variety of factors: lack of light, lack of oxygen, cool
temperatures, pH level, or desiccants in the soil. Burial may be combined with other methods
such as salting or fermentation. Most foods can be preserved in soil that is very dry and salty
(thus a desiccant), or soil that is frozen.

Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation than
storage in cool dark conditions, for example by burial in the ground, such as in a storage
clamp. Century eggs are created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other alkaline substance)
resulting in their "inorganic" fermentation through raised pH instead of spoiling. The
fermentation preserves them and breaks down some of the complex, less flavorful proteins
and fats into simpler more flavorful ones. Cabbage was traditionally buried in the fall in
northern farms in the USA for preservation. Some methods keep it crispy while other
methods produce sauerkraut[citation needed]. A similar process is used in the traditional
production of kimchi. Sometimes meat is buried under conditions which cause preservation.
If buried on hot coals or ashes, the heat can kill pathogens, the dry ash can desiccate, and the
earth can block oxygen and further contamination. If buried where the earth is very cold, the
earth acts like a refrigerator.

[edit] Controlled use of micro-organism

See also: Fermentation (food)

Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers will keep for a long time because their
production uses specific micro-organisms that combat spoilage from other less benign
organisms. These micro-organisms keep pathogens in check by creating an environment toxic
for themselves and other micro-organisms by producing acid or alcohol. Starter micro-
organisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures, controlled (usually low) levels
of oxygen and/or other methods are used to create the specific controlled conditions that will
support the desirable organisms that produce food fit for human consumption.

[edit] Biopreservation
3D stick model of nisin. Some lactic acid bacteria manufacture nisin. It is a particularly
effective preservative
Main article: Biopreservation

Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlled microbiota or antimicrobials as a way of

preserving food and extending its shelf life.[15] Beneficial bacteria or the fermentation
products produced by these bacteria are used in biopreservation to control spoilage and
render pathogens inactive in food.[16] It is a benign ecological approach which is gaining
increasing attention.[15]

Of special interest are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Lactic acid bacteria have antagonistic
properties which make them particularly useful as biopreservatives. When LABs compete for
nutrients, their metabolites often include active antimicrobials such as lactic and acetic acid,
hydrogen peroxide, and peptide bacteriocins. Some LABs produce the antimicrobial nisin
which is a particularly effective preservative.[17][18]

These days LAB bacteriocins are used as an integral part of hurdle technology. Using them in
combination with other preservative techniques can effectively control spoilage bacteria and
other pathogens, and can inhibiting the activities of a wide spectrum of organisms, including
inherently resistant Gram-negative bacteria.[15]

[edit] Hurdle technology

Main article: Hurdle technology

Hurdle technology is a method of ensuring that pathogens in food products can be eliminated
or controlled by combining more than one approach. These approaches can be thought of as
"hurdles" the pathogen has to overcome if it is to remain active in the food. The right
combination of hurdles can ensure all pathogens are eliminated or rendered harmless in the
final product.[19]

Hurdle technology has been defined by Leistner (2000) as an intelligent combination of

hurdles which secures the microbial safety and stability as well as the organoleptic and
nutritional quality and the economic viability of food products.[20] The organoleptic quality of
the food refers to its sensory properties, that is its look, taste, smell and texture.

Examples of hurdles in a food system are high temperature during processing, low
temperature during storage, increasing the acidity, lowering the water activity or redox
potential, or the presence of preservatives or biopreservatives. According to the type of
pathogens and how risky they are, the intensity of the hurdles can be adjusted individually to
meet consumer preferences in an economical way, without sacrificing the safety of the
product.[19]
 Principal hurdles used for food preservation (after Leistner, 1995)[21][22]
Parameter Symbol Application
High temperature F Heating
Low temperature T Chilling, freezing
Reduced water activity aw Drying, curing, conserving
Increased acidity pH Acid addition or formation
Reduced redox potential Eh Removal of oxygen or addition of ascorbate
Biopreservatives Competitive flora such as microbial fermentation
Other preservatives Sorbates, sulfites, nitrites

[edit] See also

 Blast chilling
 Dietary supplement
 Food and Bioprocess Technology
 Food chemistry
 Food engineering
 Food fortification
 Food manufacturing
 Food microbiology
 Food packaging
 Food rheology
 Food science
 Food spoilage
 Food technology
 Fresherized
 Gourmet Library and museum
 Nutraceutical
 Nutrification
 Refrigerate after opening
 Shelf-life