1. a.

Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the elements or

characteristics of the subject, e.g. number of days lost because of industrial action.
Quantitative techniques are most often used to collect, analyze and summarize data.

b. Correlational research: In general, correlational research examines the

covariation of two or more variables. For example, the early research on cigarette smoking
examine the covariation of cigarette smoking and a variety of lung diseases. These two
variable, smoking and lung disease were found to cover together.
Correlational research can be accomplished by a variety of techniques which include the
collection of empirical data. Often times, correlational research is considered type of
observational research as nothing is manipulated by the experimenter or individual
conducting the research. For example, the early studies on cigarette smoking did not
manipulate how many cigarettes were smoked. The researcher only collected the data on
the two variables. Nothing was controlled by the researchers.
It is important to note that correlational research is not causal research. In other
words, we cannot make statements concerning cause and effect on the basis of this type of
research. There are two major reasons why we cannot make cause and effect statements.
First, we don¹t know the direction of the cause. Second, a third variable may be involved
of which we are not aware. An example may help clarify these points.
In major clinical depressions, the neurotransmitters serotonin and/or
norepinephrine have been found to be depleted (Coppen, 1967; Schildkraut & Kety, 1967).
In other words, low levels of these two neurotransmitters have been found to be associated
with increased levels of clinical depression. However, while we know that the two variables
covary - a relationship exists - we do not know if a causal relationship exists. Thus, it is
unclear whether a depletion in serotonin/norepinephrine cause depression or whether
depression causes a depletion is neurotransmitter levels. This demonstrates the first
problem with correlational research; we don't know the direction of the cause. Second, a
third variable has been uncovered which may be affecting both of the variables under study.
The number of receptors on the postsynaptic neuron has been found to be increased in
depression (Segal, Kuczenski, & Mandell, 1974; Ventulani, Staqarz, Dingell, & Sulser,
1976). Thus, it is possible that the increased number of receptors on the postsynaptic
neuron is actually responsible for the relationship between neurotransmitter levels and
depression. As you can see from the discussion above, one cannot make a simple cause and
effect statement concerning neurotransmitter levels and depression based on correlational
research. To reiterate, it is inappropriate in correlational research to make statements
concerning cause and effect.
Correlational research is often conducted as exploratory or beginning research. Once
variables have been identified and defined, experiments are conductable.

c. Causal-comparative design is a research design that seeks to find relationships

between independent and dependent variables after an action or event has already
occurred. The researcher's goal is to determine whether the independent variable affected
the outcome, or dependent variable, by comparing two or more groups of individuals. There
are similarities and differences between causal-comparative research, also referred to as ex
post facto research, and both correlational and experimental research. This entry discusses
these differences, as well as the benefits, process, limitations, and criticism of this type of
research design.

d. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS The first method is the

straightforward experiment, involving the standard practice of manipulating quantitative,
independent variables to generate statistically analyzable data. Generally, the system of
scientific measurements is interval or ratio based. When we talk about ‘scientific research
methods’, this is what most people immediately think of, because it passes all of the
definitions of ‘true science’. The researcher is accepting or refuting the null hypothesis. The
results generated are analyzable and are used to test hypotheses, with statistics giving a
clear and unambiguous picture. This research method is one of the most difficult, requiring
rigorous design and a great deal of expense, especially for larger experiments. The other
problem, where real life organisms are used, is that taking something out of its natural
environment can seriously affect its behavior. It is often argued that, in some fields of
research, experimental research is ‘too’ accurate. It is also the biggest drain on time and
resources, and is often impossible to perform for some fields, because of ethical
considerations. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was a prime example of experimental research
that was fixated on results, and failed to take into account moral considerations. In other
fields of study, which do not always have the luxury of definable and quantifiable variables
- you need to use different research methods. These should attempt to fit all of the
definitions of repeatability or falsifiability, although this is not always feasible.

