Title: Write short notes on differences systems that made up an

organism.

Introduction:

The human body consists of 6 levels of structural organizations which commence

from chemical to cellular to tissue to organ to system and finally the organism level.
Chemical level made up of atoms and molecules which are the building blocks of all
matters. Cellular level consists of cells which are the basic functional and structural units
of an organism such as smooth muscle cells and nerve cells. Tissues are groups of cells
that performing same work such as connective tissues and epithelial tissues. Different
types of tissue group performing particular functions made up the organ level. On the
other hand, a system consists of related organs performing common functions. The
examples of systems are such as digestive system and endocrine system. The largest
organizational level is organismal level which constitute of any living individual that all
the parts of human body functioning together.
A system consists of correlated organs that perform the common responsibilities.
There are 11 systems that made up an organism which known as integumentary system,
muscular system, skeletal system, nervous system, endocrine system, lymphatic and
immune system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system, digestive system, urinary
system and reproductive system. All body systems work together and influence one
another to maintain well- being of an organism. The anatomy and physiology of major
body systems would be discussed in this assignment.
Reference: http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/bodysystems.html (picture)
Integumentary System:

Components: Skin and its accessory structures such as hair, nails including fingernails
and toenails, associated skin glands such as oil glands and sweat
glands with associated smooth muscles and nerves.

Functions:

1. Body External Protection

- Skin is the “first line of defense” that forms the external body coverings. Skin
and hair protect the body tissues and all internal organs from biological hazards
such as access and growth of microbes and chemical hazards in the environments
such as direct UV rays.

2. Body Temperature Regulation

- Participate in thermoregulation such as releasing sweats through sweat glands
during hot temperature. Besides, skin controls body temperature by regulating
blood flow in dermis through blood vessels.

3. Waste elimination
- Eliminates some wastes such as urea, sodium, water in the form of sweats,
through skin surface.

4. Vitamin D Activation:
Skin helps activates vitamin D to hormone calciferol through sunlight exposure
which promotes absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus for bone building
and maintenance.

5. Cutaneous Sensation Detection:

Skin detects cutaneous sensations such as cold, touch and pains through skin
receptors which are essential in providing sensory information about the
surrounding environment.
Skeletal System:

Components: The entire framework of bones, joints and their associated cartilages

Functions:

1. Skeletal system supports body weight and protects body visceral organs.For
example, ribs protect lung.

2. Skeletal system aids body movements by providing attachment points for muscle.

3. Skeletal system consists of cells that produce blood cells. For example, red bone
marrow which present within some bones generates the white blood cells that help
the skin to defend against disease-causing organisms’ invasion.

4. Skeletal system also store minerals and lipids. For example, bones serve as a
reservoir for Calcium and releasing it for other tissues needs such as muscle
contraction.
Muscular System:

Components: Muscles which are skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle,
and tendons.

Functions:

1. Body Movements.
- Muscular system produces body movements such as walking, running and
localized movements such as grasping a pencil through alternate muscle
contraction and relaxation.

2. Body position stabilization

- Muscle tissues stabilize and maintain body positions through continuous
contraction. For example, persistent contractions in neck muscles hold the head
upright.

3. Organ volume regulation

- Smooth muscle contraction and relaxation in the blood vessels walls adjust blood
vessels diameters and therefore aids in blood flow regulation.
- Skeletal muscles contractions promote the flow of lymph and aid the return of
blood to the heart.
- Cardiac muscle pumps bloods through body blood vessels by contraction.

4. Heat generation
- Muscle tissues contracts to produce heat through thermogenesis. For example,
involuntary contractions of skeletal muscle which known as shivering would
generate heat that raise the body temperature during cold weather.
Nervous system:

Components: Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and Spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Cranial nerves, Spinal nerves,
ganglia, peripheral nerves.
Special sense organs (sensory receptors) such as eyes, ears, nose.

Functions:
1. Body activities regulation
- Generates action potentials which are nerves impulses to regulate body activities
through 3 basic functions which are sensory function, integrative function and
motor function.

1. Sensory function:
- Sensory receptors detect changes in the body internal and external
environment, such as increase in blood pressure.

2. Integrative function
- Interneurons in the nervous system interpret the changes of sensory
information and making decisions for appropriate responses.

3. Motor function
- Motor or efferent neurons respond to the integration decisions by
sending information back to muscle fibers and glandular cells.
Endocrine System:
Components: Hormone-producing glands (pineal glands, parathyroid glands,
pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands) and hormone
secreting tissues(hypothalamus, pancreas, thymus, ovaries,
kidney, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart and testes)
Functions:

1. Regulates body activities by releasing hormones which known as chemical

messengers through bloods from an endocrine gland to a target organ.
For example human growth hormone (hGH) and insulinlike growth
factors (IGFs) from anterior pituitary gland stimulates bone and cell
growth.

2. Several hormones of endocrine system regulate metabolism such as

thyroid hormone which generate energy, insulin which plays important
roles in glucose anabolism and glucagons which take part in glucose
catabolism.

3. Regulate operation of reproductive systems. For example, follicle-

stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH) regulate
secretion, development and growth of the gonads which are ovaries and
testes.

4. Regulate smooth and cardiac muscle fibers contraction.

-Parathyroid hormone (PTH) maintains proper Calcium ions level which
needed for muscle contraction.

6. Regulate blood volume and ion content of blood.

- Mineralocorticoids such aldosterone in regulating sodium levels in the
body.
Cardiovascular System:

Components: Bloods, Heart and blood vessels

Functions:

1. Transportation:
-The heart pumps the blood through blood vessels to body tissues. Bloods
transport oxygen to the cells of the body and carbon dioxide from cells to
lung for exhalation.
- Bloods carries nutrients from gastrointestinal tract and hormones from
endocrine glands to body cells.
- Bloods also transport heat and waste products to the lungs, kidneys and
skin for elimination.

