Air Pollution And Control 10CV765

Unit Wise VTU question paper Solutions

UNIT 1
1. Define air pollution and discuss the different sources of air pollutants in detail.
(DEC. 2011, JUNE 2012 DEC 2013/JAN 2014,June/ July 2013)

“Air Pollution is the pollution is the presence of undesirable material in air, in quantities large
enough to produce harmful effects”.

“Air pollution is the presence in – ambient atmosphere of substances, generally resulting from
the activity of man in sufficient concentration, present for a sufficient time and under
circumstances which interfere significantly with the comfort, health or welfare of persons or with
the full use or enjoyment of property”

CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHROPOGENIC AID POLLUTION SOURCES

Source type Category Important sources Typical pollutants

Combustion a) Stationary Power plants, industrial Oxides of sulphur,

boilers, diesel generations, NOx, co, smoke fly
municipal and industrial ash, trace metal
incineration refused oxides.

b)Mobile Motor vehicles aircraft CO, HC’s, NOx,

SO2, particulars

Roasting and a)Non-Ferrous Roasting, smelting and Dust, Smoke, metal

Heating metallurgical refilling operations fumes (Cu, pd, Zn)
processes Sox

b) Ferrous Materials handling are Smoke, fumes, co

Metallurgical sintering & palletising, odours, H2S2,
coke owns, blast furnace, organic vapours,
steel furnaces fluorides

c) non-metallic Crushed stone, gravel sand Mineral and organic

minerals processing, cement glass, SO2 particulates,
refractories and ceramic NOx, dust fumes
manufactures etc.,

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a)Petroleum Biogas, process heaters, Sox, HC’s, NOx,

refilling catalyst regenerators, particulate matter,
Chemical tractors, Store, storage CO, aldehydes,
petroleum tanks compressor engines ammonia, odour,
pulp and paper

b) Inorganic Sulphuric acid, plants, SO2, HF, H2S,

chemicals fertilizer, manufacture, NOx, NH3,
nitric acid and ammonia particulate matter
plants, phosphoric acid H3PO4, etc.,
manufacture

c) Organic Plastics, paint and varnish Particulate matter,

chemicals manufacture, synthetic odours, SO2, CO,
rubber, rayon insecticide, organic
soap and detergent intermediates,
manufacture, methanol, product gases and
phenol etc., vapours, solvent
vapours etc.,

d) Pulp and Digester below system pulp Particulate matter,

paper (kraft washers, recovery furnace, odours sulphur,
process) evaporaters, oxidation compounds (H2S
towers Methyne,,.
Dimethyle sulphide
and SO2 (sulphite
process)

Food and a)Food Drying, Preserving and Vapours, odours

Agriculture processing packaging dust

b) Crop Pest and weed control Organic phosphates

spraying and Chlorinated HC
dusting arsenic, lead

c) Field burning Refuse burning Smoke, Flyash and

soot

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TOTAL SOURCES

Stationary Mobile

Sources Sources

POINT SOURCES AREA SOURCES LINE AREA SOURCES

SOURCES

1. Industrial 1. Residential 1. High way 1. Motor Vehicles

processing heating (coal, vehicles light duty,
gas at oil) medium duty,
2. Power plants 2. Rail road coco heavy duty
2. Institutional and motives
3. Fuel Combustion commercial 2. Railyard
(Industrial) heating (coal, 3. channel vessels locomotives
4. solid waste oil & gas)
3. Port vessels
disposal 3. On site
(Municipal incineration 4. Airports
incinerators,
open burning) 4. Open burning 5. Miscellaneous
(large scale)
5. Miscellaneous
5. Evaporative
losses

6. Miscellaneous

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2. Briefly explain primary and secondary air pollutants with example

( DEC. 2011, JUNE 2012 ,DEC 2013/JAN 2014, July 2014)

PRIMARY POLLUTANTS SECONDARY POLLUTANTS

Primary pollutants are those that are Secondary pollutants are those formed in
emitted alicctly from the sources, typical the atmosphere by chemical reactions
pollutants are particulate matter such as between primary pollutants and normal
ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist and spreay; atmospheric constituents. Pollutants such
inorganic gases such as SO2, H2S, , nitric as SO3,NO2 pcroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN),
oxide, ammonia, CO, CO2, hydrogen ozone, aldehydes, ketones and various
fluoride, olefinic and aromatic hydro sulphate and nitrate salts are included in
carbons and also radio carbon and also this category Secondary pollutants as
radioactive components. formed from the chemical and photo
chemical reaction in the atmosphere. The
Of the Large number of primary
reaction mechanisms are influenced by
pollutants into the present in sufficient –
concentration of reactants at pollutants, the
concentration to be of immediate concern.
amount of moisture contents, degree of
These are 5 major types particulate matter,
photo activation,
sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen hydro
carbons. CO2 is generally not considered Meteorological forces and local
because of its increased global photography.
concentration, its influence on the global
climate patterns is of great concern.

3. Explain photo chemical smog and coal - induced smog.

(DEC. 2011, JUNE / JULY 13)

PHOTO-CHEMICAL SMOG : Photochemical Smog was first observed in Los Angeles, USA
in the Mid1940’s and since then the phenomenon has been detected in most major metropolitan
cities of the world. The conditions for the formation of Photo chemical Smog are air stagnation,
abundant sunlight and high concentration of hydrocarbon and NOx in the atmosphere. In India,

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Bombay and Calcutta are ideal candidates for the formation of PCS, but it may be masked by
smoke and Fog.

It occurs under adverse Meteorological conditions when the air movement is restricted in
highly motorized areas and is caused by the interaction of some hydro carbons and oxidants
under the influence of sunlight giving rise to dangerous PETROXYACYL NITRATES [PANS].
Its main constituents are Nox, PANS, hydrocarbons, CO and Ozone. It reduces visibility, causes
eye imitation, damage to vegetation and cracking of rubber.

Smog arises from photochemical reactions in the lower atmosphere by the interaction of
hydrocarbons and Nox released by the exhaust of automobiles and some stationery sources. This
interaction results in a series of complex reactions producing secondary pollutants such as ozone,
aldehydes, ketones and peroxy acyl Nitrates [PANS]. The reaction Mechanisms are complex
and are not fully understood.

The starting Mechanism is absorption of ultraviolet rays from the sun by NO2. This
causes the NO2 to decompose into nitric oxide (NO) and highly reactive atomic oxygen.
NOx+ hr NO + O

The atomic oxygen initiates oxidizing processes @ quickly combines with molecular oxygen to
form ozone, which itself is reactive and acts as an oxidant:

O + O2 + M O3 + M
O3 + NO NO2 + O2
Ann energy absorbing molecule @ particle (M) is required to stabilize "O3" or else it will
ozone(O3) formed will be quickly removed by reaction with NO to provide NO2 and O2 as shown
in the above equation. However when hydrocarbons are present in the atmosphere, this
mechanism is partially eliminated as ‘NO’ reacts with the hydrocarbon radical peroxy acyl
(RCO3) and as a result, ozone concentration builds up to dangerous levels.

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Hydrocarbons compete for free oxygen released by NO2 b decomposition to form oxygen
bearing free radicals such as the acyl radical.

HC + O RCO [acyl Radical]

This radical takes part in the series of reactions involving the formation of still more reactive
species, which in turn react with ‘O2', hydrocarbons and Nitric oxide.