2. a. what is Hypothesis?
Something that has yet not been proved to classify as a theory but believed to be true
by the researcher is labeled as a hypothesis. A hypothesis is merely a proposition that is
presented or put forward by a scientist to explain a natural phenomenon. It does not
become a theory until it is proved and tested under different conditions and circumstances.
At best, it is an assumption that has been made working.
What is Assumption?
An assumption is any statement that is believed to be true. Many times, people pay
dearly when they jump to conclusions based upon their assumptions. Thinking about the
feelings of others is merely assumption as there is no way to tell what a person is thinking
or feeling.

b. Interviews
Interviews can be defined as a qualitative research technique which involves
“conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore
their perspectives on a particular idea, program or situation.”[1]
There are three different formats of interviews: structured, semi-structured and
unstructured.
Structured interviews consist of a series of pre-determined questions that all
interviewees answer in the same order. Data analysis usually tends to be more
straightforward because researcher can compare and contrast different answers given to
the same questions.
 Unstructured interviews are usually the least reliable from research viewpoint,
because no questions are prepared prior to the interview and data collection is conducted
in an informal manner. Unstructured interviews can be associated with a high level of bias
and comparison of answers given by different respondents tends to be difficult due to the
differences in formulation of questions.
Semi-structured interviews contain the components of both, structured and
unstructured interviews. In semi-structured interviews, interviewer prepares a set of same
questions to be answered by all interviewees. At the same time, additional questions might
be asked during interviews to clarify and/or further expand certain issues.

An interview guide is also an essential component for conducting interviews. An

interview guide is the list of questions, topics, and issues that the researcher wants to cover
during the interview. The interview guide should be clear and avoid ambiguity. The
researcher ought not ask personal or illegal questions and be comfortable with silences and
wait for the respondent to speak.

c. Questionnaires can be classified as both, quantitative and qualitative method

depending on the nature of questions. Specifically, answers obtained through closed-ended
questions with multiple choice answer options are analyzed using quantitative methods
and they may involve pie-charts, bar-charts and percentages. Answers obtained to open-
ended questionnaire questions are analyzed using qualitative methods and they involve
discussions and critical analyses without use of numbers and calculations.
For a standard 15,000-20,000 word business dissertation, including 25-40 questions in
questionnaires will usually suffice. Questions need be formulated in an unambiguous and
straightforward manner and they should be presented in a logical order.
Advantages of questionnaires include increased speed of data collection, low or no cost
requirements, and higher levels of objectivity compared to many alternative methods of
primary data collection. However, questionnaires have certain disadvantages such as
selection of random answer choices by respondents without properly reading the question.
Moreover, there is usually no possibility for respondents to express their additional
thoughts about the matter due to the absence of a relevant question.

Statement of the Problem

Before you start writing an academic text, you should establish your problem
statement. A problem statement is a question or statement you set out to answer in your
text. In other words, the problem statement defines what you are going to research or
investigate.

3. The main differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods can be
summarized in the following points:
Firstly, the concepts in quantitative research methods are usually expressed in the forms of
variables, while the concepts in qualitative research methods are expressed in motives and
generalizations.
Secondly, quantitative research methods and measures are usually universal, like formulas
for finding mean, median and mode for a set of data, whereas, in qualitative research each
research is approached individually and individual measures are developed to interpret the
primary data taking into account the unique characteristics of the research.
Thirdly, data in quantitative research appears in the forms of numbers and specific
measurements and in qualitative research data can be in forms of words, images,
transcripts, etc.
Fourthly, research findings in quantitative research can be illustrated in the forms of tables,
graphs and pie-charts, whereas, research findings in qualitative studies is usually presented
in analysis by only using words.

