Lab Report of Physics

(Phy102) Experiment No.1

NAME : __________________________________ ROLL No. : ____________

SEM: _________ DATE. :_____________

SIGNATURE:__________________

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Measurment Of The Spacific Rotation Of Cane-Sugar

Introduction
The study of optical activity of liquids began in the early 19th century with Biot and
other scientists. They found that solutions of sugar and certain other naturally occurring
chemicals would rotate a beam of polarized light passing through the solution. They called such
substances optically active, a term which is still used. The instrument used to demonstrate or to
measure this rotation was given the name polarimeter.

Clockwise rotation is given a positive (+) sign; counterclockwise rotation is given a negative (-)
sign. Certain substances rotate light to a much greater extent than others. Both the direction of
rotation and the amount of rotation per gram of solute in a given volume of solution are
characteristic properties and can be used to help identify an unknown substance. When the
identity of the solute is known, the polarimeter can be used to determine the concentration of the
solution.

It may be noted that approximately 25% of all drugs are marketed as either racemates (mixtures of
two enantiomers) or mixtures of diasteromers. The orientation around a chiral center can have a
dramatic impact on the pharmacological response of that drug in the human body. Such recent
observations brought about severe tightening in the laws surrounding the introduction of new
drugs into the market. Thus, chiral synthesis and purification became a crucial aspect of all
successful drug manufacturing procedures. This is just one of the several areas highlighting the
importance of polarimetric studies.

Objective
The purpose of this lab is to use optical rotation as a method for determining the
identity of unknown sugars. By doing this experiment the user will be able to:

1.Understand the interaction of plane polarized light with solutions of chiral substances
2.Understand various processes and techniques involved in measuring the optical activity
of sugar solutions using polarimeter.
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 3.Understand the step-by-step procedure including most details from preparing the

sample to identification of sugar solution used as part of the experiment.

Equipment needed
Polarimeter with sodium lamp,suger, electronic balance, beakers, glass rod, graduated
cylinder, thermometer, watch glass, pipette, funnel and filter paper

I will explain some of them as follows:

Polarimeter
A Polarimeter is a scientific instrument used to measure the angle of rotation caused by
passing polarized light through an optically active substance.
Some chemical substances are optically active, and polarized (uni-directional) light will rotate
either to the left (counter-clockwise) or right (clockwise) when passed through these substances.
The amount by which the light is rotated is known as the angle of rotation. The angle of rotation is
basically known as observed angle.

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Principles Of Polarimeter
Polarimetry measures the rotation of polarized
light as it passes through an optically active fluid. The measured rotation can be used to calculate
the value of solution concentrations; especially substances such as sugars, peptides and volatile
oils. A polarimeter consists of a polarized light source, an analyzer, a graduated circle to measure
the rotation angle, and sample tubes.

The polarized light passes through the sample tube and exhibits angular rotation to the left (-) or
right (+). On the side opposite the polarizer is the analyzer. Using optics, visual fields are
manually adjusted by the user to measure the optical rotation angle.
Polarimeters offer high accuracies where precision is critical in determining the concentration of
samples. Cole-Parmer offers manual polarimeters where you look through a viewing scope to read
values on a vernier scale, and semiautomatic polarimeters that have a digital display. Polarimeters
can measure in angle of rotation (¡), International Sugar Scale (°Z), or both.

Working of Polarimeter

Normal monochromatic light contains light that possesses oscillations of the

electrical field in all possible planes perpendicular to the direction of propagation. When light is
passed through a polarizer (i.e., Nicol prism, Polaroid film) only light oscillating in one plane will
leave the polarizer. This linear polarized light can be described as a superposition of two counter-
rotating components, which propagate with different velocities in an optical active medium. If one
component interacts stronger than the other with a chiral molecule, it will slow down and
therefore arrive later at the observer. The result is that the plane of the light appears to be rotated
because the two vectors are not canceling each other anymore due to the phase shift. In a
polarimeter, plane-polarized light is introduced to a tube containing a solution with the substance
to be measured. If the substance is optical inactive, the plane of the polarized light will not change
in orientation and the observer will read an angle of [α]= 0o. If the compound in the polarimetry
cell was optical active, the plane of the light would be rotated on its way through the tube. The
observed rotation is a result of the different components of the plane polarized light interacting
differently with the chiral center. In order to observe the maximum brightness, the observer
(person or instrument) will have to rotate the axis of the analyzer back, either clockwise or
counterclockwise direction depending on the nature of the compound. For clockwise direction,
the rotation (in degrees) is defined as positive ("+") and called dextrorotatory (from the Latin:
dexter=right). In contrast, the counterclockwise direction is defined as negative ("-") and called
levorotatory (from the Latin laevus=left). The observed specific rotation [α]obs depends on the
length of the tube, the wavelength that it is used for the acquisition, the concentration of the
optical active
compound
(enantiomer),
and to a certain
degree on the
temperature as
well.

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A polarimeter works by shining monochromatic light through a polarizer, which generates a beam
of linearly polarized light. The polarized light will then rotate after it passes through
a polarimetry cell containing the sample.