RCO + O2 RCO3 [Peroxy acyl radical] -------- (1)

RCO3 + HC RCHO [Aldehydes] ----------------- (2)
R2Co [Ketones]
RCO3 + NO RCO2 + NO2 --------------------------- (3)
RCO + O2 RCO + O3 ----------------------------- (4)

Reactions represented by eqn(2) are termination reactions forming aldehydes and ketones.
However in equations (3) and (4) the peroxy acyl radical reacts with ‘NO’ and ‘O2’ to produce
another oxidized hydrocarbon radical (RCO2) as well as more NO2 and O3. Further the acylate
radixal (RCO2) can react with NO generate even more NO2.

RCO2 + NO RCO + NO2

The NO level in the atmospheric eventually drops OFF with the accumulation of NO2 and O3.
When reactions such as these increase the NO2 level sufficiently, another reaction begins to
compare for the peroxy acyl radical.
RCO2 + NO RCO + NO2 [PANS]
The end products are known as peroxy acyl nitrates @ PANS. Numerous could be formed,
corresponding to the different possible R group three of the common members of PAN family
are

HCOO NO2 : Perody Formyl nitrate {PFN]

CH3 COONO2 : Peroxy acetyl nitrate [PAN]
C6H5-COONO2 : Peroxy benzoyl nitrate [PBzN]
The above equations represent in a broad sense the nature of the overall photo chemical
reactions leading to formation of smog and they are no means the only important Mechanisms.

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COAL INDUCED SMOG : Another Form of smog is called industrial smog. This smog is
created by burning coal and heavy oil that contains sulphur impurities in power plants, industrial
plants, etc. The smog consists mostly of a mixture of SO2 and Fog. Suspended droplets of H2SO4
were formed from some of the SO2 and a variety of suspended particulate matter. This smog is
common during the winter in cities such as London [Dee 1952], Chicago, Pitts burg, when the
cities burned large amounts of coal and heavy oil without control over the emissions, large scale
problems were witnessed. In 1952, London, 4000 people died as a result of this type of smog.
Today heavy oil and coal are burned only in large boilers and with reasonably good control @
tall Chimneys so that industrial smog is less of a problem. However come countries such as
China, Poland Czechoslovakia and some other Eastern European countries still burn Large
quantities of coal without using adequate controlling measures.

UNIT 2
1. List the recorded major air pollution episodes chronologically.
( JUNE / JULY 12)

AIR POLLUTION EPISODES (in a chronological order along with mortality rates)

YEAR AND MONTH LOCATION DEATHS REPORTED

1873, Dec 9-11 London, England 250
1880, Jan 26-29 London, England 1000
1892, Dec 28-30 London, England Not available
1920, Dec Meuse Valley, Belgium 63
1948, Oct Donora, Pennsylvania 20
1948, Nov 26 – Dec 21 London, England 800
1950 Nov Mexico 22
1952, Dec 5-9 London, England 4000
1953, Nov Newyork 250
1956, Jan 3-6 London, England 1000
1957, Dec 2-5 London, England 800
1958 Newyork !

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1959, Jan 26-31 Newyork 250

1962, Dec 5 – 10 London, England 700
1963, Jan 7-22 London, England 700
1963, Jan 9 – Feb 12 Newyork 400
1966, Nov 23-25 Newyork 170
1976, July Sevesco, Italy !
A984, Dec – 2 Bhopal, India 2500
1984, April Chernobal, Ukraine 2500
(Reactor Explosion)

3. Explain the effect of air pollution on human beings.

( DEC 11, DEC 2013/JAN 14, JUNE / JULY 12)
VARIOUS HEALTH EFFECTS DUE TO AIR POLLUTION
1) Eye imitation
2) Throat and Nose imitation
3) Imitation of the respiratory tract
4) Bases like H2S, NH3 and mercaptans cause odour nuisance even at low concentrations.
5) Increase in mortality rate and morbidity rate.
6) A variety of particulates particularly pollens, initiates asthmatic attacks.
7) Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthama are aggregates by a high
concentration of SO2, NO2, particulate matter and PCS.
8) CO combines with the haemoglobin in the blood and consequently increases stress on
those suffering from CARDIOVASCULAR and PULBONARY DISEASES.
9) Hydrogen Fluoride causes disease of the bone [Fluorosis] and mattling of teeth.
10) Carcinogenic agents cause cancer.
11) Dust particles cause respiratory diseases. Diseases like Silicosis, asbestosis etc. result
from specific clusts.
12) Certain heavy metals like lead may enter the body through the longs and cause poisoning.

3. Write briefly the effect of air pollution on monuments in India. (DEC 12/JAN 13)

EFFECT OF ART TREASURES IN INDIA – TAJ MAHAL A CASE STUDY

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Taj Mahal a miracle in marble and a historical monument is facing great danger from
pollution created by existing foundries, power houses, railway yards and Industrial units.
Accordingly to some environmentalist, the problem now seems to have been aggravated, because
of the commissioning of Mathura Oil Refinery, about 40 Km from the priceless monument.
However it is to be hoped that certain antipollution safeguards built in the refineries will
minimize the effect of pollutions on the monument.
According to some reports, pollutants from existing foundations, power houses and
railway yards are already affecting Taj Mahal. Black and brown patches are disfiguring the shiny
white surface of Taj Mahal and also there is formation of gypsum, scaling and flaking effects.
SO2 from various sources mentioned mixes with the atmospheric moisture and gets
converted into H2SO4 which settles down on the exterior surface of the Taj Mahal. The acid
reacts with marble and corrosion and discoloration of monument is the ultimate result.

4. Explain the effects of air pollution on materials and plants.

(DEC. 2011, DEC 2013/JAN 2014)

AIR POLLUTION DAMAGE TO VARIOUS MATERIALS

MATERIALS PRINCIPAL AIR EFFECTS

POLLUTANTS
1. Metal SO2 Acid Gases Corrosion, loss of metal,
spoilage of surface, tarnishing
2. Building Materials SO2, Acid gases particulates Discoloration, leaching
3. Paint SO2, H2S, Particulates Discoloration
4. Textiles and Textile dyes SO2, Acid gases, NO2, ozone Deterioration reduced textile
strength and fading
5. Rubber Oxidants, ozone Cracking, weakening
6. Leather SO2, acid gases Disintegration, powdered
surface
7. Paper SO2, acid gases Embrittlement
8. Ceramics Acid gases Change in surface appearance

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EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON PLANTS :

The primary factor which controls gas absorption by the leaves is the degree of the opening of
the stomata. When the stomata are wide open absorption is maximum and vice versa.
Consequently some conditions that enhance the absorption of the gas [CO2 for photosynthesis]
predispose the plant to injury [by absorption a pollutant like SO2] conditions that cause the
stomata to open are
1) High Light intensity [morning hours]
2) High relative humidity
3) Adequate moisture supply to the roots of the plants.
4) Moderate temperatures

LIST OF AIR POLLUTANTS AFFECTING PLANTS

i) SO2
ii) Fluoride compounds
iii) Ozone
iv) Chlorine
v) Hydrogen Chloride
vi) Nitrogen oxides [NO, NO2…….]
vii) Ammonia
viii) Hydrogen Sulphide
ix) Hydrogen Cyanide
x) Mercury
xi) Ethylene
xii) PAN
xiii) Herbicides
xiv) Smog

5. Explain briefly on air pollution episodes of London smog and Bhopal gas tragedy.
(DEC. 2011, DEC 2013/JAN 2014 ,JUNE / JULY 12, JUNE / JULY13 1 JUNE /
JULY14)

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LONDON SMOG: Another Form of smog is called industrial smog. This smog is created by
burning coal and heavy oil that contains sulphur impurities in power plants, industrial plants, etc.
The smog consists mostly of a mixture of SO2 and Fog. Suspended droplets of H2SO4 were
formed from some of the SO2 and a variety of suspended particulate matter. This smog is
common during the winter in cities such as London [Dee 1952], Chicago, Pitts burg, when the
cities burned large amounts of coal and heavy oil without control over the emissions, large scale
problems were witnessed. In 1952, London, 4000 people died as a result of this type of smog.
Today heavy oil and coal are burned only in large boilers and with reasonably good control @
tall Chimneys so that industrial smog is less of a problem. However come countries such as
China, Poland Czechoslovakia and some other Eastern European countries still burn Large
quantities of coal without using adequate controlling measures.

