Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough and comprehensive search

done by the researchers, our resources are from online searching, journals, and books. This will

also present the synthesis of the art to fully comprehend or understand the research to be done.

Lastly, the justification of the study to know the uniqueness of the research project to be done.

Conceptual Literature

Crop Production

Crop production depends on the availability of arable land and is affected in particular by

yields, macroeconomic uncertainty, as well as consumption patterns; it also has a great incidence

on agricultural commodities' prices. The importance of crop production is related to harvested

areas, returns per hectare (yields) and quantities produced. OECD (2018).

According to editorial writer Yildiz (2017). It is necessary to increase crop production so that

human beings can feed on sufficient and balanced diet to sustain their existence on Earth. And as

stated by Mann (2011): Today the potato is the fifth most important crop worldwide, after wheat,

corn, rice and sugar cane. But in the 18th century the tuber was a startling novelty, frightening to

some, bewildering to others—part of a global ecological convulsion set off by Christopher

Columbus.

Compared with grains, tubers are inherently more productive. If the head of a wheat or rice

plant grows too big, the plant will fall over, with fatal results. Growing underground, tubers are
not limited by the rest of the plant. In 2008, a Lebanese farmer dug up a potato that weighed nearly

25 pounds. It was bigger than his head.

Also, Yildiz (2011) stated that the yields in agricultural production declines due to biotic and

abiotic stress factors. Chemical methods are commonly used to combat biotic stressors (diseases

and pests) that reduce crop production. However, herbicides and insecticides have been shown to

cause the emergences of new diseases and pesticides. In addition, unconscious use of fertilizers

and chemicals applied in plant production has negatively affected long-term ecological balance.

For example, it has been determined that overused nitrogen fertilizers are washed from the soil

and pollute drinking water and the seas, while the nitrogen components that are escaping from the

gaseous state are adversely affecting the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful rays

of the sun. It has been understood that certain chemicals, which have permanent effects accumulate

in plants and this negatively affects the health of people and animals fed on those plants.

Furthermore, the use of chemicals in agriculture causes an extra financial burden.

The weed control is important to obtain high yields on farming and it is as old as the

agriculture itself. In order to reach greater yield and soil conservation, correct procedures in crop

management, weed control carries as a great alternative since weeds, which is continually compete

for water, light and nutrients and reduces crops yield concern higher the production cost

consequently, there is which also interferes in harvest and mix the seeds with the crop, reducing

quality (COSTA, 1996).

Now according to Dr.Busi, R. (2014) “Weeds could evolve and “quickly learn” to defend

themselves against the lethal effects of herbicides. “The evolution of herbicide resis- tance makes

it more difficult for farmers to achieve good weed control,” he said. “Some herbicide groups have
been pushed to redundancy and in certain regions of the Australian wheatbelt, farmers can’t use

particular herbicides that once delivered very effective and cheap weed control.”

Fungi

Fungi as we generally know, are microorganisms affecting our lives, directly and indirectly,

both positively and negatively. There are various types of fungi, and each one of them having their

own unique characteristics. Whether it be traits or components, most fungi are generally negative

towards the flora and fauna.

Generally speaking, the concept of using fungi as a positive answer to common agriculture

problems is not new and more and more studies show its various agricultural uses.

“Among fungi, the prominent genera to receive attention as bioherbicide candidates include

Colletotrichum, Phoma, and Sclerotinia” as stated by Harding, D., and Raizada, M. (2015).

According to his abstract, Javaid, A. (2010): It has been shown that extracts, residues and

essential oils of many allelopathic plant species (herbs, grasses and trees) effectively reduce the

germination and growth of parthenium. Likewise metabolites of many fungal species have

herbicidal effects on its germination and growth. There is need to isolate and identify the active

herbicidal ingredients from plants and fungal metabolites.

