Vertical Alignment ‐1

Dr. Sameer Ud-Din

School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
National University of Science & Technology (NUST)
 Vertical Alignment ‐ Introduction
• Vertical alignment: specifies the
elevations of points along a
roadway

• Need to find elevation of

roadway points:

– to provide proper drainage

– an acceptable level of driver

safety/ comfort
 Vertical Alignment ‐ Introduction
• A primary concern in vertical alignment: is establishing the
transition of roadway elevations between two grades

• This transition is achieved by means of vertical curves

• Broadly classification of vertical curves:

– crest vertical curves

– sag vertical curves

 Vertical Alignment  (Tangents and Curves)
• Like the horizontal alignment, the vertical alignment is made up of
tangent and curves

• In this case the curve is a parabolic curve rather than a circular or

spiral curve

Crest Curve

G2 G3
G1

Sag Curve
 Vertical Alignment ‐ Introduction
• Factors influencing …
– Natural terrain
– Minimum stopping sight distance for the
selected design speed
– The number of trucks and other heavy
vehicles in the traffic stream
– The basic roadway cross‐section; i.e., two
lanes versus multiple lanes
– Natural environmental factors, such as
wetlands and historic, cultural, and
community resources
 Vertical Alignment ‐ Grades
• The longitudinal slope is called the grade. Expressed in percentage

• Vertical tangents are characterized by their longitudinal slope, or

grade

• When expressed as a percent, the grade indicates the relative rise

(or fall) of the facility in the longitudinal direction as a percentage
of the length of the section under study

• Thus, a 4% grade of 2,000 ft. involves a vertical rise of

2,000* (4/100) = 80 ft.

• Upgrades have positive slopes and percent grades, while

downgrades have negative slopes and percent grades
 Vertical Alignment ‐ Grades
o Maximum recommended grades is
generally a function of the:
 type of facility (road functional class)
 terrain in which it is built
 design speed
o Terrain Classification
– Level ‐ highway sight distances are long
without major expense, small amounts
of earthwork Max. Grade ‐ Harlech, Gwynedd, UK (G = 34%)

– Rolling ‐ the natural slopes rise above

or fall below the road elevation with
occasional steep slopes that restrict
highway alignment, moderate amounts
of earthwork
– Mountainous ‐ highway alignment is
strongly influenced by the ground
slopes, large amount of earthwork
 Vertical Alignment ‐ Grades
• Cars: negotiate 4‐5% grades without significant speed reduction
• Trucks: significant speed changes
– 5% increase on short descending grades
– 7% decrease on short ascending grades
– On upgrades, the maximum speed that can be maintained by a 
truck is dependent primarily on
• length of the grade
• steepness of the grade
• the truck’s weight/power ratio, which is the gross vehicle 
weight divided by the net engine power
• Entering speed
 Vertical Alignment ‐ Grades

Source: AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2011

 Vertical Alignment ‐ Grades

Source: AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2011

 Vertical Alignment – Max/ Min Grades
• Maximum grades:
– 5 % for a design speed of 110 km/h [70 mph]
– 7 to 12% for a design speed of 50 km/h [30 mph] depending on
terrain
– 7 or 8% for important highways for a 50 km/h [30 mph] design
speed
• Minimum grades:
– Flat grades can typically provide proper surface drainage on
uncurbed highways where the cross slope is adequate to drain the
pavement surface laterally
– With curbed highways or streets, longitudinal grades should be
provided to facilitate surface drainage
– An appropriate minimum grade is typically 0.5 percent, but grades
of 0.30 percent may be used (since anything larger starts to affect
the operations of trucks)
 Vertical Alignment ‐ Grades
• The principal operational impact of a grade is that trucks will be
forced to slow down as they progress up the grade
• This creates gaps in the traffic stream that cannot be effectively filled
by simple passing maneuvers
• Figure illustrates the effect of upgrades on the operation of trucks
with a weight‐to‐horsepower ratio of 200 lbs/hp, ‐ operationally
typical of the range of commercial vehicles on most highways
• It depicts deceleration behavior with an assumed entry speed of 70
mph.
 Vertical Alignment ‐ Grades