BHOPAL GAS TRAGEDY:

Modern Technological developments have multiplied the hazards to which human beings
are exposes, Nearly 5 Million chemicals have been synthesized in the world during the last 40
years and some 50,000 to 70,000 chemicals are used extensively in million of different
commercial products without the availability of proper taxi logical information on the majority
of the chemicals.
On the fateful night on 2-12-1984, and in the early hours of 3-12-1984 more than 1
million residents of Bhopal, Capital of M.P India reported irritation of eyes that quickly became
unbearable, followed by the death dancing in their residences. A cloud of poisonous gas was
released from the Union Carbide Factory. The plant was a pesticide manufacturing unit owned
by Union Carbide India Ltd, a subsidiary of Union Carbide, a leading company based in the
USA. The factory was licensed to produce Methyl, Isocyanite (MIC) i.e CH3NCO, an extremely
hazardous chemical which is used in the manufacture of several pesticides like SEVIN
CARBARYL and TEMIR-106. MIC is also used by various organic industries as an
intermediate. CO obtained by partial oxidation of coal is combined with chlorine gas in the
presence of activated carbon to form phosgene (COCL2). Phosgene and Methylamine combine to
form MIC. The product is stored in tanks for further use to produce carbonite insecticide.
COCL2 + CH3 NH2 - CH3 NCO + 2 HCL

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The carbide plant has three storage tanks for MIC, each capable of holding 45 tonnes.
The Union Carbide manual on standard operating procedure warns that if water leaks into the
system, it results in the evolution of a lot of gas and liberation of heat. This is precisely what had
happened on the fateful day of 2nd December 1984.

UNIT 3
1. List the meteorological parameters that influence the dispersion of pollutants in
atmosphere. ( DEC. 2011 DEC 12/JAN 13)

Important meteorological parameters that influences air pollution can be classified into

1. Primary parameters and

2. Secondary parameters

1. PRIMARY PARAMETERS are

a) Wind direction and speed
b) Temperature
c) Atmospheric stability
d) Mixing height

2. SECONDARY PARAMETERS are

a) Precipitation
b) Humidity
c) Solar radiation
d) Visibility

WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED: The direction and speed of surface winds governs the drift
and diffusion of air pollutants, discharged near the ground level. The higher the wind speed at or
near the point of discharge of pollution, the more rapidly are the pollutants carried away from the
source. The pollutants so dispersed will not exist at the same concentration but will rapidly be
diluted with greater and greater values of air on the other hand when wind speeds are low,
pollutants tend to be concentrated bear the area of discharge and the longer the periods of such

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light winds the greater will be the concentration of pollutants. Further, turbulence a very
important characteristic of surface winds is directly proportional to its speed and determine the
extent to which pollutants are mixed and diluted with the surrounding air. In rough terrain, it
cannot be assumed that the wind direction and the speed near the source govern the subsequent
motion of the contaminants. Hills may deflect the air flow either horizontally, vertically, or both,
the amount of deflection depending on the vertical stability of the atmosphere. In valleys, the
winds carrying a pollutant tend to flow either up or down the valley, following its meanderings.
The deeper the valley the more pronounced is this channelizing effect.

2. Write a note on Atmospheric stability and temperature inversions.

(JUNE/JULY 13, DEC 2013/JAN 2014, JUNE / JULY 14)

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY AND TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS

LAPSE RATE:
In well mixed air which is dry for every 100m MCI case in altitude, the temperature
decreases by about 1o C. This vertical temperature gradient is known as dry adiabatic lapse rate
(DALR). Ambient and adiabatic lapse rates are a measure of atmospheric stability. Since the
stability of the air reflects the susceptibility of rising air parcel to vertical motion, consideration
of atmospheric stability or instability is essential in establishing the dispersion rate of pollutants.
The atmospheric is said to be unstable as long as a rising parcel of air remains warmer
than the surrounding air.
Conversely, when a rising parcel of air arrives at an altitude in a colder and denser state
than the surrounding air, the resultant downward buoyancy force pushes the parcel of air
downward (Earthward) and away from the direction of displacement. Under such conditions
atmosphere is said to be stable.
Stability is a function of vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature and plotting the
ambient lapse rate can give an indication of the stability of the atmosphere. Though dry, moist or
wet adiabatic lapse rate may be used, in such a comparison, the DALR issued as the measure
against which several possible ambient lapse rates are plotted. Thus the boundary line between
the stability and instability is DALR
When ALR exceeds DALR, the ALR is said to be SUPER – ADIABTIC and the
atmosphere is highly unstable. When the two lapse rate are exactly equal, the atmosphere is said

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to be neutral. When the ALR is less than the DALR, the ALR is termed SUB-ADIABATIC and
the atmosphere is stable. If air temperature is constant throughout a layer of atmospheric, ALR
=O, the atmospheric layer is described as isothermal and the atmosphere is stable.
When temperature of the ambient air increases rather than decrease with attitude, the
lapse rate is negative or inverted from the normal state. Negative lapse rate occurs under
conditions, commonly referred to as an INVERSION, a state in which warmer air blankets colder
air.

INVERSIONS:
When the reverse or negative lapse rate occurs, a dense cold stratum of air at ground level
gets covered by lighter warmer air at higher level, This phenomena is known as INVERSION.
During inversion vertical air movement is stopped and pollution will be concentrated beneath the
inversion layer i.e. in the denser air at ground level. As a result, during temperature inversion, the
atmospheric is stable and very little turbulence or mixing takes place under such conditions
pollutants in the air do not disperse.
Inversion is a frequent occurrence in the autumn and winter months and the accumulation
of smoke and other contaminants further aggravates pollution by preventing the sunrays from
warming the ground and adjacent air. Fog is commonly associated with inversions, narrow
valleys are favourable to inversions. The horizontal air movement is restricted. At the time of
inversions, visibility is greatly reduced and contaminants are at a maximum. Inversion occurs
when dT/dz is +ve, when n < 1 i.e. when the temperature of atmosphere increase with elevation
instead of decreasing.

3. What is a wind rose diagram? Explain with a neat sketch.

(DEC. 12 / JAN. 13 JUNE / JULY 14,)

WINDROSE DIAGRAM: is defined as any one of a class of diagrams designed to show the
distribution of wind direction experienced at a given location over a considerable period. In other
words the wind rose shows the prevailing direction of the wind
The most common form consists of a circle from which eight or sixteen lines Cinergy,
one for each direction. The length of each line is proportional to the frequency calm conditions is
centered in the centre. There are many variations in the construction of wind roses.

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The wind rose diagram is prepared using an appropriate scale to represent percentage
frequencies of wind directions and appropriate index shades, lines etc… to represent various
wind speeds observation corresponding to wind speed below 1 lm/hr are recorded as CALM.

