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ADVENT OF EUROPEANS
• Before the beginning of the formal rule of the British in India, there was a background of Indo-European
economic relationship.
• The commercial contacts between India and Europe were very old via the land route either through the
Oxus valley or Syria or Egypt.
• But, the new sea route via the Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and
thereafter, many trading companies came to India and established their trading centres.
• The British East India Company was a Joint- Stock Company established in 1600, as the Company of

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Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies.
• During this time, other trading companies, established by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish were

•
similarly expanding in the region.
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The British Company gained footing in India in 1612 after Mughal emperor Jahangir granted the rights
to establish a factory (a trading post) in Surat to Sir Thomas Roe, a representative diplomat of Queen
Elizabeth Ist of England.
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• They entered India as traders at the outset but by the passage of time indulged in the politics of India
and finally established their colonies.
• The commercial rivalry among the European powers led to political rivalry. Ultimately, the British succeeded
in establishing their rule India.
THE DUTCH
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• In March, 1602, by a charter of the Dutch parliament the Dutch East India Company was formed with
powers to make wars, concluded treaties, acquire territories and build fortresses.
• The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimilipatam (1641),
Karikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Negapatam (all in 1658) and
Cochin (1663).
• In the 17th century, they supplanted the Portuguese as the most dominant power in European trade with
the East, including India.
• Pulicat was their centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatam replaced it.
• In the middle of the 17th century (1654) the English began to emerge as a formidable colonial power.
• After 60-70 years of rivalry with the English, the Dutch power in India began to decline by the beginning
of the 18th century.
• Their final collapse came with their defeat by the English in the battle of Bedera in 1759.
• One by one the Dutch lost their settlement to the English and their expulsion from their possessions in
India by the British came in 1795.
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THE PORTUGUESE
• The Portuguese traveler Vasco da Gama reached the port of Calicut on 17 May 1498 and he was warmly
received by Zamorin, the ruler of Calicut. He returned to Portugal in the next year.
• Pedro Alvarez Cabral arrived in 1500 and Vasco da Gama also made a second trip in 1502.
• They established trading stations at Calicut, Cannanore and Cochin.
• The first governor of the Portuguese in India was Francis de Almeida.
• Later in 1509 Albuquerque was made the governor of the Portuguese territories in India.
• In 1510, he captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur. Thereafter, Goa became the capital of the Portuguese
settlements in India.
• Albuquerque captured Malacca and Ceylon. He also built a fort at Calicut.
• Albuquerque encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian women.

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• Albuquerque died in 1515 leaving the Portuguese as the strongest naval power in India.
• The successors of Albuquerque established Portuguese settlements at Daman, Salsette and Bombay on the
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west coast and at Santhome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast.
• However, the Portuguese power declined in India by the end of the sixteenth century. They lost all their
possessions in India except Goa, Daman and Diu in the next century.
THE DANES
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• Denmark also established trade settlements in India and their settlement at Tranquebar was founded in
1620.
• Another important Danish settlement in India was Serampore in Bengal.
• Serampore was their headquarters in India.
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• The Danes failed to strengthen themselves in India and they sold all their settlement in India to the British
in 1845.
THE FRENCH
• The French East India Company was formed by Colbert under state patronage in 1664.
• The first French factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668. Later Maracara set up a
factory at Masulipatam in 1669.
• A small village was acquired from the Muslim governor of Valikondapuram by Francois Martin and
Bellanger de Lespinay in 1673. The village developed into Pondicherry and its first governor was Francois
Martin.
• Also Chandernagore in Bengal was acquired from the Mughal governor in 1690.
• The French power in India declined between 1706 and 1720 which led to the reconstitution of the
Company in 1720.
• The French power in India was revived under Lenoir and Dumas (governors) between 1720 and 1742.
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• They occupied Mahe in the Malabar, Yanam in Coromandal (both in 1725) and Karikal in Tamil Nadu
(1739).
• The arrival of Dupleix as French governor in India in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo French conflict
(Carnatic wars) resulting in their final defeat in India.
THE ENGLISH
• The English East India Company (also known as the East India Trading Company, and, after the Treaty
of Union, the British East India Company) was formed by a group of merchants known as 'Merchant
Adventures' in 1599.
• The Company was granted an English Royal Charter, under the name Governor and Company of Merchants
of London Trading into the East Indies, by Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, making it the oldest among
several similarly formed European East India Companies, the largest of which was the Dutch East India
Company.

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• In 1608, the company decided to open a factory (the name given to a trading depot) at Surat.
• The English ambassador Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir's Court to seek permission for trade with

•
Imperial Government. OR
India. But initially it was turned down due to Portuguese intrigue. This convinced the English of the need
to overcome Portuguese influence at the Mughal Court if they were to obtain any concessions from the

The Company achieved a major victory over the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally near Surat in 1612,
where two English naval ships under Captain Best defeated a Portuguese naval squadron.
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• These victories led the Mughals to hope that in view of their naval weakness they could use the English
to counter the Portuguese on the sea. Moreover, the Indian merchants would certainly benefit by competition
among their foreign buyers.
• Captain Bust succeeded in getting a royal firman by Jahangir permitting the English to build a factory in
Surat, Cambaya, Ahmedabad and Goa in 1613.
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• The English were not satisfied with this concession and in 1615 their ambassador Sir Thomas Roe reached
the Mughal Court. They also exerted pressure on the Mughal authorities by taking advantage of India's
naval weakness and harassing Indian traders and ship from the Red Sea and to Mecca.
• Thus, combining entreaties with threats, Roe succeeded in getting an Imperial farman to trade establish
factories in all parts of the Mughal Empire.
• Roe's success further angered the Portuguese and a fierce naval battle between the two countries began
in 1620 which ended in English victory. Hostilities between the two came to an end in 1630.
• In 1662 the Portuguese gave the Island of Bombay to King Charles II of England as dowry for marrying
a Portuguese Princess. Eventually, the Portuguese lost all their possessions in India except Goa, Daman
and Diu.
• The Company, benefiting from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations,
eclipsing the Portuguese Estado da India, which had established bases in Goa, Chittagong and Bombay.
• The Company created trading posts in Surat (where a factory was built in 1612), Madras (1639), Bombay
(1668), and Calcutta (1690).
• By 1647, the Company had 23 factories, each under the command of a factor or master merchant and
governor if so chosen, and had 90 employees in India.
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• The major factories became the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and
the Bombay Castle.
• In 1634, the Mughal emperor extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of Bengal, and
in 1717 completely waived customs duties for the trade.
• The company's mainstay businesses were by then in cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpetre and tea.
• By a series of five acts around 1670, King Charles II provisioned it with the rights to autonomous
territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war
and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas.
IMPACT OF EUROPEANS ON INDIA’S FOREIGN TRADE
• With the arrival of the Europeans, particularly the Dutch and the English, there was a tremendous increase
in the demand for Indian textiles for both the Asian markets and later the European market.
• The Asian markets for Indian textiles were developed over a long period. There markets were extensive
and widespread and there was great diversity in their demand.
•

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There was a bilateral trade between the Coromandal and various parts of South East Asia such as
Malacca, Java and the Spice Islands. In this trade, the Coromandal textiles acted as a link in a multilateral
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trade, embracing the Coromandal, South-East Asia, West Asia, and the Mediterranean. In this trade,
Coromandal textiles were exchanged for South-East Asian spices which were in turn meant for the West
Asian and Mediterranean markets.
• The European market for Indian textiles actually developed around the middle of the 17th century, and
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thereafter it grew by leaps and bounds.

• The intra-Asian trade witnessed severe competition among the various groups of merchants, such as the
Portuguese, the Dutch, the English, the Danes, and the Indians consisting of both the Moors and the
Chettis, whereas the European market for Indian textiles was dominated entirely by the European companies,
particularly the English and the Dutch, with the Indian merchants acting essentially as middleman.
• European participation in the foreign trade of India showed a marked increase in the second half of the
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17th century. This increase can be seen clearly in the sharp rise in their investments, a large part of which
was in textiles meant for the Asian markets as well as the European market.
• Though initially European investment in Indian textiles considerably exceeded those ordered for the
European market, by the end of the 17th century the situation was reversed with two-thirds of it going
for the European market and only one-third for the Asian market.
• Among the various European companies competing for Indian textiles, the main rivalry was between the
Dutch and the English, with the former initially having an edge but the latter gradually gaining supremacy
by the turn of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century.
• With regard to the textile varieties that were exported from the Coromandal to South East Asia and other
Asian markets, and later to Europe, the European records give a very long list.
• The various types, in order of importance, were long-cloth, salempors, moris (chintz), guinea-cloth, bethiles,
allegias, sarassas, tapis, and the like.
• All these varieties were being exported even during earlier periods to several Asian markets such as the
Moluccan Spice Islands, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, Tenasserim, Pegu, Arakan,
Persia, Arabia, and the Red Sea ports.
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• But the specialty of the period under study was the increased European orders which, though matching
the already existing varieties, demanded measurements large than those in the Asian markets.
• Consequently, the Indian weavers had to change their methods and their looms to accommodate this
European demand.
• Many of them did so quite profitably, but it necessitated long-term contracts and rendered spot orders
improbable.
• The Indian economy, more specifically its textile trade and industry, during the second half of the 17th
century, was a seller (i.e. producers) market. For, when the three European companies- English, Dutch and
French were competing in the open market, making large orders from India, and these were supplemented
by European private trade and Indian trade, the weavers had greater flexibility and large freedom of
operation.
• The interchangeability of goods ordered by these various buyers, who were aiming at broadly the same
export market, made it possible for weaver produced was bought up by one or the other eager customers.

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• If, for instance, any cloth produced by the weaver was rejected by the companies, then the weaver could
sell it to English private traders. This situation existed in many parts of the country where the three

OR
companies as well as the other buyers were in free competition.
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BRITISH EXPANSION IN INDIA

APPROACH OF EAST INDIA COMPANY IN INDIA
• The English East India Company had very humble beginnings in India and Surat was the centre of its trade
till 1687. Throughout this period the English remained petitioners before the Mughal authorities but
always tried to combine trade and diplomacy with war and control of the territory where their factories
were situated.
• In 1625 the Companys’ authorities at Surat made an attempt to fortify their factory but the chiefs of the
English factory were immediately imprisoned by the local authorities of the Mughal Empire.
• Similarly, when the Company's English rivals made piratical attacks on Mughal shipping, in relaliation the
Mughal authorities imprisoned the President of the Company at Surat and members of his Council and

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released them only on payment of £18,000.
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• Conditions in the South were more favourable for them as they did not have to face a strong Indian
Government there. As Vijayanagar Kingdom had been overthrown in 1565 and its place taken by a
number of petty and weak states, it was easy to appeal to their greed or overawe them with armed
strength.
• The English opened their first factory in the South at Masulipatam in 1611, but they soon shifted the
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centre of their activity to Madras, the lease of which was granted by the local Raja in 1639.
• Madras was then a strip of coastal territory six miles long and one mile broad. Here the English built a
small fort around their factory called Fort St. George.
• By the end of the 17th century the English Company was claiming full sovereignty over Madras and was
ready to fight in, defence of the claim.
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• In Bombay, the English found a large and easily defended port and because English trade was threatened
at the time by the rising Maratha power. Bombay soon superseded Surat as the headquarters of the
Company on the West Coast.
• In Eastern India, the English Company had opened its first factory in Orissa in 1633.
• In 1651 it was given permission to trade at Hugli in Bengal and soon opened factories at Patna, Balasore,
and other places in Bengal and Bihar.
• Their easy success in trade and in establishing independent and fortified settlements at Madras and at
Bombay, and the pre-occupation of Aurangzeb with the anti-Maratha campaigns led the English to abandon
the role of humble petitioners.
• Hostilities between the English and the Mughal Emperor broke out in 1686 after the former had sacked
Hugli and declared war on the Emperor. The war ended disastrously for them and they were driven out
of their factories in Bengal. Their factories at Surat, Masulipatam, and Vizagapataoi were seized and their
fort at Bombay besieged. The English once again became humble petitioners and pleaded for pardon.
• The Mughal authorities pardoned them on the pretext that foreign trade carried on by the Company
benefited Indian artisans and merchants and thereby enriched the States treasury.
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• Moreover, the English, though weak on land, were, because of their naval supremacy, capable of completely
ruining Indian trade to Iran, West Asia, Northern and Eastern Africa and East Asia.
• Aurangzeb therefore permitted them to resume trade on payment of Rs. 150,000 as compensation.
• In 1691 the Company was granted exemption from the payment of custom duties in Bengal in return for
Rs. 3,000 a year.
• In 1698, the Company acquired the zamindari of the three villages Sutanati, Kalikata, and Govindpur
where it built Fort William around its factory.
• In 1717 the Company secured from Emperor Farrukh Siyar a farman confirming the privileges granted in
1691 and extending them to Gujarat and the Deccan.
• During the first half of the 18th century Bengal was ruled by strong Nawabs such as Murshid Quli Khan
and Alivardi Khan. They exercised strict control over the English traders and prevented them from
misusing their privileges. Nor did they allowed them to strengthen fortifications at Calcutta or to rule the

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city independently. Here the East India Company remained a mere zamindar of the Nawab.
• Even though the political ambitions of the Company were frustrated, its commercial affairs flourished. Its

•
OR
imports from India into England increased from 1708 to 1740. This increase was recorded in spite of the
fact that the English Government forbade the use of Indian cotton and silk textiles in England in order
to protect the English textile industry and to prevent export of silver from England to India.
Thus at a time when the English were pleading for free trade in India they were restricting freedom of trade
in their own country and denying access to Indian manufactures.
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• Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta contained fortified English settlements; they also had immediate access to
the sea where English naval power remained far superior to that of the Indians.
• In case of conflict with any Indian authority, the English could always escape from these cities to the sea.
And when a suitable opportunity arose for them to take advantage of the political disorders in the country,
they could use these strategic cities as spring-boards for the conquest of India.
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• British settlements in these three cities became the nuclei of flourishing cities. Large numbers of Indian
merchants and bankers were attracted to these cities. This was due partly to the new commercial opportunities
available in these cities and partly to the unsettled conditions and insecurity outside them, caused by the
break-up of the Mughal Empire.
CONTEST FOR TRADE MONOPOLY IN INDIA
• The prosperity that the officers of the company enjoyed allowed them to return to Britain and establish
sprawling estates and businesses, and to obtain political power. The Company developed a lobby in the
English parliament.
• Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the Company (pejoratively termed
Interlopers by the Company), who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was
passed in 1694. This allowed any English firm to trade with India, unless specifically prohibited by act of
parliament, thereby annulling the charter that had been in force for almost 100 years.
• By an act passed in 1698, a new "parallel" East India Company (officially titled the English Company
Trading to the East Indies) was floated under a state-backed indemnity of £2 million. The powerful
stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a sum of £315,000 in the new concern, and dominated
the new body.
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• The two companies wrestled with each other for some time, both in England and in India, for a dominant
share of the trade. It quickly became evident that, in practice, the original Company faced scarcely any
measurable competition.
• The companies merged in 1708, by a tripartite indenture involving both companies and the state. Under
this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £3,200,000, in return for exclusive
privileges for the next three years, after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated
company became the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
• In the following decades there was a constant see-saw battle between the Company lobby and the
Parliament.
• The Company sought a permanent establishment, while the Parliament was not willing to grant greater
autonomy and so relinquish the opportunity to exploit the Company's profits.
• In 1712, another act renewed the status of the Company. By 1720, 15% of British imports were from
India, almost all passing through the Company, which reasserted the influence of the Company lobby. The
license was prolonged till 1766 by yet another act in 1730.
BENGAL

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OR
• During the short period of eight years (1757 to 1765) three nawabs, Siraj-ud- Daula, Mir Jafar and Mir
Qasim ruled over Bengal but they failed to uphold the sovereignty of the nawab and ultimately the reign
of control passed into the hands of the British.
• Bengal was the most fertile and the richest province of India and its industries and commerce were well
developed.
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• In the beginning, the East India Company and its servants had highly profitable trading interests in the
province.
• The Company secured valuable privileges in 1717 under a royal farman by the Mughal Emperor, which
had granted the Company the freedom to export and import their goods in Bengal without paying taxes
and the right to issue passes or dastaks for the movement of such goods.
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• The Company's servants were also permitted to trade but were not covered by this farman. They were
required to pay the same taxes as Indian merchants.
• This farman was a perpetual source of conflict between the Company and the Nawabs of Bengal. First
it meant loss of revenue to the Bengal Government. Secondly, the power to issue dastaks for the Company's
goods was misused by its servants to evade taxes on their private trade.
• All the Nawabs of Bengal, from Murshid Quli Khan to Alivardi Khan, had objected to the English
interpretation of the farman of 1717. They compelled the Company to pay lump sums to their treasury,
and firmly suppressed the misuse of dastaks.
• The Company had been compelled to accept the authority of the Nawabs in the matter, but its servants
had taken every opportunity to evade and defy this authority.
• By the time Siraj-ud-Daula succeeded Alivardi Khan as nawab of Bengal in 1756 trade privileges and their
misuse by the Company and its officers had already become an issue of conflict.
• Other factors like the repeated defiance of the nawab's authority along with sheltering the offenders of
the nawab were the acts on the part of the English Company which provoked the nawab.
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• The Company officials also suspected that nawab was going to have an alliance with the French in Bengal.
• The breaking point came when, without taking the Nawab's permission, the Company began to fortify
Calcutta in expectation of the coming struggle with the French, who were stationed at this time at
Chandernagore.
• Siraj-ud-Daula's prevented the English from fortifying Fort William. However the English refused to stop
the new fortification which prompted the Nawab to attack their factory at Casim Bazar.
• The Nawab captured Fort William, taking 146 Englishmen prisoners. Holed up in a very small room 123
died on 20th June, 1756 out of suffocation and only 23 survived. English historians describe this incident
as the Black Hole Tragedy.
• This incident instigated the English at Chennai to send a relieving force under Robert Clive alongwith
Admiral Watson to Bengal.
• The British retaliation started with hatching a conspiracy against the nawab in alliance with his Mir

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Bakshi Mir Jafar, Manik Chand, the Officer-in-Charge of Calcutta, Amichand, a rich merchant, Jagat Seth,
the biggest banker of Bengal, and Khadim Khan, who commanded a large number of the Nawab's troops
and Rai Durlabh.
•
•
OR
Clive marched towards Plassey on 23rd June, 1757; which was near the Nawab's capital of Murshidabad.
As agreed earlier, Mir Jafar, the Commander-in-chief of Siraj-ud-daula did not take up arms against the
English army and on the other hand the Nawab's soldiers fled from the battlefield.
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• Later the Nawab was killed by, Mir Jafar's son Miran.
• Mir Madan and Mohan Lal, who were loyal to the Nawab fought bravely but were killed due to treachery
of Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh.
• English victory in the battle of Plassey (23 June, 1757) was pre-decided. It was not the superiority of the
military power but the conspiracy that helped the English in winning the battle.
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• Mir Jafar, the commander-in-chief of the Nawab was awarded the Nawabship by Clive for his support to
the English.
• Mir Jafar responded to this favour by paying a sum of Rs. One Crore and Seventy Seven lakhs to the
Company and large sums to the Company officers as bribe.
• But Mir Jafar could not support the ever increasing demands of the English who were also suspicious
about his collaboration with the Dutch Trading Company.
• Mir Jafar was deposed in 1760 and Mir Qasim was placed on the throne by the British. The new Nawab
assigned English the district of Burdawan, Midnapore and Chittagong for the expenses of the British army
which was to help him.
• This alliance was of great help to the British in their campaign against the French in 1760-1761; the
money paid by Mir Qasim helped the Calcutta Council to finance their war in South.
• The Nawab succeeded in establishing a better system of administration. But he came into conflict with
the British in Bengal on the question of a privilege, i.e., duty free private trade of the Company.
• Mir Qasim's proposed plan about equal trade duties for British and Indian traders was turned down by
the British Council at Calcutta.
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• Mir Qasim, in the circumstances, remitted all duties on Indians and the British alike for two years. This
measure deprived the British private traders of the privileged position they had created for themselves,
they could not compete with Indian traders on equal terms.
• The Nawab's attempts to reorganize the army and shifting of capital from Murshidabad to Monghyr were
also taken as unforgivable offences by the Company.
• The war broke out between Mir Kasim and the Company in 1763. Mir Qasim escaped to Oudh to
organise a confederacy with Shuja-ud-daula, the Nawab of Oudh and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II
in a final bid to oust the English from Bengal.
• The combined armies of the three powers fought the battle of Buxar with English army commanded by
Major Munro on October 22, 1764.
• With a decisive victory at Buxar, the British army overran Awadh.
• The Nawab of Awadh fled to the Rohilla country, but Shah Alam II came to terms with the British.
• Lord Clive, then British Governor in Calcutta, also concluded treaty of Allahabad with the Shuja-ud-

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Daula, Nawab of Awadh, who was to pay fifty lakhs of rupees for the expenses of the war and was given
back his dominions.
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• He entered into defensive alliance with the Company. Awadh became for the British a buffer state.
• The British gave emperor Shah Alam II possession of Kara and Allahabad, while he granted them the
Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in return for a regular annual payment of twenty-six lakhs of rupees.
• The Battle of Buxar made the English virtually the masters of Bengal as it also proved their military
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superiority and unchallenged power.

• As a result of his success in Bengal, Robert Clive was appointed the first Governor General of Bengal
and he consolidated the British power both in Bengal and in the Deccan.
• The Company acquired Diwani functions from Emperor Shah Alam II (12th August 1765) and Nizamat
functions from Subedar of Bengal.
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• For the exercise of Diwani functions, the company appointed two Deputy Diwans, Mohammad Reza
Khan for Bengal and Raja Shitab Roy for Bihar. Mohammad Reza Khan acted as deputy Nizam.
• This arrangement was known as Dual Government wherein the administration of Bengal was carried out
by two heads with the Nawab of Bengal being the nominal head and the Company, as the Diwan
controlled the revenue as well as police and judicial powers.
ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY
• In the beginning of the eighteenth century, the English and the French were competing with each other
to establish their supremacy in India.
• Both of them used the political turmoil prevalent in India as a result of the decline of the Mughal Empire
in their favour and indulged in internal politics.
• The Anglo-French rivalry in India was manifest in the Carnatic region and in Bengal.
First Carnatic War (1746-1748)
• The downfall of the Mughal Empire led to the independence of Deccan under Nizam-ul-Mulk. The
Carnatic region also formed part of the Nizam’s dominion.
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• The ruler of the Carnatic accepted the suzerainty of the Nizam.

• In 1740, the Austrian War of Succession broke out in Europe. In that war England and France were in
the opposite camps. They came into conflict in India also.
• The French governor of Pondicherry, Dupleix opened attack on the English in 1746 and thus began the
First Carnatic War (1746-1748).
• The English sought help from the Nawab of Carnatic, Anwar Uddin. But the French concluded a treaty
with his rival Chanda Sahib.
• The English army crushed a defeat on the French in the Battle of Adyar, near Madras.
• In the meantime, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle was concluded in 1748 to end the Austrian Succession
War. Thus the First Carnatic War came to an end.
Second Carnatic War (1749-1754)

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• But the English and French continued to take opposite sides in the internal politics of India which resulted
in the Second Carnatic War (1749-1754).
•

•
Chanda Sahib, an aspirant for the throne of Arcot.
OR
Dupleix supported the cause of Muzafar Jang, who wanted to become the Nizam of Hyderabad and

The troops of these three defeated Anwar Uddin, who was with the British in the First Carnatic War, and
killed him in the Battle of Ambur in 1749.
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• After this victory, Muzafar Jung became the Nizam and Chanda Sahib the Nawab of Arcot.
• Muhammad Ali, son of Anwar Uddin escaped to Tiruchirappalli. The English sent troops in support of
him.
• In the meantime, the British commander Robert Clive captured Arcot. He also inflicted a severe defeat
on the French at Kaveripakkam.
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• Chanda Sahib was captured and beheaded in Tanjore. Meanwhile Dupleix was replaced by Godeheu as
the French governor.
• The war came to an end by the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.
Third Carnatic War (1758-1763)
• The outbreak of the Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe led to the Third Carnatic War (1758-1763).
Count de Lally was the commander of the French troops.
• The British General Sir Eyre Coote defeated him at Wandiwash in 1760.
• In 1761, Pondicherry was captured and destroyed by the British troops.
• The Seven Years War came to an end by the Treaty of Paris in 1763 and with it the third Carnatic War
also ended.
• The French agreed to confine its activities in Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe and Yenam.
• Thus the Anglo-French rivalry came to a close with British success and French failure.
Causes for the French failure
• The English were commercially and as a naval power were superior to French.
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• There was lack of support to the French’s from their government and there was difference of opinion
between the French Generals.
• French had support only in the Deccan but the English had a strong base in Bengal.
• English had three important ports – Calcutta, Bombay and Madras but French had only Pondicherry.
• England’s victory in the European wars decided the destiny of the French in India.
ANGLO-MYSORE WARS
• Hyder Ali strengthened his army by including French soldiers into his service.
• In 1755, established modern arsenal in Dindigul with French help.
• He extended his territories by conquering many areas in South India including Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara,
and Malabar to gain access to Indian Ocean.
• In 1766 Mysore began to be drawn into territorial and diplomatic disputes between the Nizam of Hyderabad
and the British East India Company, which had by then become the dominant European colonial power

E
on the Indian east coast.
First Mysore War (1767-1769)
OR
• The first Anglo-Mysore war started with attack of Marathas on Mysore in 1766, but Hyder Ali made
peace with Marathas paying them 35 lakh Rupees.
• After Marathas returned, Nizam attacked Mysore with the assistance of British. But even before the war
could be concluded, the Nizam changed the side and came towards Hyder Ali.
SC

• The English forces could not retaliate and retreated to Trichinopoly under Col. Smith.
• Later Col. Wood joined the British army and amid confusion, Hyder Ali retreated from the battle. Now
the British threatened to attack Hyderabad.
• This forced the Nizam to sign a treaty in 1768. As per the terms of this treaty the Nizam agreed to abide
GS

by the treaty signed with British in context with the Northern Circars.
• Hyder Ali was regarded as usurper and was refused to be acknowledge as ruler of Mysore, Nizam agreed
to help the British to punish Hyder Ali. The important aspect of this treaty was that Nizam agreed to give
the British Diwani Rights of Mysore when Hyder Ali was ousted and Mysore is won by him.
• Hyder Ali was defeated at Changam and Tiruvannamalai in 1767. At the same time Tipu Sultan, son of
Hyder Ali advanced towards Madras and the English were forced to enter into an agreement.
• The result was the Treaty of Madras in April 1769 and it maintained the status quo. As per the Treaty
of Madras: Both the Parties returned the areas won by each other. The District of Arcot was given to
Nawab of Arcot British & Hyder Ali promised that they would support each other if there is any foreign
invasion.
Second Mysore War (1780-84)
• Hyder Ali in the impression that as per the terms of this treaty, British would come to help in if there
is a conflict with the Marathas.
• He started demanding tributes from the smaller states on the border of Maratha and Mysore.
• The Marathas responded this in 1770 with a force of over 30 thousand.
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12
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• Hyder Ali requested the British to help, but British did not turned up.
• The result was that all the territories of Hyder were confiscated by the Marathas.
• Hyder again begged the British for the help, but the British placed some conditions which were not
acceptable to him. The result was that Hyder requested for peace with Marathas.
• There was an outbreak of hostilities between the English and the French (an ally of Haider) during the
American War of Independence.
• Haider Ali formed a grand alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas against the British
in 1779.
• When Mahe, a French possession in the dominion of Hyder Ali was attacked by the English, he declared
war on the English in 1780.
• Hyder Ali defeated Colonel Braithowaite in Arcot and made the English surrender and occupied almost
the whole of Carnatic.

E
• Later,the English under Sir Eyre Coote, defeated Hyder Ali at Porto Novo in 1781.
•

•
British for two more years.
OR
In the meantime Hyder Ali died in 1782. After his death his son Tipu Sultan continued the war with the

The war came to an end with the Treaty of Mangalore signed in 1784. Both sides agreed to exchange
the captured territories and war prisoners and thus the war ended up without any concrete results.
SC
Third Mysore War (1790-92)
• The Treaty of Mangalore (1784) exhibited the military strength of Mysore, exposed English weaknesses
and increased Tipu's strength. Further, Tipu strengthened his position by undertaking various internal
reforms.
• All above mentioned factors created worries to the British, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas.
GS

• Moreover, Tipu made attempts to seek the help of France and Turkey by sending envoys to those
countries. He also expanded his territories at the cost of his neighbours, particularly the Raja of Travancore,
who was an ally of the British.
• In 1789, the British concluded a tripartite alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas against Tipu.
• Lord Cornwallis who had been made the Governor General of Bengal and the Commander-in-Chief of
the English army then declared a war on Tipu in 1790.
• Cornwallis himself assumed command of the war in December 1790.
• Cornwallis captured Bangalore in March 1791, but Tipu's brilliant strategies prolonged the war and he was
forced to retreat to Mangalore due to lack of provisions.
• In the mean time aid from the Marathas helped Cornwallis to resume his campaign attack against
Srirangapattinam again. Swiftly the English forces occupied the hill forts near Srirangapattinam and seized
it in February 1792.
• Tipu Sultan concluded the Treaty of Srirangapattinam with the British. As per treaty Tipu had to give
up half of his dominions. He had to pay a war indemnity of three crore rupees and surrender two of his
sons as hostages to the English.
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• The British secured a large territory on the Malabar Coast. In addition they obtained the Baramahal district
and Dindugal.
Fourth Mysore War (1799)
• The Treaty of Srirangapattinam failed to bring peace between Tipu Sultan and the British. Tipu Sultan sent
emissaries to Kabul, Constantinople, Arabia and France to get their support.
• At this juncture that Wellesley tried to revive the Triple Alliance of 1790 with the Marathas. Though his
proposal was not accepted by the Marathas, they promised to remain neutral.
• However, a Subsidiary Alliance with the Nizam was concluded by the British and as a consequence, the
French force at Hyderabad was disbanded.
• Wellesley set out to persuade Tipu to accept a pact of subsidiary alliance and wrote letters requesting the
Tipu to dismiss the French, to receive an English envoy, and to make terms with the Company and its
allies.
• Tipu refused the proposal and in response the the British declared war on him once again in 1799.

E
• The war was short and decisive. The Bombay army under General Stuart invaded Mysore from the west.
The Madras army, which was led by the Governor-General's brother, Arthur Wellesley, forced Tipu to
OR
retreat to his capital Srirangapattinam.
• Tipu Sultan died in battle while his family was deported first to Vellore and later to Calcutta.
• A five year old boy, Krishnaraja III, a descendant of the dethroned Hindu Raja, was enthroned at Mysore.
• Purnaiya, the previous minister, became Diwan.
SC

• The remaining parts of the kingdom were divided between the British and the Nizam. The whole of
Kanara, Wynad, Coimbatore, Dharmapuri and Srirangapattinam were retained by the British whereas the
Nizam was given the areas around Gooty and a part of Chittoor and Chitaldurg districts.
• A British Resident was stationed at Mysore.
GS

ANGLO MARATHA WARS

• The third Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao was unable to bear the shock of the defeat of the Marathas in the Third
Battle of Panipat and died on June 23, 1761.
• He was succeeded by his son Madhav Rao who kept in check the ambition of his brother Raghunath Rao,
maintained unity among the Maratha chiefs and nobles and very soon recovered the power and prestige
of the Marathas which they had lost in the Third Battle of Panipat.
• The English became conscious of the growing power of the Marathas and got the opportunity to crush
their re-establishment soon after the death of Madhav Rao in 1772.
• The internal conflict among the Marathas was best utilized by the British in their expansionist policy
First Maratha War (1775-1782)
• The primary cause of the first Maratha war was the interference of the English in the internal affairs of
the Marathas.
• After the death of fourth Peshwa Madhav Rao in 1772 internal dissensions among Marathas left them
weakened.
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• His younger brother, Peshwa Narayan Rao succumbed to the intrigues of his ambitious uncle Raghunath
Rao, another claimant for the post of Peshwa.
• Raghunath Rao was opposed by a strong party at Poona under Nana Phadnavis who proclaimed Narayan
Rao's posthumous son as Peshwa.
• The British authorities in Bombay concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunatha Rao in March 1775.
Rahunatha Rao promised to cede Bassein and Salsette to the British but later when he was unwilling to
fulfill his promise, the British captured them.
• This action of the Bombay Government was not approved by Warren Hastings.
• In 1776, Warren Hastings sent Colonel Upton to settle the issue. He cancelled the Treaty of Surat and
concluded the Treaty of Purander with Nana Fadnavis, another Maratha leader.
• According to this treaty Madhava Rao II was accepted as the new Peshwa and the British retained Salsette
along with a heavy war indemnity.

E
• However, the Home authorities rejected the Treaty of Purander. Warren Hastings also considered the

OR
Treaty of Purandar as a 'scrap of paper' and sanctioned operations against the Marathas.
• In the meantime, the British force sent by the Bombay Government was defeated by the Marathas.
• In 1781, Warren Hastings dispatched British troops under the command of Captain Popham. He defeated
the Maratha chief, Mahadaji Scindia, in a number of small battles and captured Gwalior.
SC
• The Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings and Majadji Scinida in 1782. Under this treaty
Salsette and Bassein were given to the British and Raghunath Rao was pensioned off.
• The treaty established the British influence on Indian politics. It provided the British twenty years of
peace with the Marathas.
• The Treaty also enabled the British to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of the Marathas in
GS

recovering their territories from Haider Ali.