Crawling 
speed
 Vertical Alignment ‐ Grades
Critical length of grade
• Maximum length which
a loaded truck can
travel without
unreasonable speed
reduction
• Based on accident
involvement rates with
10 mph speed
reduction as threshold
 Vertical Alignment – Example‐1
If a highway with traffic normally running at 65 mph has an inclined
section with a 3% grade, what is the maximum length of grade that can
be used before the speed of the larger vehicles is reduced to 55 mph?
 Vertical Alignment – Example‐1
• a 3% grade causes a reduction in speed of 10 mph after 1600 feet 
 Vertical Alignment – Example‐2
oFor example, a truck entering a 5% upgrade at 70 mi/h slows to 50 mi/h
after 2,000 ft and 32 mph after 4,000 ft.
oEventually, the truck reaches its “crawl speed.” The crawl speed is that
constant speed that the truck can maintain for any length of grade (of the
given steepness)
oUsing the same example, a truck on a 5% upgrade has a crawl speed of 26
mph that is reached after approximately 7,400 ft.
 Vertical Alignment – Example‐2
• Thus, the interference of trucks with general highway operations is
related not only to the steepness of the grade but to its length as
well
• For most design purposes, grades should not be longer than the
“critical length.”
• A 10 mph speed reduction is used as general guideline for
determining, the critical length of the grades
• Truck Speed Profile Model (TSPM) ‐ spreadsheet program: May be 
used to generate truck speed profiles when:
– Entry speed is not 70 mph
– weight/power ratio either less than or greater than the value of 
200 lbs/hp
– profile may not consist of a constant percent grade
 Vertical Alignment – Grades
• The suggested design criterion for determining the critical length of
grade is not intended as a strict control but as a guideline
• In some instances, the terrain or other physical controls may
preclude shortening or flattening grades to meet these controls
• Where a speed reduction greater than the suggested design guide
cannot be avoided, undesirable operation may result on roads with
numerous trucks, particularly on two lane roads with volumes
approaching capacity and in some instances on multilane highways
• Where the length of critical grade is exceeded, consideration should
be given to providing an added uphill lane for slow‐moving vehicles,
particularly where volume is at or near capacity and the truck
volume is high
Types of Vertical Curves 

G1 G2

Crest Vertical Curve

Sag Vertical Curve

G1 G2
Types of Vertical Curves 
Types of Vertical Curves 
 Properties of Vertical Curves

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

L/2 PVI
L/2
L

Change in grade: A = G1 – G2
where G is expressed as % (positive /, negative \)

For a crest curve, A is negative

For a sag curve, A is positive
 Vertical Curves Fundamentals
• In connecting roadway grades (tangents) with an appropriate
vertical curve, a mathematical relationship defining elevation of all
points along the vertical curve is needed
• A parabolic function has been found suitable in this regard because,
among other things, it provides a constant rate of change of slope
and implies equal curve tangents
• The general form of the parabolic equation, as applied to vertical
curves, is

2
y  ax  bx  c
 Vertical Curves Fundamentals
For the purpose of describing vertical curve let:
• y =Y(x)= elevation of vertical curve at a point at distance x from the
beginning of the vertical curve (PVC) in stations or ft.
• x = distance from PVC in stations or ft.
• a, b = coefficients
• c = Y(o)= elevation of the PVC when x = 0 in ft.

2
Yx  ax  bx  Yo
 Crest Vertical Curves 

PVI
A
PVC
PVT
G1
L/2
G2

L
x

y  ax 2  bx  c

Yx  ax 2  bx  Yo
 Vertical Curves Fundamentals
o In defining a and b, the first derivative of equation (1) gives the slope as:
2
Yx  ax  bx  Yo  (1)
o At the PVC, x = 0, so,      (when X=0, slope is equal to entry grade)
o where G1 is the initial slope in ft./ft. 
o Also the second derivative of equation (1) is the rate of change of slope and is            

o However, the average rate of change of slope, by observation (previous figure), 
can also be written as 


o Equating two equations we get     


o Where: L – curve length in ft., G1– initial grade in ft./ft. and  G2– final grade in 
ft./ft.
 Properties of Vertical Curves

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

L/2 PVI
L/2
L

Rate of change of grade: r = (g2 - g1) / L

where,

g is expressed as a ratio (positive /, negative \)