4. Explain different environmental lapse rates and their effects on dispersion of air
pollutants. (JUNE/JULY 13, DEC 2013/JAN 2014, JUNE / JULY 14)

In well mixed air which is dry for every 100m MCI case in altitude, the temperature decreases by
about 1o C. This vertical temperature gradient is known as dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR).
Ambient and adiabatic lapse rates are a measure of atmospheric stability. Since the stability of
the air reflects the susceptibility of rising air parcel to vertical motion, consideration of
atmospheric stability or instability is essential in establishing the dispersion rate of pollutants.
The atmospheric is said to be unstable as long as a rising parcel of air remains warmer
than the surrounding air.

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Conversely, when a rising parcel of air arrives at an altitude in a colder and denser state
than the surrounding air, the resultant downward buoyancy force pushes the parcel of air
downward (Earthward) and away from the direction of displacement. Under such conditions
atmosphere is said to be stable.
Stability is a function of vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature and plotting the
ambient lapse rate can give an indication of the stability of the atmosphere. Though dry, moist or
wet adiabatic lapse rate may be used, in such a comparison, the DALR issued as the measure
against which several possible ambient lapse rates are plotted. Thus the boundary line between
the stability and instability is DALR
When ALR exceeds DALR, the ALR is said to be SUPER – ADIABTIC and the
atmosphere is highly unstable. When the two lapse rate are exactly equal, the atmosphere is said
to be neutral. When the ALR is less than the DALR, the ALR is termed SUB-ADIABATIC and
the atmosphere is stable. If air temperature is constant throughout a layer of atmospheric, ALR
=O, the atmospheric layer is described as isothermal and the atmosphere is stable.
When temperature of the ambient air increases rather than decrease with attitude, the
lapse rate is negative or inverted from the normal state. Negative lapse rate occurs under
conditions, commonly referred to as an INVERSION, a state in which warmer air blankets colder
air.

5. Sketch and explain different kinds of plumes depending upon different environmental
conditions (any four). (DEC. 2011, JUNE / JULY14, DEC 2013/JAN 2014)

Plume refers to the path and extent in the atmosphere of the gaseous effluents – released
from a source usually a stack (chimney)
The behavior of a plume emitted from any stack depends on localized air stability. The
Geometric forms of stack plumes are a function of the vertical temperature and wind profiles,
vice versa, by looking at the plume one can state stability condition and dispersive capacity of
atmosphere. The behavior and dispersion of a plume entirely depend on the environmental lapse
rate (ELR).

Effluents from town stacks are often injected to an effective height of several 100m above
ground because of the cumulative effects of buoyancy and velocity on plume rise other factors

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influencing the flume behavior are the diurnal (seasonal) variations in the atmospheric stability
and the long term variations which occur with change in seasons

Six types of plume behavior are shown in the figure below, the spread of the plume is directly
related to the vertical temperature gradient as shown in the figure.
i) Looping
ii) Coning
iii) Fanning
iv) Lofting
v) Fumigation
vi) Trapping

LOOPING:
It is a type of plume which has a wavy character. It occurs in a highly unstable atmosphere
because of rapid mixing. The high degree of turbulence helps in dispersing the plume rapidly but
high concentrations may occur close to the stack if the plume touches the ground.

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CONING:
It is a type of plume which is shaped like a CONE. This takes place in a near neutral atmosphere,
when the wind velocity is greater than 32 km/hr. However the plume reaches the ground at
greater distances than with loping.

FANNING:
It is a type of plume emitted under extreme inversion conditions. the plume under these condition
will spread horizontally, but little if at all vertically. Therefore the prediction of ground level
concentration (SLC) is difficult here.

LOFTING:
Lofting occurs when there is a strong lapse rate above a surface inversion. under this condition,
diffusion is rapid upwards, but downward diffusion does not penetrate the inversion layer under
these conditions, emission will not reach surface.

FUMIGATION:
It is a phenomenon in which pollutants that are emitted into the atmosphere are brought rapidly
to the ground level when the air destabilizes.

TRAPPING:
This refers to conditions where the plume is caught between inversion and can only diffuse
within a limited vertical height.

The lofting plume is most favorable air to minimizing air pollution. The fumigation and trapping
plumes are very critical from the points of ground level pollutant concentrations.
UNIT 4
1. List the methods of sampling suspended particulate matter and explain anyone in detail
with sketch. (DEC. 12 / JAN. 13)

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Sampling of Particulates:- Here errors may be introduced doctor agglomeration or breaking up

of particulate matter in order to claimant the sources of error.

a) Sampling should be carried out under conditions which are as is kinetic as possible.
b) A gas stream should be sampled as for as possible in the same direction and at the
same speed itself, but never counter – current.
c) The collecting surface should be as close as possible to the source of the gas stream.
To avoid reducing the efficiency of sampling deposits and condensation should not be
allowed to form on the walls of sampling vessels.

TYPICAL AIR SAMPLING SYSTEM

A typical air sampling system consists of a sample collector a flow meter to measures the air
flow through the collector and a pump to draw the air sample through the system. The Fig. below
shows a typical arrangement of an sampling equipment.

Sample collector Flow metal Pump

Flow metal Sample collector Pump

TYPICAL AIR SAMPLE SET UP

2. Define the term air sampling and explain the basic considerations to be made during air
sampling. (DEC. 11/ JAN. 12)

Sampling and measurement of Air pollutants, generality known as air quality

monitoring, is an integral component of any air pollution control programme through monitoring,
the current trends in air quality can be evaluated by comparing the data with the regulated

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standards. The information so obtained is helpful in implementing control measures for reducing
pollutant concentrations to acceptable levels and in assessing the effect of air pollution control
strategies.
Short-term sampling is preferred than long term sampling to establish the existence of
high levels of air pollutants.
There are two different situations in which the air quality measurement is undertaken one
of these is the Ambient Air Quality Measurement where the pollutant levels in the Ambient
atmosphere are measured.
The second type of measurement generally deals with the pollutants emitted from a
Source such as smoke tack and is known as stack sampling it provides information on the nature
and quantities of various pollutants that are emitted into the atmosphere.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS OF AIR SAMPLING
1. The sample collected must be representative in terms of time and location.
2. The sample volume should be large enough to permit accurate analysis.
3. The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of collection.
4. The duration of sampling and frequency of sampling should reflect accurately the
occurrence of fluctuations in pollution levels.
5. The contaminants must not be modified or altered in to process of collections.

3. What is Inversion? Explain different types of inversions. (JUNE / JULY 14)

INVERSIONS:
When the reverse or negative lapse rate occurs, a dense cold stratum of air at ground level
gets covered by lighter warmer air at higher level, This phenomena is known as INVERSION.
During inversion vertical air movement is stopped and pollution will be concentrated beneath the
inversion layer i.e. in the denser air at ground level. As a result, during temperature inversion, the
atmospheric is stable and very little turbulence or mixing takes place under such conditions
pollutants in the air do not disperse.
Inversion is a frequent occurrence in the autumn and winter months and the accumulation
of smoke and other contaminants further aggravates pollution by preventing the sunrays from
warming the ground and adjacent air. Fog is commonly associated with inversions, narrow
valleys are favourable to inversions. The horizontal air movement is restricted. At the time of

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inversions, visibility is greatly reduced and contaminants are at a maximum. Inversion occurs
when dT/dz is +ve, when n < 1 i.e. when the temperature of atmosphere increase with elevation
instead of decreasing.