Now according to author Klich, M. (2007). “Aspergillus Flavus is an opportunistic pathogen

of crops. It is important because it produces aflatoxin as a secondary metabolite in the seeds of a

number of crops both before and after harvest. Aflatoxin is a potent carcinogen that is highly

regulated in most countries. In the field, aflatoxin is associated with drought-stressed oilseed crops

including maize, peanut, cottonseed and tree nuts. Under the right conditions, the fungus will grow

and produce aflatoxin in almost any stored crop seed. In storage, aflatoxin can be controlled by
maintaining available moisture at levels below that which will support growth of A. flavus.

Aspergillus Flavus has a broad host range as an opportunistic pathogen/saprobe. It is an extremely

common soil fungus. The major concern with this fungus in agriculture is that it produces highly

carcinogenic toxins called aflatoxins which are a health hazard to animals. In the field, A. flavus

is predominantly a problem in the oilseed crops maize, peanuts, cottonseed and tree nuts. Under

improper storage conditions, A. flavus is capable of growing and forming aflatoxin in almost any

crop seed. It also is a pathogen of animals and insects. In humans it is predominantly an

opportunistic pathogen of immunosuppressed patients.”

Related Studies

This section discuss about local and foreign studies and will present about the relativity of the

study

Foreign Studies

In a recent study conducted by Karthi, S., et al. (2018). “Effects of Aspergillus Flavus on the

mortality and activity of antioxidant enzymes of Spodopteralitura Fab. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

larvae”. According to them, Insects have developed tolerance against mycoses caused by

entomopathogenic fungi through several humoral and cellular mechanisms. Antioxidant enzymes

such as superoxide dismutase, lipid peroxidase, and peroxidase can play a role in defense against

mycosis, but the physiological interactions between the fungus and the insect are not well

characterized. In this study, the effects of infection by entomopathogenic fungus, Aspergillus

Flavus on the antioxidant defense system of Spodopteralitura, were investigated a significant

increase in detoxifying enzymes.

and aflatoxin production in transgenic maize kernels expressing a tachyplesin-derived synthetic

peptide, AGM182. Aspergillus Flavus is an opportunistic, saprophytic fungus that infects maize

and other fatty acid-rich food and feed crops and produces toxic and carcinogenic secondary

metabolites known as aflatoxins. Contamination of maize with aflatoxin poses a serious threat to

human health in addition to reducing the crop value leading to a substantial economic loss.

Recently, Fonseca, J., et al. (2017) conducted a study entitled as “Antioxidant and

Allelopathic activities of Smilax brasiliensis Sprengel (Smilacaceae)”. The allelopathic activity

showed promising results, predominantly with effects in growth inhibition of hypocotyls and

radicles at the lower concentration tested. The study suggests that the extract and fractions obtained

from S. brasiliensis could be used as natural antioxidants and herbicides.

As stated by Glab, L., et al. (2017). Weeds constitute the largest biotic threat affecting the

yield of cultivated plants. While conventional agriculture relies principally on chemicals for weed

control, alternative biological methods may be important tools to reduce weed pressure in

agroecosystems. Furthermore, as the problem of excessive residue of plant protection agents in

agroecosystems and the growing number of herbicide resistant weed biotypes continue to increase,

new solutions that have smaller impacts on the environment are becoming increasingly desirable.

One promising such method is the use of crops that exert a negative phytotoxic influence on weeds.

This natural phenomenon describing the ability of certain plant species to produce compounds that

affect the growth of other plants in their surroundings is called allelopathy. Managing weed

infestations in cultivated fields by planting allelopathic crops is a sustainable, economic, and

environmentally friendly approach that has been strongly articulated in the international arena.
 It was discussed by De Lima, G., et.al., (2015).”Allelopathic effects of pathogenic fungi on

weed plants of soybean and corn crops”. The herbicides application can be reduced with alternative

methods, as pathogenic fungi use,that produces several secondary compounds in growth medium,

which has phytotoxicity. This study suggests filtrates can be used to control weeds in a sustainable

ecological way as well as an alternative to reduce herbicides application, thus, protecting the

environment.