4.
a. Hypothesis from Assumption
b. Related Literature
A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the literature
related to your selected area of study. The review should describe, summarize, evaluate and
clarify this literature. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the
author) determine the nature of your research. Works which are irrelevant should be
discarded and those which are peripheral should be looked at critically.
A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes beyond being a
descriptive annotated bibliography. All works included in the review must be read,
evaluated and analyzed. Relationships between the literature must also be identified and
articulated, in relation to your field of research.
Difference between related literature and related studies?
when we say related literature, we are pertaining to written information about a
certain subject of interest which will include those of the books, journals, articles, and
internet resources. While when we say related studies, these are focused on the discussion
regarding some certain phenomena that could be testable descriptively or experimentally.
so it's not just based on information but through inferences.

c. Independent Variable from Dependent Variable

Definition of Independent Variable
As its name suggests, an independent variable is one which remains unaffected by
other variables. Alternately known as the predictor variable, explanatory variable,
controlled variable. It is a variable; the researcher has control over its selection and
manipulation, i.e. the levels can be changed. Moreover, its effect on other variables is
measured and compared.
Definition of Dependent Variable
A dependent variable is a consequence of an independent variable i.e. it is variable
that measures the effect of independent variable on the test units. It is also known as the
criterion or measured variable. It is something that the experimenter observes during an
experiment and is influenced by the experiment. It is expected to change in response to
some other factors. The revised value of the dependent value depends on the independent
variable.

d. Questionnaire from statement of the Problem

e. Interview from Guided Interview
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO RESEARCH WRITING
– CHAPTER ONE
The outline of a well written Chapter One is supposed to include all or some of the
following:

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

1.2 Statement of the Problem
1.3 Objectives or Purpose of the Study
1.4 Research Questions and /or Hypotheses
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study
1.7 Basic Assumptions
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

As can be seen above, the project outline constitutes a huge part of the project
proposal and the student researcher just needs to perfect the approved research proposal
with the view of using it as the Chapter One. The fact remains that all the other parts that
as had been written for the project proposal would still stand, with the inclusion of
Operational Definition of Terms. At this stage, it is important to understand and know what
is contained under each of the subheadings in the first chapter and these are described
thoroughly in this article: –

1.1 Background to the Study

Just as the name means, this section outlines the history of the subject matter under
investigation; the evolution of the research problem; how the researcher became fascinated
with the problem. He goes on to describe the specific situation surrounding the research
problem, using facts from the literature to support various arguments. In this section also,
the student researcher tries to ascertain the suitability and feasibility of the study,
concluding from the sufficient evidences drawn from the previous literature.

In a nutshell, this is where the student researcher initiates the subject of his
investigation using all obtainable evidences and figures to establish its groundwork. Note
that even if there is no standard number of pages that this should take, the lengthier and
well focused the Background to the Study, the better for a good and solid groundwork for
that research being conducted.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

 The Problem Statement, as it is otherwise described, is the reasonable conclusion of
the problems/issues raised in the Background to the Study. The idea is that while the
Background to the Study offers a wider or global perspective/standpoint to the subject
matter of the research, the Problem Statement makes assumptions from there and
concludes on the specifics as they relate to the specific investigation being conducted.

That is the reason Problem Statement is expected to flow, rather logically, from the
Background to the Study; and it is not a good Problem Statement, one that deviates from
this; given that they are not expected to be two unconnected entities, as it were. It is
nevertheless different from Background to the Study in that it must be stated reasonably
briefly and very clearly. All the descriptive components of the Background to the Study
would have assisted to allow one go straight for the specifics under the Problem Statement.

This is why experienced project supervisors would mainatain that the Problem
Statement should be in the range of one to three paragraphs only. The idea is that the
shorter, the clearer; and the clearer the better for the whole process of investigation. In a
nutshell, one cannot overstate the need to state the research problem very clearly and
accurately, since the entire course of the investigation depends on it.

Therefore, there is no doubt that a satisfactory statement of the research problem is the
most important component of a research process. The plain reason for this claim is that the
whole process of investigation centers on it and it is typically related to some of the
following issues:

 A missing link
 A need
 One-sidedness
 An unanswered question.
 An unsatisfactory state of arrangements

Consequently, the Problem Statement offers direction to the rest of the project;
signifying and highlighting the major variables of concern to the researcher as well as the
exact relationship that exist between them.