TYPES OF INVERSIONS:
Different types of inversions are
1) Radiation inversion
2) Subsidence inversion
3) Double inversion (combination of above two)
And wind turbulences under certain circumstances it may be related to all three

5. Explain the factors influencing the industrial plant location and planning.
(DEC. 2011, DEC 2013/JAN 2014 JUNE / JULY 14),)

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR INDUSTRIAL PLANT LOCATION FROM THE

POINT OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
While selecting a site from the point of air pollution and control, the following factors should be
taken into consideration to avoid costly control measures, improve public relations and prevent
litigation, there are 6 factors to be considered.
i) Existing levels of air contaminants
ii) Potential effects on the surrounding area.
iii) Meteorological factors and climate
iv) Topographical features
v) Clean air available
vi) Planning and zoning

6. Define noise. Discuss in brief the various sources of noise. Write a brief note on noise
abatement and control. (DEC 2013/JAN 2014)

Sources of Noise Pollution

Noise pollution like other pollutants is also a by- product of industrialization, urbanizations and
modern civilization.

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Broadly speaking, the noise pollution has two sources, i.e. industrial and non- industrial. The
industrial source includes the noise from various industries and big machines working at a very
high speed and high noise intensity. Non- industrial source of noise includes the noise created by
transport/vehicular traffic and the neighborhood noise generated by various noise pollution can
also be divided in the categories, namely, natural and manmade. Most leading noise sources will
fall into the following categories: roads traffic, aircraft, railroads, construction, industry, noise in
buildings, and consumer products
1. Road Traffic Noise:-
In the city, the main sources of traffic noise are the motors and exhaust system of autos, smaller
trucks, buses, and motorcycles. This type of noise can be augmented by narrow streets and tall
buildings, which produce a canyon in which traffic noise reverberates.
2. Air Craft Noise: -
Now-a-days , the problem of low flying military aircraft has added a new dimension to
community annoyance, as the nation seeks to improve its nap-of the- earth aircraft operations
over national parks, wilderness areas , and other areas previously unaffected by aircraft noise has
claimed national attention over recent years.
3. Noise from railroads: -
The noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles, and switching and shunting operation in
rail yards can impact neighboring communities and railroad workers. For example, rail car
retarders can produce a high frequency, high level screech that can reach peak levels of 120 dB
at a distance of 100 feet, which translates to levels as high as 138, or 140 dB at the railroad
worker’s ear.
4. Construction Noise:-
The noise from the construction of highways , city streets , and buildings is a major contributor
to the urban scene . Construction noise sources include pneumatic hammers, air compressors,
bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks (and their back-up signals), and pavement breakers.
5. Noise in Industry: -
Although industrial noise is one of the less prevalent community noise problems, neighbors of
noisy manufacturing plants can be disturbed by sources such as fans, motors, and compressors
mounted on the outside of buildings Interior noise can also be transmitted to the community
through open windows and doors, and even through building walls. These interior noise sources

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have significant impacts on industrial workers, among whom noise- induced hearing loss is
unfortunately common.
6. Noise in building: -
Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by noise in their homes, especially when the building is
not well designed and constructed. In this case, internal building noise from plumbing, boilers,
generators, air conditioners, and fans, can be audible and annoying. Improperly insulated walls
and ceilings can reveal the sound of-amplified music, voices, footfalls and noisy activities from
neighboring units. External noise from emergency vehicles, traffic, refuse collection, and other
city noises can be a problem for urban residents, especially when windows are open or
insufficiently glazed.
7. Noise from Consumer products:-
Certain household equipment, such as vacuum cleaners and some kitchen appliances have been
and continue to be noisemakers, although their contribution to the daily noise dose is usually not
very large.

Noise abatement:

(a) Constitution of India

Right to Life:- Article 21 of the Constitution guarantees life and personal liberty to all persons. It
is well settled by repeated pronouncements of the Supreme Court that right to life enshrined in
Article 21 is not of mere survival or existence. It guarantees a right of persons to life with human
dignity. Anyone who wishes to live in peace, comfort and quiet within his house has a right to
prevent the noise as pollutant reaching him.
Right to Information:- Everyone has the right to information know about the norms and
conditions on which Govt. permit the industry which effect the environment.
Right to Religion and Noise:- Right to religion does not include right to perform religious
activities on loud speaker and electronic goods which produce high velocity of noise.
Directive Principal of State Policy:- The state has the object to make the enviorment pollution
free.
Fundamental Duties:- every citizen of the country has the fundamental duty to clean the
environment.

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(b) Factories Act Reduction of Noise and Oil of Machinery:- The Factories Act does not
contain any specific provision for noise control. However, under the Third Schedule Sections 89
and 90 of the Act, noise induced hearing loss, is mentioned as notifiable disease. Similarly, under
the Modal Rules, limits for noise exposure for work zone area have been prescribed.
(c) Motor Vehicle Act. Provision Relation to use of horn and change of Engine:- In Motor
vehicle Act rules regarding use horns and any modification in engine are made.
(d) Noise Pollution Control Rule 2000 under Environment Protection Act 1996 :-
Further for better regulation for noise pollution There are The Noise Pollution ( Regulation and
Control ) Rules, 2000 – in order to curb the growing problem of noise pollution the government
of India has enacted the noise pollution rules 2000 that includes the following main provisions:-
# The state government may categories the areas in the industrial or commercial or residential
# The ambient air quality standards in respect of noise for different areas have been specified.
# State government shall take measure for abatement of noise including noise emanating from
vehicular movement and ensure that the existing noise levels do not exceed the ambient air
quality standards specified under these rules.
# An area not less than 100 m around hospitals educations institutions and court may be declare
as silence are for the purpose of these rules.
# A loud speaker or a public address system shall not be used except after obtaining written
permission from the authority and the same shall not be used at night. Between 10 pm to 6 am
# A person found violating the provisions as to the maximum noise permissible in any particular
area shall be liable to be punished for it as per the provision of these rules and any other law in
force.
Schedule
(see rule 3(l) and 4(l)
Ambient Air Quality Standards in respect of Noise
Area Code Category of Area/Zone Limits in dB

Day Time - Night Time

(A) Industrial area 75 - 70
(B) Commercial area 65 - 55

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(C) Residential area 55 - 45

(D) Silence Zone 50 – 40

UNIT 5
1. Explain with sketches the following air pollution control equipment:
i. Electrostatic precipitator
ii. Spray towers
iii. Cyclones
iv. Pipe-type
type precipitator
( DEC/ JAN12,JUNE
JUNE / JULY 13, DEC 2013/JAN 2014, JUNE / JULY 14)

i.ELECTROSTATIC
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS [ESP]

The electrostatic precipitator is one of the most widely used devices for controlling particulate
emissions from industrial installations ranging from house hold appliances to power plants,
cement and proper mills and oil refineries.

It is a physical process by which particles suspended in gas stream are charged electrically and
under the influence of the electrical field, separated from the gas stream.

ii.SPRAY TOWER

A spray tower is the simplest type of wet scrubber into which water is introduce by means of
spray nozzles. It can be ether round or rectangular in which gas is passes. Counter current to
falling drops of liquid (usually water) from spray nozzles the particle collection can be done by
the
he mechanism of inertial impaction and interception on the droplets spray towers cause. Very

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little pressure loss and can handle large volume of gasser the towers are very effective in
removing particles in excess o0f 10 um.