L is expressed in feet or meters

Note – K and r are both measuring the same characteristic of the curve
but in different ways
 Properties of Vertical Curves

PVC
G1
Elevation = y
G2
PVT

PVI

Equation for determining the elevation at any point on the curve

y = y0 + g1x + 1/2 rx2

where,
y0 = elevation at the PVC
g = grade expressed as a ratio
x = horizontal distance from PVC
r = rate of change of grade expressed as ratio
 Vertical Curves Fundamentals
o Final form of equation for a vertical curve is
Choose Either:
(G 2  G 1 )
* x 2  G1 x  Yo
• G1, G2 in decimal form, L in feet
Yx  • G1, G2 in percent, L in stations
2L

o The location of the high point (on a crest vertical curve) or the low point (on a sag 
vertical curve) is at a point where the slope (or first derivative) is equal to “zero.”
dY x (G 2  G 1 )
 0  * x  G1
dx L
G1L
x 
(G 2  G 1 )
o Where: L – curve length in ft., G1 – initial grade in ft./ft. and  G2 – final grade in 
ft./ft. 
o Note that for curves in which both grades are either up or down, no such point 
will exist on the curve
o Care must be taken to address the sign of the grade. A negative grade has a minus 
(‐) sign that must be accounted for in the equation
 Vertical Curves – Example‐3
Example: A crest vertical curve joins a +3% and –4% grade. Design
speed is 75 mph. Length = 2184.0 ft. Station at PVI is 345+ 60.00,
elevation at PVI = 250 feet. Find elevations and station for PVC and
PVT.
 Vertical Curves – Example‐3

Solution:

L/2 = 1092.0 ft

Station at PVC = [345 + 60.00] - [10 + 92.00] = 334 + 68.00

Vertical Diff PVI to PVC: -0.03 x (2184/2) = - 32.76 feet

ElevationPVC = 250 – 32.76 = 217.24 feet

Station at PVT = [345 + 60.00] + [10 + 92.00] = 356 + 52.00

Vertical Diff PVI to PVT = -0.04 x (2184/2) = - 43.68 feet

Elevation PVT = 250 – 43.68 = 206.32 feet

 Properties of Vertical Curves – Example 4

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Example: Length of curve?

G1 = -1% G2 = +2%
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 m L/2 = Sta. PVT – Sta. PVI
Station of PVT = 25+00 L/2 = 2500 m - 2400 m = 100 m
Station of PVI = 24+00 L = 200 m
 Properties of Vertical Curves – Example 4

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Example: r - value?
G1 = -1% G2 = +2%
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 m r = (g2 - g1)/L
Station of PVT = 25+00 r = (0.02 - [-0.01])/200 m
Station of PVI = 24+00 r = 0.00015 / meter
 Properties of Vertical Curves – Example 4

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Example: Station of low point?

G1 = -1% G2 = +2% x = -(g1 L/g2-g1)
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 m x = 66.67 m
Station of PVT = 25+00
Station of PVI = 24+00 Station = [23+00] + 66.67 m
Station 23+67
 Properties of Vertical Curves – Example 4

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Example: Elevation at low point?

G1 = -1% G2 = +2% y = y0 + g1x + 1/2 rx2
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 m y0 = Elev. PVC
Station of PVT = 25+00 Elev. PVC = Elev. PVI - g1L/2
Station of PVI = 24+00 Elev. PVC = 125 m - [-0.01][100 m]
Elev. PVC = 126 m
 Properties of Vertical Curves – Example 4

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI

Example: Elevation at low point?

G1 = -1% G2 = +2%
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 m y = y0 + g1x + 1/2 rx2
Station of PVT = 25+00 y = 126 m + [-0.01][66.67 m] +
Station of PVI = 24+00 1/2 [0.00015/m][66.67 m]2
y = 125.67 m
 Properties of Vertical Curves – Example 4

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

PVI
Elevation at station 23+50?
Example:
y = 126 m + [-0.01][50 m] +
G1 = -1% G2 = +2% 1/2 [0.00015/m][50 m]2
Elevation of PVI = 125.00 m y = 125.69 m
Station of PVT = 25+00
Elevation at station 24+50?
Station of PVI = 24+00
y = 126 m + [-0.01][150 m] +
1/2 [0.00015/m][150 m]2
y = 126.19 m
 Example – 5 
A 400 ft. equal tangent crest vertical curve has a PVC station of 100+00 at 59 ft.
elevation. The initial grade is 2.0 percent and the final grade is -4.5 percent.
Determine the elevation and stationing of PVI, PVT, and the high point of the curve.