In the same way, Chu, C., et.al., (2014) stated that Eucalyptus have an Allelopathic effects on

native and introduced tree species. According to them, to show the assessment of the influence of

soil allelopathy, allelochemical volatilization, and foliage litter decomposition on seed germination

and seedling growth of three native and one introduced tree species in a Eucalyptus urophylla and

Pinuselliottii plantation. Two field trials and a greenhouse trial is needed. In order to avoid

confounding factors relating to management strategies and environmental influences, only one

plantation of each species was used for experimentation. Allelopathy from volatilization and

foliage litter decomposition contributed little to the inhibitory effects.

In a study conducted by Farooq, M., et.al., (2013). The Application of Allelopathy in crop

productions looked that increasing global population is a threat to food security and agricultural

sustainability. Allelopathy has emerged as a pragmatic approach to solve multiple issues in modern

agriculture. Multiple approaches including crop rotations, cover crops, intercropping, mulching,

crop residue incorporation and water extracts application are being used to explore allelopathy for

pest management, stress mitigation, and growth enhancement in crop production. Allelopathy

offers natural control of weeds, insect-pests and diseases. Biosynthesis of secondary metabolites

at higher rates and their role in stress signaling provides excellent defense against abiotic stresses.

Allelochemicals exuded in plant rhizosphere improve nutrient acquisition through the processes
of solublization, biological nitrification inhibition, chelation and selected retention.

Allelochemicals promote growth at low concentration; however suppress the growth if applied at

high concentration. Allelopathic water extracts of sorghum, brassica, sunflower, rice, wheat, maize

and moringa improve crop growth when applied at low concentrations.

A comprehensive description argued by Weston & Duke, (2010) argues that “Weed and

crop allelopathy that Allelopathy can be defined as an important mechanism of plant interference

mediated by the addition of plant-produced secondary products to the soil rhizosphere.

Allelochemicals are present in all types of plants and tissues and are released into the soil

rhizosphere by a variety of mechanisms, including decomposition of residues, volatilization, and

root exudation. Allelochemical structures and modes of action are diverse and may offer potential

for the development of future herbicides. We have focused our review on a variety of weed and

crop species that establish some form of potent allelopathic interference, either with other crops or

weeds, in agricultural settings, in the managed landscape, or in naturalized settings. Recent

research suggests that allelopathic properties can render one species more invasive to native

species and thus potentially detrimental to both agricultural and naturalized settings. In contrast,

allelopathic crops offer strong potential for the development of cultivars that are more highly weed

suppressive in managed settings. Both environmental and genotypic effects impact allelochemical

production and release over time. A new challenge that exists for future plant scientists is to

generate additional information on allelochemical mechanisms of release, selectivity and

persistence, mode of action, and genetic regulation. In this manner, we can further protect plant

biodiversity and enhance weed management strategies in a variety of ecosystems”.

Local Studies
 According to Luis Et.al (2017), they conducted a study about the Atoxigenic Strains of

Aspergillus Flavus Isolated From Peanuts Collected From Northern Philippines as Potential

Biocon Agents Against Pre-Harvest Aflatoxin Contamination of Peanut and Corn.Aflatoxin

contamination of food products causes liver cancer and weakened immunity in humans, and

stunted growth and reduced productivity in animals (CAST, 2003). In the United States and Africa

Effective control of pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination of peanut and corn due to AflaGuard and

Aflasafe have been achieved. Nevertheless, these products cannot be used locally due to ecological

differences in micro-biodiversity. Thus, the study was conducted at BSU in search for local

atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus Flavus (ASAFs) in peanuts grown in Northern Philippines as

potential biocon agents against pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination of peanut and corn. One

hundred sixty and five peanut samples were collected from the Cordillera Administrative Region

(CAR), and Regions I and II. Randomly selected kernel samples from each were processed for

qualitative aflatoxin detection using immunochromatographic strips. Only samples showing

negative reaction to the strips, i.e. indication of freedom from 20ppb aflatoxin content cutoff for

acceptance of product as food, were used to isolate Aspergillus section Flavi (AF) members,

eliminating all other isolates via morphological characterization. These were sent by freight to