The efficiency of a spray tower depends upon the droplet size, flow velocity of the gas
validity of liquid etc., it is 94% for sill particles to 99% for 25 um particles

iii.CYCLONE SEPARATORS
Cyclone separators diffused centrifugal force generated by the spinning gas stream to separate
the particulate matter from the carrier gas. The centrifugal force on particles in a spinning gas
stream is much greater than gravity therefore cyclones are effective in the removal of much
smaller particles than gravitational setting chambers and negative much less space to handle the
same gas volume.

iv.PIPE TYPE PRECIPITATOR

In this type, the nest of parallel pipes acts as the collecting electrode. The pipes may be of round,
square or octagonal cross-section. Generally the pipe is about 30cm or less in diameter. The
discharge electrode is a wire {[2.8mm dia] with a small radius of curvature suspended along the
axis of each pipe. The wires are suspended from an insoluble hanger at the top and kept under
tension by weights attached to their lower ends and strong enough to with stand rapping or

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vibrating for cleaning purposes. The gas flow path is down around the outside of the tubes and
then up through the inside of the tubes. The pipe electrodes are 2 to 5m is height / Length.

As the gas flows upwards, electrostatic forces causes the dust particles to migrate to the collector
electrode where they stick. The cleaned gas then emerges at the top. The collected dust (aerosols)
is removed periodically from the collector electrodes by rapping it ; this dust then falls to the
dust hopper and is accumulated therefore periodic removal . Generally the pipe type precipitators
are used for the removal of liquid particles in which case no cleaning mechanism is required.

2. Explain the working of high volume air sampler, with a sketch.

(DEC/ JAN. 12, DEC 2013/JAN 2014)

HIGH VOLUME SAMPLER: In this method, a known volume of air is sucked by a high speed
blower through a fine fitter and the increase in weight due to the made of fibrous or granular
material provides a dense porous medium, through which an air stream must change direction in
a random Fashion, allowing the entertained particles to impact on the fitter material. A typical
glass fibre fitter used, in the air samplers has an efficiency of over 99% for particles of size
0.3µm and it is moderately effective for trapping particles of as small size as small as 0.05µm.

3. With a neat sketch, describe the methods of gaseous sampling by sampling train.

(DEC. 2011, DEC/JAN 12,JUNE / JULY 14)

A gas can be sampled by means of a suitable absorption reagent for this purpose, U-shaped
absorbers are used. These absorbers are filled with a certain measured amount of reagent and
fitted with a porous glass partition, so that the air or gas led into them passes through the reagent
solution in the form of fine dabbles thus ensuring intimate contact. Sampling by means of such
absorbers is usually calmed cut at an average rate of about 100-150 liters per hour of gas stream
the absorbers may be arrange in series of two more elements continuing the same reagent
solution to ensure more complete absorption of the impurity in question or in sense, or in series
of two or more elements containing two more different reagent solutions so as to absorb different
pollutants successively from the same column of gas or air sampled a typical sampling train is
shown in figure comprising an impinge, trap, manometer, flow meter, valve and pump.

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3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of electrostatic precipitators?

(DEC. 2011 DEC/JAN 12,JUNE / JULY 14)
ADVANTAGES :

1) High collection efficiency.

2) Particles as small as 0.1 micron can be removed.
3) Low maintenance and operative cost.
4) Low pressure drop (0.25 to 1.25 of water)
5) Satisfactory handling of large quantities of high temperature gas.
6) Treatment time is negligible (0.1 to 10 seconds)
7) Cleaning is easy by removing units of the precipitator from operation.
8) There is no limit to solid, liquid or corrosive chemical usage.
DISADVANTAGES

1) High initial cost

2) Space requirements is more because of the large size of the equipment
3) Possible explosion hazards during collection of combustible gases or particulates well
trained personnel are necessary to operate.
4) The poisonous gas, ozone is produced by the negatively charged discharge electrodes
during gas ionization.

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5) Precautions are necessary to maintain safety during operation.

6) Gases cannot be removed by ESP’s

6. Determine the effective height of stack from the following data (JUNE / JULY 14)
i) Physical height of stack = 180 m
ii) Inside dia of stack = 0.95 m
iii) Wind velocity = 2.75 m/sec
iv) Air temperature = 20 oC
v) Borometric pressure = 1000 mb
vi) Stack gas velocity = 11.12 m/sec
vii) Stack gas temperature = 160oC

SOLUTION:
Calculation of Plume rise:
Applying TURNER’S EQUATION
Vs = 11.12 m/sec
Ds = 0.95m
Pa = 1000mb
u = 2.75m/sec
Ts = 160oC + 273 = 433 K
Ta = 20oC + 273 = 293K
∆H = 8.924 m

UNIT 6
1. What are the factors to be considered while selecting a site for industrial plant
location? Explain. (DEC. 12 / JAN. 13)

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR INDUSTRIAL PLANT LOCATION FROM THE

POINT OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
While selecting a site from the point of air pollution and control, the following factors should be
taken into consideration to avoid costly control measures, improve public relations and prevent
litigation, there are 6 factors to be considered.

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i) Existing levels of air contaminants

ii) Potential effects on the surrounding area.
iii) Meteorological factors and climate
iv) Topographical features
v) Clean air available
vi) Planning and zoning

2. Explain air pollution due to automobiles. (DEC. 2011, JUNE / JULY 14)

The automobile emissions plays a major role in the air pollution menance. Various causes of the
genesis and exodus of those pollutants have been identified.
CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOBILES IN INDIA:
The three main types of automotive vehicles being used in our country are
a) Passenger cars powered by four stroke gasoline engines
b) Motor cycles, scooters and auto rickshaws powered mostly by small two stroke gasoline
engines
c) Large buses and trucks powered mostly by four stroke diesel engines

EMISSIONS FROM GASOLINE POWERED VEHICLES are generally classified as

a) Exhaust emissions
b) Crank case emissions and
c) Evaporative emissions

EXHAUST EMISSIONS: The important exhaust emissions from a gasoline engine care carbon
oxide , un burnt hydro carbons, nitrogen oxides and particulates containing lead compounds.
These emissions vary with the air fuel ration spark timings and the engine operating conditions.

CRANK CASE EMISSIONS: It consist of engine blow by which leaks past the piston mainly
during the compression stroke, and of all vapors generated into the crank case. The quality of
blow by depends on engine design and operating conditions. Worn out piston rings and cylinder
liner may greatly increase blow by. Those gases mainly contain hydro carbons and account
nearly for 25% of the total hydro carbon emissions from a passenger car.

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EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS: Through a short term experimental determination it has been

estimated that an average Indian passenger car would emit about 20 kg of hydro carbons through
evaporation annually. For controlling evaporation of fuel from the carburetor and fuel system.
Systems are being developed that store fuel vapours in the crank case or on a charcoal canister
that absorbs hydro carbons for recycling the engine.
Evaporative emissions essentially constitute the fuel evaporation from the fuel tank and
carburetors and consists of hydro carbons alone
The amount of pollutants, that an automobile emits depends on a number of factors,
including the design and operation (idle, acceleration etc) of the hydro carbons emitted by a car
with no controls, the exhaust gases account for roughly 65%, evaporation from the fuel tank and
carburetors for roughly 15% and blow by crank emission gases that escape around the piston
rings for about 20%

DIESEL POWERED ENGINES: Diesel powered vehicles create relatively minor pollution
problems compared to gasoline powered ones. The diesel engine exhausts only about a tenth of
the amount of carbon monoxide exhausted by a gasoline engine, although its hydro carbon
emissions. They approach those of the gasoline engine. Blow by is negligible in the diesel, since
the cylinders contain only air on the compression stroke. Evaporative emissions are also low
because the diesel engine uses a closed injection fuel system and because the fuel is less volatile
than gasoline. The major problems of diesel engines are smoke and odour.