• Thus, the British, on the one hand, saved themselves from the combined opposition of Indian powers and
on the other, succeeded in dividing the Indian powers.
Second Maratha War (1803-1805)
• The only power that remained outside the purview of the subsidiary system was the Marathas.
• Nana Fadnavis provided the leadership to the Marathas. He was responsible for the preservation of
independence of his country from the onslaught of the British.
• By extending a helping hand to Cornwallis against Tipu he was able to acquire a large slice of territory
as the share of the Marathas from the kingdom of Mysore.
• After the death of Nana Fadnavis in 1800 the infighting among the Maratha leaders proved to be self-
destructive.
• Jaswant Rao Holkar and Daulat Rao Scindia fought against each other. The Peshwa Baji Rao II supported
Scindia against Holkar. Holkar marched against the Peshwa and defeated the combined forces of Scindia
and the Peshwa.
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• Peshwa Baji Rao II fled to Bassein where he signed the Treaty of Bassein with the British in 1802. It was
a subsidiary treaty and the Peshwa was recognized as the head of the Maratha kingdom. Treaty of Bassein
is regarded as a very important step towards the establishment of the English dominance over India.
• The main provisions of Treaty of Bassein were the recognition of Peshwa's claim in Poona, acceptance
of Subsidiary Alliance by Baji Rao II and relinquishing of all rights to Surat by Baji Rao to the British.
• For Marathas, Treaty of Bassein was nothing short of surrender of national honour. Holkar and Scindia
stopped fighting. Scindia and Bhonsle combined but Holkar and Gaikwad remained aloof.
• The British army's led by Arthur Wellesley defeated the combined armies of Scindhia and Bhonsle at
Assaye in September 1803, and at Aragon in November 1803.
• In North, Lord Lake routed Scindia's army at Laswari and occupied Aligarh, Delhi and Agra.
• Both Scindia and Bhosle accepted the sovereignty of the English and entered into the Subsidiary Alliance
by concluding the Treaty of Sarji-i-Arjangaon and the Treaty of Deogaon respectively.
• Holkar alone was left in the field who still avoided their supremacy. Wellesley turned his attention towards

E
Holkar, but Yeshwant Rao Holkar proved more than a match for the British.
• Wellesley was called back from India and Sir George Barlow concluded with Holkar the treaty of Rajpurghat
OR
(1805) whereby the Maratha Chief gave up all claims to places North of Chambal, Bundelkhand and over
Peshwa and other allies of the Company while the latter got back greater part of his territories.
Suppression of the Pindaris
• The first reference about the Pindaris is during the Mughal invasion of Maharashtra.
SC

• Pindaris did not belong to any particular caste or creed. They used to serve the army without any payment
but instead were allowed to plunder.
• During the time of Baji Rao I, they were irregular horsemen attached to the Maratha army. It is worth
mentioning that they never helped the British.
• They were mostly active in the areas of Rajputana and the Central Provinces and subsisted on plunder.
GS

• Their leaders belonged to both the Hindu as well as the Muslim communities. Chief amongst them were
Wasil Muhammad, Chitu and Karim Khan.
• In 1812, the Pindaris plundered the districts of Mirzapur and Shahabad and in 1815 they raided the
Nizam's dominions.
• In 1816, they plundered the Northern Circars.
• Lord Warren Hastings himself took command of the force from the north while Sir Thomas Hislop
commanded the force from the south against the Pindaris.
• By 1818, the Pindaris were completely suppressed and all their bands disintegrated.
• Karim Khan was given a small estate in the Gorakhpur district of the United Provinces.
• Wasil Muhammad took refuge in the Scindia's camp but the latter handed him over to the British.
• Wasil committed suicide in captivity and Chitu escaped to the forest, where a tiger killed him. Thus, by
1824, the menace of the Pindaris came to an end.
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Third Maratha War (1817-1819)

• Final phase of struggle began with coming of Lord Hastings as Governor General in 1813.
• He resumed the aggressive policy abondened in 1805. Hastings action against Pindaris transgressed the
sovereignty of Maratha Chiefs and two parties were drawn into war.
• Hastings forced humiliating treaties on the Raja of Nagpur (27th May 1816) on Peshwa (13th June 1817)
and Scindhia (5th Nov 1817).
• Greatly annoyed by the humiliating treaty, the Peshwa made a last bid to throw off the British yoke in
course of the third Maratha War and attacked British Residency at Poona in November 1817. He was
defeated at Kirkee.
• Similarly, the Bhonsle chief, Appa Sahib also refused to abide by the Treaty of Nagpur, which he had
signed with the British on 17 May 1816. According to this treaty, Nagpur came under the control of the
Company.

E
• Appa Sahib fought with the British in the Battle of Sitabuldi in November 1817, but was defeated.
•

•
at Baroda.
OR
The Peshwa turned to Holkar for help, but Holkar too was defeated by the British on 21 December 1817

Therefore, by December 1817 the dream of a mighty Maratha Confederacy was finally shattered.
THE SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE SYSTEM
SC
• The Indian rulers were persuaded by Wellesley to sign a friendly treaty with the British according to which
they would have to follow certain conditions:
– Any Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the British has to maintain a contingent
of British troops in his territory which was commanded by a British officer.
– The Indian state was called 'the protected state' and the British hereinafter were referred to as 'the
GS

paramount power'.
– It was the duty of the British to safeguard that state from external aggression and to help its ruler
maintain internal peace and in lieu of this the protected state should give some money or give part of
its territory to the British to support the subsidiary force.
– The protected state has to cut off its connection with European powers other than the English and with
the French in particular.
– The state was forbidden to have any political contact even with other Indian powers without the
permission of the British.
– A British Resident has to be stationed at the court of protected state.
– The protected state has to disband his own army and was not permitted to employ Europeans in his
service without the sanction of the paramount power.
– The paramount power should not interfere in the internal affairs of the protected state.
• Wellesley's Subsidiary System is regarded as one of the masterstrokes of British imperialism.
• It increased the military strength of the Company in India at the expense of the protected states.
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• The territories of the Company were free from the ravages of war thereby establishing the stability of the
British power in India.
• The position of the British was strengthened against its Indian and non-Indian enemies.
• Under the system, expansion of British power became easy.
• Thus Wellesley's diplomacy made the British the paramount power in India.
• The immediate effect of the establishment of subsidiary forces was the introduction of anarchy because
of the unemployment of thousands of soldiers sent away by the Indian princes.
• The freebooting activities of disbanded soldiers were felt much in central India where the menace of
Pindaris affected the people.
• Initially, Wellesley compelled the friendly rulers to accept this alliance and the first victim of the policy
of subsidiary alliance of Wellesley was the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• Wellesley neutralized the Nizam by getting him to sign the subsidiary alliance to replace his French

E
detachments. He also forbade Nizam to correspond with the Marathas without British consent.
• The Nawab of Oudh entered into this arrangement in 1801 (Treaty of Lucknow) and ceded half of
OR
Awadh to the British East India Company and also agreed to disband his troops in favor of a hugely
expensive, British-run army. After this, the British were able to use Oudh's vast treasuries, repeatedly
digging into them for loans at reduced rates. They also got revenues from running Oudh's armed forces.
Last, but not least, the subsidiary alliance made Oudh a "buffer state", which gave strategic advantage to
the British.
SC

• Wellesley assumed the administration of Tanjore, Surat and the Karnatak by concluding treaties with the
respective rulers of these states also.
GS
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SECOND PHASE OF BRITISH EXPANSION IN INDIA

• Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor-General to visualise a Russian threat to India and because
of this, he was eager to negotiate friendly relations both with the rulers of Punjab, Maharajah Ranjit Singh
and also with the Amirs of Sind.
• His earnest desire was that Afghanistan should be made a buffer state between India and any possible
invader.
• As an initial measure, an exchange of gifts took place between Lahore, the capital of Punjab and Calcutta,
made the seat of Governor-General.

E
• It was then followed by the meeting of Bentinck and Ranjit Singh on 25 October, 1831 at Rupar on the
bank of the river Sutlej amidst show and splendor.
•

•
Treaty was concluded between them. OR
The Governor-General was successful in winning the friendship of Ranjit Singh and the Indus Navigation

This treaty opened up the Sutlej for navigation. In addition, a commercial treaty was negotiated with
Ranjit Singh. A similar treaty was also concluded with the Amirs of Sind.
SC
THE CONQUEST OF SINDH
• The conquest of Sindh occurred as a result of the growing Anglo-Russian rivalry in Europe and Asia and
the consequent British fears that Russia might attack India through Afghanistan or Persia.
• To counter Russia, the British Government decided to increase its influence in Afghanistan and Persia.
GS

• It further felt that this policy could be successfully pursued only if Sindh was brought under British
control. The commercial possibilities of the river Sindh were an additional attraction. The road and rivers
of Sindh were opened to British trade by a treaty in 1832.
• The chiefs of Sindh, known as Amirs, were made to sign a subsidiary treaty in 1839 and finally, in spite
of previous assurances that its territorial integrity would be respected, Sindh was annexed in 1843 after
a brief campaign by Sir Charles Napier who had earlier written in his diary: 'we have no right to seize Sind,
yet we shall do so, and a very advantageous, useful humane piece of rascality it will be'.
ANGLO-SIKH WARS
• The death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in June 1839 was followed by political instability and rapid
changes of government in the Punjab.
• Selfish and corrupt leaders came to the front and ultimately, power fell into the hands of the brave and
patriotic but utterly indisciplined army.
• This led the British to look greedily across the Sutlej upon the land of the five rivers even though they
had signed a treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh in 1809.
• The British officials increasingly talked of having to wage a campaign in the Punjab.
Notes

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• Sikh Wars, (1845-46; 1848-49), two campaigns fought between the Sikhs and the British. They resulted
in the conquest and annexation by the British of the Punjab in northwestern India.
First War (1845-1846)
• The British pursued the policy of encirclement of Punjab from 1833 onwards by occupation of Ferozepur
in 1835 and Sikharpur in 1836, and appointment of British Residents in Ludhiana and in Sindh in 1838
and their military preparations fuelled the animosity between the British and the Sikhs.
• The annexation of Sindh by the British in 1843 confirmed the suspicions of the Sikh and the first Anglo-
Sikh War started soon after in 1845.
• The Sikh army was soon defeated under Lal Singh (P.M.) by Sir Hugh Gough at Mudki in 1845.
• The British also defeated the Sikh army under Tej Singh, Commander-in-Chief at Ferozepur in 1845.
• However, the British under Harry Smith suffered a blow at the hands of Ranjur Singh Majhithia at
Buddewal in 1846.

E
• Finally the Sikhs were defeated by Smith at Aliwal and Sobroan (1846) on the crossing of the Sutlej and
Lahore was occupiered by the British.
OR
• The War ended with the Treaty of Lahore in 1846. Jullundar Doab was ceded to the British and payment
of a war indemnity of Rs. 1.5 crore was also imposed on the Sikhs. But they were able to pay only half
of this amount and for the rest the British got Kashmir which they sold to Gulab Singh.
• A British resident, Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed at Lahore and Dalip Singh was recognized as the
SC

ruler of Punjab with Rani Jindan as his regent.

• The Sikh army was reduced and its ruler was prohibited from employing any European without the prior
consent of the British.
• Also, the British troops were permitted to pass through Sikh territory whenever the need arose.
GS

• Soon after the Treaty of Bhairowal was signed in December 1846 which resulted in the removal of Rani
Jindan and setting up of a Council of Regency for Punjab (consisting of 8 Sikh Sardars and presided over
by Sir Henry Lawrence.)
• A British force was stationed at Lahore for which the Sikhs had to pay Rs. 22 Lakhs.
• Power was conferred to the Governor General of India to undertake and garrison any fort in Punjab.
Second War (1848-1849)
• Desire of the Sikh army to avenge their humiliation of the first war and the discontentment of the Sikh
Sardars with the British control over Punjab was the underlying cause of second Anglo-Sikh war.
• Treatment of Rani Jindan by the British - her transportation to Shaikpur first and then to Benaras and the
drastic reduction in her pension also fuelled the Sikh sentiments.
• The Second Sikh War began with the revolt of Mulraj, Governor of Multan, in April 1848 and became
a national revolt when the Sikh army joined the rebels on September 14.
• Indecisive battles characterized by great ferocity and bad generalship were fought at Ramnagar (November
22) and at Chilianwala (Jan. 13, 1849) before the final British victory at Gujarat (February 21).
Notes

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• The Sikh army surrendered on March 12, and Punjab was annexed by Lord Dalhousie and Dalip Singh
disposed and pensioned off to England along with Rani Jindan.
• A Board of Three Commissioners consisting of the Lawrence brothers - Henry and John and Charles G.
Mansel was constituted in 1849 to administer Punjab.
• Soon afterwards the Board was abolished and a Chief Commissioner for Punjab, Sir John Lawrence was
appointed in 1853.
DOCTRINE OF LAPSE
• Lord Dalhousie became the Governor General of the East India Company in 1848. His period of
Governor Generalship witnessed the stupendous growth of British Empire at the cost of army of the
Indian states.
• Dalhousie was a sweeping annexationist and he annexed a large number of Indian states in pursuance of
his policy of Doctrine of lapse.

E
• There were a number of Indian states within the limits of the British Indian Empire. The rulers of these

OR
states had recognised British Political supremacy since the time of Lord Wellesley.
• These Indian states were completely independent to conduct their internal administration. These rulers
who were under British protection did not take any interest in the administration of their territories.
• Dalhousie annexed a number of Indian states by applying the policy of Doctrine of lapse.
SC
• The policy of Doctrine of lapse meant that in the dependent state or those who owed their very existence
to the British power, the sovereignty when the natural heirs of the royal line came to end, passed back
or lapse to the supreme power."
• In other words this doctrine means that the sovereignty of the dependent states or of those held on a
subordinate tenure would pass back to the British government, in case of the failure of the natural line
GS

of succession.
• The British government had acquired the position of the paramount power after the fall of the Mughal
Empire and also of the Marathas.
• This doctrine was based on three principles:
– Firstly the British Government was the paramount power of the British Indian Empire.
– Secondly the rulers of the dependent states could adopt sons with the sanction of the paramount power.
These adopted sons could inherit the throne only with the consent of the British government.
– Thirdly, the British government as the paramount power could withhold the succession of the adopted
sons.
• During that period there were three categories of Hindu states in India:
– There were independent states which were not and never had been subordinate to a paramount power.
– Secondly, there were states which owed subordination to the British government as their suzerain power.
– Thirdly, there were Hindu States which owed their creation to the British Government. Ever since the
Mughal rule the practice was that the paramount power used to sanction the succession to the throne.
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• The system of adoption was prevalent among the Hindus and incase of the failure of natural heir they
used to adopt sons.
• After the death of a native ruler his adopted son used to perform the funeral rites and succeed to the
throne. But Dalhousie proceeded to annex the native states setting aside the claims of the adopted sons.
• Dalhousie annexed a number of native states by applying the policy of Doctrine of lapse.
• However no precise distinction was made between independent, allied, dependent and subordinate states.
• Dalhousie annexed Karauli on the ground that it was a dependent state but this was over ruled by the
Directors of the company on the ground that Karauli" was a protected ally.
• Dalhousie was not the real founder of this Doctrine.
• As early as 1834, the Court of Directors of the Company had asserted that the permission to adopt on
the failure of the natural heirs should be the exception and not the rule and should never are granted but
as a special mark of favour or approbation."

E
• Earlier the Doctrine of lapse had been applied to the state of Mandavi in 1839 and to Kolaba and Jalaur
in 1840.
OR
• In 1842 the titular dignity of the Nawab of Surat was abolished.
• But Lord Dalhousie applied the Doctrine of lapse in a vigorous manner.
• But his predecessors had acted on the general principle of avoiding annexations if it could be avoided.
SC

• Dalhousie acted on the general principle of annexing if he could do so legitimately".

• He annexed Satara in 1848; Jaipur and Sambalpur in 1849; Bhaghat in 1850; Udaipur in 1852; Jhansi
in 1853 and Nagpur in 1854 by the application of this policy.
• The first victim of the Doctrine of Lapse was the Maratha Kingdom of Satara, in 1848 the Raja of Satara
Appasahib died.
GS

• Narayan Singh Raja of Sambalpur died without adopting a son. So Dalhousie annexed Sambalpur in 1849.
• In 1853 Gangathar Rao died without leaving a male heir. Dalhousie set aside the claim of his adopted
son Anand Rao and declared the state as an escheat. Dalhousie infact annexed Jhansi considering it to be
a creation of the company. For this reason the widow Queen Laxmi Bai became an arch enemy of the
English and played a leading part in the great revolt of 1857.
• The Doctrine of Lapse was also applied to the removal of titles and Pensions. Peshwa Baji Rao II was
enjoying an annual pension of eight lakhs of rupees. But after his death his adopted son Nana Saheb was
deprived of his pension and title. For this reason Nana Saheb took a leading part in the revolt of 1857.
• After the death of the Titular Nawab of Carnatic Dalhousie did not recognise any one as his successor.
• On the death of the Maratha Raja Tanjore in 1855 without any male issue the regal title was abolished.
• The Doctrine of Lapse of Dalhousie created a feeling of uncertainty and uneasiness in the mind of the
native rulers. The adopted sons of the deceased rulers resented the policy of the British government.
• The princes who lost their throne took active part in the revolt of 1857.
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• Thus by 1857 the whole of the Indian sub-continent came under the British rule.
• The Marathas and the Rajputs ceased to make History after 1818.
• The rise of the Sikhs after 1839 was of little impact. The East India Company became the paramount
power on the soil of India.
ANNEXATION OF OUDH
• The British relations with the state of Oudh go back to the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.
• Right from Warren Hastings, many Governor-Generals advised the Nawab of Oudh to improve the
administration. But, misrule continued there and the Nawab was under the assumption that the British
would not annex Oudh because of his loyalty to them.
• In 1851, William Sleeman, Resident at Lucknow, reported of human misery and careless misrule. But
Sleeman was against the policy of annexing Oudh.

E
• After surveying the situation in Oudh, Dalhousie annexed it in 1856.
•

•
the control of a Chief Commissioner.
OR
Nawab Wajid Ali was granted a pension of 12 lakhs rupees per year. The annexed territory came under

Dalhousie's annexation of Oudh, the last one among his annexations, created great political danger. The
annexation offended the Muslim elite.
SC
• More dangerous was the effect on the British army's Indian troops, many of whom came from Oudh.
They had occupied a privileged position before its annexation.
• Under the British Government they were treated as equals with the rest of the population. This was a loss
of prestige for them.
• In these various ways, the annexation of Oudh contributed to the Mutiny of 1857.
GS
Notes

23
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ADMINISTRATION BEFORE 1857

• The East lndia Company began as a trading corporation. Its early organisation was suitable to that of a
purely trade organisation.
• Each Chief "factory" or trading establishment was under the control of a President, later called Governor,
and a Council, consisting of the senior servants of the company in the factory.
• New and less important factories were put under the charge of a senior merchant or "factor".
• The Commercial factories which had a President as head came to be called Presidencies, such as those
of Madras, Bombay and Calcutta.
• The jurisdiction and control of the company grew by different processes, namely the acquisition of

E
Zamindari rights, conquest or cession of territory and assumption of the Diwani.
OR
• In 1698 the company bought the Zamindari rights of the villages of Sutanati, Calcutta and Govindpur.
• In 1757 the company acquired rights in the twenty-four parganas on the basis of a quit rent which was
subsequently assigned to the company.
• In 1760 Mir Qasim ceded to the company the district of Burdwan, Chittagong and Midnapur and this was
confirmed by the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam.
SC

• Over Englishmen the company relied upon its Chartered Rights while over Indians the authority of the
Company was that of a Zamindar under a local fauzdar.
• After the battle of Buxar in 1764 the British became the supreme power in Bengal.
• When the British took control of Bengal, they tried to establish administration according to their
GS

requirements.
• Before 1765 the Nawab of Bengal was looking after the administration. Theoretically he was working as
an agent of the Mughal Emperor, but in practice he had absolute authority.
• As Nawab he was incharge of law and order, military power and criminal justice and as Diwan he was
responsible for the revenue collection and administration of civil justice.
• In 1764 after the Battle of Buxar the British became supreme power in Bengal. Open annexation would
have created political complication both for the company in India and the home government.
• The company therefore procured an order from the Mughal emperor granting them the diwani (rights to
collect land revenue) for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• Even in the exercise of its powers as diwan, the actual collection of revenue initially remained in the
hands of the Nawab's deputies. The nizamat remained in the hands of the Nawab.
• The dual nature of administration came to an end in 1772, when the company decided to take actual
control of revenue collection.
• The company had now grown from a predominantly commercial into a predominantly territorial power.
Notes

24
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• With the expansion of political power of the company misuse of power by its officials also increased and
the acquisition of political power by the company was questioned in England and there was pressure on
parliament to intervene.
• Continuous wars and mis-management by the company officials landed it in deep financial crisis.
• The company requested parliament for financial help. The parliament agreed on the - condition that it will
regulate the administration of company in England and India.
• For this purpose the Regulating Act of 1773 was passed.
The Dual System
The early mechanism of the establishment of Company rule in Bengal followed the administrative system
under the Mughals. The Mughal provincial administration had two main heads - nizamat and diwani.
• Nizamat - administration of law and order and criminal justice.

E
• Diwani was the revenue administration and civil justice.
• The provincial Subadar was in charge of nizamat (also called nazim) and the diwan was in charge of

•
revenue administration.
OR
After the treaty of Allahabad the English East India Company was made the Diwan of Bengal but Lord
Clive choose not to take over the administration of Bengal directly. This responsibility was left to the
Nawab's Naib Diwan and Naib Nazim Muhammad Raza Khan.
SC
• As Naib Nazim he was to represent the Nawab and as Naib Diwan he was to represent the Company.
• Thus, the Nawab had to handle the entire responsibility for the civil and criminal justice administration.
However, he had to function through Muhammad Raza Khan who was placed under the superintendence,
direction and control of the British Company.
• As the Diwan, the Company directly collected its revenue, while through the right to nominate the Deputy
GS

Nazim, it controlled the nizamat or the Police or Judicial powers.

• This arrangement is known as 'Dual or Double Government'. Under this system British had power and
resources without responsibility while the Nawab had the responsibility of the administration without
power to discharge it.
• Thus the Nawab had to take all responsibility for bad governance.
• The revenue remained the sole earning of the Company in lieu of a meager annual payment to the Mughal
emporer.
THE CHARTER ACTS
• The Charter Acts were passed by the British Parliament to govern the activities of the East India Company,
endowed it with enormous Commercial privileges and granted them the powers to rule India up to 1858.
• The Charter Acts issued enabled the East India Company, commercial privileges in several series, for
twenty years each.
• The first Charter Act was granted in 1793, granting the company provision of 20 years.
• Later the Charter Act was renewed in the year 1813, 1833 and 1853 respectively.
Notes

25
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Regulating Act of 1773

• The Regulating Act of 1773 might be regarded as the first serious attempt by the British Parliament to
regulate Indian affairs. It constituted for the first time:
– A supreme government, headed by a Governor General of Fort William in Bengal and four Councillors,
having the supervisory authority over the presidencies of Bombay and Madras.
– The presidencies were forbidden to make war or peace with Indian states without the consent of
Governor General and Council, except in cases of imminent necessity and also in the cases where they
had received direct orders from the court of Directors.
– Provision for the establishment of a Supreme Court at Calcutta.
– The Act recognized the right of Parliament to regulate the civil, military and revenue affairs of the
company's territories in India and registers the first concern in the intervention of the Indian affairs.
• The Act suffered from certain fundamental defects which contributed to the difficulties of Warren Hastings
who was opposed by his councillors.

E
• The Act was also vague about the jurisdiction control over subordinate presidencies and the jurisdiction
between the Supreme Council and the Supreme Court.
OR
• As a consequence of the defects of the Act, Warren Hastings found himself unable to carry out his
administrative responsibilities and one crisis often developed after another in the council.
Pitt India Act 1784
SC

• On assumption of office of the Prime Minister, William Pitt introduced an India Bill and it was passed
into a law in August 1784. According to this Act:
– Distinction between territories and commerce was to be maintained.
– Territorial administration was to be placed under a representative body of Parliament while the Company
was to continue to control commerce.
GS

– The government in India however, would still be run in the name of the company but political and
revenue matters would be subject to the control and supervision of the proposed parliamentary body.
• Pitt's India Act established an effective instrument of control, direction and supervision which worked
with slight alterations till 1858, and the control of the Crown was now complete over India.
• With such expansion of the British territories and the increasing administrative responsibilities, a bureaucracy
was also required to control British possessions.
• In 1785, Lord Cornwallis created Indian Civil Service.
• It consist of a professional cadre of Company servants who had generous salaries, had no private trading
or production interests in India, enjoyed the prospect of regular promotion and were entitled to pensions.
• All high-level posts were reserved for the British, and Indians were excluded.
• Cornwallis appointed British judges, and established British officials as revenue collectors and magistrates
in each district of Bengal.
• From 1806 the Company trained its young recruits in Haileybury College near London. Appointments
were organized on a system of patronage.
Notes

26
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• In 1829 the system was strengthened by establishing districts throughout British India small enough to be
effectively controlled by an individual British official who henceforth exercised a completely autocratic
power, acting as revenue collector, judge and chief of police.
• After 1833 the Company selected amongst its nominated candidates by competitive examination.
• After 1853, selection was entirely on merit and the examination was thrown open to any British candidate.
• In the first half of the nineteenth century the character of legislation for the administration of British
territories was to some extent influenced by Utilitarian thought and principles.
Charter Act of 1813
• The renewal of the Charter in 1813 was marked by expression of liberal principles. The Charter Act of
1813 renewed the charter issued to the British East India Company, and continued the Company's rule
in India.

E
• However, the Company's commercial monopoly was ended, except for the tea trade and the trade with
China.
• According to Charter Act of 1813:

OR
– Administration of the company was left in its hands but the monopoly of the Company's Indian trade
was abolished.
– The Act expressly asserted the Crown's sovereignty over British India.
SC
– It allotted Rs 100,000 to promote education in Indian masses.
– This act permitted Christian missionaries to propagate English and preach their religion.
– The power of the provincial governments and courts in India over European British subjects was also
strengthened by the Act.
GS

– Financial provision was also made to encourage a revival in Indian literature and for the promotion of
science
Charter Act of 1833
• By the Act of 1833, the Company surrendered all its personal property in India and held it in trust for
the crown.
• The company disappeared as a commercial agency in India, remaining as a political agent for the crown.
• Now the government of India was reconstituted on a new model which gave it in all India character. It
contained the following provisions:
– It re-designated the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor-General of India. Under this provision
Lord William Bentinck became the first Governor-General of India.
– It deprived the Governors of Bombay and Madras of their legislative powers.
– The Governor-General was given exclusive legislative powers for the whole of British India.
– It ended the activities of the British East India Company as a commercial body and became a purely
administrative body.
Notes

27
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– In particular, the Company lost its monopoly on trade with China and other parts of the Far East.
– It attempted to introduce a system of open competitions for the selection of civil servants. However
this provision was negated after opposition from the Court of Directors who continued to hold the
privilege of appointing Company officials.
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
• The early Charters of the Company gave it authority to make reasonable laws, 'constitutional orders' and
'ordinances' and within limits to punish offences committed by its servants, but they gave no territorial
powers of jurisdiction.
• In 1661 Charles II authorised the Governor and Council of each factory to exercise criminal and civil
jurisdiction, not only over the Company's servants, but over all persons under the said Governor or
Company.
• After the assumption of Diwani the Company to some extent, became responsible for civil justice.
• In criminal matters Muhammadan law was followed, but in civil cases the personal law of the parties was

E
applied.
• In civil suits appeals lay to the Sadar Diwani Adalat which in effect meant the President and members
OR
of Council while criminal appeals lay with Sadar Nizamat Adalat which was under the Nawab.
• However, the first concrete step in organizing judicial administration was taken up by Warren Hastings.
He for the first time made the district as a unit of judicial administration.
– In each district civil and criminal courts were established.
SC

– In each district collectors were to preside civil courts, and in criminal courts an Indian officer worked
with the help of two maulvis.
– Over the district courts were created the courts of appeal at Calcutta.
– The Sadar Diwan Adalat consisted of the Governor and two members of the council assisted by the
GS

Diwan of the exchequer, the head Qanungo etc.

– Sadar Nizamat Adalat was presided over by the Nazim's deputy, a muslim officer, who was assisted by
Maulvis.
• In 1773 the Regulating Act set up the Supreme Court in Bengal which derived its power from the Crown.
• The establishment of the Supreme Court led to the emergence of two rival sets of judicial authorities:
The Supreme Court, and Sadar Diwani Adalat.
• A temporary solution was found with the appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as
President of the Sadar Diwani Adalat.
• In 1790 criminal appeals were transferred to the Governor-General and Council who was assisted by Chief
Qazi and two muftis. This was part of the general policy of Cornwallis in replacing Indians by Europeans
in all higher posts.
• Cornwallis established District courts under British judges.
• He separated the posts of civil judge and the collector from whom appeals lay to four new appellate courts
set up at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad and Patna.
Notes

28
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• Below the district courts were Registrar's courts, headed by Europeans and a number of subordinate courts
headed by Indian judges known as Munsifs and Amins.
• In 1801 the judicial authority of the Governor General Council came to an end and three judges were
appointed to form the Sadar Diwani Adalat or Civil Appellate Court.
• The principle of duality between the courts of the Crown and the Zamindari Courts ended in 1861 when
the Indian High Court Act established High Courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in place of the
Supreme Court as well as the Sadar Court.
• The important features of the new judicial set up were the rule of law, equality before law, recognition
of the right to be judged by his personal law and the growth of the professional and trained judicial
hierarchy.
• However, the new judicial system suffered from certain serious weaknesses. In criminal cases the Europeans
had separate courts and even laws. They were tried by European judges who at times gave them undue
protection.

E
• In civil matters the situation was quite serious. The courts were situated at distant places. The procedures
were long and time consuming. Getting justice was very expensive. Village committees and Panchayats
lost importance even in the village matters.
IMPACT OF BRITISH ADMINISTRATION
•
OR
The benefits of British Administration could be seen in the maintenance of peace and order, belief in
liberty and ushering in a process of modernization.
SC

• A common system of law and uniform court of government produced a large measure of unity.
• However, the remote and impersonal nature of administration proved to be both a source of weakness
and strength. Its defect was that it produced a lack of sensitiveness to the feelings of the people.
• The British administrative policies resulted in the disappearance of indigenous institutions of local self
GS

government and exclusion of Indians from higher ranks of administration.

• The effects of subordination of Indian economy to British interests were many, such as the ruin of
artisans and craftsmen, impoverishment of the peasantry, ruin of old zamindars and rise of a class of new
landlords, stagnation and deterioration of agriculture.
• The general discontent which began to brew up among the Indians as a consequence of British policies,
ultimately led to the outbreak of 1857.
Notes

29
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ECONOMIC POLICIES OF THE BRITISH

• The economic policies followed by the British led to the rapid transformation of India's economy into a
colonial economy.
• The structure and nature of India's economy were determined by the needs of the British economy.
• The previous conquerors had made no basic changes in the country's economic structure.
• The peasant, the artisan, and the trader had continued to lead the same type of existence as before. The
basic economic pattern (the self-sufficient rural economy) had been perpetuated.
• Change of rulers had merely meant change in the personnel who appropriated the peasant's surplus.

E
• But the British conquerors were entirely different. They totally disrupted the traditional structure of the
Indian economy. Moreover, they never became an integral part of Indian life and always remained
foreigners in the land, exploiting Indian resources and carrying away India's wealth.
OR
• The economic policy of the British government led to a rapid transformation of India's economy into a
colonial economy, whose nature and structure were determined by British needs.
• From 1600-1757 the East India Company's role was of a trading corporation which brought goods or
precious metals into India and exchanged them for Indian goods like textiles.
SC

• After the Battle of Plassey the Company's commercial relations underwent a qualitative change and now
the company used its political control to push its Indian trade.
After 1757 colonial exploitation was carried on broadly through three phases:
• Phase of Mercantilism (1757-1813) - Surplus Indian revenues were used to buy Indian finished goods to
be exported to England.
GS

• Phase of Free Trade (1813-1858) - India was converted into a source of raw material and a market for
British manufactured goods.
• Phase of Finance Imperialism (1858 onwards) - British capital controlled banks, foreign trading firms and
managing agencies in India.
Phase of Mercantilism (1757-1813)
• After the Battle of Plassey, the East India Company completely monopolised trade and began the direct
plunder of Indian wealth.
• Twin aims of the merchant companies were:
– To have a favourable balance of trade; and
– To promote flow of bullion into the home country.
• The Merchant Companies aimed at large profit margin and it was made possible through monopoly
control over trade and elimination of all possible rivals and purchase of goods at cheap rates and sale of
commodities at very high rates.
Notes

30
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• The Company used its political power to dictate terms to weavers of Bengal who forced to sell their
products at a cheap and dictated price. Many of them were compelled by the Company to work for them
and were forbidden to work for Indian merchants.
• The servants of the Company monopolised the sale of raw cotton and made the Bengal weaver pay
exorbitant prices for it.
Phase of Free Trade (1813-1858)
• In a bid to acquire greater control over the Company's earnings, the Parliament started attacking individual
Company officials with charges of 'misconduct'.
• The 'Free Traders', dominant in the Parliament demanded free access to India, which led to the passing
of the Charter Act of 1813, thus ending the monopoly enjoyed by the Company in India, while subordinating
its territorial possessions to the overall sovereignty of the British crown.
• 'Free Trade' changed the nature of the Indian colony completely, through following strategy:

E
– Firstly it threw open Indian markets for the entry of cheap, mass-produced, machine-made British
goods, which enjoyed little or almost no tariff restrictions.

was obstructed by prohibitive tariff rates. OR

– The passage of expensive, hand-crafted Indian textiles to Britain, which had been very popular there,

– British-Indian territory was developed as a source of food stuff and raw material for Britain, which
fueled rapid growth in its manufacturing sector, crucial to the emergence of a powerful capitalist
economy. (Indian exports consisted of raw cotton, jute, silk, oilseeds, wheat, indigo and tea.)
SC

• After 1813, all policies were guided by the needs of British industry. These changes reversed the favourable
balance of trade that India had enjoyed earlier. This phase laid the foundations of a classic colonial
economy within India through the complex processes of commercialization of agriculture and
deindustrialization.
• After 1813 in addition to export surplus, the company extracted wealth of India as Home Charges to
GS

England. These Home Charges included besides other forms of expenditure, payment of interest on the
Indian debt. By 1858 Indian debts stood at 69.5 million. India got no adequate economic or material return
for this export of wealth to Britain.
Phase of Finance Imperialism (1858 onwards)
• This phase begun from the 1860s, when British India came directly under the control and sovereignty of
the British crown.
• British capital was invested in India in diverse economic fields in the latter half of the 19th century.
• Finance capital became the new most powerful mode of colonial exploitation.
• Investment were in the form of loans which were raised in England by the Secretary of State on behalf
of Indian Government and by semi - public organisation mostly for investment in railways, irrigation,
development of ports, hydro electric projects, etc. and also as foreign business investment in India.
Although, this capital was invested in the colonies to sustain the rapid inflow of raw materials to fuel
further expansion of industrial production.
• In this phase, on the one hand indigenous handicrafts faced impoverishment, on the other hand, there were
few attempts at developing modern industries in the colony. British capital was initially invested in railways,
jute industry, tea plantations and mining.
Notes

31
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LAND REVENUE POLICY

• After assuming control in different parts of India, the company followed a number of methods for the
collection of land revenue depending on the local conditions. Mostly it was in the form of revenue
farming.
• Gradually the company acquired the knowledge about the land revenue system prevalent in India and
devised long term policies in different regions. The main aim was to increase the tax collections with little
concern for the peasantry or age long practices followed in India.
• Mainly three types of settlements were followed in different parts of the country.
Permanent Settlement
• Lord Cornwallis' most conspicuous administrative measure was the Permanent Land Revenue Settlement
of Bengal. In 1793 Permanent Settlement for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa was introduced. Its special features
were:
(a) The zamindars of Bengal were recognised as the owners of land as long as they paid the revenue to

E
the East India Company regularly.
(b) The amount of revenue that the zamindars had to pay to the Company was firmly fixed and would
OR
not be raised under any circumstances. In other words the Government of the East India Company
got 89% leaving the rest to the zamindars.
(c) The ryots became tenants since they were considered the tillers of the soil.
(d) This settlement took away the administrative and judicial functions of the zamindars.
SC

• The Permanent Settlement by declaring Zamindars as owners of land brought into existence a wealthy
and privileged class of zamindars which owed its existence to British rule.
• This class was therefore compelled by its own basic interests to support British rule.
• The Permanent Settlement was later extended to parts of Banaras and North Madras.
GS

• With the Permanent Settlement, the company lost all contact with the peasants who were now at the
mercy of the zamindars.
• The fixation of revenue had no scientific basis and was adhoc.
• The long standing ties between peasant and zamindars were arbitrarily annulled.
• The burden of land revenue was very high.
• The Zamindars also faced problems. Their zamindaries were auctioned for non-payment of revenue. This
encouraged a new group of people to become Zamindars.
• The urban based merchants, speculators, money lenders, etc. bought zamindaries. This group had no
permanent interests in the development of land or the welfare of peasantry.
• As a result a number of peasant uprisings took place in this region. The prominent were in 1795 in
Panchet, 1798 in Raipur, 1799 in Balasore and in 1799-1800 in villages around Midnapore.
• Bengal once known as the granary of the East became almost barren. Hunger and famine, death and
disease stalked the country.
Notes

32
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Ryotwari Settlement
• The Ryotwari settlement was introduced mainly in Madras, Berar, Bombay and Assam. Sir Thomas
Munro introduced this system in the Madras Presidency.
Under this settlement:
– The peasant was recognised as the proprietor of land.
– There was no intermediary like a Zamindar between the peasant and the government.
– As long as the peasant paid the revenue in time, he was not evicted from the land.
– The land revenue was fixed for a period from 20 to 40 years at a time.
• Here the British also recognised the mirasdars (i.e. members of village communities) and peasants who
paid tax direct to state. These mirasdars became small landlords.