USDA for the detection of defective aflatoxin biosynthetic gene cluster (ABGC) via multiplex

PCR and confirmation of non-production of aflatoxin by defective strains via back inoculation to

rice grains then extraction of metabolite for detection via liquid chromatography - mass

spectrometry following the protocols of Callicott and Cotty (2014). There were 440 AF isolates

prepared and sent for molecular fingerprinting. The first cycle of multiplex PCR showed 25

isolates to have defective ABGC: four A. flavus strains with lack of full cluster (permanent

mutation), 11 isolates as A. tamarii, and 10 isolates of unknown species. The second cycle of
multiplex PCR showed six A. flavus strains with lack of partial cluster (partial mutation) but one

was contaminated with bacterium and other fungus, thus eliminated. The four permanent mutants

and five partial mutants did not produce cyclopinozoic acid (CPA) or aflatoxin. Results show that

the four permanent mutants are potential biocon agents against pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination

of peanut and corn. Possible use of the partial mutants is also being considered with extra care in

avoiding their possible hybridization with the permanent mutants. Immediate efforts to come up

with protocols on the production of inoculants and proper field application are now being

addressed.

Field plot studies were conducted during the wet and dry seasons of 1993 in Ilagan, Isabela,

Philippines to determine the relationship between populations of Aspergillus Flavus in the soil and

the extent of infection and aflatoxin contamination of preharvestcorn.It was discussed by Garcia

Et al. (1996) that the Initial sampling of soil showed great variability of Aspergillus propagule

counts within the field. Highest infection and contamination were observed in the treatment which

was basally inoculated with the highest level of inoculum. This indicates a direct relationship

between soil population and extent of infection and aflatoxin contamination occurring in

preharvest corn. The uninoculated control also got infected and contaminated suggesting that there

is sufficient indigenous inoculum level in the soil that can cause infection. The extent of infection

and aflatoxin contamination were generally lower during the wet than the dry season trial. Results

from the vegetative compatibility groupings (VCG) analyses revealed that majority of the

Aspergillus isolates from the infected grains came from the strain used as inoculum. The marked

strain has indeed been transmitted into the developing corn causing infection and aflatoxin

contamination. Although infection and contamination are complex phenomena occurring in the
field, results from VCG complementation tests of Aspergillus Flavus isolated from the corn grains

suggest and support previous literatures that the soil is the principal source of primary inoculum.

Synthesis

Humans are depended on crops for food, fiber and more recently for fuel. Demands for crop

production in rising because of increasing population, change in food habits and biofuel

consumption. (Goyal and Asif, 2013) Crop-production practices exert selection pressure on weed

communities (Buhler, 2014). Crop production, thus,

The study aimed to use the fungi, Aspergillus Flavus against Solanum tuberosum’s (Potato)

weeds. It is a great contribute in our community in terms of potato crop production.

The indicated related literature and studies are similar to the present study because it provides

a research which tested the Allelopathic Effects or Properties of Aspergillus Flavus in different

kinds and also studies related to weeds and crop production. By using the study which they made,

it can lessen weeds affecting Potato crop production.

The indicated studies also expressed different methods of using different organic or

inorganic materials as their alternative herbicides. It also shows the effects of Aspergillus Flavus

to soil which also supports the idea of using it as a good source of aflatoxin. Aflatoxin is known

to be commonly found in Aspergillus Flavus which helps to increase its herbicidal property.

Justification of the Study

Our study, compared to the related literature cited, focused on the Allelopathic Property of

Aspergillus Flavus Against Solanum tuberosum’s (Potato) weeds. This simple solution could help
many. Especially, with using Aspergillus Flavuswhich is an opportunistic pathogen of crops and

an extremely common soil fungus and an agriculturally relevant manufacturer of aflatoxins.

It is proven that Aspergillus Flavushas bad effects on its surroundings. Our study will use

something bad in order to preserve the number of materials that are essential in other ways. Instead

of thinking on how to eradicate Aspergillus Flavus, the researchers decided to put it in a good use

for potato crop production.