4. Discuss the phenomenon of acid rain and its effect.

(JUNE / JULY 13, JUNE / JULY14, DEC 2013/JAN 2014)

ACID RAIN:
The term ACID RAIN is used to describe all precipitations rain, snow and dew which is
more acidic than normal
ACID RAIN PRECIPITION is defined as one which has a pH less than 5.67
The destruction by acid rain is not confined only to lakes and forests. It corrodes
buildings, monuments, statues and metals. Further it poses a serious threat to human health, since
it contaminates drinking water

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Generally ‘CLEAN RAIN’ is slightly acidic as it dissolves varying amounts of carbon

dioxide, which is a common constituent of the earth’s atmosphere. The lowest PH vale of rain is
5.6 when it is clean. Rain having a ph of 4.6 is common in Eastern North America. This means, it
is 10 times more acidic than the clean rain. In some places, PH as low as 3.7 or even less has
been reported.

CAUSES:
Large quantities of sulphur and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere from the
chimneys of industrial plants. They react with the moisture in the air to form sulphuric and nitric
acids which fall as acid precipitation for away. Acid rain therefore is a cocktail of sulphuric and
nitric acids currently above 60-70% of the acidity is thought to be due to sulphuric acid and 30-
40% to nitric acid.
The ecological impact of acid rain is quite serious. It’s likely to produce irreversible
charges. The acidification of streams and lakes affects aquatic animals and plants. High acidity
results in the killing of fish, reduced growth, and perhaps reproductive failure charge in PH
prevents hatching of fish eggs. Large scale destruction of trout and salmon have been reported,
due to high acidity. Acidity increases beyond the tolerable limits
the concentration of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, copper and zinc in water. Acid rain
effects vegetation and soil in many ways. The growth of trees is adversely effected by acid rain.
4. With a sketch, explain the principle and operation of an electrostatic precipitator.
( DEC 2013/JAN 2014, JUNE / JULY 14)

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS [ESP]

The electrostatic precipitator is one of the most widely used devices for controlling particulate
emissions from industrial installations ranging from house hold appliances to power plants,
cement and proper mills and oil refineries.

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It is a physical process by which particles suspended in gas stream are charged electrically and
under the influence of the electrical field, separated from the gas stream.

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR : Consists of six major components,

i) A source of high voltage

ii) Discharge
charge electrodes and collecting electrodes
iii) Inlet and outlet for the gas
iv) An electric cleaning system
v) ‘Hopper’ for collection and disposal of particulates
vi) An outer casing [called shell] to form an enclosure around the electrodes.

TYPES OF PRECIPITATORS

Based
ased on the electrode arrangements they may be classified into

i) pipe type precipitator

ii) plate type precipitator

PIPE TYPE PRECIPITATOR

In this type, the nest of parallel pipes acts as the collecting electrode. The pipes may be of round,
square or octagonal cross-section.
section. Ge
Generally the pipe is about 30cm or less in diameter. The
discharge electrode is a wiree {[2.8mm dia] with a small radius of curvature suspended along the

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axis of each pipe. The wires are suspended from an insoluble hanger at the top and kept under
tension by weights attached to their lower ends and strong enough to with stand rapping or
vibrating for cleaning purposes. The gas flow path is down around the outside of the tubes and
then up through the inside of the tubes. The pipe electrodes are 2 to 5m is height / Length.

As the gas flows upwards, electrostatic forces causes the dust particles to migrate to the collector
electrode where they stick. The cleaned gas then emerges at the top. The collected dust (aerosols)
is removed periodically from the collector electrodes by rapping it ; this dust then falls to the
dust hopper and is accumulated therefore periodic removal . Generally the pipe type precipitators
are used for the removal of liquid particles in which case no cleaning mechanism is required.

PLATE-TYPE PRECIPITATORS

In the plate-type precipitators, the collecting electrodes consists of parallel plates of size 1-2m
wide and 3-cm high. These parallel plates are special at 20-30cm. The number of plates in the
precipitators depends upon the inlet flow; so that the inlet gas velocities are 1-2m/set in each
channel. The discharge electrodes are similar to those used in pipe type precipitators. Sometimes
electrodes of square rods (4 to 5mm) and twisted square rods (3.2 to 6.4mm) are used. These
discharge electrodes (i.e. wires), made from non-corrosive materials like tungsten, alloys of steel
and copped are suspended from the top and hang free with a weight attached at the bottom to
keep them straight. The collection of the aerosols takes place on the inner sides of the parallel
plates. The dust material can be removed by rapping and vibrating periodically.

The plate type precipitators are generally employed for the collection of solid particulates.

5. Explain with a neat sketch, the principle and construction of fabric filter. Give
applications.
(DEC. 2011, DEC 2013/JAN 2014, DEC 2013/JAN 2014, JUNE / JULY 14)

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FABRIC FILTERES [BAG HOUSE FILTER]

As the name indicates is in the form of a Fabric bag arrangement or cloth envelops. That is
numerous vertical bags 120-400mm diameter and 2-10m long are housed together which are
suspended with open ends attached to a manifold, and a hopper is attached at the bottom for the
collection of dust.
The gas entering through the inlet pipes strikes a baffle plate, which causes the larger particles to
fall into a hopper due to gravity. The carrier gas then flows upwards into tubes and then outward

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through the Fabric leaving the surface of the bags, which requires a periodical cleaning by
rapping, shaking or vibration or by reverse air flow.

Some of the operating problems of filters are,

1) Cleaning
2) Rapture of cloth
3) Temperature
4) Bleeding
5) Humidity
6) Chemical attack
Efficiency during pre-coat formation is low but as the pre coat (cack) is formed efficiency is 99%

Factors Affecting Efficiency :

2) Excessive filter ratios i.e. the ratio of the carrier gas volume to grass filter area, per
minute flow of the gas.
3) Improper selection of : filter media

UNIT 7
1. Explain the causes and effects of ozone layer depletion in stratosphere.

(DEC 2013/JAN 2014)

OZONE DEPLETION IN STRATOSPHERE:

The ozone layer serves as a shield, protecting the earth’s surface from most of the ultra
violet radiation found in the sun’s radiation. However this layer may be depleted by reactions
involving a variety of compounds, which reach the stratosphere of particular concern are the
water vapour and nitrogen oxides released by high altitude aircrafts, nitrous oxide produced by
the action of bacteria in soils comounts of which have became significant with the large scale use
of nitrate fertilizers and chloroform hydrocarbon which are widely used as aerosol spray
propellants and refrigerants. It is postulated that the combined effect of aircraft engine effluents,
nitrate fertilizers and halogens would cause considerable depletion of the ozone layer and could
result in an increase in ultraviolent radiation reaching the earth leading to drop damage and

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marked rise in cases of skin cancer. The recent reports of the ozone hole in the atmosphere over
the Antarctica is a cause for great concern.

2. Briefly discuss the different control measures adopted to check the air pollutants emitted by
automobiles. (DEC. 2011, JUNE / JULY 14),)

CONTROL OF EXHAUST EMISSIONS IN VEHICLES:

Two main approaches to minimize exhaust emissions are
1. Modifications in the engine design and operating variables.
2. Treatment of exhaust gases after emission from the engine.