1.3 Objectives {Purpose} of the Study

Simply similar to every other component in a research project, the Objectives of the
Study is strongly connected to the Research Problem. The former is derived directly from
the latter. The Objectives of the Study, which is sometimes described as Purpose, stand for
the aims of carrying out the investigation and could be categorized into general and specific.
 The general objective describes the overall aim of a research project whereas the
specific objective is concerned with the comprehensive list of intentions concerning what
the research stands to accomplish at the end of the project. Typically, the specific objectives
are stated in the form of declarative statements for example, the statement should start
with “to examine”, “to analyze”, “to determine”, “to assess”, “to find out” etc. The Research
Questions usually take the form of interrogative statement, the Objectives present the same
thing, but in the statement form.

1.4. Research Questions and/or Hypotheses

Typically, these come immediately after the Research objectives because of their
strong relationship. They do not just seek to convert the declarative statement of the
objectives into interrogative form, but further break down the major problems compressed
in the research objectives. As its name implies, Research Questions is presented just like
interrogations seeking to create specific relations among the main variables of
investigation.

As well, the Research Questions usually serve as the foundation from where the
questionnaire items/questions would ultimately be derived. The difference between the
two is that the items in the questionnaire offer a further breakdown of each of the research
questions to a greater specification. This is to the level that a single research question can
turn out the range of between three to five questionnaire items/questions. But the Research
Questions are wide in nature, the questionnaire items are typically directed towards the
details thereby getting down to more specifics.

In the case of Hypotheses, they are not the same as Research Questions even though
they are sometimes used to substitute each other. In other words, it is not unusual to find
projects which have both as well as others which have only one of them. Since they are not
the same, they are not expected to replace each other. If they stand to do that, then one
should be retained and the other disposed of. By this piece of information, one can easily
know that it is not necessary that a project should have both; particularly at the elementary
level, where in most of the times, the research questions would be okay.

By meaning, a Research Hypothesis is a clear, specific statement whose validity and

workability can be tested by means of scientific method. Being a declarative statement of
prediction, it tries to determine the relationship or difference that exists between one
variable and the other; and to what degree. It is a form of clever guess or supposition
regularly derived from the results of previous studies and/or theories originating from the
literature. Hypotheses are formulated on the core of any of the areas and objectives listed
below:

1. To merely describe a occurrence or a statement of fact

2. To compare two or more concepts, individuals and places
3. To reveal the relationship between variable
4. To reveal a cause/ effect situation between variables.
Usually, there are two kinds of hypotheses; basically referring to the way they are stated.
They are the Null and the Alternative. While the former is frequently stated in the negative
form of “No Significant Relationship” or “No Significant Difference” etc., the latter takes
the positive form of statement; such as “There is a Significant Relationship”, “There is a
Significant Difference” etc.

The Research Hypotheses specify the fundamental issues relating to the data to be gathered
in the process of conducting the study. They serve as a theoretical conceptualization of what
the researcher anticipated with respect to his research outcomes. These help him to test
and verify his concepts on the basis of which he makes very tangible and reliable
conclusions and generalizations. They also assist in sharpening researcher’s focus on the
research problem with a view to determining the direction where to find the solution.

Therefore, some of the qualities of a good hypothesis must include that:

 It should be sensible {i.e. clever guesses}.

 It should be in line with known facts or theories.
 It should be constructed in such a manner that it is testable and found to be probably
true or false.
 It should be in very simple, unambiguous terms.
 It should be directly connected to the problem of research.
 It should involve very few variables at a time.
 It should be quantifiable {i.e. operationally formulated}.

1.5. Significance of the Study

It is anticipated that every research project must have something new to contribute to
knowledge in that research field, no matter how small. In point of fact, no research should
take place if it will not contribute anything to knowledge; as this represents the major
feature of all research endeavors.