2. Regulation:
- Bloods help regulate acid-base balance or pH through buffer system.
- Bloods help regulate water contents of body fluids through blood
osmotic pressure.
- Bloods assists in body temperature regulation by detecting the skin blood
flow and hence maintain homeostasis condition of human body.

3. Protection:
- Circulating blood distributes lymphocytes, antibodies and macrophages
that carry out immune functions.
- Bloods delivers clotting factors and white blood cells that aid in
hemostasis when skin is damaged.
Lymphatic and Immune System:

Components: Lymphatic fluid, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus,

and tonsils.

Functions:

1. Draining excess interstitial fluid

- Lymphatic vessels drain excess interstitial fluid and leaked plasma
proteins from connective tissue spaces and return it to the blood.

2. Dietary lipids transportation

- Lymphatic vessels transport the lipids and lipids soluble vitamins (A, D,
E, and K) absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract to blood.

3. Immune responses
- Lymphatic and immune system defend against toxins and pathogens that
penetrate the body via lymphatic tissues. Lymphocytes and macrophages
recognize foreign antigens and respond to them in two basic ways:

1. Cell-mediated immune responses

- T cells destroy the intruders by causing them to rupture or by
releasing cytotoxic substances.

2. Antibody-mediated immune responses

- B cells differentiate into plasma cells which then produce
antibodies that bind with foreign antigens and cause
neutralization of foreign antigens.
Respiratory System:

Components: Upper respiratory system: nose, pharynx (throat)

Lower respiratory system: larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe),
bronchial tubes, bronchi, and lungs

Functions:
1. Gas Exchange
- Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood for body cell use and
elimination of carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air.

2. Acid-base balance regulation

- Assist in adjusting pH of body fluids through exhalation of carbon
dioxide.

3. Receptors
- Nose contains receptors for sense of smell which is olfaction.
- Vibrations of air flowing out of lungs across vocal cords produce sounds
for speech.

4. Support skeletal muscle activities

- Increased rate and depth of breathing support increased activity of
skeletal muscle during exercise.
Digestive System:

Components: Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract: A continuous long tube consists of

organs such as mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine and most of the pharynx.
Accessory digestive organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder and pancreas.

Functions:
1. Breakdown dietary nutrients physically and chemically, absorb nutrients
essential for body growth and tissue function and eliminate solid wastes
from body tissues in feaces.

2. Assists in Immune Function

- Acidity of gastric juice destroys bacteria and most toxins in stomach.

3. Assists in Bone development

- Small intestine absorbs dietary calcium and phosphorus salts needed to
build bone matrix.
Urinary System:

Components: Two kidneys, two ureters, one urinary bladder and one urethra.

Functions:
1. Waste and foreign substance excretion
-Kidneys eliminate nitrogenous waste from metabolic reactions. For
example amino acid deamination reaction remove ammonia and urea
from body. Besides, foreign substances such as drugs are excreted in urine
through urinary system.

2. Blood volume and pressure regulation

- The kidneys adjust the blood volume by conserving or excreting water in
urine. Kidneys help regulate blood pressure by secreting enzyme rennin
when there is a decrease in blood pressure.

3. Hormone production
- Kidneys participate in two hormones syntheses which are calcitriol, the
active form of vitamin D which needed for absorption of dietary Calcium
and erythropoietin which stimulate the red blood cells production.

4. The ureters which are parts of urinary system transport urine from kidneys
to the urinary bladder.

5. The urinary bladder stores urine.

6. The urethra discharges urine from the body.

Reproductive System:
Reproductive system consists of male reproductive system and female
reproductive system which will be discussed separately in this assignment. The
overall function of reproductive system would be shown as below:

Functions of reproductive system:

1. The gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) produce gametes
(sperms or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism.
2. The gonads also secrete sex hormones that regulate reproduction and other
body processes.
3. Various ducts store and transport the gametes.
4. Accessory sex glands produce substances that protect the gametes and
facilitate their movement.
5. Supporting structures such as penis and uterus play important roles in
delivery and joining of gametes.
Male Reproductive System:

Components: Male reproductive system: testes, a system of ducts (including

ductus deferens, ejaculatory ducts, and urethra), accessory
sex glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral
gland), and several supporting structures including scrotum and
the penis.

Functions of male reproductive system:

1. Testes produce sperm and the male sex hormone which is testosterone.
2. Ducts which are ductus deferens, ejaculatory ducts and urethra store,
transport and help in sperm maturation.
3. Accessory sex glands which are seminal vesicles, prostate and
bulbourethral gland secretes liquid portion of semen in large amounts.
4. Penis contains the urethra which performs as a passageway for ejaculation
of semen and urine excretion.
Female Reproductive System:

Components: ovaries, uterine or Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary

glands and external organs which collectively known as
vulva.

Functions:
1. Ovaries produce secondary oocytes and hormones including progesterone
and estrogens which are female sex hormones.
2. Fallopian tubes transport a secondary oocyte to the uterus and normally
are the sites where fertilization occurs.
3. Uterus is the implantation site of a fertilized ovum, growth of fetus during
pregnancy and labor.
4. Vagina is a passageway for childbirth.
5. Mammary glands synthesize, release and expel milk for newborn.
 Reference:

1. Porth C.M., Pathophysiology: Concept of Altered Health States, 6th

Edition, 2002, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, U.S.

2. Tortora G.J. and Grabowski S. R. , Principles of Anatomy and

Physiology, 10th edition, 2003, John Wiley & Son, Inc., United Stated of
America.

3. HCF Nutrition Foundation, Levels of Organization and Organization

of the human Body Systems, [Online], Available:
http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/bodysystems.html
(Accessed on 06.01.2006)