For the polarimeter large sample volumes with high substance concentration are required.
However, the sample used remains unchanged after measurement. Due to the low equipment
complexity, the measurement is very simple and fast, which means that the costs remain very low.
In addition to that the polarimetry is quite specific, because only a few substances rotate the
polarized light. Yet, the result is not very accurate because the decision as to when the subfields
of the half shadow device have the same brightness is very subjective. As a result, larger
measurement errors can also occur.

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Polarizer can also be used for identifying light polarization, as an analyzer. A device consisting of two
sequence polarizers, which is supplied with a circular scale, is called polarimeter. The light sourceside
polarizer changes natural light into linearly polarized light. By turning the second polarizer,
called the analyzer, the position of the polarization plane of light can be determined. The point is that
the intensity of the light transmitted through the analyzer I depends on both the intensity of the
fallen light on the analyzer I0 and on the angle γ between principal planes of the analyzer and
polarizer.

Electronic Balance

A balance that generates a current proportional to the displacement

of the pan. balance - a scale for weighing; depends on pull of gravity. Based on
WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection.

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Beakers

A beaker is a simple "container" which is used for heating and stirring

liquids in laborartories. These are generally in cylindrical shape with a flat bottom. Most
beakers have a small beak to pour liquids as given below in picture.

Glass Rod

A glass stirring rod, glass rod, stirring rod or stir rod is a piece of
laboratory equipment used to mix chemicals and liquids for laboratory purposes. They
are usually made of solid glass, about the thickness and slightly longer than a drinking
straw, with rounded ends.

Graduated Cylinder
A graduated cylinder, measuring cylinder or mixingcylinder is a common piece of
laboratory equipment used to measure the volume of a liquid. It has a narrow cylindrical
shape. Each marked line on the graduated cylinderrepresents the amount of liquid that
has been measured.

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Thermometer
A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient. A
thermometer has two important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb of a mercury-in-
glass thermometer or the digital sensor in an infrared thermometer) in which some change occurs
with a change in temperature, and (2) some means of converting this change into a numerical value
(e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass thermometer or the digital readout on an
infrared model). Thermometers are widely used in industries.

Watch Glass

A watch glass is a circular concave piece of glass used in chemistry as a

surface to evaporate a liquid, to hold solids while being weighed, for heating a small
amount of substance and as a cover for a beaker.

Pipette

A pipette is a laboratory tool commonly used in chemistry, biology and

medicine to transport a measured volume of liquid, often as a media dispenser.

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Filter Paper
Filter paper is a semi-permeable paper barrier placed perpendicular to a
liquid or air flow. It is used to separate fine substances from liquids or air. It is used in science
labs to remove solids from liquids.

Theory
Polarization
Polarization (also polarisation) is a property applying to transverse waves that
specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations.In a transverse wave, the direction of the
oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave. A simple example of a polarized
transverse wave is vibrations traveling along a taut string (see image) for example, in a musical
instrument like a guitar string. Depending on how the string is plucked, the vibrations can be in a
vertical direction, horizontal direction, or at any angle perpendicular to the string. In contrast,
in longitudinal waves, such as sound waves in a liquid or gas, the displacement of the particles in
the oscillation is always in the direction of propagation, so these waves do not exhibit
polarization. Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include electromagnetic waves such
as light and radio waves, gravitational waves and transverse sound waves (shear waves) in solids.
In some types of transverse waves, the wave displacement is limited to a single direction, so
these also do not exhibit polarization; for example, in surface waves in liquids (gravity waves) the
wave displacement of the particles is always in a vertical plane.

An electromagnetic wave such as light consists of a coupled oscillating electric

field and magnetic field which are always perpendicular; by convention, the "polarization" of
electromagnetic waves refers to the direction of the electric field. In linear polarization the fields
oscillate in a single direction. In circular or elliptical polarization the fields rotate at a constant rate
in a plane as the wave travels. The rotation can have two possible directions; if the fields rotate in
a right hand sense with respect to the direction of wave travel, it is called right circular
polarization or, if the fields rotate in a left hand sense, it is called left circular polarization.

LIGHT POLARIZATION

Light or other electromagnetic radiation from many sources, such as the sun, flames,
and incandescent lamps, consists of short wave trains with an equal mixture of polarizations; this
is called unpolarized light. Polarized light can be produced by passing unpolarized light through
a polarizing filter, which allows waves of only one polarization to pass through. The most common
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optical materials (such as glass) are isotropic and do not affect the polarization of light passing
through them; however, some materials those that exhibit birefringence, dichroism, or optical
activity can change the polarization of light.