Consequently, this section is expected to clarify the possible benefits of the research and to
whom such anticipated benefits would be meant. All these should be clearly stated. In any
way, there is no standard detail as to the number of benefits that a research project should
have or its length. It can be arranged sequentially or itemized or paraphrased depending
on the person’s method of writing.

1.6. Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of the study basically refers to the level of coverage of the research subject
being investigated and the good statement of the problem will act as a helpful guide to doing
this. That means, if the problem had been properly stated at the beginning, it helps,
certainly, in defining the scope of the research. That is why the scope of the study is partially
dependent on the title of the research project. If well formulated, the phrase of the title only
does define the scope of the study and possibly, needs a little rider to make it clearer. The
limitation of the study represents the things and issues that constituted challenges in the
process of investigations.

Consequently, if the scope was concerned with the level of the research’s coverage,
then, limitation implies building a fence around the subject of research. This is with a view
to creating a foundation for the non-inclusion of certain things in the study for
understandable reasons.

1.7. Basic Assumptions

Even though many student researchers tend to mistake Assumptions with

Hypotheses, it is important to state very clearly that they are not the same. We have already
discussed about hypotheses; its meaning and significance in a research project. However,
Assumptions are only mere statements, which are frequently, not subjected to any testing.
They are, more or less, ordinary statements that are taken for granted. They cannot replace
the Hypotheses; yet, they tend to duplicate the Hypotheses, because they are fairly similar.

It is because of these reasons that a lot of research experts have suggested that if the
study has hypotheses, then assumptions would no longer be needed. For a study with
Research Questions only nevertheless, it is suitable to have assumptions, to act as a guide
towards the achievement of the research objectives.

Assumptions are typically itemized while the number varies.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

This section of the Chapter one (introduction) is used to offer a kind of working
definition to all the concepts, which would be operationally used in the course of the
research. The notion is that there are some terminologies, which have been “adapted” and
so utilized restrictively for the purpose of the research project.

This implies that such terminologies would mean something somewhat different
from the one adapted under a different circumstances; therefore the name Operational
Definition of Terms. In defining terms operationally, individual concepts/words to be so
defined are recognized and then itemized. Thus, operational definitions are typically given
in such a manner that will imply that they are not the usually accepted as standard
definitions but those peculiar to the study in specifically. This section typically comes last
in the introductory chapter.

Writing Chapter 2 - 'REVIEW OF LITERATURE'

Chapter 2 of your Project Paper is called the Review of Literature (or Review of Related
Literature or Literature Review). It is the chapter in which you analyse critically published
works (theoretical articles and research studies) related to your problem statement and
research questions. disciplines. It is suggested that the chapter be organised into THREE
parts consisting of an introduction, critical analysis of related research works and a
conclusion.
1. PREAMBLE

Stating the sub-heading 'Preamble' or 'Introduction' is optional but it should include the
following:
 Briefly discuss the problem statement and purpose of the study, the research
design and data collection techniques to provide an appropriate context for the
review.
 Point out overall trends in the published works such as conflicts in findings, gaps
in research. different methodologies used and samples studied.
 Conclude this section by telling that you will present the theoretical
framework followed by a critical analysis of relatedresearch studies related to the
problem statement and research questions followed by a conclusion.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Without doubt, there are hundreds or perhaps thousands of articles, thesis,