E
• The ryots right of ownership was however negated by three factor:
(a) Exorbitant land revenue;

OR
(b) Government's right to enhance land revenue at will; and
(c) They had to pay revenue even when their produce was partially or wholly destroyed.
• The pasture and wasteland which belonged to the village communities were now appropriated by the state.
The burden of revenue also increased.
SC

Mahalwari Settlement
• In 1833, the Mahalwari settlement was introduced in the Punjab, the Central Provinces and parts of North
Western Provinces.
• Under this system, the basic unit of revenue settlement was the village or the Mahal. As the village lands
GS

belonged jointly to the village community, the responsibility of paying the revenue rested with the entire
Mahal or the village community. So the entire land of the village was measured at the time of fixing the
revenue.
• Though the Mahalwari system eliminated middlemen between the government and the village community
and brought about improvement in irrigation facility, yet its benefit was largely enjoyed by the government.
IMPACT OF BRITISH POLICY ON INDIAN HANDICRAFTS
• During eighteenth century India was far ahead in traditional handicraft industry and the production of
objects of art.
• The textiles were the most important among the Indian industries. Indian cotton, silk and woolen products
were sought after all over the world. Particularly, the muslin of Dacca, carpets of Lahore, shawls of
Kashmir, and the embroidery works of Banaras were very famous.
• Ivory goods, wood works and jewellery were other widely sought after Indian commodities.
• Other important centres of textile production were Krishnanagar, Chanderi, Arni and Banaras.
• Dhotis and dupattas of Ahmedabad, Chikan of Lucknow, and silk borders of Nagpur had earned a
worldwide fame.
Notes

33
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• Some small towns of Bengal besides, Malda and Murshidabad were very famous for their silk products.
• Kashmir, Punjab and western Rajasthan were famous for their woolen garments.
• Besides textiles, India was also known widely for its shipping, leather and metal industries.
• Indian fame as an industrial economy rested on cutting and polishing of marble and other precious stones
and carving of ivory and sandalwood.
• Moradabad and Banaras were famous for brass, copper, bronze utensils. Nasik, Poona, Hyderabad and
Tanjore were famous for other metal works. Kutch, Sind and Punjab were known for manufacturing arms.
• Kolhapur, Satara, Gorakhpur, Agra, Chittor and Palaghat had likewise earned a reputation for their glass
industries.
• Making of gold, silver and diamond jewellery was another important industrial activity in which many
places in India were specialized.
• These entire handicrafts industry indicated a vibrant economy in India.

E
• The Indian handicraft industry begun to decline by the beginning of the 18th century.
• The policies followed by the English East India Company proved to be highly detrimental to the Indian
OR
handicrafts industry. The Indian market was flooded with the cheap finished goods from Britain. It resulted
in a steep decline in the sale of Indian products both within and outside of the country.
• In 1769, the Company encouraged the cultivation of raw silk in Bengal while imposing restrictions on the
sale of its finished products.
SC

• In 1813 strategies were devised by the Company to enhance the consumption of finished goods from
Britain. In this respect the tariff and octroi policies were suitably modified to suit the British commercial
interests.
• Moreover, goods from England could only be brought by the English cargo ships. As a result of all these
policies, the Indian textiles could not enter the British market, whereas the Indian market was flooded with
British goods.
GS

• With the rise of British paramountcy in India, the process of decline in the power and status of Indian
rulers started diminishing. Thus, the demands for the domestic luxury goods like royal attires, armory and
objects of art by the Indian royalty also reduced drastically. With the disappearance of the traditional
dynasties, their nobility also passed into oblivion. This led to a sharp decline in the demand for traditional
luxury goods.
• The Industrial Revolution led to the invention of new machinery in Europe. Power looms replaced
handlooms. In India also the advent of machines led to the decline of handicrafts as the machine-made
products were available at cheaper rate and more goods could be produced in much lesser time.
DEVELOPMENT OF INDIGENOUS INDUSTRIES (DURING FINANCE IMPERIALISM PHASE)
• During the phase of Finance Imperialism, the Indian money market was dominated by European banking
houses.
• While British entrepreneurs had easy access to capital made available by this banking network, Indian
traders had to depend on family or caste organizations for their capital needs.
• Before the First World War, British Managing agencies controlled 75% of industrial capital, and most of
the profits from this limited industrialization were also sent back to Britain.
Notes

34
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• Inspite of heavy odds, Indian entrepreneurs found opportunities to expand and grow, whenever Britain
underwent periods of economic hardship. During the First World War, G.D.Birla and Swarup chand
Hukumchand invested in the jute industry. Gradually their control started expanding into other areas like
coal mines, sugar mills and paper industry, and bought some European companies.
• The greatest success of Indian capital was seen in the cotton industry in western India, which took
advantage of high demands during the war years (1914-18) to consolidate its successes, and eventually was
in competition with Lancashire.
• Traditional trading communities like Gujarati, Banias, Parsis, Bohras and Bhatias became important in this
sector.
• The Tata Iron and Steel Company under government patronage provided leadership to the fledgling iron
and steel company of India.
• After the first world war, links with the foreign market was re-established, but again in the Depression
years (1929-1933), the domestic market became relatively free to be exploited by indigenous industry, as

E
foreign trade declined.
• The colonial government also provided some protection to the sugar and cotton industries, in the face of

•
falling prices in the agricultural sector.
OR
Low prices forced capital from land into the manufacturing sector. Indians also ventured into the field of
insurance and banking.
• During the Second World War (1939-45), with the decline of influence of foreign economies, Indian
SC
entrepreneurs managed to make huge profits. Strengthened by its limited success, the Indian capitalist class
strengthened their links with the nationalist movement.
• Indian entrepreneurs demanded for the establishment of heavy industries under state ownership and
organized themselves to resist the entry of foreign capital.
DRAIN OF WEALTH THEORY
GS

• The potential for growth remained depressed given the massive poverty of the Indian people.
• Early Indian nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade and R.C. Dutt had expected Britain to
undertake capitalist industrialization in India, but were deeply disillusioned with the results of colonial
industrial policies.
• Consequently, they formulated a strong economic critique of colonialism in the late nineteenth century.
• Dadabhai Naoroji put forward the drain of wealth theory. He mentioned this theory in his book ‘Poverty
and Un-British Rule in India’. He put forward the idea that Britain was draining and bleeding India and
that, too, for nothing.
• Poverty in India, according to them, was the result of a steady drain of Indian wealth into Britain-a result
of British colonial policy.
• This drain occurred through the interest that India paid for foreign debts of the East India Company,
military expenditure, guaranteed returns on foreign investment in railways and other infrastructure, importing
all stationery from England, 'home charges' paid for the Secretary of State in Britain and salaries, pensions
and training costs of military and civilian staff employed by the British state to rule India.
• According to them, even if small fraction of it be invested within the country it could have helped to
generate a surplus to build a capitalist economy.
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SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORMS

• India in the 19th century witnessed a series of reform movements undertaken in various parts of the
country which were oriented toward a re-structuring of the Indian society along modem lines.
• Impact of modern Western culture soon gave birth to a new awakening in India.
• Western conquest exposed the weakness and decay of Indian society.
• Thoughtful Indians began to look for the defects of their society and for ways and means of removing
them.
• While large number of Indians refused to come to terms with the West and still put their faith in
traditional Indian ideas and institutions, others gradually came to hold that modern Western thought

E
provided the key to the regeneration of their society.
• They were impressed in particular by modem science and the doctrines of reason and humanism.
OR
• The new social groups-the capitalist class, the working class, the modern intelligentsia-demanded
modernisation since their own interests demanded it.
• Attempts to explore India's past by the first generation of British rulers helped to sharpen educated classes'
consciousness of their own existence.
SC

• Early reformers were groping to find suitable answers. But the agenda for the modernization was not set
by the western influence because the logic for reform was sought to be located within India's past.

HINDU REFORM MOVEMENTS/ BENGAL RENAISSANCE

GS

• Reform movements which took deep roots within Bengal have often been also termed as Bengal Renaissance.
• Bankim Chandra Chatterji and Bipin Chandra Pal referred to developments in the 19th century Bengal
as a period of Renaissance.
• It may not be proper to compare European Renaissance with developments in Bengal as the context was
entirely different and the patterns not too similar.
• The features which were referred to while talking of a Bengal Renaissance may be clubbed under three
major categories, i.e. historical rediscovery, linguistic and literary modernization and socio-religious reforms.
Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj
• Raja Rammohan Roy from Bengal was the most notable reformer of the modern times.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in 1772 in Radhanagar in Burdwan districtin West Bengal and died in
Bristol in England.
• He is considered as the first 'modern man' as he was the pioneer of socio-religious and political
reformmovements in modern India.
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• He studied numerous languages - Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, English, French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, etc. in
order to study the various religious scriptures in their original.
• He believed in monotheism i.e. doctrine of the unity of God-head and opposed idol-worship.
• In 1803 he published a Persian treatise named 'Tuhfat-ul Muwahidin' or 'A Gift to Monotheists' wherein
he explains his concept of monotheism.
• He was among the first to bring political questions in the ambit of public debate.
• His Atmiya Sabha, founded in 1814, discussed important social and political questions of the time. In
1828, its enlarged edition was called the Brahmo Sabha which was renamed Brahmo Samaj later on.
• He started touching upon many burning social issues of the time including the widely-prevalent practice
of becoming sati.
• He rallied support to the efforts of William Bentinck (Governor General) for abolition of this custom and

E
wrote extensively for the cause.
• In 1829, the custom of sati was formally abolished. He also condemned polygamy and many other forms

•
of subjugation of women.

OR
Roy was also an advocate of modern education. He opened an English school as well as a Vedanta college
(1825).
• He was a firm believer in the concept of one God. He was opposed to idolatry and found Upanishads
SC
as the basis of true Hinduism.
• He wished to purify Hinduism by removing all kinds of evils that had crept into it over centuries.
• After Roy's death in 1833, the Brahmo Samaj started getting disorganized.
Debendranath Tagore
GS

• Brahmo Samaj was given a definite shape and popularized beyond the city of Calcutta under the leadership
of Debendranath Tagore who joined in 1842.
• A year later, he wrote Brahmo Covenant. This Covenant was a statement of the creed of the Samaj and
made a list of the duties and obligations of its members.
Keshab Chandra Sen
• Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-84) who joined the Samaj in 1858 took the activities of the Samaj beyond
Bengal and into UP, Punjab, Madras and Bombay.
• Keshab Chandra Sen radicalized the Samaj by attacking caste system, underlining women's rights, promoting
widow remarriage and raising the issue of caste status of Brahmo preachers which was earlier reserved
for Brahmans.
• He laid stress on universalism in religion.
• His radicalism brought him into opposition with Debendranath.
• In 1866, the Samaj was formally divided into Adi Brahmo Samaj (headed by Debendranath) and the
Brahmo Samaj of India (headed by Keshab Chandra).
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Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar
• Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, a Bengali reformer actively raised the issues related to women.
• He was an active proponent of education of girl child as he believed that lack of education was the real
cause underlying all their problems.
• With the help of an Englishman named Bethun, he set up many schools devoted especially to girl child.
• He forcefully attacked child marriage and polygamy.
• He was a strong advocate of widow remarriage.
• It was due to his active mobilization of support that the Widows' Remarriage Act was passed in 1856
legalizing all widow remarriages. He arranged many such remarriages.
• He set a personal example when his son Narayan also married a widow.
Ramakrishna Mission

E
• During the late 19th century, another notable reform movement in Bengal, which soon spread to other
parts of the country, was the Ramakrishna Mission.
OR
• The movement began under an ascetic and priest Gadadhar Chatterjee or Swami Ramakrishna Paramhansa
(1836-86).
• He preached universality of all religions and favoured preserving beliefs and rituals of Hinduism.
• Among his important disciples was Narendra Nath or Swami Vivekananda who accepted Ramakrishna
SC

as his guru in 1885.

Swami Vivekananda
• He spread the message of spiritual Hinduism in America and Europe during his tour of 1893-97.
• He established Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 and set up a Math at Belur.
GS

• He died at a young age of forty in 1902.

• Vivekananda was opposed to degeneration in religion, manifold divisions, caste rigidities, practice of
untouchability, superstitions etc.
• He pointed out that the present condition of Hindus was due to their ignorance which was helped by their
being a subject race.
• He attempted to establish Hindu spiritual supremacy vis-à-vis the selfish civilization of the West.
• He believed that India had to learn work ethics, forms of organization and technological advances from
the West.
Arya Samaj
• The most profound reform movement which can be also termed as revivalist movement in the late 19th
century India was the Arya Samaj.
• It started in the western India and the Punjab, and gradually spread to a large part of the Hindi heartland.
• It was founded by Dayanand Saraswati (1824-83).
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• In 1875, he wrote Satyarth Prakash (or the light of truth) and in the same year founded the Bombay Arya
Samaj.
• The Lahore Arya Samaj was founded in 1877. Subsequently, Lahore became the epicentre of the Arya
movement.
• Dayanand opposed a ritual-ridden Hindu religion and called for basing it on the preaching of the Vedas.
Only Vedas, along with their correct analytical tools, were true.
• He attacked puranas, polytheism, idolatry and domination of the priestly class.
• He adopted Hindi for reaching out to the masses.
• He also opposed child marriage.
• He was fiercely opposed to multiplicity of castes which he thought was primarily responsible for encouraging
conversion of lower castes into Christianity and Islam.

E
• After Dayanand's death in 1883, the Samaj lay scattered.
• Most important attempt to unite the Samaj and its activities was the founding of the Dayanand Anglo

•
Vedic Trust and Management Society in Lahore in 1886.
OR
In 1886, this society opened a school with Lala Hansraj as its principal. However, some leaders of the
Samaj like Munshi Ram (Swami Shraddhanand), Gurudatt, Lekh Ram and others were opposed to Anglo
Vedic education.
SC
• They argued that the Arya Samaj's educational initiative must focus on Sanskrit, Aryan ideology and Vedic
scriptures and should have little space for English learning.
• This militant wing thought that Dayanand's words were sacrosanct and his message in Satyarth Prakash
could not be questioned.
• While the moderate wing led by Lala Hansraj and Lajpat Rai pointed out that Dayanand was a reformer
GS

and not a rishi or sadhu.

• Conflicts also arose over the control of the DAV Management Society.
• These differences finally led to a formal division of the Arya Samaj in 1893 when Munshiram broke away
along with his supporters to initiate a gurukul-based education. Therefore, after 1893 the two wings of the
Arya Samaj were - DAV group and Gurukul group.
• Munshi Ram and Lekh Ram devoted themselves to popularizing of the teachings of the Vedas and began
an Arya Kanya Pathsala at Jalandhar to safeguard education from missionary influence.
• In 1902, Munshi Ram founded a Gurukul at Kangri in Haridwar. This institute became the centre of the
gurukul education wing of the Arya Samaj in India. It was here that Munshi Ram adopted sanyas and
became Swami Shraddhanand.
• The two wings of the Arya Samaj, i.e. DAV wing and the Gurukul wing had differences on the question
of education but were united on important political and social issues of the time.
• The Arya Samaj as a whole opposed conversion of Hindus to Islam and Christianity and therefore
advocated re-conversion of recent converts to Hinduism. This process was called shuddhi.
• They also advocated greater usage of Hindi in Devanagari script.
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• In the 1890s, the Arya Samaj also raised the issue of cow slaughter and formed gaurakshini sabhas (or
the cow protection societies) for protection of cows.
• The Arya Samaj led a prolonged movement against untouchability and advocated dilution of caste
distinctions.
Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Name of Organisation Founder Year Place
1. Atmiya Sabha Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1815 Calcutta
2. Brahmo Samaj Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1829 Calcutta
3. Dharma Sabha Radhakant Dev 1830 Calcutta
4. Tatvabodhini Sabha Devendranath Tagore 1834 Calcutta
5. Paramahansa Mandali Dadoba Panderung 1849 Bombay

E
6. Rahnumai Mazdyasan Sabha Dadabhai Naoroji 1851 Bombay
7. Radhaswami Satsang Tulsi Ram also known of 1861 Agra
OR
Shiv Dayal Saheb
8. Brahmo Samaj of India Keshav Chandrasen 1866 Calcutta
9. Prarthna Samaj Dr. Atmaram Pandurang 1867 Bombay
10. Arya Samaj Swami Dayanand 1875 Bombay
SC

11. Theosophical Society H.P. Blavatsy & Colonell 1875 New York
Olcott
12. Sadharan Brahmo Samaj Anand Mohan Bose 1878 Calcutta
13. Deccen Educational Society G.G. Agarkar 1884 Pune
GS

14. Indian National Social Conference M.G. Ranade 1887 Bombay

15. Dev Samaj Shivnarayan Agnihotri 1887 Lahore
16. Ram Krishna Mission Swami Vivekanand 1897 Belur
17. Servants of India Society Gopal Krishna Gokhale 1905 Bombay
18. Pune Seva Sadan Mr. Ramabai Ranade & 1909 Pune
G.K. Deodhar
19. Social Service League N.M. Joshi 1911 Bombay
20. Seva Samiti H.N. Kunjru 1914 Allahabad
PRARTHANA SAMAJ
• The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang.
• It was an off-shoot of Brahmo Samaj.
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• It was a reform movement within Hinduism and Justice M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined it in
1870 and infused new strength to it.
• Mahadev Govind Ranade, also ran the Deccan Education Society.
• Several members of the Prarthana Samaj had earlier been active in the Paramhansa Mandali.
• This Samaj denounced idolatry, priestly domination, caste rigidities and preferred monotheism.
• It also concentrated on social reforms like inter-dining, inter-marriage, widow remarriage and uplift of
women and depressed classes.
• Apart from Hindu sects, it also drew upon Christianity and Buddhism.
• It sought truth in all religions.
• Drawing inspiration from the Maratha Bhakti saints of the medieval period, Ranade sought to establish
the concept of one compassionate God.

E
PARAMHANSA MANDALI
•
•
•
OR
Many important reform movements arose during the 19th century western India.
Reformers like KT Telang, VN Mandalik and RG Bhandarkar glorified India's past.
There were some who led a direct attack on social evils like caste system and encouraged widow remarriage,
e.g., Karsondas Mulji and Dadoba Pandurang. They formed Manav Dharma Sabha in 1844 and Paramhansa
Mandali in 1849.
SC

• The Mandali carried its activities secretly.

• Its members took a pledge that they would abandon all caste distinctions.
• The Mandali declined after 1860 as its membership and activities lost secrecy.
THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
GS

• Madam H.P. Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in the Unites States in 1875 and later
Colonel M.S. Olcott joined her.
• In 1882 they shifted their headquarters to India at Adyar.
• The members of this society believe that a special relationship can be established between a person's soul
and God by contemplation, prayer, revolution.
• The theosophical movement came to be allied with Hindu renaissance.
• The society believes in re-incarnation, Karma and draws from the philosophy of the upanishads and
Samkhya, yoga and vedanta schools of thought.
• After the death of Olcott in 1907 Annie Besant was elected as its President. She had joined the society
in 1889.
• The society under Besant concentrated on the revival of Hinduism and its ancient ideas and in order to
provide Hindu religious instruction.
• She founded the Central Hindu University at Varanasi in 1898 which was later developed into the Benaras
Hindu University by Madan Mohan Malaviya.
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YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT

• Its founder was Henry Vivian Derozio, who taught at the Hindu college between 1826 and 1831.
• His followers were known as the Derozians and their movement as the Young Bengal Movement.
• The movement attacked old traditions and decadent customs, advocating women's rights and education
and educating the public on the current socio-economic and political questions through press and public
associations.
• They carried on public agitation on public questions like freedom of the press, trial by jury and protection
of peasants, etc.
OTHER REFORM MOVEMENTS IN BRIEF
• In Western India Prof D.K. Karve took up the cause of widow remarriage and in Madras Veerasalingam
Pantulu made Herculean efforts in the same direction.
• Prof. Karve opened a widow's home in Poona in 1899. He set up the Indian Womens University at
Bombay in 1916.
•

E
B.M. Malbari started a crusade against child marriage and his efforts were crowned by the enactment of
OR
the age of consent Act, 1891.
• In 1849 J.E.D. Bethune founded a girl's school in Calcutta.
• All India women's conference was organised in 1936.
• Radha Soami Satsang was founded by Tulsi Ram.
SC

• Deva Samaj was founded by Shiva Narain Agnihotri.

• Nadwah-ul-ulama was founded by Maulana Shibli Numani in 1894 in Lucknow.
• Justice movement was started in 1915-16 by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair and P. Tyagaraja Chetti in Madras.
It was against the predominance of the Brahmins in education, government services and politics.
GS

• Ezhava movement was launched by Sri Narayan Guru. He started the movement of untouchable Ezhava
against the Brahmin dominance in Kerala. He rejected the caste system and developed the concept of one
caste, one religion and one God for mankind. His disciple Ayappan made it into no religion, no caste and
no God for mankind.
• In Kerala, the Nairs started movement against the dominance of Nambudari Brahmins. C.V. Raman Pillai
organised the Malyali Memorial. He wrote a novel Martanda Verma to show the military glory of the
Nairs. Padmanabha Pillai founded the nair service society in 1914.
• In 1873, Satya Sodhak movement was launched by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra to save the lower castes
from the Brahmins. He wrote 'Gulamgiri' and 'Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak'. His theory of exploitation
of lower castes was focused on cultural and ethnic factor rather than on political and economic one.
• The Mahars were organised by Gopal Baba Walangkar in late 19th century against Brahmins in Maharashta.
Baba Bhim Rao Ambedkar became their leader in the 20th century. Under his leadership the Mahars
started burning Manusmriti and tried to break with the Hinduism.
• In 1932 Gandhiji founded the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
• Ambedkar founded the Scheduled Castes Federation.
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REFORM MOVEMENTS AMONG MUSLIMS

• There was a sense of loss of power among educated and elite Muslims of India. This happened mainly
because of-
• Transfer of power from Mughals to British, and
• Replacement of Persian by English as the language of employment and advancement in the new bureaucracy.
Farazis Movement
• The movement of the Farazis which arose among the peasants of early 19th century Bengal advocated
return to pure Islam.
• They followed the teachings of Shah Walliullah of Delhi (1703-63) who had, a century earlier, talked
about regaining purity of Islam and objected to infiltration of non-Islamic customs among Muslims.
• Founding leader of the Farazis, Shariat Ullah (1781-1839) preached religious purification and advocated

E
return to the faraiz, i.e. obligatory duties of Islam, namely - kalimah (profession of faith), salat (or namaz),
sawn ( or rozah), zakat (or alms to poor) and Hajj. He also preached tawhid or monotheism.
•

•
OR
Another movement which arose among Muslims of Bengal was the Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah under the
leadership of Titu Mir who was initiated by Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi. This movement also talked about
return to past purity.
Another movement which was more concerned about the decline in power of the ulema class (Muslim
priestly class) arose at Deoband in the United Provinces.
SC
• Delhi School of Islamic Thought was derived from the Delhi College (currently Zakir Husain College)
which had begun imparting a parallel education - Islamic as well as English.
• Beginning 1830s, the college helped to foster a modern consciousness in the Muslim community.
• The revolt of 1857 and consequent crackdown by the British forces ended this intellectual excitement.
However, the urge for modernization could easily be felt among a section of Muslims.
GS

The Wahabi Movement

• The Muslims lost their political power with the replacement of the Mughals by the East India Company.
• The spread of Christianity and the Western culture were viewed as a threat to Islam. They resisted English
education and remained aloof from Western influences.
• The Wahabi movement was introduced in India by Syed Ahmed of Rae Bareilly in Uttar Pradesh.
• The Wahabi movement aimed at the purification of Islam and to return to the simplicity of religion.
• In India the Wahibis did not restrict to the religious reforms only.
• They aimed at the replacement of the British rule by the rule of the true believers.
• The Wahabi movement took the nature of the political revolt.
Sayyid Ahmad Khan
• According to Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-98) modern education was the most important path for
improvement in the condition of Indian Muslims.
• He called for the study of European science and technology.
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• In 1866, he formed the British Indian Association.

• He stayed in England for more than a year during 1869-70.
• On his return, he asked his Muslim brethren to adopt some positive features of the English society like
its discipline, order, efficiency and high levels of education.
• He pointed out that there was no fundamental contradiction between Quran and Natural Science and the
new circumstances demanded dissemination of English language within an Islamic context.
• He founded the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875 which went on to become the
most important seminary for modern higher education among Muslims.
• At the elementary level, students followed the standard government curriculum in a carefully constructed
Islamic environment. In 1878, the college classes were also started and non-Muslims were also enrolled.
• In 1886, Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded also the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental Educational Conference.
• The Muslim graduates of Aligarh who numbered 220 during 1882-1902, provided lot of excitement to

E
the Muslim intellectual world and in due course of time provided an able and modern leadership to the
community.
OR
The Deoband School
• The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the Deoband Moovement. It was a revivalist
movement whose twin objectives were:
• To propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Koranand the Hadisand.
SC

• To keep alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers.

• The new Deoband leader Mahmud-ul-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to impart a political and intellectual
content to the religious ideas of the school.
• The liberal interpretation of Islam created a political awakening among its followers.
GS

Ahmadiya Movement
• The Ahmadiya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahamad of Qadiyan (1839-1908) in 1889, who
began his work as a defender of Islam against the polemics of the Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries.
• In 1889, he claimed to be Masih and Mahdi and later also to be an incarnation of the Hindu god Krishna
and Jesus, returned to earth.
• The movement was really a heresy well within the bounds of Islam as Ghulam Ahamad, though he called
himself a minor prophet, regarded Muhammad as the true and great prophet whom he followed.
• The Ahmadiya movement based itself, like the Brahmo Samaj, on the principles of at universal religion
of all humanity.
• Ghulam Ahmad was greatly influenced by western liberalism theosophy, and the religious reform movements
of the Hindus.
• The Ahmadiyas opposed Jihad or sacred war against non-Muslims and stressed fraternal relations among
all people.
• The movement spread western liberal education among Indian Muslims and started a network of schools
and colleges for that purpose.
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Ahrar Movement
• It was a movement founded in 1910 under the leadership of Maulana Muhammad Ali, Hakim Ajmal
Khan, Hasan Imam, Maulana Zafar Ali Khar and Mazhar-ul-Haq in opposition to the loyalist policies of
the Aligarh movement.
• Moved by modern ideas of self-government its members advocated active participation in the nationalist
movement.
SIKH REFORM MOVEMENT
Nirankaris
• Baba Dayal Das (1783-1855) was the founder of this movement of purification and return.
• In 1840s he called for the return of Sikhism to its origin and emphasized the worship of one God and
nirankar (formless).

E
• Such an approach meant a rejection of idolatry and also prohibition of eating meat, drinking liquor, lying,
cheating, etc.
•

OR
It laid emphasis on Guru Nanak and on Sikhism before the establishment of Khalsa by Guru Gobind Sing
at Anandpur and this separated them from the Namdaris.
Namdharis
• It was founded by Baba Ram Singh (1816-1885) in 1857, who in 1841 became a disciple of Balak Singh
SC
of the Kuka movement.
• The movement was founded on a set of rituals modeled after Guru Gobind Singh's founding of the Khalsa
with the requirement of wearing the five symbols but instead of the sword the followers were supposed
to carry a stick.
• The movement required the followers to abandon the worship of gods, idols, tombs, trees, snakes, etc. and
GS

abstain from drinking, stealing, falsehood, slandering, backbiting, etc.

• Further the consumption of beef was strictly forbidden as protection of cattle was important.
Singh Sabha
• To strengthen Sikhism, a small group of prominent Sikhs led by Thakur Singh Sandhawalia and Giani Gian
Singh founded the Singh Sabha of Amritsar on October 1, 1873.
• The objectives of the Sabha were to restore Sikhism to its pristine purity, to publish historical religious
book and periodicals, to propagate knowledge, sing Punjabi, to return Sikh apostles to their faith and to
involve Englishmen in educational programme of the Sikhs.
• Later the Singh Sabha Amritsar was emulated by a new organization, the Lahore Singh Sabha more
democratic in nature.
• After a while, the Singh Sabhas were overwhelmed by other organisation such as Khalsa Diwani and in
1920, by a struggle for control over Sikh places of worship.
Gurudwara Reform Movements
• Before 1920 the Sikh Gurudwara were governed by the Udasi Sikh mahants, who treated the Gurudwara
offerings and other income of the Gurudwaras as their personal income.
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• The British government supported these mahants as a counterpoise to the rising tide of nationalism among
the Sikhs.
• Matter came to such a pass that the priest of the golden temple issued a hukmnama (injunction) against
Ghadarites, declaring them renegades, and then honored General Dyer, the butcher of Jalianwala massacre
with a saropa.
• The Gurudwara Reform Movement launched an agitation for freeing the Gurudwaras from these corrupt
mahants and for handing over the Gurudwaras to a representative body of Sikhs.
• Under the growing pressure of the nationalist and Gurudwara agitators, the Gurudwaras came under the
control of an elected committee known as the Shiromani Gurudwara Prablandhalk Committee, in November
1920.
• The movement for liberation of Gurudwaras soon turned into Alkali movement, which later on got
divided into three streams, namely moderate nationalist reformers, pro-government loyalists and political
organ of Sikh communalism.
PARSI REFORM MOVEMENT
•

E
The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S. Bengalee
OR
in 1851 with funds provided by K.N. Kama.
• Furdunji Naoroji became its President and S.S. Bengali its secretary.
• Naroji Furdunji edited in 1840s the Fam-i-Famshid, a journal aimed at defending the cause of Zoroastrianism.
• He also wrote a number of pamphlets and published the book Tarika Farthest in 1850.
SC

• All these events led to the formation of a socio-religious movement designed to codify the Zoroastrian
religion and reshape Parsi social life.
• In 1851 a small group of educated Parsis formed the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Parsi Reform
Society)
• In 1850 Bengali started publishing a monthly journal Jagat Mitra and the Jagat Premi in 1851.
GS

• The sabha's journal Rast Goftar was the main voice of the movement.
• The leaders criticized elaborate ceremonies at betrothals, marriages and funerals and opposed infant
marriage and the use of astrology.
• But the activities of the sabha divided the Parsis into two groups: those who advocated radical change and
those who wished only limited altercations in rituals and customs, organized under the Raherastnumi
Mazdayasnan in opposition to the radicals.
SELF-RESPECT MOVEMENT AND PERIYAR E.V. RAMASWAMY
• Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy, a great social reformer took an active part in the anti-liquor movement and
Vaikam Satyagraha in 1924.
• He was the leader of the self-respect movement. It was a popular movement, which occurred in Tamil
Nadu in 1925.It had two aims:
• Demanding the sanction of more concessions and privileges (which would cause discrimination against the
Brahmins) to surpass Brahmins in education and social status.
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• Achieving 'Swayam Maryada' or self-respect.

• This movement formed a part of the many social reforms occurred during that period.
• Its main approach was to improve upon the socio-economic conditions of the low castes Tamils. Later
it had profound implications.
• The main objectives of this movement were inculcation and dissemination of knowledge of political
education; Right to lead life with dignity and self-respect and do away with the exploitative system based
on superstitions and beliefs.
• Abolition of the evil social practices and protection of women rights. Establishment and maintenance of
homes for orphans and widow and opening of educational institutions for them.
• This movement gained popularity in no time and became a political platform.
• He attacked the laws of Manu, which he called the basis of the entire Hindu social fabric of caste.

E
• He founded the Tamil journals Kudiarasu, Puratchi and Viduthalai to propagate his ideals.
• In 1938 the Tamil Nadu Women's Conference appreciated the noble service rendered by E.V.R. and he

•
was given the title "Periyar".

OR
On 27th June 1970 by the UNESCO organisation praised and adorned with the title "Socrates of South
Asia"
IMPACT OF REFORM MOVEMENTS
SC
• These reformist played a prominent role in the social life of the 19th century.
• One may mention such names as Pandita Ramabai in western part, Sister Subbalaksmi in Madras and
Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain in Bengal.
• Reform movements helped the growth of a modern middle class which was conscious of its rights.
GS

• Some Indian reformers also protested British attempts to pass those laws which they thought interfered
with their religion and society.
• This was evident in the case of the Age of Consummation of marriage by raising the age of consent from
10 to 12.
• Some of these reform movements, by raising issues which were in conflict with interests of other
communities or were revivalist in nature, also worked towards polarization along communal lines.
Notes

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PEASANT AND TRIBAL MOVEMENTS

PEASANT REVOLT
• The Permanent Settlement made the zamindar the owner of the land, but this land could be sold off if
he failed to pay the revenue on time and this forced the zamindars and the landlords to extract money
from the peasants even if their crops failed.
• The peasants often borrowed money from the moneylenders, who were also called mahajans.
• The impoverished peasants could never pay back this borrowed money. This led to many hardships like
extreme poverty and were forced to work as bonded labourers. Hence the lower and exploited classes
often attacked their exploiters.