PVI

PVT

PVT: STA 100+00

EL 59 ft.
 Example – 6
A 600‐ft long equal tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at station
170+00 and elevation 1,000 ft. The initial grade is ‐3.5% and the final
grade is +0.5%. Determine the stationing and elevation of the PVI, the
PVT and the lowest point on the curve

•G1, G2 in percent
•L in feet

G1= -3.5%
PVT
PVC

G2= +0.5%

PVI

Not to Scale
 Example – 7 
A vertical curve of 600 ft. connects a +3% grade to a ‐2.4% grade. The
elevation of the PVI is 853.48 ft and located at 46+70. Compute
elevation at full sta.
 Additional Properties of Vertical Curves 

o G1 =  initial roadway grade in percent or ft/ft (m/m) (this grade is also 
referred to as the initial tangent grade(viewing from left to right)
o G2 =  final roadway (tangent) grade in percent or ft/ft (m/m),
o PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve),
o PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades),
o PVT = point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the vertical curve 
(the point where the curve returns to the final grade or, equivalently, the 
final tangent),
 Additional Properties of Vertical Curves 
o L =  length of the curve in stations or ft (m) measured in a constant‐
elevation horizontal plane,
o x =  distance from the PVC in ft (m),
o Y =  offset at any distance x from the PVC in ft (m),
o Ym = mid‐curve offset in ft (m), and
o Yf=  offset at the end of the vertical curve in ft (m).
o Making use of the properties of an equal‐tangent parabola

A 2
Y x
200 L
o Where A = absolute value of the difference in grades (|G1 ‐ G2|)
expressed in percent
 Additional Properties of Vertical Curves 
•G1, G2 in percent
•L in feet

G1 x

PVT
PVC

Y
Ym G2

PVI Yf
A  G1  G2

A 2 AL AL
Y x Ym  Yf 
200 L 800 200
 Additional Properties of Vertical Curves 
AL
o Mid‐curve offset Ym 
800
o Offset at the end of curve AL
Y f 
200

o Note that in this equation, 200 is used in the denominator instead of

2 because A is expressed in percent instead of ft/ft
 Additional Properties of Vertical Curves 

K‐value (defines vertical curvature)

o The number of horizontal feet needed for a 1% change in slope
L
K 
A

high / low pt.  x  K G1

o The K‐value defined as (with L in ft and A in percent)
o K =  value that is the horizontal distance, in ft.  required to affect a 
1% change in the slope of the vertical curve,
o A =  absolute value of the difference in grades (|G1  G2|) 
expressed in percent), and
o L =  length of curve in ft (m).
 Properties of Vertical Curves

PVC
G1

G2
PVT

L/2 PVI
L/2
L

Rate of change of curvature: K = L / |A|

Which is a gentler curve - small K or large K?

 Design of Vertical Curves
• Types of Vertical Curves
 Design of Vertical Curves
The first step in the design is to determine the minimum length (or
minimum K) for a given design speed.

Factors affecting the minimum length include

• Sufficient sight distance

• Driver comfort

• Appearance
 Design of Vertical Curves

Crest Vertical Curve

• If sight distance requirements are satisfactory then safety, comfort,

and appearance requirements are also satisfied.

h1 = height of driver’s eyes, in ft h2 = height of object, in ft

 Design of Vertical Curves

Crest Vertical Curve

Equation relating sight distance to minimum length

| A | S2
Lmin  for S  L
 h1  
2
200 h2

From AASHTO:
h1 ≈ 3.5 ft
h2 ≈ 0.5 ft (stopping sight distance)
h3 ≈ 4.25 ft (passing sight distance)
 Design of Vertical Curves

Sag Vertical Curve

Stopping sight distance not an issue for sag  Check also:
vertical curves   • Comfort
Instead the design controls are one of the 
– Change in grade, A
following
–Headlight sight distance – Design Speed
–Rider comfort • Appearance
–Drainage
– Change in grade, A
–Appearance