Nature of light is wave-corpuscular. It is an electromagnetic wave, as well as a photon flux i.e a

flowof particles of light. The phenome non of light manifests dualism of physical Picture of the
world –continuous and discrete uniformity.In this laboratory work the explanation of
investigational properties of light is based on it’s electromagnetic wave properties.In light (as in
each electromagnetic wave) both the electric field intensity vector (E-vector) as well as the H-
vector (magnetic field intensity) oscillate perpendicular to the direction of the wave propagation,
ie. the light is a transverse wave.Light waves, taking only a minor part of the wide electromagnetic
spectra are the only ones directly observable by a human being. As in the process of interaction
of light and matter the E-vector has more important role than the H-vector, we limit ourselves only
to observation of the E-vector, which is in optics also called the light vector. As a rule, its
direction is chaotic, but it always remains perpendicular to the direction of light propagation.
From the fact that light is a cross (transverse) wave concludes its ability to be polarized which is
manifested in either partial or complete order of the oscillations of E-vector under certain
conditions. For example, while reflecting from the surface of the dielectric at a certain angle the E-
vector of reflected light oscillates only in one plane.Polarization is one of the most essential
features of the lights cross wave character.In case of non-polarized (or natural) light the
oscillations of the light vector take place irregularly in many directions, but transverse to the
direction of wave propagation, whereas all directions are equally probable. In this case the
oscillations are statistically axis-symmetrical in relation to the direction of propagation. If the light
vector behaves in a certain pattern (oscillates only in one direction), it is a polarized light.
Generally, in this case the light vector oscillates asymmetrically to the direction axis. Cross-wave
polarization in general, stands for disorder of axis symmetry according to the spreading direction.
Polarized light is divided into categories by the projection of the E-vector endpoint trace on the
plane, which is perpendicular to the direction of light propagation. If the endpoint of the electric
vector generates a straight line on the plane perpendicular to the direction in which light
propagates,
it is linearly polarized light. If it forms a circle or an ellipse, then it is respectively
either circularly or elliptically polarized.E-vector of the linearly polarized light oscillates on one
level – called polarization level, which is determined by the direction of the oscillations of the E-
vector and direction of light propagation.Therefore this light is called flat polarized as
well.Endpoint of the E-vector of the circularly polarized light draws a spiral with a circular cross-
section,elliptically polarized lights vectors endpoint draws an elliptical cross-section of the screw-
line. Above we described three cases of fully polarized light, all of which are reducible to merging
of two orthogonal oscillations with constant phase difference. The elliptical polarization is the
most general of the three kinds of polarization; circular and linear polarizations are its special
cases.Partially polarized light is also distinguished. In this case, one of the directions of
oscillations of the Evector is preferable compared to the others. That’s why partly polarized light
can to be observed as a straight-line polarized and natural light mixture.Natural light can be
polarized by the polarizers. Plane, on which oscillates the E-vector which has transmitted the
polarizer, is called the principal plane of the polarizer. Ideal polarizer lets through oscillations
which are completely parallel to the main level and doesn’t let through oscillations which are
perpendicular to the main level. In “real life” polarizers light waves with E-vector oscillating
parallel to main level, are slightly absorbed. Also small part of light waves perpendicular to main
level is passed through. Polarizer’s work is based on the phenomena that orientation of E-vector
may change (polarization state) in case of the reflection, refraction, birefringence and scattering of
the light.In this work polaroids are used as polarizers, whose work is based on the special case of
the birefringence selective absorption of light. Light falling on the polaroid is distributed into two
orthogonal oscillation components (for the normal and the abnormal wave), of which one is
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absorbed. Therefore, linearly polarized light exits from the polaroid. As a polaroid, for example, is
a 3 large number of entries applied on a celluloid film identically oriented needles of gerapatite
crystals that let in only light with E-vector oscillating in a single plane.

OPTICAL ACTIVITY
Many crystals and dilutions have the ability to rotate the plane of the linearly
polarized light which is spreading through them. Such substances are called optically active. This
property comes from unsymmetrical structure of the molecule or the crystal lattice. Rotation of
the polarization plane occurs in the substances where crystal lattice or molecules cannot mirror
image of one match. Such objects are called chiral. Their asymmetry is resulting from a lack of
mirror symmetry. (Of everyday things have a chiral structure for example a bottle screw, as well
as a one hand glove. Optically active substances are quartz crystals, sugar, camphoric and
nicotine dilutions, etc.
These substances usually occur in two different forms where the crystal of one
modification or a molecule is a mirror image of the other. One modification turns then the light
oscillation plane in one direction, another in the opposite direction. That is the situation in case of
quartz which rotates the light oscillation plane to the right and to the left. The sugar molecule is
asymmetric (screw shaped model) due to configuration of carbon atoms. There has been found 16
different forms of this molecule. They band together into 8 left-right pairs. Rotation of light
polarization plane in optically active substances can be explained by the model of classical
physics.

Phenomenological explanation to the phenomenon of the optical activity was given by Fresnel in
19th century, based on the separation of the polarized light into two in the opposite directions
circularly polarized lights and assuming different refractive indexes in case of the right and left
circularly polarized light. Optically active substance depends upon:

(i) The length of the path ( l ) of light through the optically active substance ;
(ii) The concentration of the solution (c),i.e on the no. of grams of the substance dissolved
per cc of the solvent;
(iii) The nature of the substance
(iv) The wavelength of the light used ( mostly sodium light ).
(v) The temperature (t).

The specific rotation (S) of the substance is the rotation produced by a length of one
decimeter of the solution having a concentration of 1gm/cc. For given wavelength and
at a particular temperature.

Θ = S . l . c ( If l is in cm, then S=10. θ/l.c)

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