E
• Failure to pay by the zamindars also meant that the land would be taken away by the Britishers. The
British then auctioned the land to the highest bidder, who often came from the urban areas.
OR
• The new zamindars from the urban areas had little or no interest in the land. They did not invest money
in seeds or fertilizers to improve the fertility of the land but only cared to collect as much revenue as they
could. This proved destructive for the peasants who remained backward and stagnant.
• To get out of this situation, the peasants started producing commercial crops like indigo, sugarcane, jute,
SC

cotton, opium and so on. This was the beginning of commercialisation of agriculture.
• The peasants depended on merchants, traders and middlemen to sell their produce during harvest time.
As they shifted to commercial crops, food grain production went down. Less food stocks led to famines.
All these forced the peasantry to revolt.
• Peasant movements varied in nature:
GS

– Prior to the commencement of mass movements of the freedom struggle, these peasant movements
were localized based on religion, caste and social consciousness.
– Later on, some secular trends were observed in these movements which became national level mass
movements resulting in formation of platforms such as Kishan Sabha, Congress Socialist Party, etc.
Some of the important peasant revolts are discussed below:
a) The Mappila Uprisings (1836-1854)
• The Mappilas were the Muslim cultivating tenants, landless labourers and fishermen of Malabar region.
• British occupation of Malabar region and their new land laws along with the atrocities of the landlords
(mainly Hindus) led the Mappilas to revolt against them in 1836.
b) Farazi Movement (1838-1848)
• This was the first ever no-tax campaign against the British Government led by Shariatullah Khan and
Dadu Mian.
• Their band of volunteers fought heroically with the armed group of Indigo planters and zamindars.
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• It brought together all the cultivators of Bengal against the tyranny and illegal extractions by the landlords.
c) Wahabi Movement (1830's-1860's)
• The leader of the movement was Syed Ahmed Barelvi of Rae Bareilly who was greatly influenced by the
teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Shah Waliullah, a Delhi saint.
• The movement was primarily religious in its origin.
• It soon assumed the character of a class struggle in some places, especially in Bengal. Irrespective of
communal distinctions, peasants united against their landlords.
d) Indigo Revolt (1859-1860)
• The peasants were forced to grow indigo in their lands by the European factory owners which exploded
into a revolt in Govindpur village of Nandia district in Bengal under the leadership of Digamber Biswas
and Vishnu Biswas.

E
• Others who played an important role included Harish Chandra Mukherjee (editor of the newspaper Hindu
Patriot), Dinbandhu Mitra and Michael Madhusudan Dutta.
•

e)
of the indigo cultivation.
The Faqir and Sanyasi Rebellions (1770-1820s)
OR
As a result the government appointed an Indigo Commission in 1860 and removed some of the abuses

• The establishment of British control over Bengal after 1757 led to increase in land revenue and the
SC
exploitation of the peasants.
• The Bengal famine of 1770 led peasants whose lands were confiscated, displaced zamindars, disbanded
soldiers and poor to come together in a rebellion. They were joined by the Sanyasis and Fakirs.
• The Faqirs were a group of wandering Muslim religious mendicants in Bengal.
• Two famous Hindu leaders who supported them were Bhawani Pathak and a woman, Devi Choudhurani.
GS

They attacked English factories and seized their goods, cash, arms and ammunition.
• Maznoom Shah was one of their prominent leaders. They were finally brought under control by the British
at the beginning of the 19th century.
• The Sanyasi Uprisings took place in Bengal between the periods of 1770-1820s.
• The Sanyasis rose in rebellion after the great famine of 1770 in Bengal which caused acute chaos and
misery.
• However, the immediate cause of the rebellion was the restrictions imposed by the British upon pilgrims
visiting holy places among both Hindus and Muslims.
f) Pabna Agrarian Unrest
• Peasants unrest broke out due to the efforts of the zamindars to enhance rent beyond legal limits &
prevent the tenants from acquiring occupancy right under Act X of 1859.
• As a result in May 1873, an agrarian league was formed at Yusuf Shahi Pargana in Pabna district of East
Bengal to resist the zamindari oppression.
• Like the Indigo Revolt, the Pabna Movement was non-communal despite the fact that majority of the
zamindars were Hindus and the peasants from Muslim background.
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• However, many newspapers of the region, like Hindu Patriot and Anand Bazar, being pro-landlord,
opposed the peasant's limited demands and even tried to portray it as a communal struggle of Muslim
tenants against Hindu zamindars.
• This movement led by Ishan Chandra Roy, Shambhu Pal and Khoodi Mollah lasted till 1885, when the
Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 was passed.
g) Deccan Riots
• A major agrarian revolt occurred in Pune and Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra in 1875 due to the
difficulty which the peasants faced in paying land revenue in the Ryotwari System.
• Peasants were forced to look towards the money-lenders, mostly Marwaris and Guajratis for the payment
of revenue.
• The money-lenders began to tighten the grip on the peasants and their lands.
• In December 1874 peasants organised a social boycott to money-lenders & other outsiders.

E
• The boycott soon transformed into agrarian riots and the peasants started attacking the houses and shops
of these money-lenders which soon spread to other areas of the region.
OR
• Though this revolt had localized character and limited objectives with no anti-colonial features, it got
supports of the intelligentsia of Maharashtra.
• The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha led by Justice Ranade rallied with the peasants' cause.
• With the passing of the Deccan Agriculturist Relief Act of 1879, the movement came to an end.
SC

h) Uprising of Vasudev Balwant Phadke

• Vasudev Balwant Phadke, an educated clerk, raised a Ramosis peasants force during 1879, and organized
social banditry on a large scale.
• He was deeply stirred by the devastation caused in western India by the famine of 1876-77.
GS

• He was arrested in 1880 and died three years later (1883) in prison.
i) Champaran Satyagraha
• This satyagraha formed the base of the transition of peasant movement from a localized one to mass
movement.
• The cultivation of indigo on tinkathia system was in existence in Champaran earlier.
• In the 20th century, with the declining market of indigo in the face of synthetic dyes, the planters were
now willing to release the farmers from their irksome crop, but only by recurring increase in revenue and
other dues.
• In 1917, Gandhiji offered civil disobedience in Champaran on the persuasion of Raj Kumar Shukla.
• The Government ordered an enquiry involving men like Rajendra Prasad and J. B. Kriplani and recording
statements of peasants.
• Ultimately, the first experiment of Mahatma Gandhi in India succeeded with the abolition of the tinkathia
system.
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j) Kheda Satyagraha
• Again led by Gandhiji, this Satyagraha was directed against the distress of the Kunbi Patidars peasants
of Kheda in Gujarat.
• It was well-supported by leaders like Indu Lal Yagnik and Vallabbhai Patel.
• Gandhiji urged the peasantry to withhold the revenue.
• At the end, Gandhiji withdrew the movement in 1918, with the government passing orders that revenue
should be recovered only from those peasants who could pay.
k) Kisan and Eka Movements (Awadh)
• The grievances of the peasantry and the outbreak of the First World War instigated the problems and
misery of the peasants to a new height.
• During this period, sharp increase in the price of food grains, benefiting middlemen and money-lenders and

E
the government's encouragement to talukdari and zamindari increased the peasants' problem in Uttar
Pradesh.
•

•
OR
The members of Home Rule League, Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi, with the support
of Madan Mohan Malviya, started organising the peasants of Uttar Pradesh into Kishan Sabhas in 1918.
The U.P. Kisan Sabha demonstrated considerable activity, and by June 1919 had established at least 450
branches in 173 tehsils of the province.
SC
• Towards the end of 1919, first signs of grass-root level were evident in the reports of a Nai-Dhobi band
(a form of social boycott) on an estate in Pratapgarh district.
• These movements started moving towards a religious character when a Maharashtrian Brahman, Baba
Ramchandra initiated the process of organising peasants against the zamindars. He wandered around as
a Sadhu, quoting verses from the Ramcharitmanas to awaken the peasantry to a sense of dignity.
GS

• In June 1920, Ramchandra persuaded Gauri Shankar Mishra and Jawahar Lal Nehru to visit the village
and to see the living condition of the tenants. Thus, the peasant movement got associated with the
national movement.
• But, differences in the group led to the formation of Awadh Kisan Sabha at Pratapgarh in October 1920.
• A marked feature of the Kisan Sabha movement was the participation of both high as well as low caste
peasants.
• The pattern of activity involved the looting of bazaars, houses, granaries and clashes with the police. These
activities were not carried out by recognized Kisan Sabha activitsts, but by local figures, Sadhus, holy men
and disinherited ex-proprietors.
• The government tried to uproot the movement with the Seditious Meetings Act and Awadh Rent
(Amendment) Act.
• But, the discontent surfaced again in the districts of Hardoi, Bahraich and Sitapur under the new banner
i.e., Eka movement. It was purely religious in nature and soon developed its own grass-root leadership in
the form of Madari Pasi and other low-caste leaders who were not particularly inclined to accept the
discipline of non-violence of the Congress.
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• The Eka movement also included many small zamindars, discontent with the British agrarian policy. By
March 1922, however, severe repression in the part of the authorities succeeded in bringing the Eka
movement to its end.
l) Bardoli Satyagraha
• It was one of the important satyagrahas fully based on the Gandhian method of struggle.
• It started in 1928 at Bardoli in Surat district, it incorporated both the land owning peasants as well as the
low caste untouchables and tribes like Kali-praja (dark people).
• These tribes were given the name of Ranipraja (inhabitants of the forest).
• When the Bombay government announced an enhanced revenue by 22% in spite of the fall in the prices
of cotton, the followers of Gandhiji, like the Mehta brothers persuaded Vallabbhai Patel to organize a
sustained no-revenue campaign.
• Skillful use of caste associations, social boycott, religious appeals and bhajans made Bardoli Satyagraha
a national issue which forced the government to reach a settlement on the basis of a judicial enquiry and

E
return of the confiscated lands.

List of Peasant Movements

OR
Movements Area Leaders Course & Consequence
Rangpur Rangpur, Dinajpur Dhiraj Narayan Against enhanced revenue,
1783 Bengal parallel govt. & attack on colonial symbols
SC

Moplah Malabar coast ... Land Revenue based on Janami system

was resented, military operations
Indigo Bengal Digambar Viswas Peaceful protest, ban on Indigo
1859 Vishnu Viswas plantation in 1860
Pabna Bengal Ishanchandra Rai Legal protest against revenue enhancement
GS

1873-76 Sambhu Pal

Deccan Riots Puna, Satara ... Social buycot of Mahajans, Act of 1879
1875 Ahmednagar passed
Bijolia Mewar Sitaram Dass No Tax Movement, protest against
1905-13 Bhop Singh Jagirdars
Champaran Champaran Mahatma Gandhi Successful protest against Tinkathia system
1917 Bihar
Kheda Gujarat Mahatma Gandhi Against revenue collection after
1918 destruction of crops
Awadh Pratapgarh, Jhinguri Singh Protest against illegal rent & land disposal
1919-22 Rai Barelly Baba Ram Chandra Act, social buycot of Jagirdars
Eka Barabanki, Hardoi, Madari Passi Participation of small Zamindars, crushed
1920 Sitapur, Bahraich
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Moppila Malabar coast Yakub Hassan Attack on police stations, govt. offices
1921 Gopal Menon & zamindars, on communal line, crushed
Bardoli Surat, Gujarat Ballabh Bhai Patel Against Hali system, decreased revenue rent
1928
Andhra Andhra Pradesh N.G. Ranga Against enhanced revenue, farmers got
1923-38 relief
Malabar Malabar coast R. Ram Chandra Relief after Malabar Tenancy Act
1934-40 T. Prakasham
Kisan Sabha Bihar Swami Sahajanand Land Tenancy Act
1929-39
Tebhaga Bengal Krishna Vinod Rai Peaceful Movement centred on farming
1946 Avani Lahiri

E
Punnapra Vayalar Travancore Panam thanu 800 rebel were killed for an independent
1946 Pillai Travancore state
Telengana
1946-51
Andhra Pradesh Sandraiya

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS
OR Gurilla warfare of farmers against Nizam
& traders
SC
• The tribal groups were an important and integral part of Indian life.
• Before their annexation and subsequent incorporation in the British territories, they had their own social
and economic systems. These systems were traditional in nature and satisfied the needs of the tribals.
• They also enjoyed independence regarding the management of their affairs. The land and forests were their
main source of livelihood. The forests provided them with basic items which they required for survival.
GS

• The tribal communities remained isolated from the non-tribals.

• The British policies proved harmful to the tribal society. This destroyed their relatively self-sufficient
economy and communities.
• The tribal groups of different regions revolted against the Britishers.
• These movements were basically directed to preserve the tribal identity which was thought to be in danger
due to intrusion of external people affecting the social, political and geo-economical position of the tribes.
• These movements were mostly violent, isolated and frequent.
Factors Responsible for Tribal Movements
• Resentment of the tribes against the extension of the British rule to their areas.
• The introduction of general administration & laws in their areas which were considered by them as
intrusions into the traditional political system of the tribal community.
• Reaction against the penetration of tribal areas by peoples from plains in form of money lenders, traders,
contractors etc.
• Protection given to the outsiders in tribal areas by British government.
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• The tightening of British control over their forest zones, creation of reserved forests and attempts to
monopolize forest- wealth through curbs on the use of timber and grazing facilities.
• The activities of Christian missionaries in their areas were looked upon by them as anti-religious and hence
resented.
• British attempts to suppress certain tribal traditions and practices like infanticide, human sacrifices etc
hurted the tribal social beliefs.
• The British colonialism devoid the tribal people of their traditional economic set up and hence they were
forced to serve as menial labourers, coolies in plantation, mines and factories.
• However, not all outsiders were targeted as enemies. The non-tribal poor and service castes were spared
and sometimes seen as allies.
• The movements began normally when the tribes felt oppressed and had no alternatives but fight. This led
to clashes with the outsiders and colonial authorities.
• The tribes organised themselves for an armed resistance.

E
• Generally there was one or other religious leaders-Messiahas whom the tribes looked as divine power who
could end up their sufferings & hence followed them.
OR
Some of the important movements are discussed below:
a) Bhil Uprising
• The Bhils were largely concentrated in Khandesh (present day Maharashtra & Gujarat). Khandesh came
under British occupation in 1818.
SC

• The Bhils considered them as outsiders. On the instigation of Trimbakji, rebel minister of Baji Rao II they
revolted against the Britishers.
• Their struggle lasted for thirty years which was finally suppressed after large scale military operations
combined with conciliatory measures.
b) The Kol Uprising
GS

• The Kols of Singhbhum in the Chhotanagpur area enjoyed autonomy under their chiefs but the entry of
the British threatened their independence.
• Later the transfer of tribal lands and the coming of moneylenders, merchants and British laws created a
lot of tension. This prompted the Kol tribe to organise themselves and rebel(1831-1832).
• The impact was such that the British had to rush troops from far off places to suppress it.
c) The Santhal Rebellion
• The area of concentration of the Santhals was called Daman-i-Koh or Santhal Pargana.
• It extended from Bhagalpur in Bihar in the north to Orissa in the south stretching from Hazaribagh to the
borders of Bengal.
• They cultivated their land and lived a peaceful life which continued till the British officials brought with
them traders, moneylenders, zamindars and merchants.
• They were made to buy goods on credit and forced to pay back with a heavy interest during harvest time.
As a result, they were sometimes forced to give the mahajan not only their crops, but also plough, bullocks
and finally the land.
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• Very soon they became bonded labourers and could serve only their creditors.
• The peaceful tribal communities revolted (1855-57) under the leadership of Sidhu and Kanu were Santhal
rebel leaders.
• The British government started a major military campaign to suppress the rebellion.
• Sidhu was killed in August 1855 and Kanhu was arrested in 1856.
• It was one of the most deadly suppressed rebellions of Indian history.
• A separate Santal Pargana district was created cutting from the parts of Birbhum (Jamtara and Deoghar)
and Bhagalpur districts.
d) Jaintia and Garo Rebellion Rebellion
• After the First Anglo-Burmese War, the British planned the construction of a road connecting Brahmaputra
Valley (present day Assam) with Sylhet (present day Bangladesh).

E
• The Jaintias and the Garos in the North-Eastern part of India (present day Meghalaya) opposed the
construction of this road which was of strategic importance to the British for the movement of troops.
•

•
British burnt several Jaintias and Garo villages. OR
The Jaintias tried to stop work and soon the unrest spread to the neighbouring Garo hills. Alarmed, the

The Jaintias leader U Kiang Nongbah was captured and publicly hanged and the Garo leader Pa Togan
Sangma was defeated by the British.
SC

e) Rampa Rebellion
• The hill tribes, Koya and Khonda Dora of Rampa region of Chodavaram revolted in March 1879 against
the depredation of the government supported zamindars and the new restrictive forest regulations.
• It was led by Tomma Sora who was later shot dead by the Police.
GS

• The authorities launched military campaigns against the rebellious people and several other ways were
used for suppression of the movement.
f) Munda Rebellion
• The Mundas traditionally enjoyed certain rights as the original clearer of the forest which was not given
to the other tribes. But this land system was getting destroyed in the hands of the merchants and
moneylenders long before the coming of the British.
• When the British actually came into these areas they helped to destroy this system with a rapid pace when
they introduced contractors and traders. These contractors needed people to work with them as indentured
laborers.
• This dislocation of the Mundas at the hands of the British and their contractors gave birth to the Munda
Rebellion.
• The most prominent leader of this rebellion was Birsa Munda who encouraged his tribe people to keep
the tradition of worshipping of the sacred groves alive. This move was very important to prevent the
Britishers from taking over their wastelands.
• He attacked Police Stations, Churches and missionaries.
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• The rebels were defeated and Munda died in prison soon after in 1900. But his sacrifice did not go in vain.
The Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908 provided some land ownership rights to the people and banned
bonded labour of the tribal.
g) Khonda Dora Uprisings
• It was also against the colonial exploitation which was led by a religious leader Korra Mallaya who
claimed to be an Avatar of the Pandavas.
• Large scale police suppression ended the revolt.
h) Bastar Rebellion
• Tribal resentment against the imposition of forest laws and feudal system led to the rise of the revolt of
the tribes of Jagdalpur region in modern Chhattisgarh.
• The rebels disrupted communication system, attacked symbols of colonial power and tried to seize
Jagdalpur town.

E
• The British military operation in 1910 suppressed the rebellion.
i) Tana Bhagat Movement
OR
• In the second decade of the 20th century, Tana Bhagat movement started initially in a religious form but
later transformed into a political one under the impact of the Indian National Congress.
• This movement was centred on the Oran tribes of Chhotangapur in Jharkhand.
• The resistance of the local grievances and problems was amalgamated with the National movement.
SC

• There were a number of these Bhagat movements like that of Jatra Bhagat, Balram Bhagat, Gau Rakshini
Bhagats, and even woman Bhagat named Devamenia.
• These movements were local in character inside and national outside.
• Internally it was called as movements for Kurukh dharma or the real religion which emphasized on
GS

celibacy and pure living, devoid of meat, liquor etc.

• Externally, it was under the impact of the Congress, holding demonstration, Satyagrahas, Dharanas etc.
• Like other tribal movements, the British government acted harshly on these rebels. They were imprisoned
and their properties were seized.
j) Forest Satyagraha
• Just like the Tana Bhagat movements, these forest satyagrahas were widespread acquiring political character
under the influence of the Congress and national movements.
• During the Non-cooperation movement, the Chenchu tribals of Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh started
a strong forest satyagraha.
• Though these movements were inspired by the Congress, it often surpassed the limit of Gandhian process
of satyagraha.
• Like other movements of the phase, stress was laid on righteous and virtuous living in conformation with
the Gandhian method
Notes

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List of Tribal Movements

Revolts Area Leaders Course & Consequence
Chuars Manbhum & Chuar Leaders Defiance of authorities, suppressed by force
1768 and 1832 Barabhum
Pahariyas Rajmahal Pahariya Sardars Resentment against British encroachment,
1778-85 crushed
Bhils Khandesh Sevaram British occupation, mediatary &
1818-48 concilliatory measures
Hos Singhbhum Ho Leaders British occupation, military operations
1820-32
Khond Orissa Chakra Bisayi Forceful suppression of rebellious leaders
1846-1914

E
Khasis Meghalaya Tirut Singh & Forceful implementation of a linking road,
1829-32 Barmanik Tirut captured
Kolis
1824-48
Singhpos
Syhyadari
Gujarat
Assam
Koli Leaders

Singhpo Leaders
OR Repeated revolts, all leaders were captured

Against British encroachment, suppressed

1830-39 badly
SC
Kols Chhotanagpur Buddho Bhagat Against land revenue, killed outsiders,
1831-32 ruthlessly crushed
Koyas Rampa Region Alluri Sitaram Raju Revenue policy & ban on forest products,
1840-58, 1922-24 Noma Dara Raju was killed
GS

Santhals Rajmahal Hills Sidhu & Kanu Resentment against outsiders, money
1855-56 lenders, leaders killed
Naikdas Panchmahal Roop Singh Peace treaty (1859), later on Roop Singh
1858-68 Gujarat Joria Bhagat and Joria killed
Kherwar Rajmahal Hills Bhagirath Religio - tribal resentment, Bhagirath died
1870-80 in Jail
Bhuyan & Juang Orissa Ratna Nayak & Suppressed by local zamindars & British
1867-93 Shami Dhar
Kacha Nagas Assam Sambhudan Uncertain attacks on British, suppressed
1882 ruthlessly
Mundas Chhotanagpur Birsa Munda Forced-labour, outsiders Birsa Munda died
1899-1900 in Jail
Bhils Banswara Govind Guru Religio-political, attempts to set up Bhill
raj 1913 Rajasthan failed
Oraons Chhotanagpur Jatra Bhagat Monotheistic movement, adopted
Gandhian 1914-15 styles
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Chenchu Nallamale Hills Hanumanth Against forest regulation

1921-22 Andhra Pradesh
Kukis Manipur Rani Gaidiulliu Against forced-labour, Gurilla warfare,
1917-19 suppressed

E
OR
SC
GS
Notes

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THE REVOLT OF 1857

• The revolt of 1857 was though a regional manifestation yet the causes and the events that instigated the
revolt were surely having a Pan-Indian characteristic.
• The revolt of 1857 was the outburst of people's feelings against, social, economic and political exploitation
and hence people participated from almost every field, i.e. social, economical (represented by peasants)
and political (deposed rulers) in the revolt.
• It was the first major attempt by the Indians to free themselves from the clutches of British Raj, but
Anglo-Indian historians have greatly emphasized the importance of military grievances and the greased
cartridges affair as the most potent causes which led to the uprising of 1857.

E
• The greased cartridges and the mutiny of soldiers was merely the match-stick which exploded the
inflammable material which had gathered in heap on account of a variety of causes - political, social,

•
religious and economic.
OR
Prior to this revolt also, the resentment of the Indians were expressed in both violent mutinies as well as
peaceful protests.
• The mutiny at Vellore (1806), at Barrackpore (1824), at Ferozpur (1842), mutiny of the 7th Bengal cavalry,
SC
mutiny of 22nd N.I. in 1849, Revolt of the Santhals (1855-56), Kol uprising (1831-32) etc. were among
the high degree of protests by the people that culminated in the revolt of 1857.
POLITICAL CAUSES
Conquest
• The East India Company created a lot of discontent and disaffection among the dispossessed ruling
GS

families and their successors by her conquest.

• A large number of dependents on the ruling families who lost their means of livelihood and other
common people were disillusioned and disaffected with the alien rule.
• Lord Dalhousie annexed the Punjab and added humiliation to the ruling family. Dalip Singh, the minor
son of Ranjit Singh, the founder of the Sikh Kingdom of the Punjab, was deposed, and exiled to England.
The properties of the Lahore Darbar were auctioned.
Doctrine of Lapse
• By applying the Doctrine of Lapse, Dalhousie annexed the principalities of Satara, Jaipur, Sambhalpur,
Bhagat, Udaipur, Jhansi, and Nagpur.
• Doctrine of Lapse manifested the lack of sensitivity of the British towards the ancient right of adoption
among the Hindus.
• Lord Dalhousie annexed the kingdom of Oudh in 1856 on the pretext of mismanagement. The
dethronement of Wajid Ali Shah sent a wave of resentment and anger of throughout the country.
• The kingdom of Oudh was exploited economically and the Nawabs were reduced to a position of
complete dependency on the British. The Nawabs, negligence towards the administration of the state, was
used as an excuse by Dalhousie to merge it with the British Empire.
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Humiliation of the Mughals

• Since 1803, the Mughal emperors had been living under the British protection. His claims to honour and
precedence were recognized.
• The seal of Governors General bore the inscription humble servant.
• Amherst made it clear to the emperor, that his Kingship was nominal; it was merely out of courtesy that
he was addressed as King.
• The emperor was forced to give up residence in the Red Fort, and abandon his prerogative of naming his
successor.
• The treatment meted out by the governors-general to the Mughal emperor greatly alienated the Muslims
who felt that the British wanted to humble their emperor.
Suspension of Pension
• The annual pension of Rani Jindan the Queen of Maharaja Ranjit Singh was reduced from 15,000 pounds

E
to 1,200 pounds.
• The pension to Nana Sahib and of Lakshmi Bai, of Jhansi was suspended.
OR
• The titular sovereignty of the Nawab of Carnatic and Tanjore was also abolished.
ADMINISTRATIVE AND ECONOMIC CAUSES
Rule of Law
SC

• The British introduced the Rule of Law, which implied the principle of equality in the eyes of the law
irrespective of the high and the low, the rich and the poor, the weak and the strong.
• The poorer and the weaker sections did not get any benefit from the new system due to complicated
procedure of the British administration.
Unpopular British Administration
GS

• The English officials were not accessible to the people. Thus, the people could not place their grievances
before them, as they did during the period of the Mughals.
• The people also disliked the new system of British administration which functioned as a machine and
lacked personal touch.
• The English laws were quite strange and the common people could not understand them.
Exclusion of lndians from Administrative Posts
• The British were of the opinion that the Indians were not suitable for the higher posts in their administrative
structure. They lacked faith in the sincerity of the Indians.
• Contempt for Indian and racial prejudice were other reasons why the Indians were denied higher positions
in the administration.
• Complete exclusion of Indians from all position of trust and power in the administration, and the manning
of all higher offices both in the civil government and the military forces by the British brought forth
discontent and a sense of humiliation among the people.
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ECONOMIC CAUSES
Ruin of the Mercantile Class
• The British deliberately crippled Indian trade and commerce by imposing high tariff duties against Indian
goods. On the other hand they encouraged the import of British goods to India. As a result by the middle
of the nineteenth century Indian exports of cotton and silk goods practically came to an end.
Destruction of Indian Manufacturers
• The British policy of promoting the import of cotton goods to India from England destructed all Indian
manufacturers, in the cotton textile industry.
• When British goods flooded Indian market and threatened the outright destruction of Indian manufacturers,
the East India Company's government that ruled India did not take any step to prevent the tragedy.
• Free trade and refusal to impose protective duties against machine-made goods of England ruined Indian
manufacturers.

E
Pressure on Land
•

•
OR
The millions of ruined artisans and craftsmen, spinners, weavers, smelters, smiths and others from town
and villages, had no alternative but to pursue agricultural activity that led to a pressure on land.
India was transformed from being a country of agriculture into an agricultural colony of British Empire.
Impoverishment of peasantry
SC
• Land being the chief source of income for Indians, the East India Company introduced various experiments
and measures to extract the maximum share of agricultural produce.
• Various methods of revenue settlement led to the impoverishment and misery of the peasants.
• Peasants were exploited by moneylenders, who usually confiscated their land for failure to repay their
debt.
GS

• English settlers monopolized plantation industries like indigo and tea.

• The inhuman treatment of the indigo cultivators by the European plantation owners was one of the
darkest and most tragic episodes in the history of British rule in India.
• The economic policies of the British affected the interests of the Indian traders, the manufacturers,
craftsmen and the peasants.
SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CAUSES
Social Legislation
• Lord William Bentinck abolished the practice of Sati in 1829, with the support of educated and enlightened
Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• Lord Canning enacted the Widow Remarriage Act, drafted by Lord Dalhousie in 1856.
• These legislation were viewed by the orthodox sections in the society as interference by the British in their
social and religious practice
• The two laws of 1832 and 1850, removing disabilities due to change of religion, particularly conferring
the right of inheritance to change of religion, particularly conferring the right of inheritance to Christian
converts, were quite unpopular among the Hindus.
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Missionary Activities
• There was a strong movement grew in England to spread Christianity in India and convert its Hindus and
Muslims subjects to that faith.
• By the Charter Act of 1813, Christian missionaries were permitted to enter the Company's territories in
India to propagate their religion and spread Western education.
• The Christian missionaries took every opportunity to expose the abuses in the Hindu as well as the Islamic
religion.
• They denounced idolatry, ridiculed the Hindu gods and goddesses and criticized the philosophy and
principals of Hinduism and Islam.
• The teaching of Christian doctrines were made compulsory in educational institutes run by the missionaries.
• Thus, the interference of the British authorities in social customs and practices through social legislation
and the encouragement given by the government to Christian missionaries in their proselytizing activities
created a sense of apprehension and hatred in the minds of Indians.

E
MILITARY CAUSES
OR
Service Conditions
• The sepoys of the Bengal army, were Brahmins and Rajputs had special grievances of their own. Among
them were unsatisfactory conditions of service, encroachment upon their religious customs, and offences
against their dignity and self-respect.
SC

• They had a strong sense of resentment, as their scale of salary was very low compared to their English
counterparts.
• In the guise of enforcing discipline, the British authorities prohibited the Hindus and the Muslim sepoys
displaying their religious marks.
• The Hindu sepoys were forbidden to wear vermilion mark on their forehead, or turban on their head. The
Muslims sepoys were forced to shave off their beard. These restrictions wounded the religious sentiments
GS

of the sepoys.
Withdraw of Allowances
• The British authorities used to withdraw the allowances after the conquest and annexation of a province
and post the same troops in those very provinces on reduced salaries. These measures demoralized the
sepoys.
• In 1844 four Bengal regiments refused to move to Sindh till extra allowance was sanctioned. Mutinous
spirit was also displayed in 1849 by the sepoys in various provinces.
The General Service Enlistment Act
• The Hindu soldiers nursed grievances against the British as they were forced to go on expedition to Burma
and Afghanistan, which violated their religious beliefs.
• To live among Muslims and to take food and water from them was disliked to their ancient customs.
• Besides, crossing the seas was prohibited by the religion as the one who crossed the forbidden seas was
bound to lose his caste.
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• In order to prevent any kind of resistance from the sepoys against their deployment abroad, Lord Canning's
government passed the General Service Enlistment Act in 1856.
• By this act all future recruits to the Bengal army were required to give an undertaking that they would
serve anywhere their services required.
THE BEGINNING AND SPREAD OF THE MUTINY AND REVOLT
• Above mentioned factors prepared a general ground for discontent and disaffection among different
section of the Indian people, which required a mere spark to explode into a conflagration.
• The greased cartridges provided this spark.
• In 1856, the government decided to replace the old fashioned muskets by the Enfield rifles. In order to
load the Enfield rifle, the greased wrapping paper of the cartridge had to be bitten off by the soldier.
• In January 1857, a rumor began to spread in the Bengal regiments that the greased cartridges contained
the fat of cows and pigs.

E
• The sepoys became convinced that the introduction of the greased cartridge was a deliberate attempt to

•
•
defile their religion.

OR
The cow was sacred to the Hindus, and the pig was a taboo for the Muslims.
On March 29, 1857, the Indian soldiers at Barrackpore refused to use the greased cartridges and one sepoy,
Mangal Pandey, attacked and killed a British officer.
SC
• At Meerut, in May 1857, the sepoys of the 3rd cavalry regiment at Meerut also refused to use the greased
cartridges and broke out in open rebellion on 10th May and shot their officer and headed towards Delhi.
• General Hewitt, was then the commanding officer at Meerut.
• On 12 May 1857, the rebels seized Delhi and overcame Lieutenant Willoughby, the incharge of the
magazine at Delhi.
GS

• Bahadur Shah-II was proclaimed the Emperor of India.

• Very soon the rebellion spread throughout Northern and Central India at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur,
Bareilly, Banaras, Jhansi, parts of Bihar and other places.
• Unfortunately, a majority of Indian rulers remained loyal to the British and the educated Indians and
merchants class kept themselves aloof from the rebels.
• India, south of the Narmada remained undisturbed.
• At Lucknow, Henry Lawrence, the British resident, was ousted and killed.
• Kanpur was lost to the British on 5th June 1857 and Nana Sahib was proclaimed the Peshwa.
• General Huge Wheeler surrendered on June 27.
• Rani Lakshmi Bai, the widow of late Gangadhar Rao, was proclaimed the ruler of the state after the
troops at Jhansi mutinied in June 1857.
• In Bihar a local zamindar, Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur revolted.
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CENTERS OF THE REVOLT

• Delhi: A rebellion was led by Bakht Khan. In September 1857, Delhi was recaptured by the English in
which John Nicholson, the commander was wounded and later died. The emperor was arrested and his
two sons and grandsons were publicly shot by Lieutenant Hudson himself.
• Kanpur: Nana Saheb was the leader at Kanpur. General Huge Wheeler surrendered on June 27. Nana
Saheb was joined by Tantia Tope. Sir Campbell occupied Kanpur on December 6th. Tantia Tope escaped
and joined Rani of Jhansi.
• Lucknow: Rebellion here was led by Begum Hazrat Mahal and Ahmaddullah. Henry Lawrence and other
Europeans at the British residency were killed by the rebels. The early attempts of Havelock and Outram
to recover Lucknow met with no success. It was finally rescued by Colin Campbell in March 1858.
• Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai led the revolt who was defeated by Huge Rose and she fled to Gwalior and
captured it. She was supported by Tantia Tope. Gwalior was recaptured by the English in June 1858 and
the Rani of Jhansi died on 17th June. Tantia Tope escaped southward. In April, one of the Sindhia's
feudatory captured him and handed to the English who hanged him.