dissertations, reports and books in the area you are planning to study. Obviously, you are
not expected to read all of them. Hence, you have to limit the scope of sources you need to
read and yet have a good overview of the area of study. Also, you do not have much 'space'
to report all the works. You have to decide which among the abundant works you should
include in this section of Chapter 2. Perhaps the following guidelines will help:
 Give priority to research-based works in referred journals, research reports,
doctoral theses, masters dissertations and conference papers.
 Select research-based works that are closely related to your research
questions or hypotheses.
FIRST - Create several categories or sub-headings which invariably would be closely
aligned to the research questions. e.g. 'Gender and Leadership Styles'; 'Age and Leadership
Styles'.
SECOND - Create a template using MS Word (1-2 pages per article) or MSExcel or the
traditional 'note card' to make notes for each article you read:
 Title
 Author (s)
 Source: journal / report - volume (number), pages
 Introduction - purpose, theoretical framework, literature review, research
question, hypotheses
 Methodology - research design, data collection methods, sample, processes.
 Findings - data analysis, data presented, research questions / hypotheses
answered
 Conclusion - assertion of the researcher, discussion, recommendation
THIRD - after having done the above for all the articles, reports, theses, dissertations and
papers you have read, GROUP them into the categories - e.g. all articles which you
reviewed related to the sub-heading or category 'Gender and Leadership Styles' are
grouped under this sub-heading.
 Check to see if the articles are up-to-date
 You have included enough of current works - typically the last 5 years
  Also include seminal or landmark works if they are relevant in shaping your study

FOURTH - earlier you critically evaluated the articles individually and in isolation - now
that you have grouped several articles in one category, you should compare the
studies within a category focusing on similar and conflicting findings. For example,
under the category of 'Democratic Leadership Style and Job Satisfaction' some studies
showed that democratic leadership styles resulted in greater job satisfaction among staff
while in other studies there was no relationship.
FIFTH - since you have grouped the articles into several categories, you can now compare
the articles across categories. Now you have a 'big picture' of the studies reviwed:
 Detect concurrence of findings, conflict in findings or no differences at all.
 Identify the trends and patterns that emerge and how they relate to your
problem statement and research questions.
 Discuss how the studies are related to the theoretical framework
 Highlight gaps in the research studies in each category and what needs
further investigation
The following are some tips for organisation of your review:
 Use linking words such as the following: similarly, in addition, also,
again, more importantly, however, on the other hand, conversely, nevertheless
 Avoid using. Wilson (1990) says ......but instead use an appropriate verb which
more accurately reflects the authors viewpoint, such as "argues",
"claims" or "states".
 Quotes are used to emphasise a point or if what the author said cannot be
rewritten in your own words.
 Sometimes quotes are used to quote terms coined by the author.
 When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the
author's message or viewpoint accurately in your own words.
Keeping your own voice - Even though you are presenting the views of others, you
should maintain your own voice by starting and ending a paragraph with your own words.

Chapter 3. Research methodology and method

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Methodology
3.1.1 Method of sampling
3.1.2 Organisation of data
3.1.3 Contextualisation
3.1.4 Ensuring reliability, validity and objectivity
3.1.5 Cross-disciplinary research
3.1.6 Research ethics
3.2 Institutional authorisation
3.2.1 First contacts
3.2.2 Writing the research proposal
3.2.3 Obtaining authorisation
3.3 Recruitment of practices
3.3.1 Choice of practices
 3.3.2 Contact with practices
3.4 Data collection
3.4.1 Self-presentation
3.4.2 Access
3.4.3 Patient confidentiality
3.4.4 Research assistants
3.4.5 Audio-recording
3.5 Ethnography
3.5.1 Practices
3.5.2 Receptionists
3.5.3 Patients
3.6 Organisation of data
3.6.1 Transcription
3.6.2 Categories of interaction

Chapter 4 RESEARCH METHODS

4.1 Research questions and analysis overview
4.2 Discourse, context and qualitative research
4.2.1 Views of discourse
4.2.2 Qualitative research in language education
4.2.3 Language classroom discourse and participant perspectives
4.3 The study design
4.3.1 The case study approach
4.3.2 Observation
4.3.3 Field notes
4.3.4 Interviews
4.4 The data collection process
4.4.1 The research context
4.4.2 Anticipated problems
4.4.3 Access, ethics and informed consent
4.4.4 The teachers, course and participants
4.4.5 Observations of lessons 1-5
4.4.6 Methodological modifications
4.4.7 Observations of lessons 6-10
4.5 Approaches to data analysis
4.5.1 Transcription
4.5.2 Approaches to analysing spoken discourse
4.5.3 Justifying claims in qualitative research