1. The following modifications may help in cleaner exhaust.

a. Use of cleaner idle mixtures.
b. Use of cleanest possible mixture and maximum spark retard compatible with good
power output and drivability
c. Use of minimum valve over tap necessary.
d. Pre treatment of the mixture to improve vaporization and mixing of fuel with air.
e. Low quench combustion chambers
f. Piston and ring variables
2. Exhaust treatment devices
The basic techniques is to promote oxidation of HC and CO after emission from the
engine. Exhaust oxidation devices fall into two categories
a. Promotion of after burning of the pollutants by exhaust heat conservation,
introduction of additional air and by providing sufficient volume to ensure adequate
reaction time
b. Use of catalytic converters. In after burners air from an engine driven blower is
injected into the exhaust stream just after the exhaust valve. Sometimes an additional
source of ignition is provided in the exhaust passage to initiate the after burning under
certain engine conditions.
Other methods
1) Petrol injection
2) Stratified charge engine

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CONTROL OF EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS:

Insulation of the fuel tank to reduce temperature, sealed and pressurized fuel systems, and
vapor collection systems have all been explored to reduce tank emissions.

CONTROL OF CRANK CASE EMISSIONS:

Designers are shifting crank-case exhaust vents from simple open ending to a feed back.
New engines equipped with the positive crank-base ventilation (PVC) system return crank-case
vapors through a vaccum valve, back to downstream side of the carburetor recycling burns
hydrocarbon in the cylinders, dropping overall pollution by 25%

3. Explain the causes and effects of acid rain. (DEC. 2011, DEC 2013/JAN 2014)

ACID RAIN:
The term ACID RAIN is used to describe all precipitations rain, snow and dew which is
more acidic than normal
ACID RAIN PRECIPITION is defined as one which has a pH less than 5.67
The destruction by acid rain is not confined only to lakes and forests. It corrodes
buildings, monuments, statues and metals. Further it poses a serious threat to human health, since
it contaminates drinking water
Generally ‘CLEAN RAIN’ is slightly acidic as it dissolves varying amounts of carbon
dioxide, which is a common constituent of the earth’s atmosphere. The lowest PH vale of rain is
5.6 when it is clean. Rain having a ph of 4.6 is common in Eastern North America. This means, it
is 10 times more acidic than the clean rain. In some places, PH as low as 3.7 or even less has
been reported.

CAUSES:
Large quantities of sulphur and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere from the
chimneys of industrial plants. They react with the moisture in the air to form sulphuric and nitric
acids which fall as acid precipitation for away. Acid rain therefore is a cocktail of sulphuric and
nitric acids currently above 60-70% of the acidity is thought to be due to sulphuric acid and 30-
40% to nitric acid.

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The ecological impact of acid rain is quite serious. It’s likely to produce irreversible
charges. The acidification of streams and lakes affects aquatic animals and plants. High acidity
results in the killing of fish, reduced growth, and perhaps reproductive failure charge in PH
prevents hatching of fish eggs. Large scale destruction of trout and salmon have been reported,
due to high acidity. Acidity increases beyond the tolerable limits the concentration of heavy
metals such as lead, cadmium, copper and zinc in water. Acid rain effects vegetation and soil in
many ways. The growth of trees is adversely effected by acid rain.

REMEDY:
Are of simple solutions to the problem is to neutralize the acid with lime. It is a short
term measure and it is required to be repeated periodically. It is quite expensive, especially when
large areas of water bodies have to be limed.
Probably the best way to overcome this problem is to reduce the emission of SO2 and
oxides of nitrogen from industries. In other words it requires effective air pollution preventives,
and control, for both stationery sources (like industries) and mobile sources (like automobiles) of
pollution

4. Explain Global warming. (DEC. 2011, DEC 2013/JAN 2014)

Man’s in advertent activities are: increasing the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere which
may probably bring about drastic changes in the world climate in the next 50 years. Increasing
global consumption of fossil fuels is steadily increasing the CO2 level in the atmosphere since
the beginning of the tewntieth century . it has been estimated that the world’s consumption of
fossil fuels results in the release of nearly 9x109 tonnes of CO2 per year.
The primary source of CO2, is the consumption of fossil fuels. The secondary source is
the oxidation of carbon compounds in marshes and forests by natural degradation. Manufacture
of cement is another factor contributing to increasing of CO2 in the atmosphere.
The production of CO2 is very fast and has an influence on climate through what is called
the GREEN HOUSE EFFECT.
The layer of CO2 act like the glass in a green house because while the sun’s radiation can
pass through it and heat up the earth, It stops that same heat being required by the earth. In other
words CO2 is transparent to short wave radiation from the sun but absorbs the longer wave

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radiation from the earth. The net result of all this is that there is a danger of the earth gradually
being heated up.
If the CO2 content of the atmosphere is doubled which can occur by the middle of the
next century then it will result in increase in the present world temperature by about 3.6oC. It is
estimated that if the earth continues to warm up, all the glaciers will iced and the ice caps in the
Antarctic and Arctic will begin to melt. Consequently the sea level will rise by a few meters and
most of the cities on the sea shore may be submerged
There are some factors which may concentrate the CO2 effect. The warming of the
atmosphere will increase cloud over and this will reduce the amount of incoming solar radiation.
Agricultural and industrial operations as well as deforestation may generate a large quantity of
dust which in turn can reduce the effective radiation and thus maintain the atmospheric
temperature more or less at the same level.
To overcome the ecological crises due to CO2 community based forestry schemes should
be undertaken.

UNIT 8
1. Define air quality standards / Explain different kinds of air quality standards.
(DEC 2010/JAN 11,DEC 2013/JAN 2014)

AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS

Section 16(h) empowers the Central Board to lay down standards for the quality of air in ambient
air for the entire country. In exercise of these powers, the Central Board has notified the ambient
air quality in its notification dated 16.12.82. For this purpose, the entire country is classified into
three main categories as indicated below:

A. Industrial and mixed use areas

B. Residential and rural areas
C. Sensitive areas

To begin with, standards for four major parameters like SPM, SO2, CO, NOx only are prescribed.
As can be seen from standards laid down, the air quality is stringent as we go from category A to
C. The standards laid down envisage a monitoring period of eight hours.

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2. What are the emission standards? Distinguish between ambient air quality standard and
emission standard. (JUNE / JULY11, DEC 2013/JAN 2014, JUNE / JULY 14)

EMISSION STANDARDS

Section 17(1)(g) empowers the State Board to lay down, in consultation with the central board
and having regard to the standards for the quality of air laid down by the Central Board,
standards for emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere from industries, plants and
automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the atmosphere from any other source,
what-so-ever not being a ship or an aircraft. This section also provides for laying down different
standards for emission for different industrial plants considering the quantity and composition of
emissions of air pollutant into the atmosphere from such industrial plants.

Thus, it is observed that there are two types of limits on the emissions from major polluting
scheduled industries:

i. Standards laid down under Sec. 17(1)(g) and applicable over the entire state which the
industry concerned will have to comply with wherever it might be located.
ii. Specific emission limits that may be prescribed by the pollution control Boards in the
consent conditions under Sec. 21(5). These limits should generally be more stringent than
the standards set under Sec. 17(1)(g).

The Central and State Boards are evolving industry specific emission standards duly considering
the prevailing ISI standards, and the guidelines given by the Policy Planning Committee set up
by the Central Board. Emission standards stipulated should not only be easily enforceable but
also be achievable with the present stage of technology and the equipment available in the
country. The standards could be either based on total emission per unit of production or per unit
volume of air emitted. As air pollution control is being adopted for the first time, the emission
limits that are being laid down need to be revised progressively once in 3-5 years. Some of the
State Boards have already laid down emission standards in respect of few specific industries.

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