E
• Bareilly: Khan Bahadur Khan proclaimed himself the Nawab Nazim of Bareilly, however, the rebellion
was crushed by Colin Campbell in May 1858 and Bareilly was recaptured.
OR
• Arah: Kunwar Singh and his brother Amar Singh led the rebellion. They were defeated by William Taylor
and Vincent Ayar. Kunwar Singh was killed on 8th May, 1858.
• Faizabad: Maulavi Ahmeddullah led the rebellion but was defeated by the English.
• Allahabad & Banaras: The rebellion at Banaras and adjoining areas was mercilessly suppressed by Colonel
SC

Neill who put to death all rebels suspected and even disorderly boys.
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF THE REVOLT
• The revolt of 1857 was poorly organized, restricted in its scope and there was lack of unity among the
rebel leaders. There was no impact of the rebellion in the South. Even in North India, Rajasthan, the
Punjab, Sind, Sindhia's dominion of Gwalior, etc. remained quite.
GS

• The leaders of the rebellion did not have any common ideals and were 'wrapped up' in their own individual
grievances. The only common bond of unit among them was their anti-British sympathies.
• The resources of the British Empire were far superior to those of the rebels who were poorly organized
and lacked resources.
• The Indian princes such as the Schindhia, the Nizam of Hyderabad, Gaekwad of Vadodara and the Princes
of Rajasthan remained loyal to the British.
• Educated Indians were repelled by the rebels due to their appeals to superstitions and their opposition to
progressive social measures and were mistaken to take Britishers as their helpers in accomplishing the task
of modernization.
IMPACT OF THE REVOLT
• The control of Indian administration was transferred from the East India Company to the crown by the
Government of India Act, 1858.
• It ended the era of annexation and expansion and the Queen's proclamation declared against any desire
for "extension of territorial possessions" and promised to respect the rights of dignity and honour of native
princes as their own.
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• The Act of 1858 ended the dualism in the control of Indian affairs and made the crown directly responsible
for management of Indian affairs. Following this, fundamental changes in the administrative set up were
made in the executive, legislative and judicial administration of India by passing the Indian Councils Act
of 1861, the Indian High Court Act of 1861 and the Indian Civil Service Act of 1861.
• The British policies towards Indian States changed radically and the states were now treated as the bulwark
of the empire against future contingencies.
• The Indian army was thoroughly reorganized and the number of European troops in India was increased.
All the superior posts in the armed forces were reserved for the Europeans.
• The policy of associating Indian members with legislative matters and administration was started. A
humble beginning in this direction was made by the Indian Councils Act of 1861.
• The revolt left a legacy of racial bitterness. The entire Indian people were dubbed as unworthy of trust
and subjected to insults, humiliations and contemptuous treatment.

E
• The era of territorial expansion gave place to the era of economic exploitation in a more subtle way. The
policy of 'divide and rule' between Hindus and Muslims was started.
•

OR
The attitude of the British towards social reforms contrary to what it was before 1857. They now sided
with orthodox opinion and stopped encouraging social reformers.
NATURE OF THE REVOLT
• Historians are of different opinions regarding the nature of the Revolt of 1857.
SC
• British historians interpreted the revolt as a mutiny of the sepoys.
• Ignoring the grievances of the local people and their participation in the movement, the British historians
felt that the rebellion was engineered by the sepoys, and some landholders and princes having vested
interest.
• Recent researches on 1857 however argue that self-interested motives did not have much significance
GS

before the combined opposition to the unpopular British regime.

• Some historians view the Revolt of 1857 as the first war of Indian independence.
• Those who don't agree with this interpretation argue that the rebel leaders did not make an attempt to
establish a new social order. They tried to restore the old Mughal rule by inviting Bahadur Shah II.
• It is said that "Although Indian initiatives and priorities were so central in the experience of change there
was no national revolt in 1857. The discontented were fractured in loyalty and intention, often looking
back to a society and a policy which were no longer viable". Thus, it was not revolution but just a
restoration.
• Recent studies on the Revolt of 1857, however, focus on the popular participation in the revolt.
• Besides the sepoys and Taluqdars, rural peasantry participated in large numbers in the revolt. In the case
of Awadh, it has been shown that taluqdars and peasants jointly launched the attack.
• Even in many places when taluqdars made peace with the British, peasants continued their movement.
• The sepoys had linkage with their kinsmen in the villages and the revolt of the sepoys influenced the
civilian population to ventilate their grievances against the British rule. Thus the Revolt of 1857 took the
character of a popular uprising.
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Historians on the Nature of the Revolt.

Sir J. Lawrence and J. Seeley 1857 was a mutiny led by selfish army
Ler Rees War of fanatic religionalists against Christians.
J.G. Medley A war between blacks and black supported whites.
T.R. Helmes Conflict between civilization and barbarism.
J. Outram and W. Taylor A Hindu-Muslim conspiracy.
S.N. Sen Inherited in the constitution of British Rule.
Disraeli A national revolt
V.D. Savarkar First War of Indian Independence
V. Smith Discontent and unrest widespreadly prevalent.

E
Participants to the Revolt
Ahmadullah An Adviser of the ex-king of Avadh, Faizabad
OR
Nana Saheb Kanpur
Rani Jhansi Jhansi
Kunwar Singh Jagdishpur (Bihar)
SC

Mangal Pande Barrackpore

Hazrat Mahal Lucknow
Tantia Tope Gwalior
Hakim Ahsanullah Chief Adviser to Bahadur Shah during 1857
GS

Firuz Shah Relative of Bahadur Shah

Henry Lawrence Chief Commissioner of Avadh died
Maj. Gen. Havelock Defeated Tantia Tope at Bithnur
John Lawrence Suppressed revolt in Punjab
Major Hudson Beheaded Bahadur Shah's son.
Maj. Gen. Wyndham Defeated by Tantia Tope near Kanpur
Calen Campbell Reoccupied Lucknow in March, 1858
Hugh Rose Defeated Rani Jhansi
General Neil Died at Lucknow
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INTRODUCTION AND EVOLUTION OF

ENGLISH EDUCATION
• The educational system which the British introduced in India is known as the modern education.
• Under this system greater emphasis was laid on the teaching of English language and its literature and the
study of Indian languages were generally neglected.
• The study of languages such as Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit was left to the people themselves. Moreover,
the modern education was based on logic and scientific research rather than on faith and ritualism.
Causes or objectives for the Introduction of Modern Education:

E
The Britishers introduced the modern education in India to fulfil their various objectives. The chief among
them are the following:
•

OR
To reduce the expenditure on administration: The English introduced the Modern education in India with
the sole object of reducing the expenditure incurred on administration. In different departments they
needed a large number of such employees who could not be brought from England. This demand could
be met only by employing the educated Indians who could be recruited at far less expense than the
Europeans.
SC
• To encourage the study of the English language: The Britishers were now the master of India and like
all masters (alien rulers) they too wished that the people under their rule should learn their language which
they must use in communicating with them. Besides they thought that as a result of the learning of
English, Indian people would easily accept the British rule.
• To expand Market for English goods: The English capitalists thought that after learning the English
language and acquiring Western education, the Indians would become semi-English. According to Macaulay
GS

the Indian would then remain Indians only in their colour while in their interest, ideas, morals and
intelligence they would become English. In such conditions the market for British goods would automatically
expand.
• Spread of Christianity: The Christian missionaries believed that the modern education would make
Indians to be attracted towards Christianity.
• In the beginning the company never took it as its duty to give education to the Indians and only few
British officers in their individual capacity tried to break some ice in this direction.
• In 1781 A.D Warren Hastings laid the foundation at the Calcutta & Madras.
• Sir William Jones, a judge of the Supreme Court founded the Asiatic society of Bengal in 1784 A.D.
• In 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British resident, Jonathan Duncan, a Sanskrit College was
established to promote the study of Hindu laws and philosophy in Banaras.
• In 1792 A.D. the Resident of Benares took special interest in spreading education and started several
English schools and colleges where English was taught.
• The missionaries started for the same purpose the Wilson College at Bombay, the Christian college at
Madras and the St. John College at Agra.
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• Some progressive Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy also started English schools. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
laid the foundation of a school at Calcutta in 1816 A.D.
• The East India Company began to adopt a dual policy in the sphere of education. It discouraged the
prevalent system of oriental education and gave importance to western education and English language.
• The Charter Act of 1813 adopted a provision to spend one lakh rupees per annum for the spread of
education in India.
• Although there was a prolonged debate pertaining to education during the course of a general discussion
on the Act of 1813 in the British Parliament, yet the matter continued to generate debate for the next
20 years. Consequently, not even a single penny out of the allocated funds could be spent on education.
• The contemporary British scholars were divided into two groups on the issue of development of education
in India. One group, called the Orientalists, advocated the promotion of oriental subjects through Indian
languages. The other group, called the Anglicists, argued the cause of western sciences and literature in
the medium of English language.
• In 1829, after assuming the office of the Governor-General of India, Lord William Bentinck, emphasized

E
on the medium of English language in Indian education.
OR
• In the beginning of 1835, the 10 members of the General Committee of Public Instruction were clearly
divided into two equal groups.
• Five members including the Chairman of the committee Lord Macaulay were in favour of adopting
English as medium of public instruction whereas the other five were in favour of oriental languages.
• The stalemate continued till 2 February 1835 when the Chairman of the committee, Lord Macaulay
SC

announced his famous Minute advocating the Anglicist point of view.

• Consequently, despite fierce opposition from all quarters, Bentinck got the resolution passed on 7 March
1835 which declared that henceforth, government funds would be utilized for the promotion of western
literature and science through the medium of English language.
WOOD'S DISPATCH
GS

• In 1854, Sir Charles Wood sent a comprehensive dispatch as a grand plan on education.
• It was considered as the Magna Carta of English Education in India (formed a landmark in the history
of modern education in India).
• It rejected the 'filtration theory' and laid stress on mass education, female education and improvement of
vernaculars, favoured secularism in Education.
Its Major Recommendations were:
• An education department was to be established in every province.
• Universities on the model of the London University are established in big cities such as Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras.
• At least one Government school is opened in every district.
• Affiliated private schools should be given grant-in-aid.
• The Indian natives should be given training in their mother-tongue also.
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• In accordance with the Wood's despatch, Education Departments were established in every province and
universities were opened at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857 A.D.-and in Punjab in 1882 A.D. and
at Allahabad in 1887 A.D.
Drawbacks of the Company's System of Education:
• Even the meagre amount of one lakh set aside for educational purposes could not be spent till 1833 A.D.
• The Company never took a serious interest in the field of education. By educating the members of the
higher and the middle classes only they created a serious gap between various classes of the Indian people.
• The only object of their educational system was to prepare clerks who would carry on the work of the
company's administration smoothly. It simply shows the selfishness of the company.
• All the subjects were taught through English and study of Indian languages were neglected.
• All those who got their training in English considered themselves superior to others and thus classes of
people were born who were Indians only in blood and colour but they considered themselves English in

E
thought and in their way of living.
• No funds were set aside for the education of women, as women's education had no utility for the English.

•
OR
On the other hand, they were afraid of hurting the sentiments of the India of the Indian people as the
conservative Indian opinion was against giving any education to their women folk.
The English government never paid any attention towards imparting scientific and technical education. By
1857 A.D only three medical Colleges, one each at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and one Engineering
SC
College at Roorkee were opened. Admission to these Colleges were open only for the Europeans; as such
the Indians were almost neglected.
EFFORTS AFTER 1857
Hunter Commission
• Hunter Commission officially known as the Indian Education Commission, 1882, was the first education
GS

commission in the history of modern India.

• The commission was presided over by Sir William Wilson Hunter, a Bengal Civilian.
• Appointed by the Government of India, it was to review in depth, the state of education in India since
wood's education despatch of 1854, and to recommend necessary measures for further progress.
• The other consideration, which prompted the Government to launch this enquiry, was the agitation of the
missionaries, particularly in England, accusing lapses of the Government in implementing the provisions
of the Despatch of 1854.
• Because of the great importance, which the Government attached to primary and secondary education,
higher education was excluded from the Commission's purview and instead was directed to concentrate
chiefly on primary and secondary education.
• The Commission submitted its report in October 1883 and its major recommendations were:
– Local bodies (district boards and municipalities) should be entrusted with the management of primary
schools.
– Government, should maintain only a few schools and colleges; others to be left to private hands.
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Raleigh Commission
• Lord Curzon appointed a Universities Commission under Thomas Raleigh (Law member of the Viceroy's
Executive Council) in 1902, and based on his recommendations, Indian Universities Act of 1904 was
passed.
• It enabled the universities to assume teaching functions (hitherto they were mainly examining bodies),
periodic inspection of institutions, speedier transaction of business, strict conditions for affiliation, etc.
• It was criticized by the nationalists for its tightening government, control over universities.
Saddler Commission
• The Saddler Commission was appointed by Lord Chelmsford to review the working of Calcutta University
which included two Indians Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed. Its main recommendations
were:
˜ Secondary Education by a Board of Secondary education and duration of degree course should be
3 yrs.

E
– 7 new universities were opened (Total 12 now) at Banaras, Mysore, Patna, Aligarh, Dhaka, Lucknow
and Osmania.
OR
– Kashi Vidyapeeth and Jamia Milia Islamia were established.
– University course divided into pass course and Honours.
Hartog Committee 1929
SC

• The Committee was appointed to survey the growth of education in British India which submitted its
report in 1929.
• It "devoted far more attention to mass education than Secondary and University Education".
• It suggested the following important measures for the improvement of primary education:
GS

– Adoption of the policy of consolidation in place of multiplication of schools.

– Fixation of the duration of primary course to four years.
– Improvement in the quality, training, status, pay, service condition of teachers.
– Relating the curricula and methods of teaching to the conditions of villages in which children live
and read.
– Adjustment of school hours and holidays to seasonal and local requirements.
– Increasing the number of Government inspection staff.
• In the sphere of secondary education the Committee indicated a great waste of efforts due to the immense
number of failures at the Matriculation Examination. it suggested:
• Introduction of diversified course in middle schools meeting the requirements of majority of students.
• Diversion of more boys to industrial and commercial careers at the end of the middle stage.
• The Committee also suggested for the improvement of University Education, Women Education, Education
of Minorities and Backward classes, etc.
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• The suggestions of the Committee could not be implemented effectively and the educational progress
could not be maintained due to worldwide economic depression of 1930-31.
• Most of the recommendations remained mere pious hopes.
WARDHA SCHEME OF EDUCATION
It envisaged:
• Inclusion of a basic handicraft in the syllabus.
• First seven years education should be an integral part of a free and compulsory nationwide education
system (thought mother tongue).
• Teaching to be in Hindi from II to VII and in the English only VIII.
• Ways to be devised to establish contact with the community around schools through service.
• A suitable technique to be devised with a view to implementing the main idea of basic education-

E
educating the child through the medium of productive activity of a suitable handicraft.

OR
SARGEANT PLAN OF EDUCATION 1944
It envisaged:
• Establishment of elementary schools and high school.
• Universal and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 - 11.
SC
• High schools of 2 types :
– Academic.
– Technical and Vocational.
• Intermediate courses were to be abolished.
GS
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PRESS UNDER BRITISH RULE

• In 1550 first press was established by Portuguese.
• The greatest impact on the development or foundation of English in India came when the commercial
monopoly of the Company was ended in 1813, and the British in India assumed, police functions,
educative and civilizing or administrative functions as well.
• Missionaries began to enter, and they helped established printing press which served printing of grammar
books, dictionaries, and translations etc.
• In 1780 James Augustus Hicky started the first newspaper weekly in India called Bengal Gazette. It was
the first news paper in South Asian sub-continent.

E
• Bengal Gazette could not survive more than two years due to sharp confrontation with Governor-General
Warren Hastings and Chief Justice Elijah Impey.
OR
• Indian Gazette as a rival to Bengal Gazette, published in the same year (1780) by Peter Read, a salt agent
(backing by Hastings).
• After Bengal Gazette, other publications from India were Madras Courier weekly (1785), Bombay Herald
weekly (1789) merged into Bombay Gazette in 1791, Hurukaru weekly (1793), Calcutta Chronicle (1818),
SC

Bengal Journal, Indian world, Bengal Harkarer etc.

• The first newspaper in an Indian language was in Bengali, named as the 'Samachar Darpan'.
VERNACULAR JOURNALISM
• The era of Hindi Journalism started in 1826 with 'Uddanta Martanda' from Kolkata, then Bangdoot,
Banaras Akhbaar, Gyandeepak, Malwa Akhbaar, Gwalior Gazette, Payam-e-Azadi, Samachar Sudha Varshan,
GS

Lokhit, Marwaad Gazette, Jodhpur Government Gazette etc. were introduced with the mission of
independence, self-rule and social reforms.
• 1860's witnessed a boom in the Indian Language Press in the country and several Newspapers made their
appearance in this period.
• Many English Newspapers which evolved at that time are flourishing even today like The Times of India
(1861), The Pioneer (1861), The Statesman (1875) and The Hindu (1878).
• Number of acts and restrictions like The Vernacular Press Act, Gagging Act etc tried to overrule the power
of Print Media in India but the then social reformers and freedom fighters like Mahatma Gandhi, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Aurbindo Ghosh, Annie Beasant, Surendra Nath Banerjee, Lala Lajpat Rai, Ganesh
Shankar Vidyarthi and many others recognized the power of pen and used it as a tool for propagating the
feeling of nationalism and brotherhood.
• They also used their Newspapers to remove the socio-religious evils of the society. Thus, the history of
Journalism in India is inseparably linked with the development of social awareness, national consciousness
and the progress of freedom movement.
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• Also the Newspapers like Kesari, Pratap, Maratha, Yugantar, Sudarshan, Samalochak, Maryada, Swadesh,
Abhyudaya, Karmaveer, Karmyogi, Gadar etc. brought revolution in the Hindi Journalism of India.
GANDHI AND JOURNALISM
• Mahatma Gandhi, who was considered as the greatest Journalist of his times used his Newspapers - Indian
Opinion, Young India, Navjivan, Satyagrah and Harijan, to expose the flaws of the society and to stimulate
social awakening.
• He advocated that a Newspaper is a powerful tool in bringing positive changes in the society but at the
same time, he feared that this power can be misused for commercial interests as many publications started
looking for the revenue attached to the advertisements.
• He once said that a Newspaper is a great power but just as an unchained torrent of water brings devastations,
similarly an uncontrolled pen can also fetch destruction for the entire humanity.
• He suggested that the sole aim of Journalism should be service to the people.

E
• The first newspaper under Indian administration appeared in 1816. It was also called Bengal Gazette and
was published by Gangadhar Bhattacharjee. It was a liberal paper which advocated the reforms of Raja

•
Ram Mohan Roy.

OR
Raja Ram Mohan Roy himself brought out a magazine in Persian called Mirat-ul-Ukhbar. He also published
The Brahmanical Magazine, an English periodical to counteract the religious propaganda of the Christian
missionaries of Serampore.
SC
• Standard, The Bombay Times and Telegraph merged into Times of India in 1861, Robert Knight was the
owner, he was also owner of Statesman daily (1875) from Calcutta, Indian Economist monthly and
Agriculture Gazette of India, his editorials and writings were balanced and impressive.
• Other major publications- Indu Prakash weekly, Gyan Prakash, Lokhitavadi (all 1861), Amrit Bazar
Patrika (1868 Cacutta), Pioneer (1872 Allahbad), The Hindu (1878 Chennai), Keshari (marathi) and The
Maratha (English) (both in1878 from Pune by veteran freedom fighter Balgangadhar Tilak).
GS

• Pioneer Indian Journalists- Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahadev Govinda Ranade, Dadabhoi Naoroji, Gopal
Rao Hari Deshmukh, Vishu Shastri Pandit, Karsondas Mulji, Bal Sashtri Jambhekar etc.
• Around the same time, Amrita Bazar Patrika was able to establish itself in Kolkata. Starting out as a
vernacular paper, it was constantly in trouble due to its outspokenness. In order to circumvent the strict
provision of the Vernacular Press Act, Amrita Bazar Patrika converted itself overnight into an English
newspaper.
• Amrita Bazar Patrika inspired freedom fighter Lokmanya Tilak to start Kesari in Pune. He used Kesari
to build anti-cow killing societies, Ganesh mandals and reviving the Chhatrapati Shivaji cult. He used mass
communication as a powerful political weapon.
CENSOR ACT 1799 BY LORD WELLESLEY
• For the safety of the Englishmen in India, for the supremacy; Wellesly had imposed censorship on all
newspapers. Its provisions were:
– Every newspaper should print the names of printer, editor and proprietor.
– Before printing any material it should be submitted to the secretary of Censorship.
• The censorship was extended to journals, Books and even pamphlets. This Act was abolished by Hastings.
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REGULATIONS OF 1823
• It was based on recommendations of Thomas Munroe. Its provisions were:
– Every publisher should get a license from the government for publishing book, defaulters would be
fined Rs 400 and the press would be ceased by the government.
– Government has right to cancel the license.
– Magistrates were authorized to seal such presses.
• Charles Metcalf abolished the Act.
• Under Metcalf tough norms were relaxed and only declaration was taken from publisher.
• Undue interference in the publication was stopped. They could seize to function by declaration only.
VERNACULAR PRESS ACT 1878
• Vernacular press criticized British rule, therefore British Govt. came down heavily on vernacular press.

E
• The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878 under the Governor Generalship and Viceroyalty of Lord
Lytton, to Indian language newspapers.
OR
• The purpose of the Act was to control the printing and circulation of seditious material, specifically that
which could produce disaffection against the British Government in India in the minds of the masses.
• According to the provisions of this Act:
– The magistrates of the districts were empowered, without the prior permission of the Government,
SC

to call upon a printer and publisher of any kind to enter into a Bond, undertaking not to publish
anything which might "rouse" feelings of disaffection against the government.
– The magistrate was also authorized to deposit a security, which could be confiscated if the printer
violated the Bond.
– If a printer repeated the violation, his press could be seized.
GS

• Thus the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 is also known as 'The Gagging Act'.
• The act was later repealed by Lord Ripon.
NEWSPAPER (INCITEMENT TO OFFENCES) ACT 1908
• The Newspaper Act, of 1908 laid down several principles, terms and condition. According to its provisions:
– The magistrates were empowered to confiscate printing press, property connected thereto of newspapers,
which published objectionable materials serving as incitement to murder or acts of violence.
– The Local government was authorized to terminate any declaration made by the printer and publisher
of the newspaper, which had been found offender under the Press and Registration of Books Act of
1867.
– The newspapers editors and the printers were given the option to appeal to the High Court within
fifteen days of the order of the penalty of the Press.
INDIAN PRESS (EMERGENCY POWERS) ACT 1931
• In 1931, the government enacted the Indian Press Act, which gave the sweeping powers to the provincial
government in suppressing the propaganda for the civil disobedience movement.
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– Section 4 (1) of the Act sought to punish the words, signs or visible representations, which incite or
encourage the commission of any offence or murder or any cognizable offence.
– These cognizable offence included violence or directly or indirectly expressing approval or admiration
of any such offence.
– Any person, real or fictitious, who had committed or alleged or represented to have committed the
offence, would be punished.
– In 1932 the Press Act of 1931 was amplified in the form of Criminal Amendment Act of 1932.
– Section 4 was made very comprehensive and expanded to include all possible activities calculated
to undermine the Government's authority.
PRESS REGULATING ACT 1942
• Registration of journalists was made mandatory.

E
• Limitations were imposed on the messages regarding civil disturbances and on headlines and space given
to news on disturbances.
•
• Government had the authority on arbitrary censorship.OR
Prohibition of news was imposed regarding acts of sabotage.

WW- II SCENARIO
• During the Second World War (1939-45), the executive exercised exhaustive powers under the defence
SC
of India Act.
• The Press Emergency Act and the Official Secrets Act was reinforced.
• At the same time the publication of all news relating to the Congress activities declared illegal.
• The special powers assumed by the Government during the war ended in1945.
GS

Newspaper Journal Founder / Editor

Bengal Gazette (1780) J.K. Hikki (India’s first newspaper)
Indian Gazette Peter Read
Essays in Indian Economics M.G. Ranade
Samvad Kaumudi Ram Mohan Roy (Bengali)
Mirat - ul - Akhbar Ram Mohan Roy (first Persian newspaper)
Indian Mirror Devendra Nath Tagore
Kavivachan Sudha Bhartendu Harishchandra
Udbodhana & Prabudha Bharat Swami Vivekananda
Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Tahzib - ul - Akhlaq Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan
Al - Hilal & Al - Balagh Abdul Kalam Azad
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Rast Goftar Dadabhai Naoroji (First newspaper in Gujarati)

Statesman Robert Knight
Kesari & Maharatta B.G. Tilak
Sudharak G.K. Gokhale
New India (Weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal
Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh & Motilal Ghosh
Vande Mataram Aurobindo Ghosh
Native Opinion V.N. Mandalik
Hindu Vir Raghavacharya & G.S. Aiyar
Sandhya B.B. Upadhyaya
Vichar Lahiri Krishnashastri Chiplunkar
Hindu Patriot

E
Girish Chandra Ghosh (later Harish Chandra Mukherji)
OR
Indian Socialist Shyamji Krishna Verma
Talwar (in Berlin) Birendra Nath Chattopadhyaya
Free Hindustan (in Vancouver) Tarak Nath Das
SC

Hindustan Times K.M. Pannikar

Kranti Mirajkar, Joglekar, Ghate
Yugantar Bhupendranath Datta & Barinder Kumar Ghosh
Bombay Chronicle Firoze Shah Mehta
GS

Hindustan M.M. Malviya

Mooknayak B.R. Ambedkar
Comrade Mohammed Ali
Independent Motilal Nehru
Punjabi Lala Lajpat Rai
Commonwealth & New India (Daily) Annie Besant
Pratap Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi
Nav Jeevan; Young India; & Harijan M.K. Gandhi
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EVOLUTION AND GROWTH OF NATIONALISM

• The latter half of the 19th century witnessed the rise and growth of Indian Nationalism and from then
onwards an organised national movement started in India.
• The year 1885 marks the beginning of a new epoch in Indian history. In that year All Indian Political
Organization was set on foot under the name of the Indian National Congress.
• The Indian mind became increasingly conscious of its political position.
• Indian masses, under the National congress fought one of the longest non-violent (to some extent violent
also) struggle to get their freedom on 15th August 1947.

E
The following causes were responsible for the origin and growth of nationalism in India:
•

•
OR
Political Unity: For the first time, most of the regions in India were united politically and administratively
under a single power (the British rule). It introduced a uniform system of law and government.
Development of Communication and Transport: The introduction of railways, telegraphs and postal
services and the construction of roads and canals facilitated communication among the people. All these
brought Indians nearer to each other and provided the facility to organise the national movement on an
SC
all India basis.
• English Language and Western Education: The English language played an important role in the growth
of nationalism in the country. The English educated Indians, who led the national movement, developed
Indian nationalism and organised it. Western education facilitated the spread of the concepts of liberty,
equality, freedom and nationalism and sowed the seeds of nationalism.
GS

• The Role of the Press: The Indian Press, both English and vernacular, had also aroused the national
consciousness.
• Social and Religious Movements of the Nineteenth Century: The leaders of various organisations like the
Brahmo Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Arya Samaj, and Theosophical Society generated a feeling of
regard for and pride in the motherland.
• Economic Exploitation by the British: A good deal of anti-British feeling was created by the economic
policy pursued by the British government in India. The English systematically ruined the Indian trade and
native industries. Therefore, economic exploitation by the British was one of the most important causes
for the rise of Indian nationalism.
• Racial Discrimination: The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent bitterness and suspicion between
the British and the Indians. The English feeling of racial superiority grew. India as a nation and Indians
as individuals were subjected to insults, humiliation and contemptuous treatment.
• Administration of Lytton: Lord Lytton arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time when the larger part of India
was in the grip of famine. He passed the Vernacular Press Act which curbed the liberty of the Indian Press.
His Arms Act was a means to prevent the Indians from keeping arms. All these measures created
widespread discontent among the Indians.
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• The Ilbert Bill controversy: The Ilbert Bill was presented in the Central Legislature during the Viceroyalty
of Lord Ripon. The Bill tried to remove racial inequality between Indian and European judges in courts.
This Bill was opposed by the British residents in India. Ultimately the Bill was modified.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the first Indian leader to start an agitation for political reforms in India.
• After 1836, there was rise of many political associations in various parts of India.
• All these associations were headed by 'elites' and were regional and local.
• What distinguished these new political associations from earlier religions and caste associations of the
country were the secular interest that bonded together the new classes.
• They worked for reform of administration, association of Indians with the administration, and spread of
education, and sent long petitions, putting forward Indian demands, to the British Parliament.
• The earliest public association in modern India was the Landholders' Society - an association of the
landlords of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, founded in 1837 with the purpose of promoting the class interests
of the landlords.

E
• In 1843, was organised the Bengal British Indian Society to protect and promote general public interests.
OR
• Landholders' Society and Bengal British Indian Society were merged in 1851 to form the British India
Association.
• This association was dominated by members of the landed aristocracy and its primary objective was
safeguarding their class interest.
SC

• However, the Association struck a liberal note and when the time came for the renewal of the charter of
the East India Company, it sent a petition to the Parliament praying for establishment of a separate
legislature of a popular character, separation of judicial and executive functions, reduction in the salaries
of higher officers, abolition of salt duty, abkari and stamp duties etc.
• The prayers of the Association were partially met and the Charter Act of 1853 provided for the addition
of six members to the governor-general's council for legislative purpose.
GS

• Similarly, the Madras Native Association and the Bombay Association were established in 1852.
• Similar, though lesser known clubs and associations, such as the Scientific Society founded by Sayyid
Ahmad Khan, were established in different towns and parts of the country.
• The period after 1858 witnessed a gradual widening of the gulf between the educated Indians and the
British Indian administration.
• As the educated Indians studied the character of British rule and its consequences for the Indians, they
became more and more critical of British policies in India.
• The discontent gradually found expression in political activity and the existing associations no longer
satisfied the politically-conscious Indians.
• In 1866, Dadabhai Naoroji organised the East India Association in London to discuss the Indian question
and to influence British public men to promote Indian welfare. Later he organised branches of the
Association in prominent Indian cities.
• Two other Associations namely National Indian Association, founded by Mary Carpenter in 1867 and
Indian Society, founded by Anandmohan Bose in 1872 were also formed in London.
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• Justice Ranade and others organised the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha in the 1870. The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
brought out a quarterly journal under the guidance of Justice Ranade. This journal became the intellectual
guide of new India particularly on economic questions.
• The Madras Mahajan Sabha was started in 1881 and the Bombay Presidency Association in 1885. The
Bombay Presidency Association was organized by the popularly called brothers in law - Mehtas, Telang
and Tyabji, representing the three chief communities of Bombay town. These organisations were mainly
devoted to criticism of important administrative and legislative measures.
• Sisir Kumar Ghose founded the Indian league in 1875 with the objective of "stimulating the sense of
nationalism amongst the people" and of encouraging political education. Within a year of its foundation,
the Indian league was superseded by the Indian Association.
The Indian Association
• The most important of the pre-Congress nationalist organization was 'The Indian Association of Calcutta'.

E
• The younger nationalists of Bengal had been gradually getting discontented with the conservative and pro-
landlord policies of the British India Association. They wanted sustained political agitation on issues of
wider public interest.
•

•
Association in July 1876. OR
Led by Surendranath and Anandamohan Bose, the younger nationalists of Bengal founded the Indian

The Indian Association set before itself the aims of creating a strong public opinion in the country on
political questions and the unification of the Indian people on a common political programme.
SC
• In order to attract large numbers of people to its banner, it fixed a low membership fee for the poorer
classes.
• The first major issue it took up for agitation was the reform of the Civil Service regulations and the raising
of the age limit for its examination, Surendranath Banerjee toured different parts of the country during
1877-78 in an effort to create an all-India public opinion on this question.
GS

• The Indian Association also carried out agitation against the Arms Act and the Vernacular Press Act and
in favour of protection of the tenants from oppression by the zamindars.
• During 1883-85 it organised popular demonstrations of thousands of peasants to get the Rent Bill changed
in favour of the tenants.
• It also agitated for better conditions of work for the workers in the English-owned tea plantations where
conditions of near-slavery prevailed.
• Many branches of the Association were opened in the towns and villages of Bengal and also in many
towns outside Bengal.
• The existing organizations had served a useful purpose but they were narrow in their scope and functioning.
They dealt mostly with local questions and their membership and leadership were confined to a few
people belonging to a single city or province.
• Even the Indian Association had not succeeded in becoming an all-Indian body.
• The Indian Association sponsored an all-India National Conference at Calcutta in December 1883. This
Conference was attended by several leaders from outside Bengal. It adopted a programme very similar to
the one adopted by the Indian National Congress with which it merged in 1886.
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Political and Nationalist Organizations

Year Organization Founder Place
1839 British India Society William Adams London
1843 British India Society — Calcutta
1851 British India Association Devendranath Tagore Calcutta
1852 Madras Native Association — Madras
1852 Bombay Association Jagannath Shankar Bombay
1862 London India Committee C.P. Mudaliar London
1866 East India Association Dadabhai Nauroji London
1867 National India Association Mary Carpenter London
1872 Indian Society Anand Mohan Bose London
1876 Indian Association

E
Anand Mohan Bose and Calcutta
OR
S.N. Banerjee
1883 Indian National Society Shishir Chandra Bose Calcutta
1884 Indian National Conference S.N. Banerjee Calcutta
1885 Bombay Presidency Association Feroz Shah Mehta and Telang Bombay
SC

1885 Indian National Congress A.O. Hume Bombay

1888 United Indian Patriotic Association Sir Saiyad Ahmad Aligarh
1905 Servants of India Society G.K. Gokhale Bombay
1915 Home Rule League Annie Besant and Tilak Pune
GS

1918 U.P. Kisan Sabha Malviya, Gauri Shankar and Lucknow

Indra Narayan
1920 Communist Party of India M.N. Roy
1920 Servants of People Society Lala Lajpat Rai Tashkent
1920 Awadh Kisan Sabha Nehru, Ramchandra and Pratapgarh
Gauri Shankar
1920 Indian Trade Union Congress N.M. Joshi (Founder), Lucknow
Lala Lajpat Rai (President)
1921 Communist Group of India Nalini Gupta Calcutta
1923 Swaraj Party Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das Delhi
1924 All India Communist Party Satyabhakta Kanpur
1925 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh K.V. Hedgewar —
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1927 All India Womens Conference Lady Sadashiva Iyer Madras

1928 Labour Swaraj Party Qazi Nazrul Islam —
1929 Khudai Khidmatgar Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan Peshawar
1934 Congress Socialist Party Acharya Narendra Dev and
Jaiprakash Narayan
1936 Progressive Writers Group Munshi Premchand Lucknow
1936 All Indian Kisan Sabha Swami Sahjanand and Lucknow
N.G. Ranga
1936 All India Student Federation Minoo Masani, Ashok Mehta —
1939 Forward Bloc Subhash Chandra Bose Calcutta

E
1939 Indian Bolshevik Party N.D. Majumdar Calcutta
1940 Radical Democratic Party M.N. Roy Calcutta
1941
1942
Indian Bolshevik Lenin Party
Revolutionary Socialist Party OR
Ajit Rai and Indrasen
Satyendra Nath Tagor
Calcutta
Calcutta
SC
GS
Notes

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INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

• The credit for organizing the first meeting of the Indian National Congress goes to a retired government
servant A.O. Hume.
• He was on very good terms with Lord Ripon and shared his view that the emergence of the educated class
should be accepted as a political reality and that timely steps should be taken to provide legitimate outlets
to the grievances of this class and efforts be made to satisfy its ambitions.
• He got in touch with prominent Indian leaders and organised with their cooperation the first session of
the Indian National Congress at Gokul Singh Tejpal Sanskrit School, Bombay in Decemeber 1885. It was
presided over by W.C. Banerjee and attended by 72 delegates.

E
The aims and objects of the Congress described in the first session as:
• Promotion of personal intimacy and friendship amongst the countrymen,
OR
• Eradication of all possible prejudices relating to race, creed or provinces,
• Consolidation of sentiments of national unity,
• Recording of the opinions of educated classes on pressing problems of the day, and
SC

• Laying down lines for future course of action in public interest.

• This organization initially fought for reforms in the country, and subsequently for the freedom of India
from the foreign yoke.
• The history of the Indian National Movement can be categorized in three important phases:
• The phase of 1885-1904; Phase of moderate nationalism when the Congress continued to be loyal
GS

to the British crown.

• The phase of 1905-1917; Swadeshi Movement, rise of militant nationalism and the Home Rule
Movement.
• The phase of 1918-1947; Known as the Gandhian era.

THE MODERATE CONGRESS (1885-1905)

• The Indian National Congress founded in 1885, provided common platform for the nationalist leaders to
meet & voice their grievances & place their demands before the British government.
• The early leaders of the Indian National Congress were Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade, Sir P.M. Mehta,
G.K. Gokhale, W.C. Banerjee & S.N. Banerjee.
• They were staunch believers in liberalism and Moderate politics.
• They came from the upper strata and were the product of western education.
• The moderates had a fascination for British Parliamentary institutions.
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• They were reformers and believed in the British justice.

• They wanted a balanced and lucid presentation of their needs before the Englishmen and their parliament.
• They used the methods of constitutional agitation.
• They believed that their main task was to educate the people in modern politics & arouse national
consciousness, create a united public opinion on political questions.
• They hold public meetings; they passed resolutions setting forth popular demands, and sent petitions to
the British authorities in India and to the parliament in England.
• The moderates believed that the British were unaware of the real conditions of India.
• They therefore made all efforts to enlighten the British public opinion through memorials, petitions and
political propaganda in England.
• The Moderates considered the coming of the British as beneficial and providential.

E
• They wanted to use the British in their attempts to reform contemporary Indian society.
•
•
OR
The early nationalist leaders did not expect the Congress to function as a political party.
A.O. Hume wanted it to function on the model of the Irish Home Rule League, which sought autonomy
in internal affairs under the British suzerainty. Thus, the Western concept of self-government, was the
political goal of the moderates. This goal was to be achieved through a gradual process.
Opinion Against Economic Exploitation
SC

• The Moderates linked the poverty in India to the economic exploitation of the country by the British.
• Dadabhi Naoroji pointed out the root cause of India's poverty & traced it to the drain of India's wealth.
• The Moderates suggested the development of modern industry as a remedy for the eradication of poverty.
• They popularized the concept of swadeshi as a means of promoting Indian industries.
GS

• They carried on agitation for the reduction in land revenue and asked for a radical change in the existing
pattern of taxation & expenditure.
• They urged the government to provide cheap credit to the peasants through agricultural banks and to make
available large scale irrigation facilities.
• They demanded improvement in the condition of plantation laborers, abolition of salt tax & other taxes.
• They were critical of the high government expenditure on the army that was employed in Asia & Africa.
Administrative Reforms
• The Moderates demanded for increasing Indianization of administrative services; criticized the oppressive
& tyrannical behavior of the police & government officials towards the common people and demanded
the separation of the executive from the judiciary.
• They opposed the official policy of disarming the people.
• They emphasized the need for the spread of education, extension of medical facilities to the people,
improvement of the public system and demanded freedom of speech & abolition of press censorship.
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Constitutional Reforms
• They were also extremely cautious, lest the Government suppress their activities. From 1885 to 1892 they
demanded the expansion and reform of the Legislative councils.
• The British Government was forced by their agitation to pass the Indian Councils Act of 1892. By this
Act the number of members of the imperial Legislative Council as well as the provincial councils was
increased. Some of these members could be elected indirectly by Indians, but the officials' majority
remained.
• The nationalists were totally dissatisfied with the Act of 1892 and declared it to be a hoax.
• By the beginning of the 20th century, the nationalist leaders advanced further and put forward the claim
for swarajya of self-government within the British Empire on the model of self-governing colonies like
Australia and Canada. This demand was made from the Congress platform by Gokhale in 1905 and by
Dadabhai Naoroji in 1906.
Weaknesses

E
• The Moderates lacked confidence in the masses.
• They came from the cities and were sympathetic towards the people of the country side but could not
OR
keep close contact with them.
• They did not realize that a prolonged struggle against imperialism could be waged through a mass movement
only.
• The Moderates apprehended that if they led a mass movement, the British Government would easily
SC

break the Congress. The Moderates, therefore, did not organize a mass movement on a large scale.
Evaluation
• The Moderates were the most progressive in Indian society at that time and they were true patriots.
• They desired all-round progress and modernization of India and wished the betterment of the Indian
society.
GS

• The Moderates succeeded in creating a wide political awakening in India and arousing among the Indians
the feeling of belonging to one common nation.
• They popularized the ideas of democracy & civil liberty.
• They also trained a large number of political workers in the art of modern politics.
• In spite of their loyalty to the British crown, they exposed the true character of the British imperialism
in India and blamed British rule for the poverty of the Indian people.
THE EXTREMIST (1905-1920)
• The younger group of nationalists in the Indian national Congress, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala
Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal; was known as the Extremist Congress.
• This group was extremely critical of the ideology and methodology of the Moderate leadership.
• They believed in radical programmes for the attainment of their demands.
• According to the extremists the Moderates with their elitist background did not succeed in making any
effective impact on the masses.
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Reasons for the Rise of Extremists

• The failure of the Moderates to win any notable success other than the expansion of the legislative
councils by the Indian Councils Act (1892).
• The famine and plague of 1896-97 which affected the whole country and the suffering of the masses.
• The economic conditions of the people became worse.
• The ill-treatment of Indians in South Africa on the basis of colour.
• The Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 in which Japan defeated the European power Russia. This encouraged
Indians to fight against the European nation, Britain.
• Other then above mentioned causes the viceroyalty of Curzon & his reactionary policies contributed to
the rise of extremist movement.
• Curzon considered that the main objective of his mission was to strengthen the roots of the British empire

E
in India
• He curtailed the number of Indians in the Calcutta Corporation & increased the official control over the

•
•
Indian universities in the name of educational reforms.

OR
He spent Indian money lavishly on foreign missions, the Delhi Durbar and the Tibetan expedition.
Curzon's highhanded action forcing the partition of Bengal against the will of the people, earned unpopularity
& alienated the educated classes from the British rule.
SC
Course of Action
• Consequently, the extremist leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and
Aurobindo Ghosh advocated stronger agitation and mass action.
• The extremists differed in ideology and action from the moderates. They rejected prayer and petition
method of moderates.
GS

• The new leadership sought to create a passionate love for liberty, accompanied by a spirit of sacrifice and
readyness to suffer for the cause of country.
• They advocated boycott of foreign goods, use of swadesi goods, national education and passive resistance.
• They had deep faith in mass and they planned to achieve swaraj through mass action.
• The leaders of this wing gave up the soft approach of appeals and petitions.
• Instead, they made radical demands and adopted strong ways of political agitation.
• They had no faith in good intentions of the British government. The extremist aimed at achiveing 'swaraj'
that meant complete independence from British rule.
• They considered that the demand of the moderate leaders for Swaraj was for colonial self government.
• Tilak remarked, 'Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it'.
• Aurobindo Ghosh said "political freedom is the life breath of a nation".
• The most outstanding leader among the Extremists was Bal Gangadhar Tilak. He started a school &
founded two newspapers, the Maratha in English and the Kesari in Marathi. Both the newspapers, by their
fearless criticism of the government attained great popularity.
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• In 1890, Tilak opposed the Age of Consent Bill, on the ground that a foreign government had no right
to interfere with Hindu religion and social matters and in 1893, also sponsored the cow-protection movement.
• Tilak reorganized the festival of Ganapati, and started the Shivaji festival to revive the spirit of adventure
& liberate the country from foreign domination.
• Tilak advised the peasants to withhold payment of land revenues when their crops failed because of
draught or famine. He called for Swadeshi and boycott of British goods.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE MODERATES AND THE EXTREMISTS
• The differences between the Moderates & the Extremists were that the moderates were against the idea
of boycott as a general political weapon, though they welcomed swadeshi.
• G.K. Gokhale recommended the use of the word swadeshi to describe the anti partition movement.
• These differences centred round two main points, namely the political goal and the method to achieve it.
• As regards the goal, Tilak summed up his idea in one sentence 'Swaraj is my birth right and I will have

E
it'.
• The Extremists interpreted Swaraj to mean complete autonomy without any dependence on the British
OR
rule. But G.K. Gokhale, did not expect that. He said that there was no alternative to British rule, for a
long time to come.
• The differences between the Moderates and the Extremists had become irreconcilable and in 1906 the
Calcutta Congress proposed the name of Tilak for the Presidents of the Congress. However, the moderates
opposed this proposal.
SC

• A split was avoided by choosing Dadabhai Naoroji; under his president ship four compromise resolutions
on Swadeshi, boycott, national education, and self-government demands were passed.
THE SPLIT IN THE SURAT CONGRESS
• In 1907, the annual session of the Congress proposed to be held at Nagpur, which was considered as the
Extremist stronghold. However, due to the Moderates, the venue was shifted to Surat.
GS

• The final showdown between the two factions in the Congress was staged at Surat. The Extremists wanted
Lala Lajpat Rai as the president of the Congress. However, the Moderates chose Rashbehari Ghose as
the president.
• The Surat Congress of 1907 ended in a split between the Moderates and the extremists led by Gokhale
and Tilak respectively.
Congress Sessions and Presidents
Year President Venue
1885 W.C. Bannerjee Bombay
1886 Dadabhai Naoroji Calcutta
1887 Badruddin Tyabji Madras
1888 George Yule Allahabad
1889 Sir William Wedderburn Bombay
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1890 Ferozshah Mehta Calcutta

1891 P. Ananda Charlu Nagpur
1892 W.C. Bannerjee Allahabad
1893 Dadabhai Naoroji Lahore
1894 Alfred Webb Madras
1895 S. N. Bannerjee Poona
1896 Rahimtull M. Sayani Calcutta
1897 C. Sankaran Nair Amravati
1898 Anand Mohan Bose Madras
1899 R. C. Dutt Lucknow

E
1900 N. G. Chandavarkar Lahore
1901
1902
1903
D. E. Wacha
S. N. Banerjee Ahmedabad
Lal Mohan Ghose
Calcutta

Madras
OR
1904 Sir Henry Cotton Bombay
SC
1905 G. K. Gokhale Benares
1906 Dadabhai Naoroji Calcutta
1907 Dr. Rash Bihari Ghosh Surat
1908 Dr. Rash Bihar Ghosh Madras
GS

1909 Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya Lahore

1910 Sir William Webberburn Allahabad
1911 Pandit B. N. Dhar Calcutta
1912 R. N. Modholkar Bankipore
1913 Nawab Syed Md. Bahadur Karachi
1914 Bhupendranath Basu Madras
1915 Sir Satender Prasad Sinha Bombay
1916 Ambika Charan Majumdar Lucknow
1917 Mrs. Annie Besant Calcutta
1918 Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya Delhi
1919 Motilal Nehru Amritsar
1920 Lala Lajpat Rai Calcutta
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C. Vijayraghavachariar (annual) Nagpur

1921 C. R. Das Gaya
1923 Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad
(Suspended)
Maulana Mahammad Ali
(Annual) (Cocanda)
1924 Mahatma Gandhi Belgaum
1925 Mrs. Sarojini Naidu Cawnpore
1926 S. Sarojini Lyengar Guwahati
1927 Dr. M. A. Ansari Madras
1928 Pandit Motilal Nehru Calcutta
1929 Jawaharlal Nehru Lahore
1930 (No session) but Independence
Day Pledge was adopted on
E
OR
26th Jan, 1930.
1931 Vallabhabhai Patel Karachi
1932 R. Amritlal (session was banned)
SC

1933 Mrs. J. M. Sen Gupta

(session was banned) Calcutta
1934-35 Rajendra Prasad Bombay
1936 Jawaharlal Nehru Lucknow
1937 Jawaharlal Nehru Faizpur
GS

1938 S. C. Bose Haripura

1939 S. C. Bose (Re-elected for 1939) Tripuri
1940 Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad Ramgarh
1941-45 (No session, due to arrests and
jailing because of WW-II.)
1946 Acharya J. B. Kripalani Meerut
1947 B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya Jaipur
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REVOLUTIONARY NATIONALISM

• In the first half of the 20th century, revolutionary groups sprang up mainly in Bengal, Maharashtra, and
Punjab.
• The revolutionaries were not satisfied with the methods of both the moderates and extremists. Hence,
they started many revolutionary secret organizations.
REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES IN MAHARASHTRA
Vasudeo Balwant Phadke

E
• Phadke was influenced by the vision of Justice Ranade.
• He held the British government to be responsible for the sufferings of the people during the famine in the

•
•
Deccan in 1876-77.

OR
Phadke denounced the British policy of ruthless exploitation of India.
The government ordered the army to suppress the uprising.
• Avoiding pitched battle; Phadke recognized his force &started guerilla warfare against the British.
SC
• He was ultimately captured and was sentenced to transportation for life. He was deported to Aden where
he died in 1883 in jail.
The Chapekar Brothers, Damodar, Vasudev and Balkrishan
• They established the Hindu Dharma Sanrakshini Sabha in 1894.
GS

• During the Ganapati festivals of 1894, they circulated leaflets in Poona, and asked the Hindus to rise in
arms against that rule as Shivaji had done against the Muslim rule.
• On 22 June 1897, W.C. Rand & Lieutenant C.E. Ayearst were shot dead by Damodar & Bal Krishna
Chapekar.
• Damodar was arrested immediately after and was sentence to death.
• Bal Krishna was later arrested in Hyderabad and sentenced to death.
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
• Savarkar joined the Abhinav Bharat Society founded by his elder brother Ganesh Damodar.
• At the time of his departure from India, Savarkar and his brother were also leaders of an association
known as the Mitramela, started around 1899.
• Savarkar later proceeded to London in 1906, but his organization continued to flourish in India.
REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES IN BENGAL
• The revolutionary activity in Bengal was the outcome of the failure of constitutional agitation to prevent
the partition of Bengal in 1905.
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Anushilan Samiti
• The first revolutionary organization in Bengal was the Anushilan samiti.
• The Anushilan Samiti was established by Pramathanath Mitra, a barrister from Calcutta.
• The people associated with this samiti were Sri Aurobindo, Deshabandhu Chittaranjan Das, Surendranath
Tagore, Jatindranath Banerjee, Bagha Jatin, Bhupendra Natha Datta, Barindra Ghosh etc. Bhupendra Nath
Datta was brother of Swami Vivekananda.
• Barindra Ghosh was sent to Paris to learn the science of Bomb Making and here he came in touch were
Madam Bhikaji Cama.
• Madam Cama was already associated with the India House and the Paris India Society.
• Its members Kudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki were entrusted with the task of assassination of Kingsford
the vindictive judge who had sentenced many political prisoners to heavy terms of punishment.
• On 30th April 1908, they threw a bomb at the carriage in which they believed Kingsford to be travelling.

E
But unfortunately, two British ladies who were in the carriage were inadvertently killed. Kudiram was
arrested and hanged on 11th August 1908.
OR
• They published a periodical named Jugantar, which openly preached armed rebellion in order to create the
necessary revolutionary mentality among the people. Both Sandhya and Jugantar openly preached the cult
of violence.
The Alipore Conspiracy
SC

• The government's search for illegal arms in Calcutta led to the arrest of thirty-four persons including the
Ghosh brothers and their trial came to be known as Alipore conspiracy case.
• One of the arrested persons Narendra Gosain became the approver, but he was shot dead in jail before
giving evidence.
• Of the accused in the Alipore conspiracy case, fifteen were found guilty and some of them including
Barindrakumar Ghosh were transported to life.
GS

• After the Alipore conspiracy case, Rash Behari Bose planned a nationwide-armed uprising with the help
of Indian soldiers of the British army. However following the discovery of the plot by the police, Rash
Behari Bose escaped to Japan & continued his revolutionary activities there.
REVIVAL OF REVOLUTIONARY NATIONALISM
• After the First World War, the British government, released some of the revolutionaries to create a more
harmonious atmosphere.
• On the plea of Gandhiji, C.R. Das and other leaders, most of the revolutionary nationalists either joined
the Indian national movement or suspended their own activities.
• The non-cooperation movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi was suddenly suspended following
the mob violence at Chauri chaura in U.P.
• Many young people began to question the very basic strategy of the national leadership & its emphasis
on non-violence and began to look for alternatives. Some of them were convinced with the idea that
violent methods alone would free India.
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• Gradually two separate groups of revolutionary nationalism developed one in Punjab, U.P., and Bihar and
the other in Bengal.
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association before 1928 was known as the Hindustan Republican
Association.
• Bhagat Singh, Yogendra Shukla and Chandrasekar Azad were the key functionaries of Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association.
• The group is also considered one of the first socialist organizations in India.
• HSRA was rejuvenated by the ideologies of the Bolsheviks involvement in the Russian Revolution of
1917.
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was first launched during a meeting in Bholachang village,
Brahamabaria subdivision of East Bengal. Freedom fighters like Pratul Ganguly, Narendra Mohan Sen and

E
Sachindra Nath Sanyal were present at the meeting.

OR
• The association was formed as an outgrowth of the Anushilan Samiti.
• The name Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was implicative after a similar revolutionary body
in Ireland.
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was always in the forefront of revolutionary movements in
the northern parts of India.
SC

• The association consisted of younger generations of U.P, Bihar, Punjab, Bengal and Maharashtra.
• The group possessed ideals, which were directly opposite to Mahatma Gandhi's Congress.
The Kakori Conspiracy Case
GS

• The revolutionaries under Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chatterji, and Sachindranath Sanyal met in Kanpur
in October 1924 and founded the Hindustan Republic Association.
• Its aim was to over throw the British rule from India. For all these activities, money was required.
• To achieve this objective the Hindustan Revolutionary Army stopped the down train at Kakori, a village
in Lucknow district on 9th August 1925 and looted the railway cash.
• The government arrested large number of young men and tried them in the Kakori conspiracy case.
• The chief leaders of the robbery, Ashfaqulla Khan, Ram Prasad Bismil, Roshanlal were sentenced to
death.
• HSRA in non-violent protest advancement against the Simon Commission at Lahore decided to support
Lala Lajpat Rai.
• But in the protest procession, the police plunged into a mass lathi charge and the wounds imposed on
Lalaji proved life-threatening to him.
• To avenge the death of Lajpat Rai; Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Chander Shekhar Azad, and Jai Gopal were
given the charge to assassinate J.A. Scott, who had ordered the unlawful lathi-charge but unfortunately a
British official J. P. Saunders, got killed in confusion.
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• The association adjudicated to burst a blank bomb in the Central Assembly in Delhi, in order to express
opposition against the tyrannical legislation and arouse public opinion.
• The ideology behind the bombing was 'to make the deaf government hear the voices of its oppressed
people'.
• Bhagat Singh also believed that 'the only way to successfully convey his message to the public of India
was to propaganda from Court.
• On April 8th 1929 a bomb was detonated near the empty treasure benches, followed by another bomb
explosion in the Central Assembly.
• Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt carried out the bombing and got arrested.
• After the Assembly Bomb Case trial on 23rd March 1931 Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were
hanged.
• Baikuntha Shukla was also hanged for murdering Phanindrananth Ghosh who had become a government
approver which later on led to the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru.

E
• Another key revolutionary of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association, Chandrasekar Azad was killed
on 27th February 1931 in a gunfight with the police.
OR
Trial and execution of Bhagat Singh
• Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt were tried in the Assembly Bomb Case.
• While in Delhi jail, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar demanded that they be treated not as criminals, but
SC

as political prisoners.
• Jatindranath Das, who went on fast on similar grounds, died on 13th of September 1930, on the sixty-
fourth day of the fast in the Lahore prison.
• The trail and subsequent execution of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru on 23rd March 1931 become
a political issue.
GS

• A resolution was passed by the Karachi session of the congress in1931 commending their brave contribution
to the freedom struggle of India.
Surya Sen
• In the later part of 1920's, the most active & famous of the Bengal revolutionary groups was the
Chittagong Group led by Surya Sen.
• He had actively participated in the non-cooperation movement and had become a teacher in a national
school in Chittagong.
• A group led by Surya Sen captured the government armory on 18th April 1930, and for a while took
control over Chittagong and proclaimed a provisional revolutionary government. However, it was not
possible for this small group of revolutionaries to put up resistance against the army.
• They escaped to the Chittagong hills and continued to wage guerilla warfare for another three years.
LIMITATIONS OF REVOLUTIONARY NATIONALISTS
• They were not successful in politically activating the masses.
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• Their contact with masses was lacking.

REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES OUTSIDE INDIA
Shyamji Krishnavarma
• He was a member of Mitramela Abhinav Bharat revolutionary group.
• He left Bombay in 1897 and went to London.
• He started a monthly journal, the Indian sociologist; an organ of freedom struggle of India in 1905.
• Shyamji established the Indian Home Rule society and a hostel for Indian students living in London,
popularly known as the Indian House.
• The most important revolutionaries associated with him were V.D. Savarkar, Madanlal Dhingra, Madame
Cama, and Lala Hardyal.

E
• In 1907 Shyamji shifted his head quarters to Paris and Savarkar took up the political leadership of the
Indian House in London.
Madanlal Dhingra
• OR
In 1909 Madanlal Dhingra, an associate of Savarkar assassinated Curzon-Wylie an A.D.C.to the Secretary
of State for India. He was spying on Indian students.
• Madanlal Dhingra was arrested and brought to trial, and was hanged on 1st August1909.
SC
Madame Cama
• Madame Cama had been popularly described as the Mother of Indian Revoluation. She left India in 1902.
• She took active part in editing the Indian sociologist and represented India at the Stuttgart conference of
socialists in 1907.
• At the confrence, Madame Cama unfurled for the first time Indian national flag on the foreign soil.
GS

• Due to her anti-British activities, she was forced to shift her residence from London to Paris.
• After thirty years of patriotic service in London, Paris and other cities of Europe, her friends succeeded
in repatriating her to India in November 1936. She died on 12thAugust 1937.
The Indian Independence Committee in Berlin
• After the outbreak of the First World War, Hardyal and other Indians abroad moved to Germany and set
up the Indian independence committee at Berlin.
• The committee planned to bring about a general insurrection in India and for this purpose foreign arms
were to be sent to India from abroad; expatriated Indians were to return to mother country, where they
were to be joined by Indian soldiers and by the waiting revolutionaries.
• The policy and activities of the Berlin committee and the Ghadar party had greatly influenced the
revolutionaries of Bengal.
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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT - I (1905-1918)

PARTITION OF BENGAL
• The partition of Bengal was done by Lord Curzon, on 16 October 1905, through a royal proclamation,
reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
• The government said that it was done to stimulate growth in the eastern region.
• But motives were to break the growing strength of Bengali nationalism since Bengal was the base of
Indian nationalism and to divide the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal.
• On the same day when the partition came into effect, the people of Bengal orgainsed protest meetings
and observed a day of mourning.
•

E
The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was observed on 16th October, 1905 where Hindus and Muslims tied
rakhis to each other to show solidarity.
OR
• The whole political life of Bengal underwent a change. Rabindranath Tagore composed the national song
‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ for the occasion which was later adopted as the national anthem of Bangladesh in
1971 after liberation from Pakistan.
• Gandhi wrote that the real awakening in India took place only after the Partition of Bengal.
SC

• The anti-partition movement culminated into the Swadeshi Movement and spread to other parts of India.
SWADESHI MOVEMENT
• Lokamanya Tilak took the movement to different parts of India, especially Poona and Bombay; Ajit Singh
and Lala Lajpat Rai spread the Swadeshi message in Punjab and other parts of northern India.
GS

• Syed Haidar Raza led the movement in Delhi; Rawalpindi, Kangra, Jammu, Multan and Haridwar witnessed
active participation in the Swadeshi Movement; Chidambaram Pillai took the movement to the Madras
presidency, which was also galvanized by Bipin Chandra Pal’s extensive lecture tour.
• The Indian National Congress took up the Swadeshi called and the Banaras Session, in 1905, which was
presided over by G.K. Gokhale.
• It supported the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement for Bengal.
• The militant nationalists led by Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lajpat Rai and Aurobindo Ghosh were, however,
in favour of extending the movement to the rest of India and carrying it beyond the programme of just
Swadeshi and boycott to a full fledged political mass struggle.
• Afterwards Naoroji in his presidential address of Congress 1906 declared that the goal of the Indian
National Congress was ‘self-government or Swaraj like that of the United Kingdom or the Colonies.’
Course of Action during Swadeshi Movement
• Great emphasis was given to self-reliance or ‘Atmasakti’ as a necessary part of the struggle against the
Government.
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• Self reliance in various fields meant the re-asserting of national dignity, honor and confidence.
• Further, self-help and constructive work at the village level was envisaged as a means of bringing about
the social and economic regeneration of the villages and of reaching the rural masses. In actual terms this
meant social reform and campaigns against evils such as caste oppression, early marriage, the dowry
system, consumption of alcohol, etc.
• One of the major planks of the programme of self-reliance was Swadeshi or national education.
• Taking a cue from Tagore’s Shantiniketan, the Bengal National College was founded, with Aurobindo as
the principal.
• Scores of national schools sprang up all over the country within a short period.
• In August 1906, the National Council of Education was established.
• The Council, consisting of virtually all the distinguished persons of the country at the time, defined its

E
objectives as to organize a system of Education Literary; Scientific and Technical - on National lines and
under National control from the primary to the university level. The chief medium of instruction was to

OR
be the vernacular to enable the widest possible reach.
• For technical education, the Bengal Technical institute was set and funds were raise to send students to
Japan for advanced learning.
• The Swadeshi period also saw the creative use of traditional popular festivals and melas as a means of
SC
reaching out to the masses. The Ganapati and Shivaji festivals, popularized by Tilak, became a medium
for Swadeshi propaganda not only in Western India but also in Bengal.
• Traditional folk theatre forms such as jatras i.e. extensively used in disseminating the Swadeshi message
in an intelligible form to vast sections of the people.
• The newspapers also played a significant role in the movement. The main newspapers were K.K. Mitra’s
GS

Sanjeevani, S.N. Banerjee’s Bengali, Motilal Ghosh’s Amrit Bazaar Patrika, B.B. Upadhyaya’s Yugantar,
Bipin Chandra Pal’s New India, Aurobindo Ghosh’s Bande Mataram and Ajit Singh’s Bharat Mata.
MUSLIM LEAGUE, 1906
• In December 1906, Muslim delegates from all over India met at Dacca for the Muslim Educational
Conference.
• Nawab Salimullah of Dacca proposed the setting up of an organisation to look after the Muslim interests.
• The All-India Muslim League was set up on December 30, 1906.
• Like the Indian National Congress, they conducted annual sessions and put their demands to the British
government.
• They enjoyed the support of the British.
• Their first achievement was the separate electorates for the Muslims in the Minto-Morley reforms.
SURAT SESSION OF INC, 1907
• Controversy rose over the elected president, Ras Bihari Ghosh, as extremists didn’t accept him. Extremists
wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be chosen.
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• The moderates also wanted to modify the Congress resolutions on Swadeshi and boycott passed in the
1906 session.

• They wanted to insert a clause in the Congress constitution that Swaraj was to be achieved only through
constitutional means and by reforms in Administration. Whereas the extremists were in favour of direct
agitation through the Swadeshi and boycott movements.
• The INC split into two groups - The Extremists and the Moderates, at the Surat session in 1907.
Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the Moderates by G.K. Gokhale.
• Immediately after the Surat Congress, the British Government decided to crush the revolutionary movement
- also known as the Extremist movement - led by the Indian Nationalist Congress.
• The British introduced repressive measures such as: The Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act; The
Explosive Substance Act; The Criminal Law Amendment Act; The Newspapers (Incitement to Offences)
Act.
• Sri Aurobindo was arrested in May 1908, in the Alipur Conspiracy Case as implicated in the doings of

E
the revolutionary group led by his brother Barindra; but no evidence of any value could be established
against him.
OR
• At the same time, Lala Lajpat Rai was deported, Tilak was arrested on July 22 and sentenced to six years
in prison and Chidambaram Pillai and other leaders from South India were also arrested.
INDIAN COUNCIL ACT (MORLEY-MINTO ACT) 1909
The Act was introduced during Secretary of State Morley and Viceroy Minto tenure. Major features of this
SC

Act were:
• The maximum number of nominated and elected members of the Legislative Council at the Center was
increased from 16 to 60. The number did not include ex-officio members.
• The maximum number of nominated and elected members of the provincial legislative councils under
GS

a governor or lieutenant-governor was also increased.

• It was fixed as 50 in Bengal, Bombay, Madras, United Provinces, and Eastern Bengal and Assam, and 30
in Punjab, Burma, and any lieutenant-governor province created thereafter.
• The right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims. Thus communal representation was introduced
which aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the
Government’s side.
• Official members were to form the majority but in provinces non-official members would be in majority.
• The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss the budgets, suggest the amendments
and even to vote on them; excluding those items that were included as non-vote items. They were also
entitled to ask supplementary questions during the legislative proceedings.
• The Secretary of State for India was empowered to increase the number of the Executive Councils of
Madras and Bombay from two to four.
• Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs.
• The Governor-General was empowered to nominate one Indian member to his Executive Council.
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GHADAR PARTY, 1913

• Ghadar Party was formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
• Its name was taken from a weekly paper, Ghadar, which had been started on November 1, 1913 to
commemorate the 1857 revolt.
• Its headquarters was at San Francisco.
• The outbreak of the First World War provided the Ghadarites with an opportunity to free India from a
Government which was indifferent to their cause.
• They began to return to India in thousands for a co-ordinated revolt in collaboration with the Bengal
revolutionaries.
KOMAGATA MARU INCIDENT 1914
• Komagata Maru was the name of a ship which carried a shipload of Sikh and Muslim immigrants from

E
Punjab to Vancouver, Canada.
• The Canadian immigration authorities turned them back after months of uncertainty.
•

•
OR
The ship finally anchored at Calcutta on September 29, 1914. But the inmates refused to board the Punjab
bound train and there was a clash with the police in which 22 persons died.
This incidence fired up the revolutionary activities which sought to avenge the death of the innocents.
THE LUCKNOW PACT (1916)
SC

• Two major events occurred during Lucknow session of Congress:

– The divided Congress became united, and
– An understanding for joint action against the British was reached between the Congress and the Muslim
League and it was called the Lucknow Pact.
GS

• The signing of the Lucknow Pact by the Congress and the Muslim League in 1916 marked an important
step in the Hindu-Muslim unity.
The reasons responsible for the pact were:
• Cancellation of the Partition of Bengal:- Lord Curzon had partitioned Bengal in 1905 and the cancellation
was done in 1911. The Muslims, therefore, lost faith in the British government.
• The Turko-Italian War of 1911:- The Turkish Sultan was the Khalifa of Islam, means the religious head
of all Muslims in the world. In the Turko-Italian war of 1911, Turkey was defeated by Italy. The British,
who often projected as friend of the Muslims did not help Turkey. This event led Muslims in India to
go against the British Government.
• The World War I (1914-18):- Turkey fought against the British in the World War I. The Indian Muslims
considered that it was their duty to help Turkey in the holy war against the British. The Muslims started
the Khilafat Movement against the British in India. The Indian National Congress supported the Muslims.
That brought them to collaborate with each other.
HOME RULE MOVEMENT
• Home Rule League, was two short-lived organizations of the same name in India established in April and
September 1916, respectively, by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant.
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• The term was borrowed from a similar movement in Ireland, referred to the efforts of Indian nationalists
to achieve self-rule from the British Indian government.
• Tilak’s League was set up in April 1916 and was restricted to Maharashtra (excluding Bombay city),
Karnataka, Central Provinces and Berar. It had six branches and the demands included swarajya, formation
of linguistic states and education in the vernacular.
• Besant’s League was set up in September 1916 in Madras and covered the rest of India (including Bombay
city). It had 200 branches, was loosely organised as compared to Tilak’s League and had George Arundale
as the organising secretary. Besides Arundale, the main work was done by B.W. Wadia and C.P. Ramaswamy
Aiyar.
• The Home Rule agitation was later joined by Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Chittaranjan
Das, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Tej Bahadur Sapru and Lala Lajpat Rai.
• Many of the Moderate Congressmen who were disillusioned with Congress inactivity, and some members
of Gokhale’s Servants of India Society also joined the agitation.

E
• However, Anglo-Indians, most of the Muslims and non- brahmins from South did not join as they felt
Home Rule would mean rule of the Hindu majority, mainly the high caste.
OR
Objectives:
• The League campaign aimed to convey to the common man the message of Home Rule as self government.
• It carried a much wider appeal than the earlier mobilisations did and also attracted the hitherto ‘politically
backward’ regions of Gujarat and Sindh.
SC

• The aim was to be achieved by promoting political education and discussion through public meetings,
organising libraries and reading rooms containing books on national politics, holding conferences, organising
classes for students on politics, propaganda through newspapers, pamphlets, posters, illustrated post-cards,
plays, religious songs, etc., collecting funds, organising social work, and participating in local government
activities.
• The Russian Revolution of 1917 proved to be an added advantage for the Home Rule campaign.
GS

AUGUST DECLARATION, 1917

• On 20 August 1917, Montague, the Secretary of State in England, made a declaration in the Parliament
of England on British Government’s policy towards future political reforms in India.
• He promised the gradual development of self-governing institutions in India.
• This August Declaration led to the end of the Home Rule Movement.
• It was attributed to the Hindu-Muslim unity exhibited in the Lucknow Pact.
• The Montague Chelmsford reforms or the Act of 1919 was based on August declaration.
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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT -II (1918-1929)

• The decisive phase of the Nationalist Movement [1917-1947] began when Gandhiji returned to India from
South Africa in January 1915. This phase is also known as the Gandhian Era.
• During this period Mahatma Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the National Movement.
• His principles of non-violence and Satyagraha were employed against the British Government. Gandhi
made the nationalist movement a mass movement.
• Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the works of Leo Tolstoy’s Civil Disobedience and Ruskin’s ‘unto to
the last’.

E
• Tolstoy’s ideal of non-possession was developed by Gandhiji in his concept of ‘trusteeship’.
•
•
•
OR
He was also influenced by the life and teachings of Swami Vivekananda.
His political Guru Gokhale and Dadabhai Naroji also influenced him.
Besides he had an experience of struggle in South Africa during (1894-1914). He came to India in 1915.
• His non-violent satyagraha involved peaceful violation of specific laws.
SC
• He resorted to mass courting arrest and occasional hartals and spectacular marches.
• He had readiness for negotiations and compromise.
• His struggle against foreign rule is popularly known as ‘struggle-truce-struggle’.
During the course of 1917 and early 1918, Gandhiji was involved in three significant struggles:
GS

A. Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

• Gandhi’s first great experiment in satyagraha came in 1917 in Champaran, a district in Bihar.
• The peasantry on the indigo plantations in the district was excessively oppressed by the European planters
and were compelled to grow indigo on at least 3/20th of their land and so sell it at prices fixed by the
planters.
• This system was popularly known as ‘Tin-Kathia system’.
• Several peasants of Champaran invited Gandhi to come and help them.
• Accompanied by Babu Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Huq, J.B. Kripalani, Narhari Parekh and Mahadev
Desai, Gandhji reached Champaran in 1917 and through his method and efforts, the disabilities from
which the peasantry was suffering were reduced and Gandhiji won his first battle of civil disobedience in
India.
B. Ahmadabad Mill Strike (1918)
• Gandhiji did his second experiment at Ahmadabad in 1918 when he had to intervene in a dispute between
the workers and the mill-owners.
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• He advised the workers to go on strike and to demand a 35 per cent increase in wages.
• He insisted that the workers should not use violence against the employers during the strike.
• He undertook a fast unto death to strengthen the workers’ resolve to continue the strike.
• This put pressure on the mill owners who relented on the fourth day and agreed to give the workers a 35
per cent increase in wages.
C. Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
• The farmers of Kheda district in Gujarat were in distress because of the failure of crops.
• The government refused to remit land revenue and insisted on its full collection.
• As part of the experiment, Mahatma Gandhi advised the peasants to withhold payment of revenue till
their demand for its remission was met.
• The struggle was withdrawn when it was learnt that the government had issued instructions that revenue

E
should be recovered only from those peasants who could afford to pay.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became the follower of Gandhiji during the Kheda movement.
OR
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919
• In order to give effect to the August Declaration of 1917, Montague along with the viceroy, Lord
Chelmsford prepared a scheme of constitutional reforms, which came to be known as Montague Chelmsford
Reforms.
SC

• On the basis of the Montague Chelmsford Reforms, the British Parliament passed the Government of
India Act, 1919. Its major provisions were:
– Dyarchy system introduced in the provinces. It was considered to be a substantial step towards transfer
of power to the Indians). The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into two
categories: Transferred and Reserved.
GS

– The Transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible
to the Legislative Council. The Governor and the Executive Council were to administer the reserved
subjects without any responsibility to the legislature.
– Devolution Rules: Subjects of administration were divided into two categories – Central and Provincial.
Subjects of all India importance (like railways and finance) were brought under the category of Central,
while matters relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as Provincial.
– The Provincial Legislature was to consist of one House only (Legislative Council).
– The number of Indians in the Governor General’s Executive Council was raised to three in a Council
of eight. The Indian members were entrusted with departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health
and Industries.
– The Centre was now to have a Bicameral Legislature for the first time. It actually happened after 1935
Act.
– Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo – Indians, etc. Secretary of State to be
henceforth paid salary out of the British revenue.
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ROWLATT ACT AND JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE (1919)

• In 1917, a committee was set up under the presidentship of Sir Sydney Rowlatt to look into the militant
Nationalist activities.
• On the basis of its report the Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919 by the Central Legislative Council.
• The Rowlatt Act curtailed the liberty of the people and was called the Black Act.
• The Bill provided for speedy trial of offences by a special court of 3 High court judges. There was to be
no appeal.
• The provincial government had powers to search a place and arrest a suspected person without warrant.
These gave unbridled powers to the government to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for two years
maximum.
• This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had the foundation of
civil liberties in Britain.

E
• It caused a wave of anger in all sections spreading a country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the

•
1919.
On 8th April, 1919 Gandhiji was arrested.
OR
foundation of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhiji organised the Satyagraha on 14th February,

• In Punjab, there was an unprecedented support to the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

SC
• Two prominent leaders of Punjab, Dr Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested in Amritsar.
• Facing a violent situation, the Government of Punjab handed over the administration to the military
authorities under General Dyer who banned all public meetings and detained the political leaders.
• On 13th April, the Baisakhi day (harvest festival), a public meeting was organized at the Jallianwala Bagh.
GS

• Dyer marched in and without any warning opened fire on the crowd which continued for about 10 to 15
minutes and it stopped only after the ammunition exhausted.
• According to official report 379 people were killed and 1137 wounded in the incident.
• There was a nationwide protest against this massacre and Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood
as a protest.
• The Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into the matter.
• On 13 March, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O’ Dyer when the latter was addressing a meeting in
Caxton Hall, London.
• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre gave a tremendous impetus to the freedom struggle and became a turning
point in the history of India’s freedom movement.
KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
• Turkey was defeated in the First World War and the harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920) was felt
by the Muslims as a great insult to them.
• The whole movement was based on the Muslim belief that the Caliph (the Sultan of Turkey) was the
religious head of the Muslims all over the world.
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• The main objective of the Khilafat movement was to force the British government change its attitude
towards Turkey and restore the Khalifa to his former position.
• The Muslims in India were upset over the British attitude against Turkey and launched the Khilafat
Movement which was jointly led by the Khilafat leaders and the Congress.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew and the Ali brothers were the prominent
leaders of this movement.
• A Khilafat Committee was formed and on 19th October 1919, the whole country observed the Khilafat
day.
• On 23 November 1919, a joint conference of the Hindus and the Muslims held under the chairmanship
of Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi was particularly interested in bringing the Hindus and the Muslims
together to achieve the country’s independence.
• In February 1920, Gandhiji suggested to Khilafat Committee that it adopt a programme of nonviolent
non-cooperation to protest the Government’s behavior.

E
• On 9 June, 1920 the Khilafat Committee at Allahabad unanimously accepted the suggestion of non-
cooperation and asked Gandhiji to lead the movement.
OR
• Four stages of non-cooperation were surrender of titles and honorary positions, resignation from civil
services under the Government, resignation from Police and Army services and non-payment of taxes.
• Gandhiji pressed the Congress to adopt a similar plan of action, although it was initially opposed by C.R.
Das, but was later accepted by all.
SC

• Mean while, the Khilafat movement lost its relevance because Mustafa Kamal Pasha abolished Khilafat
and made Turkey a secular state.
• Subsequently, the Khilafat Movement merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma
Gandhi in 1920.
THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT (1920-22)
GS

• The movement was launched formally on 1 August, 1920, by Gandhiji.

• He announced his plan to begin Non-Cooperation with the government as a sequel to the Rowlatt Act,
Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the Khilafat Movement.
• The main resolution on non-cooperation was moved by C.R. Das and approved by the Indian National
Congress at the Nagpur session in December, 1920.
The programs of the Non-Cooperation Movement were:
• Surrender of titles and honors
• Boycott of government affiliated schools and colleges
• Boycott of law courts
• Boycott of foreign cloth
• Resignation from government service
• Mass civil disobedience
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• Non-payment of taxes
• National schools and colleges were to be set up
• Panchayats were to be established for settling disputes
• Hand-spinning and weaving was to be encouraged
• People were asked to maintain Hindu-Muslim unity
• Give up untouchability
• Observe strict non-violence
Course of Action
• The Nagpur session, thus, committed Congress to a programme of extra-constitutional mass action.

E
• Many groups of revolutionary terriorists, especially in Bengal, also pledged support to the movement.
• The educational boycott was particularly successful in Bengal, where the students in Calcutta triggered off

•
OR
a province-wide strike to force the managements of their institutions to disaffiliate themselves from the
Governments.
C.R. Das played a major role in promoting the movement and Subhas Bose became the principal of the
National College in Calcutta.
SC
• Punjab, too responded to the educational boycott and was second only to Bengal, Lala Lajpat Rai playing
a leading part here despite his initial reservations about this item of the programme.
• Other areas that were active were Bombay, U.P., Bihar, Orissa and Assam. Madras remained lukewarm.
• Many leading lawyers of the country like C.R.Das. Motilal Nehru, M.R. Jayakar, Saifudding Kitchlew,
Vallabhbhai Patel, C Rajagophlachari, T.Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave up their practices.
GS

• The most successful item of the programme was the boycott of foreign cloth. Picketing of shops selling
foreign cloth was also a major form of the boycott.
• Another feature of the movement which acquired great popularity in many parts of the country, even
though it was not part of the original plan, was the picketing of toddy shops.
• The Prince of Wales visited India during this period but he was greeted with empty streets and downed
shutters when he came on 17 November, 1921.
• In Malabar in Kerala Non-cooperation and Khilafat propaganda helped to rouse the Muslims tenants
against their landlords.
• In Assam, laborers on tea plantations went on strike.
• There were strikes on the steamer service and on the Assam-Bengal Railway as well.
• In Midnapur, a cultivators strike against a White zamindari company was led by a Calcutta medical
student in defiance of forest laws became popular in Andhra.
• Peasants and tribals in some of the Rajasthan states began movements for securing better conditions of
life.
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• In Punjab, the Akali movement for wresting control of the gurdwaras from the mahants was a part of the
general movement of Non-cooperation, based on strict non-violence in the face of tremendous repression.
• By December, the Government announced the Congress and the Khilafat Committees as illegal and
arrested all those who participated in the movement.
• The Congress Session at Allahabad in December 1921 decided to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Gandhiji was appointed as its leader. But before it could be launched a mob of people at Chauri Chaura
(near Gorakhpur) clashed with the police and burnt 22 policemen on 5th February, 1922.
• On hearing of the incident, Gandhiji decided to withdraw the movement. He also persuaded the Congress
Working Committee to ratify his decision and thus, on 12 February 1922, the Non-Cooperation Movement
came to an end.
• Gandhiji‘s decision to withdraw the movement in response to the violence at Chauri Chaura raised a
controversy.
• Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Bose, and many other recorded their utter bewilderment

E
on hearing the news.
Outcomes of the Non-Cooperation Movement
OR
• It was the real mass movement with the participation of different sections of Indian society such as
peasants, workers, students, teachers and women.
• It witnessed the spread of nationalism to the remote corners of India.
SC

• It also marked the height of Hindu-Muslim unity as a result of the merger of Khilafat movement.
• It demonstrated the willingness and ability of the masses to endure hardships and make sacrifices.
NAGPUR SESSION OF CONGRESS
• The Nagpur session of Congress is also memorable for the new Congress Constitution that was adopted.
GS

It brought about a revolutionary change in Congress organization.

• The Congress aim of swaraj was reaffirmed but now explained to mean “Self-Government within the
Empire if possible and outside if necessary”.
• Further, the earlier emphasis on the use of ‘constitutional means’ was substituted by “all peaceful and
legitimate methods”.
• The organizational changes in the Congress included:
– Formation of working Committee of fifteen members. This working Committee was to act as the chief
executive of the party.
– Formation of an All-India Committee of 350 members to discuss important issues. It was also to be
the apex body having the power to review the decision and working of the working Committee.
– Formation of Congress Committees from towns to village level.
– Reorganization of Provincial Congress Committees on linguistic basis. This was done to popularize the
ideas of Congress in local language. Congress, also, as far as possible emphasized on the case of Hindi
so that the gap between the educated groups and the masses may be filled up.
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– Opening of Congress member-ship to all men and women of age twenty-one or more on payment of
four Annas as annual subscription.
The Nagpur session of the Congress in December 1920 is important because of:
• Changed Aim: though the Congress aim of Swaraj was reaffirmed but now explained, to mean Self-
Government.
• Changed Methods: The earlier emphasis on the use of ‘constitutional means’ was substituted by ‘all
peaceful and legitimate methods’.
• Changed Leadership: After the death of Tilak in August 1920, the leadership went into the hands of
Gandhi and it marked the beginning of Gandhian era in Indian Politics.
• Structural Change: The Congress party was organised on modern lines with local Congress Committees
at the grass root village level through sub-divisional, district and provincial Committees with the All-India
Congress Committee at the apex.

E
SWARAJ PARTY
•

•
of the Congress in December 1922.
OR
The suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement led to a split within Congress in the Gaya session

Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittranjan Das formed a separate group within the Congress known as
the Swaraj Party on 1 January 1923.
SC
• The Swarajists wanted to contest the council elections and wreck the government from within. Motilal
Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar (called Pro-changers) demanded that the Nationalists should end the
boycott of the legislative councils, enter them and expose them.
• No-changers like Rajendra Prasad and Rajagopalachari adhered to the Gandhian programme of Boycott
of legislatures.
GS

• Elections to Legislative Councils were held in November 1923 in which, the Swaraj Party gained impressive
successes.
• In the Central Legislative Council Motilal Nehru became the leader of the party whereas in Bengal the
party was headed by C.R. Das.
• The Swaraj Party demanded the setting up of responsible government in India with the necessary changes
in the Government of India Act of 1919.
• The party could pass important resolutions against the repressive laws of the government.
• When a Committee chaired by the Home Member, Alexander Muddiman considered the system of
Dyarchy as proper, a resolution was passed against it in the Central Legislative Council.
• After the passing away of C.R. Das in June 1925, the Swarj Party started weakening.
• The Swarajists were split by communalism. The ‘responsivist’ group including Madan Mohan Malviya,
Lala Lajpat Rai and N.G. Kelkar offered cooperation to the government to safeguard Hindu interests.
• The Swarajists finally walked out of legislature in 1930 as a result of the Lahore congress resolution and
the beginning of the civil disobedience movement. The two sections were reunited in 1930 after the
Lahore session.
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• The great achievement of Swaraj Party lay in their filling the political void at a time when the National
Movement was recouping its strength and this they did without getting co-opted by the colonial regime.
• They worked in the legislatures in an orderly disciplined manner and withdrew from them whenever the
call came.
• Above all, they showed that it was possible to use the legislatures in a creative manner even as they
promoted the politics of self-reliant anti-imperialism.
• They also successfully exposed the hollowness of the Reforms Act of 1919 and showed the people that
India was being ruled by ‘Lawless Laws’.
• The time when the No-Changers were busy in the constructive programme and Gandhi was leading an
isolated life, the Swarajists took over the command of the National Movement.
• Even the Simon Commission, accepted that, at that time it was only the Swaraj Party which was an
organised and disciplined party having well defined objectives and programmes.
SIMON COMMISSION (1927)
•

E
In 1927, the British government appointed Simon Commission to look into the working of the Government
OR
of India Act, 1919. All its seven members were Englishmen.
• Almost all the political parties including the Congress opposed the Commission because there was no
Indian member in the commission.
• On 3 February 1928 when the Commission reached Bombay, a general hartal was observed all over the
country and were greeted with black flags and the cries of ‘Simon go back’.
SC

• At Lahore, the students took out a large anti-Simon Commission demonstration on 30 October 1928 under
the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai. In this demonstration, Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured in the police
lathi charge and he passed away after one month.
• The report of the Simon Commission was published in May 1930.
GS

• It was stated that the constitutional experiment with Dyarchy was unsuccessful and in its place the report
recommended the establishment of autonomous government.
• The Simon Commission Report became the basis for enacting the Government of India Act of 1935.
NEHRU REPORT (1928)
• The Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead, challenged the Indians to produce a Constitution that would be
acceptable to all.
• The challenge was accepted by the Congress, which convened an all party meeting on 28 February 1928.
• A committee consisting of eight was constituted to draw up a blueprint for the future Constitution of
India.
• It was headed by Motilal Nehru.
• The committee comprised of Tej Bahadur Sapru, Ali Imam, M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Shoaib Querishi,
G.R. Pradhan and Subash Chandra Bose.
• The Report favoured:
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– Dominion Status as the next immediate step.

– Full responsible government at the centre.
– Autonomy to the provinces.
– Clear cut division of power between the centre and the provinces.
– A bicameral legislature at the centre.
• The report had a different chapter on minority rights apart from the Fundamental Rights.
• During the presentation of the report before the All Parties Convention in Calcutta, a violent clash took
place between Jinnah (representing the Muslim League) and M.R. Jayakar (who put forth the Hindu
Mahasabha viewpoint) on the former’s demand of one-third of the total seats in the central legislatures
for Muslims.
• Consequently, Jinnah’s proposed amendments were overwhelmingly out-voted and the Report proved to

E
be a non-starter and became a mere historical document.
• The leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Jinnah regarded it as detrimental to the interests of

•
the Muslims.
OR
Jinnah convened an All India Conference of the Muslims where he drew up a list of Fourteen Points as
Muslim League demand.
JINNAH’S FOURTEEN POINTS
SC

• At a meeting of the Muslim league in Delhi in March 28, 1929, M. A. Jinnah announced his ‘fourteen
Points.’
• Rejecting the Nehru Report, he maintained that no scheme for the future Government of India would be
acceptable to the Muslims until and unless following basic principle were given effect to:
GS

– India required a federal system and Constitution in which the Provinces would have complete autonomy
and residuary powers.
– All legislatures and other elected bodies should be constituted on the principle of adequate representation
of minorities in every Province.
– A uniform measure of autonomy should be granted to all Provinces.
– In the Central legislature, Muslim representation should not be less than one-third.
– The Representation of communal groups through the system of electorate should continue as long as
rights and interests of Muslims were not safeguarded in the Constitution.
– Any future territorial redistribution should not affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and the
North-West Frontier Province.
– Full religious liberty should be granted to all communities.
– No bill should be passed in any elected body if three-fourth of the members of any community in that
particular body were to oppose such a bill.
– Sindh should be separated from the Bombay Presidency.
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– Reforms should be introduced in the North-West Frontier Provinces and Baluchistan as in other Provinces.
– Muslims should be given an adequate share in all the services.
– Adequate safeguards should be provided for the protection of Muslim culture.
– No Cabinet should be formed without at least one-third Muslim ministers.
– No change should be made in the Constitution except with-out the concurrence of the federation
States.
• The above mentioned demands suggested a total rejection of Nehru Report due to two reasons-
– A unitary Constitution was not acceptable because it would not ensure Muslim domination in any part
of India. A federal Constitution consisting of a Centre with limited power and autonomous Provinces
with residuary powers would enable the Muslims to dominate five Provinces-North-West Frontier
Province, Baluchistan, Sindh, Bengal and Punjab.
– The solution to the communal problem as suggested by Nehru report was not acceptable to the

E
Muslims.
LAHORE SESSION, 1929
OR
• Under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the INC at its Lahore session declared Poorna Swaraj as its
ultimate goal on 19 December 1929.
• The newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled on 31 December, 1929 and 26 January, 1930 was fixed
as the First Independence Day, which was to be celebrated every year.
SC
GS
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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT - III (1930-1947)

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930-1931)
• On 12th March 1930, Gandhi began March to Dandi with his chosen 79 followers and broke the salt law
at Dandi on 5 April 1930.
• Following the conclusion of the Salt March to Dandi, Mahatma Gandhi chose a non-violent raid of the
Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat as the next protest against British rule.
• Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on 5th of May, 1930, just days before his projected raid on the Dharasana
Salt Works.

E
• Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Civil Disobedience Movement and brought into
question the legitimacy of British rule in India because of widespread newspaper coverage by American

•
journalist Webb Miller.
OR
Civil Disobedience included Indian raids on salt depots, refusal to pay taxes in chosen areas, spirits and
avoidance of business with all British firms, disobedience of forest laws and boycott of foreign cloth.
• The Salt Satyagraha movement was taken up by C. Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu and the Vaikon
SC
Satyagraha by K. Kalappan in Malabar.
• In the North West, the Pathans under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, popularly known as Frontier Gandhi,
organized the society of ‘Khudai Khidmadgars’ which was also known as Red Shirts.
• In Bihar there was a protest against Chowkidari tax in Saran, Bhagalpur and Monghyr.
• On 18th of April, around one hundred revolutionaries attacked police and railway armories at Chittagong.
GS

Mahatma Gandhi condemned the raid.

• This movement even sparked off patriotism among the Indian soldiers in the British army. The Garhwali
soldiers refused to fire on the people at Peshawar.
• It continued for almost a year, ending with the release of Mahatma Gandhi from jail and after the
discussions at the Second Round Table Conference with Viceroy Lord Irwin.
• The movement had a significant effect on changing British attitudes toward Indian independence and
caused huge numbers of Indians to aggressively join the fight for the first time.
• The Salt March to Dandi and the flogging of hundreds of non-violent protesters in Dharasana, marked
the efficient use of civil disobedience as a method for fighting social and political injustice.
FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE, 1930
• The First Round Table Conference was convened in London on 31 October, 1929.
• Three basic principles were agreed in the Conference and the British Government was made to accept
those principles.
• It was held on to discuss the Simon Commission recommendations.
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• The conference was boycotted by the INC, but the Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and other
groups were present.
• It was attended by Tej Bahadur Sapru, B.R. Ambedkar, Md. Shafi, M.A. Jinnah, Fazlul Haq, Dr. Shafaat
Ahmad Khan, Sir Mirza Ismail, Sir Akbar Hydari, Maharaja of Bikaner, Raja Rajendra Nath and others.
• The conference was postponed to 2 January, 1931 because of the absence of Congress.
GANDHI-IRWIN PACT, 1931
• The moderate statesmen Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, Mukund Ramrao Jayakar and Srinivas Shastri initiated
efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government.
• On 25th of January 1931, Lord Irwin authorized Gandhi‘s release from prison and withdrew prohibition
of illegality against the Congress Working Committee. Following this the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed
on 5 March, 1931.
Salient features of the Pact:

E
– The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference.
– The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement.
OR
– The Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress.
– The Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offenses other than violent one. The Government
would release all persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience
movement.
SC

• The INC called off the Civil Disobedience Movement and agreed to join the second Round Table
Conference.
• The government on its part released political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption
for villages along the coast.
• The Karachi session of 1931 endorsed the Pact.
GS

KARACHI SESSION OF 1931

• The Karachi session is known for its resolution on the Fundamental Rights and the National Economic
Programs.
• Even though the Congress had from its inception fought for the economic interests, civil rights and
political liberties of the people, this was the first time that the Congress defined what Swaraj would mean
for the masses.
• It also declared that in order to end the exploitation of the masses, political freedom must include the real
economic freedom for the starving millions.
Some important features of these resolutions were:
– Basic civil rights of freedom of speech, Freedom of Press, Freedom of assembly, Freedom of association
irrespective of caste, creed or sex.
– Neutrality of state in regard to all religions.
– Equality before law.
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– Protection of Minorities and their culture, language and script and of different linguistic areas.
– Elections on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise.
– Free and compulsory primary education.
– Substantial reduction in rent and taxes.
– Better conditions for workers including a living wage, limited hours of work.
– Protection of women and peasants.
– Conferred the right to organize and form unions to workers and peasants.
– State ownership or control of key industries, mines and means of transport.
SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE, 1931
• The absence of the Congress representations in the First Round Table conference led to the Second

E
Round Table conference, in which the Congress representatives took part due to Gandhi-Irwin Pact of
1931.
•

•
Mohan Malaviya, etc. OR
Other Indians who part in the conference were Ambedkar, Sapru, Jayakar, Sarojini Naidu, Pt. Madan

Gandhi demanded immediate establishment of a full responsible government at the Centre as well as in
the provinces with complete control over defense, external affairs and finance.
SC
• The significant issue of the Second Round Table conference was to solve the communal problem, which
was not solved. This was because Jinnah inflexibility was secretly supported by the British statesman like
the Secretary of State for India Sir Samuel Hoare.
• The session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and demand of separate electorates.
• MacDonald ended the session with the announcement of creation of two new Muslim majority provinces,
GS

North West Frontier Province and Sindh.

• He also announced of setting up a committee on franchise, finance and states and held out the humiliating
and dangerous prospect of a unilateral British Communal Award.
• Gandhiji’s returned to India and on his arrival in Bombay, the Congress Working Committee decided to
resume the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• In 1932, INC was declared an illegal organization and all its leaders arrested.
• Gandhiji was sent to the Yeravada jail in Poona.
Communal Award
• On 16 August 1932 the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement, which came
to be as then Communal Award.
• According to this award, the depressed classes were considered as a separate community and as such
provisions were made for separate electorates for them.
• Mahatma Gandhi protested against the Communal Award and went on a fast unto death in the Yeravada
jail on 20 September 1932.
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POONA PACT, 1932

• After the announcement of the communal award and the subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meetings took
place everywhere.
• Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya, B.R. Ambedkar and M.C. Rajah became active.
• Finally, an agreement was reached between Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi and it was called the Poona Pact.
• The British Government also approved of it.
• Accordingly, 148 seats in different Provincial Legislatures were reserved for the Depressed Classes in place
of 71 as provided in the Communal Award.
• Thus the Poona Pact agreed upon a joint electorate for the upper and the lower classes.
• Harijan upliftment now became the principal concern of Gandhiji.
• An All India Anti-Untouchability League was started in September 1932 and the weekly ‘Harijan’ in
1933.
•

E
On May 8, 1933 Gandhiji decided to begin a 21 day fast for the purification of himself and his associates
for the Harijan cause.
OR
• He started the Individual Civil Disobedience on 1 August, 1933.
• A White paper was issued in the year March 1933. The details of the working basis of the new constitution
of India were enumerated in the White Paper.
SC

• It was declared that according to the new constitution, there would be dyarchy and a responsible government
in the center.
• In February 1935, a bill was introduced in the House of Commons by the Secretary of State for India,
which subsequently passed and enacted as the government of India Act, 1935.
• The Government of India Act, 1935 drew its materials from the Simon Commission, the report of the
GS

All-Parties conference i.e. the Nehru Report, the discussions at the three successive Round Table
Conferences, the detail enumerated in the White Paper and the reports of the Joint Select Committees.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935
The Government of India Act, 1935 was designed on the basis of the recommendation of Simon Commission.
It envisaged an administrative set-up for India such as:
Provided for the establishment of the All India Federation consisting of the British Provinces and the Princely
States. The joining of the Princely States was voluntary. (It did not come into existence since the Princely
States refused to give their consent for the union.)
• Introduction of Dyarchy at the Centre.
– The Governor-General and his councilors administered the “Reserved subjects”.
– The Council of Ministers was responsible for the “Transferred” subjects.
• The provinces were to be given complete autonomy and the administrative subjects divided into three lists
i.e.
– Federal List that included the subjects assigned to the Central Government;
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– The Provincial List that consisted of all the subjects under the sole jurisdiction of the provinces, and
– The Concurrent List upon whose subjects both the Centre and Provinces would exercise their combined
authority.
• Abolition of Dyarchy and the introduction of Provincial Autonomy in the provinces.
– The Governor was made the head of the Provincial Executive but he was expected to run the
administration on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
– The provincial government was entrusted to the elected Ministers.
– They were responsible to the popularly elected Legislative Assemblies.
• Provincial Legislatures of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar and Assam were made
bicameral.
• Establishment of a Federal Court at the Centre at Delhi with a Chief Justice and 6 judges.

E
• Extension of the principle of Separate Electorates to Sikhs, Europeans, Indian Christians and Anglo
Indians.
•
OR
Besides these main provisions, it also contained the provisions of the formation of the provinces of Sindh
and Orissa, separate and communal electorate system with reduction of the qualification of voters;
separation of Burma and Aden from India.
• Accordingly, the Home Government in England was reformed. The Indian Council was abolished and a
SC
few advisers varying from 3 to 6 were appointed to advise the Secretary of States in his policy formulation
towards India.
• The Secretary was normally not expected to interfere in the Indian affairs which were to be carried on by
Governors.
• The working of the provincial autonomy was not successful, because the Governors were not bound to
GS

accept the advice of the ministers. In reality, the real power in the Provincial Government was with the
Governor.
• Despite the drawbacks in the scheme, the Congress decided to take part in the elections to the Provincial
Legislatures with the consideration that it was an improvement over the previous Acts.
• In accordance with the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935, elections to the Provincial
Legislatures were held in February 1937.
• The Congress swept the polls and Congress gained majority in Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, U.P.,
Bihar and Orissa.
• In Assam and northwestern frontier, it became the largest single party.
• Similarly, the Muslim League got absolute majority in Sindh.
• On 7 July 1937, after the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, assured the Congress of his cooperation, the party
formed its ministries in seven provinces.
• The most important fact regarding the achievement of the Act can be stated that the political experience
ingenerated in the minds of the Indian leaders went a long way in making the people of India conscious
for their political liberty which they achieved in 1947.
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WORLD WAR II AND INDIAN NATIONALISM

• In September 1939, the Second World War broke out.
• Indian opinion was not sought but the British government dragged India in the war as a party.
• India cannot associate herself in a war said to be for democratic freedom, when that very freedom is
denied to her.
• The Congress demanded the establishment of an Indian government responsible to the Central Legislative
Assembly but the British government did not agree to this.
• In November 1939, the Congress resigned in protest. The Muslim League celebrated that day as the
Deliverance Day.
• In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan.
• During the course of the Second World War in order to secure the cooperation of the Indians, the British
Government made an announcement on 8 August 1940, which came to be known as the ‘August Offer’.

E
• The August Offer envisaged that after the War a representative body of Indians would be set up to frame
the new Constitution.
OR
• Gandhi was not satisfied with the offer and decided to launch Individual Satyagraha.
• Individual Satyagraha was limited, symbolic and non-violent in nature and it was left to Mahatma Gandhi
to choose the Satyagrahis.
• In October 1940, the Individual Satyagraha was launched and Vinoba Bhave was chosen by Gandhiji as
SC

the first person to offer the Satyagraha.

• Jawaharlal Nehru was the second Satyagrahi and was imprisoned for four months.
• The individual Satyagraha continued for nearly 15 months.
• Indian national leaders were opposed to fascism and condemned it as the enemy of the freedom.
GS

• Many countries allied against fascism and put pressure on the British government to concede the demand
of the Indian people.
CRIPPS MISSION (1942)
In March 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to hold talks with the Indian leaders.
Proposals of Cripps’ Mission
– Dominion status to be granted after the war.
– Setting up a Constitution making body for India after the war whose members would be elected by the
Provincial assemblies and nominated by the rulers in case of the Princely States.
• The British government undertook to accept and implement the Constitution so framed subject to two
conditions that if any province not willing to accept the new Constitution could form a separate union
and a separate Constitution.
• The new Constitution-making body and the British government would negotiate a treaty to sort out
matters arising out of transfer of powers to Indian hands.
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• The proposals were rejected by the Congress as it did not want to rely upon future promises. Gandhiji
termed it as a ‘post-dated cheque in a crashing bank’.
• At last, in August, 1942, Gandhiji gave forth the slogan ‘Quit India’.
• The Congress passed a resolution on 8th August 1942, which mentioned the ‘immediate ending of British
rule in India’.
• The day after the resolution was passed, the Congress was banned and all the important leaders were
pushed behind the bars.
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
• The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India
Resolution. On the same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’.
• On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government arrested all the prominent leaders of the Congress.

E
• For once, this pre-planned action of the government left the Indian people without leadership and that is
why it is also called the Vardha Proposal and the Leaderless Revolt.
•
•
•
Mahatma Gandhi was kept in prison at Poona.
OR
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, and other leaders were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort.
At this time, leadership was provided by Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta, S.M. Joshi, Jayaprakash Narain
and Aruna Asaf Ali who started consolidating underground networks.
SC
• An underground Congress Radio was establishment and its announcer was Usha Mehta.
• Parallel governments were set up at various places such as the one in Ballia in eastern U.P. under the
leadership of Chittu Pande. Others were in Satara, Talcher, parts of Eastern U.P. and Bihar.
• However, the Muslim League kept aloof from the movement and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the
movement.
GS

• The Communist Party of India also didn’t support the movement.

• In 1943, there were armed attacks on government buildings in Madras and Bengal.
• In 1944 Mahatma Gandhi was released from jail.
• Quit India Movement was the final attempt for country’s freedom and paved the way for India’s freedom.
INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY
• Indian National Army, also known as the Azad Hind Fauj, was formed in South-East Asia in the year
1942 by pioneering Indian Nationalists and prisoners.
• The INA was initially formed under Mohan Singh, the captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the
British Army, after the fall of Singapore.
• However, it was in 1943 Subhash Chandra Bose came to Tokyo and then joined the I.N.A. at Singapore.
With his arrival the more vigorous phase of the I.N.A. began.
• Rash Behari Bose, who set up the Azad Hind Government (the Provincial Government of Free India),
adopted the tri-color flag and gave the slogan of ‘Jai Hind’ (victory of India), handed over the leadership
to him.
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• Bose also reorganized the Azad Hind Fauj (I.N.A.).

• In November 1943, the Japanese announced their decision to hand over the administration of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands to the I.N.A.
• On 6th July 1944, Subhash Bose made an appeal on the Azad Hind Radio, Singapore, to Gandhi and seek
his ‘blessings and good wishes’, calling him the ‘Father of Nation.’
• To the Indian recruits, he offered: ‘you give me blood and I will give you freedom’. His war slogan was
‘’Dilli Chalo’’ (on to Delhi).
• In May 1944, battalion I of I.N.A. captured Mowdok, (outpost situated southeast of Chittagaon) and
hoisted the tri-color flag on Indian soil.
• Another battalion under Shah Nawaz Khan joined the Japanese Army in their assault on Kohima in
Nagaland.
• The next target was Imphal in Manipur to be followed by a rapid advance across the Brahmaputra into
Bengal.

E
• Fighting side by side with the Japanese Armed forces, the I.N.A. crossed the Indian frontier on 18th March
1944. However, the campaign achieved only limited success.
OR
• The I.N.A. failed to capture Imphal due to two reasons:
– The Japanese failed to supply the necessary materials and air cover to the I.N.A.
– The monsoon prevented their advance. In the meantime the British were able to regroup their forces
SC

and made counter-attacks.

– With the fortunes of war turned against Japan and they had to withdraw from the Indo-Burma border
to meet American threat in the South Pacific I.N.A. too could not stand on its own.
– The retreat of the I.N.A. began in the middle of 1944 and ended by mid 1945, resulting in surrender
of I.N.A. troops to the British Army.
GS

– Subhash Chandra Bose disappeared. Some believed he died in an air crash while going to Tokyo, while
others refused to believe this.
I.N.A. TRIALS
• The British Government of India charged the captured I.N.A. soldiers of waging war against the King.
• The trials were held in Delhi Red Fort and the first three accused were Captain P.K. Sehghal, Captain
Shahnawaz Khan, and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon.
• Wide protests were held and there were meetings and processions, angry outbursts and agitated speeches
everywhere, calling for the immediate release of I.N.A. prisoners.
• Leaders of all political parties, the Congress, the Muslim League and the C.P.I. demanded the release of
I.N.A. prisoners. .
• Bhulabhai Desai, T. B. Sapru, Jawaharlal Nehru and Asaf Ali worked as the Defense counsel for the I.N.A.
heroes.
• The court martial found all the three guilty of waging war against the King, but Lord Wavell, the Viceroy,
sensing the mood of the nation remitted their death sentences on 1st January 1946.
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• All the same, the Viceroy announced that the remaining trials would be restricted to such soldiers who
were accused of using brutal methods to force their fellow prisoners of war to join the I.N.A.
Evaluation of Azad Hind Fauz
• I.NA. Movement was in a way, more successful then the Ghadarites and other revolutionaries who tried
to use the First World War as a catalyst for Indian Independence.
• Though the I.N.A. had failed to achieve its goal but it made a significant impact on the freedom struggle.
It became clear to the British that they could no longer depend on the loyalty of Indian soldiers and
consider them as mercenaries.
• The struggles of the I.N.A. demonstrated that those who waged an armed struggle against the British were
not at all affected by communal divisions.
• There were Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs in the I.N.A. who had fought as Indians.

E
• The action of the Rani Jhansi brigade—an exclusively women force-demonstrated the capabilities of
Indian women waging armed struggle against the British.
•

OR
The I.N.A. trials moreover brought various political parties on a common platform showing the anti-
British protest.
R.I.N. REBELLION
• The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny or the Bombay Mutiny was the revolt of the Indian sailors.
SC
• The sailors who belonged to the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay
harbor went for a strike and organised a mutiny on 18th February 1946.
• The whole mutiny involved 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.
• It started as a protest against their general conditions.
GS

• The immediate reason for the outbreak of the mutiny was their pay and food.
• In addition to that there were more elementary matters such as racist behavior by Royal Navy personnel
towards Indian sailors, and disciplinary measures taken against the sailors who demonstrated nationalist
sympathy.
• The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny was widely supported by the Indian population.
• The one day strike spread to other cities from Bombay and the Royal Indian Air Force and local police
forces also joined this mutiny.
• Furthermore, in Madras and Pune, the British garrisons had to face revolts within the ranks of the Indian
Army.
• The mutinying ships hoisted three flags which were tied together those of the Congress, Muslim League,
and the Red Flag of the Communist Party of India (CPI).
• The flags signified the unity and demarginalisation of communal issues among the mutineers.
• The rising, however, could not make any further headway on account of two reasons:
– The overwhelming military might of the British which was put into action.
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– The joint persuasion of Vallabhbhai Patel and M.A. Jinnah to the ratings to surrender on 23rd February.
• An undertaking was given by the Congress and the league that they would prevent any victimization of
the ratings but soon this assurance was forgotten. Thus, the Revolt of the Royal Indian Navy (R.I.N.)
ended.
• The mutiny of naval ratings demonstrated to the British rulers that they could no longer depend on the
loyalty of the armed force.
RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA, 1945
• Rajagopalachari in his formula proposed that plebiscite should be held in contiguous districts of North
West and East where Muslims were in absolute majority.
• If the majority decides in favor of forming a separate sovereign state, such decision could be accepted.
• Jinnah objected to the proposal as he wanted only Muslims of North West and East of India to vote in
the plebiscite.

E
CABINET MISSION (1946)
• After the Second World War, Lord Clement Atlee became the Prime Minister of England.
OR
• On 15 March, 1946 he made a historic announcement in which the right to self-determination and the
framing of a Constitution for India were conceded.
• Consequently, three members of the British Cabinet - Patrick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A. V.
Alexander - were sent to India.
SC

• This came to be known as the Cabinet Mission.

• The Cabinet Mission put forward a plan for solution of the constitutional problem.
Major provisions of Cabinet Mission
– Rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting Princely States was
GS

suggested. The union would deal into the following subjects: Foreign affairs, Defence and Communication
and would have the powers to raise the finances required for the above subjects. Full autonomy would
be enjoyed by the provinces in respect of all subjects other than the union subjects.
– There were to be three groups of Provinces: Group A with six Hindu majority provinces (Bombay,
United Province, Bihar, Central Province, Orissa, and Madras); Group B with three Muslim majority provinces
(Sind, NWFP, and Punjab) and Group C (Assam and Bengal). After the first general elections, a province
could come out of the group and after 10 years a province could call for reconsideration of the group
or union constitution.
– The Union would consist of an executive and a legislature. The legislature would not be directly elected
by the people but by the provincial legislatures on the basis of communal electorates. Members of the
Princely States would be appointed by the rulers of the Princely States.
• A proposal was envisaged for setting up an Interim Government, which would remain in office till a new
government was elected on the basis of the new Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly.
• Both the Muslim League and the Congress accepted the plan.
• Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation of a Constituent Assembly.
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• The Congress secured 205 out of 214 General seats. The Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats.
• An Interim Government was formed under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September 1946.
• Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on
2 September 2, 1946.
• J.L. Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President.
• Muslim League did not join it initially but finally Wavell succeeded in having five members of the League
join the government on Oct 26, 1946.
JINNAH DIRECT ACTION RESOLUTION
• Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on Jul 29, 1946.
• It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress
(Aug 16, 1946) which resulted in heavy communal riots.

E
• Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.
Formation of constituent Assembly of India
• OR
The constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.
MOUNTBATTEN PLAN OF JUNE 1947
• Lord Mountbatten on 3 Jun, 1947, put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s
SC
political problem.
• The British Govt., passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in Jul 1947, which contained the major
provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.
• The main provisions of the Plan were:
GS

– India to be divided into India and Pakistan.

– Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would
be held.
– There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.
– The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.
– Aug 15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.
INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT 1947
• The British Government accorded formal approval to the Mountbatten Plan by enacting the Indian
Independence Act on 18 July 1947.
• The salient features of this Act were:
– The partition of the country into India and Pakistan would come into effect from 15 August 1947.
– The British Government would transfer all powers to these two Dominions.
– A Boundary Commission would demarcate the boundaries of the provinces of the Punjab and Bengal.
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– The Act provided for the transfer of power to the Constituent Assemblies of the two Dominions,
which will have full authority to frame their respective Constitutions.
• The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line separating India and Pakistan.
• On 15th August 1947 India, and on the 14th August Pakistan came into existence as two independent
states.
• Lord Mountbatten was made the first Governor General of Independent India, whereas Mohammad Ali
Jinnah became the first Governor General of Pakistan.

E
OR
SC
GS
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CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

India Regulating Act 1773
• Subjected the Company’s actions to the supervision of the British Government.
• End of Dual government.
• Governor of Bengal to be the Governor - General of British territories of India.
• Establishment of Supreme Court in Calcutta.
• The servants of the Company were forbidden to engage in private trade, accept presents or bribes, etc.

E
Pitts India Act of 1784
•

•
OR
The commercial and political activities of the Company were now separated. Board of Control of six
members (including two cabinet ministers) set - up to guide and supervise the affairs of the Company in
India.
Three members will be there in Governor - General’s Executive Council.
SC
• Secret Committee of three Directors were to look into political and military affairs. [Governor General
and the council were forbidden to declare war and make treaties without the sanction of secret committee].
• Madras and Bombay Presidencies were subordinated to the Governor - General - in - Council of Bengal
in all matters.
• This act gave the British Government a measure of control over the Company’s affairs. In fact, the
GS

Company became a subordinate department of the State.

• Act of 1786 : Governor General given the power to over - ride the council and was made Commander
- in - Chief also.
Charter Act of 1793
• Company given monopoly of trade for 20 more years.
• Expenses and salaries of the Board of Control to be charged on Indian revenue.
• The Governor General and the Governors could now over - ride the decisions of their respective Councils.
• All laws were to be translated in Indian languages.
• It laid the foundation of government, by written laws, interpreted by courts.
Charter Act of 1813
• Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China. This made the
Company more of an administrative body. All Englishmen could trade in India subject to few restrictions.
• A sum of 1 lakh earmarked annually for education of Indians.
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• Further, Christian missionaries were also permitted to come to India and preach their religion.
Charter Act of 1833
• End of Company’s monopoly even in tea and trade with China. Company was asked to close its commercial
business at the earliest.
• All restrictions on European immigration into India and acquisition of land and property in India by them
were removed, legalizing European colonization of India.
• Governor General of Bengal to be Governor General of India; all powers, administrative and financial,
were centralized in the hands of the Governor - General - in - Council. (1st Governor General of India
- Lord William Bentinck).
• President of Board of Control became the minister for Indian affairs.
• A law member (without power to vote) was added to the Executive Council of the Governor General.
Macaulay was the first Law member. This increased the Council’s strength to four, with it began the Indian
Legislature.

E
• A law commission was constituted for codification of laws.
OR
• The Act threw open to ail, irrespective of religion, place of birth, descent and colour, services under the
Company.
Charter Act of 1853
• The Act renewed the powers of the Company and allowed it to retain the possession of Indian territories
SC

in trust for the British Crown but not for any specified period.
• The number of members of the Court of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 of which 6 were to be
nominated by the Crown.
• The Law member was made a full member of the Governor General’s Executive Council.
• Legislation was treated for the first time as separate from executive functions.
GS

• Questions could be asked and the policy of the Executive Council could be discussed, though the
Executive Council could veto a bill of the Legislative Council.
• Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competition examination (excluding Indians).
Government of India Act 1858
• Rule of Company in India ended and that of the Crown began.
• System of Dual government ended. Court of Directors and Board of Control abolished and substituted
them with a post of Secretary of State (a member of the British cabinet). He was assisted by a 15 -
member council (called Indian Council). He was to exercise the powers of the Crown.
• Secretary of State governed India through the Governor General.
• Governor General received the title of Viceroy. He represented Secretary of State and was assisted by an
Executive Council, which consisted of high officials of the Government.
• A unitary and highly centralized administrative structure was created.
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The Indian Council Act 1861

• A fifth member, who was to be a jurist, was added to the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• 6 - 12 additional members to be added to the Executive Council for legislation purpose. This implied that
Viceroy’s Executive Council, which was so long composed of officials, would now include certain additional
non - official members. Some of non - official seats were offered to natives of high ranks. Thus, a minute
element of ‘popular’ participation was introduced in the legislative process. The additional members,
though, had little powers.
• The Executive Council was now to be called Central Legislative Council.
• Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency.
Indian Council Act 1892
• Two improvements in both the Central and the Provincial Legislative Councils were suggested.

E
• Though the majority of the official members was retained, the non - official members were to be
nominated by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Provincial Legislative Councils. [The non - official

•
OR
members of the Provincial Councils were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities,
district boards, municipalities]. Indian leaders like G.K. Gokhale, Ashutosh Mukherjee, Ras Bihari Ghosh
and S.N. Banerjee found their way in the Legislative Council.
The Councils were to have the powers to discuss the annual statement of revenue and expenditure (i.e.
the budget) and of addressing questions to the Executive). They could also put questions, within certain
SC
limits, to the Government on matters of public interest after giving six days notice.
Indian Council Act 1909 or Morley - Minto Reforms
• Morley was the Secretary of State, while Minto was the Indian Viceroy.
• Legislative Councils, both at the Centre and in the Provinces, were expanded.
GS

• With regard to Central Government, an Indian member was taken in the Executive Council of the
Governor General.
• The size of the Provincial Legislative Councils were enlarged by including elected non - official members
so that the official majority was gone. Their functions were also increased. Now, they could move
resolutions on Budget and on some matters of public matters.
• An element of election was also introduced in the Central Legislative Council, but the official majority
was maintained.
• The most notable and retrograde change introduced was that Muslims were given separate representation.
Thus, communal representation was introduced.
Government of India Act 1919 or Montague - Chelmsford Reforms
• Dyarchy system introduced in the provinces. It was considered to be a substantial step towards transfer
of power to the Indians). The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into two categories
: Transferred and Reserved.
• The Transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible
to the Legislative Council. The Governor and the Executive Council were to administer the reserved
subjects without any responsibility to the legislature.
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• Devolution Rules : Subjects of administration were divided into two categories - Central and Provincial.
Subjects of all India importance (like railways and finance) were brought under the category of Central,
while matters relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as Provincial.
• The Provincial Legislature was to consist of one House only (Legislative Council).
• The number of Indians in the Governor General’s Executive Council was raised to three in a Council of
eight. The Indian members were entrusted with departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health and
Industries.
• The Centre was now to have a Bicameral Legislature for the first time. It actually happened after 1935
Act.
• Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo - Indians, etc. Secretary of State to be
henceforth paid salary out of the British revenue.
Government of India Act 1935
• Provided for the establishment of All - India Federation consisting of the British provinces and the

E
Princely States. The joining of Princely States was voluntary and as a result the federation did not come
into existence.
OR
• Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (e.g., Department of Foreign Affairs and Defence were reserved for
the Governor General).
• The other Federal subjects were to be administered by the Governor General with the assistance and
advice of a Council of Ministers to be chosen by him (but to include representatives of Princely States
and minorities, and to be responsible to the Central Legislature). Residuary powers were to be with the
SC

Governor General only.

• The Federal Legislature (Central Legislature) was to have two chambers (bicameral) - the Council of State
and the Federal Assembly. The Council of State was to be a permanent body with one - third of its
membership being vacated and renewed triennially. The Federal Assembly’s duration was fixed for five
years.
• It made a 3 - fold division of powers: Federal (Central) Legisl1ative List Provincial Legislative List and
GS

the Concurrent Legislative List. Residuary legislative powers were subject to the discretion of the Governor
General. Even if a bill was passed by the Federal Legislature, the Governor General could veto it, while
even Acts assented to by the Governor General could be disallowed by the King - in - Council.
• Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in Provinces i.e., the distinction between Reserved and Transferred
subjects was abolished and full responsible government was established, subject to certain safeguards.
They were granted separate legal identity.
• The Governor was the head of the Provincial Executive and was expected to be guided by the advice of
the popular ministries. However, the Act gave arbitrary powers to the Governors to act in their ‘discretion’
in certain matters.
• The Act also provided for a Federal Court (which was established in 1937), with original and appellate
powers) to interpret the Constitution. A Federal Bank (the Reserve Bank of India) was also established.
The Indian Council of Secretary of State was abolished.
• Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo - Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans.
• Burma (now Myanmar) and Aden were separated from India and two new provinces Orissa and Sind were
created.
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GOVERNOR GENERALS DURING BRITISH INDIA

GOVERNOR OF BENGAL (BEFORE 1773)

Robert Clive (1754-1767)
• Founder of the British Indian Empire, popularly known as "Clive of India".
• He was British administrator and military leader to start with, however his destiny brought him to India
and he worked in various capacities for British East India Company.
• He was Governor of Bengal before "Regulating Act of 1773" - which actually marks beginning of Birtish

E
rule.
• He was involved in Battle of Plassey (1757) and consequent annexation of Bengal.
•
•
•
Civil Services were organized during Clive's tenure. OR
Started Dual administration in Bengal (1757-1722), the practice was stopped by Warren Hastings.

He prohibited employees of the company from undertaking any private or accept any gift.
SC
• During First Anglo-Mysore War (1766-69), Robert Clive was recalled during the course of war in 1767.
English were defeated by Haider Ali.
GOVERNOR GENERALS OF BENGAL (1773-1833)
Lord Warren Hastings (1773-1785)
• Governor of Bengal was designated as Governor General of Bengal.
GS

• He annexed Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1772.

• He started modern western administration in India.
• He entered into business with Egypt, Tibet and Bhutan. He stopped annual pension to Mughal Emperor
and reduced the pension of the Nawab of Bengal.
• Overall administration including Civil Services was very corrupt during Hastings's tenure.
• He initiated the Rohilla War (1774) and annexation of Rohilkhand by Nawab of Awadh, with the help
of British.
• During his tenure Act of 1781 came under which the powers of jurisdiction between the Governor-
General-in-council and the Supreme Court at Calcutta were clearly divided.
• He led First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) followed by Treaty of Salbai as Marathas were defeated.
• Pitts India Act of 1784 was enacted.
• He was involved in Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84), Haider All died and Mysore was defeated.
• During his tenure Judicial Murder of Nand Kumar in 1775 took place. Nand Kumar was critic of Warren
Hastings, indicted in false case and sentenced to death.
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Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)

• He was the founding father of 'Indian Civil Services'. (Reforms for purification of Administration).
• He was the father of modern police administration in India.
• He created the post of DSP. He believed in the separation of powers, therefore he deprived the District
Collector of judicial powers and created the new post of District Judge. He also carried out gradation of
courts.
• He proposed Cornwallis Code (1793) incorporating several judicial reforms. He codified the personal laws
(IPC and CrPC are codified personal laws) and separation of revenue and civil administration.
• Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) followed by Treaty of Seringapatnam (1792).
• Introduction of the Permanent Revenue Settlement that is Zamindari system in Bengal and Bihar (1793).
It was the worst measure of Lord Cornwallis.
• Europeanization of administrative machinery and introduction of civil services.

E
He established Permanent revenue settlement with a class of revenue collectors (Zamindars under Zamindari
OR
rights).
Sir John Shore (1793-1798)
• First civil servant to become Governor-General. He played important role during the introduction of
Permanent revenue settlement that is Zamindari system in 1793.
SC

• Charter act of 1793 was enacted during his period.

• He defeated Nizam of Hyderabad who later on joined Subsidiary Alliance with British during Wellesley's
tenure.
Lord Arthur Wellesley (1798-1805)
GS

• During his tenure introduction of Subsidiary Alliance in 1798 occured. The rulers of the state of Nizam
of Hyderabad, Mysore, Tanjavore, Awadh, Jodhpur, Jaipur and finally Peshwas also signed Subsidiary
Alliance.

• During his tenure Fouth Anglo-Mysore war (1799) & Second Anglo-Maratha war (1803-05) occured.
Lord George Barlow (1805-1807)
• Pursued moderate policy, that is, the policy of non-intervention with princely states.
• Tried to establish peaceful relations with Marathas.
• White Mutiny at Vellore (1806) occured during his tenure.
Lord Minto-I (1807-1813)

• Concluded important Amritsar treaty (1809) with Maharaja Ranjit Singh which decided later course of
Anglo-Sikh relations.

• Governor General of Bengal at the time of passage of Charter Act of 1813.

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Francis Rawdon Hastings (1813-1823): (Marques of Hastings)

• Renounced the policy of non-intervention followed by his predecessor and revived aggressive imperialistic
policy marking the beginning of second phase of British imperialism in India, so as to build large British
Asiatic Empire by conquering territories bordeting India.
• During his tenure Anglo-Nepal War; Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819) and Pindari War (1817-18)
occured.
Lord Amherst (1823-28)
• First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826) and signed Treaty of Yaudaboo in 1826 by which British merchants
were allowed to settle on southern coast of Rangoon.
• Capture of Barakhphr (1826) occured.
GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA (1832-1858)

E
Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)
• Charter Act of 1833 was enacted.
•
•
OR
He was the most liberal British Governor-General of India.
Tenure coincides with socio-religious reform movements of 19th century (Abolition of Sati and other
cruel rights (1829) occured during his tenure.
SC
• Resolution of 1835 and Educational reforms.
• Suppression of `Thuge' that is highway robbery in 1830 by Colonel Sleeman.
• Raja of Mysore was deposed and territories of kingdom were annexed (1831).
• Annexation of Cachar (1834) and Jaintia (1832) and Coorg (1834) on the charges of mal-administration.
GS

• Formation of Agra province in 1834.

• Provincial courts of appeal and circuits were replaced by commissioners of revenue and circuit.
• Treaty of `Perpetual friendship' with Ranjit Singh took place.
Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835-1836)
• Brief tenure marked by the liberation of Indian press of prohibitory restrictions as new press law was
passed.
Lord Auckland (1836-1842)
• Disastrous First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842) occured during his tenure.
Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844)
• Successfully completed Afghan war and annexed Sindh province for British in 1843.
• Became first Governor General of India to be recalled for defying the orders of the Court of Directors
of East India Company.
• War with Gwalior (1843) occured during his tenure.
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Lord Hardinge-I (1844-1848)

• Issued orders for prohibition of female infanticide and suppression of the practice of human sacrifice
among the Goads of Central India.
• Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846) occured during his tenure.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856 great imperialist and colonist)
• Application of 'Doctrine of Lapse' (one of the principle political reasons for "Revolt of 1857) annexed
Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Bhagat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854)
and Awadh (1856) under `Doctrine of Lapse'
• The introduction of Railways (first train Bombay to Thane), Telegraph and Postal systems (first telegraph
line - Calcutta - Agra) in India in 1853.
• Postal reforms (Post Office Act 1854) initiated during his tenure.
• Charter- Act of 1853 passed.

E
• Wood's Education Dispatch 1854 (Magna Carta of Modern Western Education in India) also passed.
• Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852) and annexation of lower Burma occured during his tenure.
OR
• Widow Remarriage Act (1856) enacted.
• Military headquarter of British India was moved to Shimla, where summer capital of British India was
also established. Headquarter of Bengal artillery was moved to Meerut.
• Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-56) and annexation of Punjab from Maharaja Dalip Singh (Maharaja Dalip
SC

Singh handed over Kohinoor diamond to British).

• Establishment of separate Public Works Department in every province.
• To bring more land under cultivation so as to earn more revenue, two canals (1854), upper Ganga canal,
in western Uttar Pradesh (originating in Haridwar) and Baridoad canal in Punjab were constructed. Similarly,
the harbors of Calcutta, Bombay and Karachi were modernized to receive large maritime ships.
GS

VICEROY AND GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA (1858-1947)

Lord Canning (1856-1857 and 1858-1862)
(Last Governor of East India Company and first viceroy and Governor General of India)
• Establishment of three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857 occured during.
• Witnessed and suppressed the Revolt of 1857.
• 'Doctrine of Lapse' started by Lord Dalhousie was finally withdrawn in 1859.
• Two arms of British administration originated (Secretary of State of India, Viceroy and Governor General
of India to look after the administration of India)
• Regressive laws, such as Criminal Procedure Codes (CrPC) and Indian Penal Codes (IPC) were introduced.
• Introduction of new tax such as income tax, on experimental basis in 1859.
• `White Mutiny' by European troops in 1859 occured.
• Indian Councils Act of 1861 enacted.
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Lord Elgin-I (1862-1863)

• Wahabi movement occured during his tenure and get suppressed.
Lord Lawrence (1862-1869)
• Followed a policy of rigid non-interference in Afghanistan called Policy of Masterly Inactivity.
• Setting up of High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras (1865).
Lord Mayo (1869-1872)
• Opening of the Rajkot college in Kathiawar and the Mayo College at Ajmer for political training of Indian
princes.
• Establishment of Statistical Survey of India occured.
• Establishment of Department of Agriculture and Commerce.

E
• Introduction of State Railways.
Lord North Brook (1872-1876)
•
•
Visit of Prince of Wales in 1875 occured.
Trial of Gaelcwar of Baroda occured.
OR
• Kuka movement in Punjab occured during his tenure.
SC
Lord Lytton (1876-1880)
• Famine of 1876-1878 affecting Madras,. Bombay, Mysore, Hyderabad, parts of Central India and Punjab
occured. Famine commission under the presidency of Richard Strachey (1878) appointed.
• Royal Titles Act (1876), Queen Victoria assuming the title of ''Kaiser-i-hind" or "Queen Empress of
India".
GS

• The Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Arms Act (1878) enacted.
• The Second Afghan War (1878-1880) took place.
Lord Rippon (1880-1884)
• Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882) took place.
• The first Factory Act, 1881, to improve labor conditions enacted.
• Government resolution on Local Self Government (1882) also passed.
• Continuation of Financial decentralization.
• Appointment of education commission under the chairmanship of Sir William Hunter (1882).
• The IIbert bill controversy (1883-1884) occured.
Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)
• The third Burmese war (1885-86) and establishment of Indian National Congress occured during his
tenure.
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Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)

• Factory act (1891) enacted.
• Categorization of civil services as imperial, provincial and subordinate occured.
• Indian Council Act (1892) enacted.
• Setting up of Durand Commission (1893) to define the Durand line between India and Afghanistan (now
between Pakistan and Afghanistan).
Lord Elgin-II (1894-1999)
• Two British officials assassinated by Chapekar brothers (1897) during his tenure.
Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
• Appointment of Police Commission (1902) under Sir Andrew Frazer to review police administration.
• Appointment of Universities Commission (1902) and passing of Indian Universities Act (1904)

E
Establishment of department of Commerce and industry.
• Calcutta Corporation Act (1899) enacted.
OR
• Ancient Monument Preservation act (1904) & Partition of Bengal (1905) enacted.
• Curzon-Kitchener controversy started.
• Partition Bangal (1905) of Bengal occured.
SC

• Younghusbands mission to Tibet (1904) started.

Lord Minto-II (1905-1910)
• Popularization of Anti-partion and Swadeshi movements.
• Split in Congress in the annual session of 1907 in Surat occured.
GS

• Establishment of Muslim League by Aga Khan (1906).

Lord Hardinge-11 (1910-1916)
• Creation of Bengal presidency (like Bombay and Madras) in 1911.
• Coronation Durbar of King George V held in Delhi 1911.
• Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi 1911.
• Establishment of Hindu Mabasabha (1915) by Madan Mohan Malavaya.
Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)
• Formation of Home Rule Leagues by Annie Besant and Tilak (1916).
• Lucknow session of the Congress (1916).
• Lucknow pact between Congress and Muslim league (1916) signed.
• Foundation of Sabarmati Ashram (1916) after Gandhiji's return; Launch of Champaran Satyagraha (1916),
Kheda Satyagaha (1918) and Satyagraha at Ahmedabad (1918) occured.
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• Montague's August declaration (1917) proposed.

• Government of India's Act (1919) enacted.
• The Rowlatt Act (1919) enacted.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) took place.
• Launch of Non-cooperation and Khilafat movement occured.
• Foundation of women's university at Pune (1916) and appointment of Saddler's commission (1917) for
reforms in educational policy.
• Appointment of S.V. Sinha as Governor of Bihar (the first Indian to become a Governor).
Lord Reading (1921-1926)
• Chauri Chaura incident (February 5, 1922) and the subsequent withdrawal of non-cooperation movement.

E
• Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921) started.
• Repeal of the Press Act of 1910 and the Rowlatt Act of 1919 occured.
•
•
OR
Criminal Law Amendment Act and Abolition of cotton exercise.
Communal riots in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, Aligarh, Arvi and Calcutta occured.
• Kakori train robbery (1925) also happened during his tenure.
SC
• Establishment of Swaraj party by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru (1922).
• Decision to hold simultaneous examination for the ICS both in Delhi and London with effect from 1923.
Lord Irwin (1926-1931)
• Visit of Simon Commission to India (1928) and the boycott of the commission by the Indians occured.
GS

• An All Parties Conference held at Lucknow (1928) for suggestions for (future) Constitution of India, the
report of "Nehru Report" of the " Nehru Constitution" proposed.
• Appointment of Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission 1927.
• Murder of Saunders, the Assistant Superintendent of Police of Lahore; bomb blast in the assembly hall
of Delhi; the Lahore conspiracy case and the death of Jatin Das after prolonged hunger strike (1921) and
bomb accident on train in Delhi (1929).
• Lahore session of the Congress (1929); Puna Swami resolution.
• Dandi March (March 12,1930) by Gandhi to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Deepavali declaration by Lord Erwin (1929).
• Boycott of the first round table conference, Gandhi-Irwin pact (1931) and the suspension of the civil
disobedience movement (March 1931).
Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)
• Second round table conference (1931) and failure .of the conference, presumption of civil disobedience.
• Announcement of communal award 1932 under which separate communal electorates were set up.
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• "Fast unto Death" by Gandhi in Yeravada prison, broken after the Pune pact (1932).
• Third round table conference (1932) occured.
• Launch of individual Civil Disobedience Movement (1933).
• The Government of India Act (1935) enacted.
• Establishment of All India Kisan Sabha (1936) and Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev
and Jayprakash Narayan (1934).
• Burma-separated from India (1935).
Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)
• First general elections (1936-37); occured Congress gained majority in 5 provinces and formed coalition
in 3 other provinces.
• Resignation of the Congress ministries after the outbreak of the World War-II (1939).

E
• Subash Chandra Bose elected President of Congress at the 51st session of the Congress (1938).
OR
• Resignation of Bose in 1939 and formation of the Forward Bloc (1939) occured.
• Lahore resolution (March 1940) by the Muslim league demand for the separate state for Muslims.
• 'August offer' (1940) by the viceroy; criticism by the congress and the endorsement by the Muslim league.
• Vincent Churchill was elected Prime Minister of England (1940).
SC

• Escape of Subash Chandra Bose from India (1941) and organization of the Indian National Army.
• Cripps Mission, Cripps Plan to offer dominion status to India and setting up of a constituent assembly
and its rejection by the congress.
• Passing of the 'Quit India resolutions' by the congress (1942); outbreak of 'August Revolution'; or Revolt
GS

of 1942 after the arrest of National leaders.

• 'Divide and Quit' slogan at Karachi session (1944) of the Muslim League.
Lord Wavell (1944-1947)
• C.Rajagoapalachari's `C.R.Formula' (1944) was proposed.
• Failure of Gandhi-Jinnah pacts (1944) occured.
• Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference (1942) took place.
• End of World War-II (1945).
• Proposals of the Cabinet Mission (1946) and its acceptance by the Congress.
• Observance of 'Direct action day"(August 16, 1948) by the Muslim League.
• Elections to the constituent assembly, formation of interim government by the congress (September 1946)
• Announcement of the end of British rule in India by Clement Atlee (Prime Minister of England) on
February 20, 1947
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Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948)

• June 3 Plan (June 3, 1947) announced.
• Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of Commons.
• Appointment of two boundary commissions under Sir Cyril Radcliffe for the partition of Bengal and
Punjab.

E
OR
SC
GS
Notes

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PERSONALITIES
MAHATMA GANDHI
• Mahatma Gandhi was born as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on October 2, 1869 at Porbandar, located
in the present day state of Gujarat.
• His father Karamchand Gandhi was the Diwan (Prime Minister) of Porbandar and mother Putlibai was
a pious lady and under her tutelage Gandhi imbibed various principles of Hinduism at an early age.
• After completing his college education Gandhi left for England on September 4, 1888 to study law at
University College, London.
• In 1893, went to South Africa as a legal adviser to an Indian firm in South Africa.

E
• As he descended in South Africa, Gandhi was left appalled at the rampant racial discrimination against
Indians and blacks by the European whites.
OR
• Soon Gandhi found himself at the receiving end of such abuse (thrown away from first class bogie of the
train) and he vowed to take up the cudgels on behalf of the Indian community.
• He organized the expatriate Indians and protested against the injustices meted out by the African
government.
SC

• After years of disobedience and non-violent protests, the South African government finally conceded to
Gandhi’s demands and an agreement to this effect was signed in 1914.
• Later, Gandhi realized the war that was to be waged against the British awaits his arrival in India and he
returned to India in 1915.
• After reaching India, Gandhi traveled across the length and breadth of the country to witness the atrocities
GS

of the British regime.

• He founded the Satyagraha Ashram and successfully employed the principles of Satyagraha in uniting the
peasants of Kheda and Champaran against the government. After this victory Gandhi was bestowed the
title of Bapu and Mahatma and his fame spread far and wide.
• In 1921, Mahatma Gandhi called for the non-cooperation movement against the British Government with
the sole object of attaining Swaraj or independence for India.
• Even though the movement achieved roaring success all over the country, the incident of mob violence
in Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh forced Gandhi to call off the mass disobedience movement. Consequent
to this, Mahatma Gandhi took a hiatus from active politics and instead indulged in social reforms.
• The year 1930 saw Gandhi’s return to the fore of Indian freedom movement and on March 12, 1930 he
launched the historic Dandi March to protest against the tax on salt.
• The Dandi March soon metamorphosed into a huge civil disobedience movement.
• The Second World War broke out in 1939 and as the British might began to wane, Gandhi called for the
Quit India movement on August 8, 1942.
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• Post World War, the Labour Party came to power in England and the new government assured the Indian
leadership of imminent independence. The Cabinet Mission sent by the British government proposed for
the bifurcation of India along communal lines which Gandhi vehemently protested.
• Eventually Gandhi had to relent and on the eve of independence thousands lost their lives in communal
riots.
• Gandhi urged for communal harmony and worked tirelessly to promote unity among the Hindus and
Muslims.
• But Mahatma’s act of benevolence angered Hindu fundamentalists and on January 13, 1948 he was
assassinated by Hindu fanatic Nathuram Godse.
Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi
Truth: Gandhi strictly maintained that the concept of truth is above and beyond of all other considerations
and one must unfailingly embrace truth throughout one’s life.

E
Satyagraha: In the context of Indian freedom movement, Satyagraha meant the resistance to the British
oppression through mass civil obedience.

OR
Nonviolence: The principle of nonviolence or Ahimsa has been integral to many Indian religions and Mahatma
Gandhi espoused for total nonviolence in the Indian freedom struggle.
Khadi: Mahatma used the adoption of Khadi as a subtle economic tool against the British industrial might
and also as a means of generating rural employment in India.
SC
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
• Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889, to a wealthy Kashmiri Brahmin family in Allahabad,
Uttar Pradesh.
• His father Motilal Nehru was a renowned advocate and also an influential politician.
GS

• For higher education, young Nehru was sent to Harrow school and then later to Cambridge University in
England. After spending two years at the Inner Temple, London, he qualified as a barrister.
• During his stay in London, Nehru was attracted by the ideas of liberalism, socialism and nationalism.
• In 1912, he had returned to India and joined the Allahabad High Court Bar.
• In 1916, Nehru participated in the Lucknow Session of the Congress. There, after a very long time,
member of both the extremist and moderate factions of the Congress party had come. All the members
equivocally agreed to the demand for “swaraj” (self rule). Although the means of the two sections were
different, the motive was “common” - freedom.
• In 1921 Nehru was imprisoned for participating in the first civil disobedience campaign as general secretary
of the United Provinces Congress Committee. The life in the jail helped him in understanding the
philosophy followed by Gandhi and others associated with the movement. He was moved by Gandhi’s
approach of dealing with caste and “untouchablity”.
• In 1922, some of the prominent members including his father Motilal Nehru had left the congress and
launched the “Swaraj Party”. The decision, no doubt upset Jawahar but he rejected the possibility of
leaving the Congress party.
• He was elected as the president of the Allahabad municipal corporation in 1920.
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• In 1926, he traveled to the flourished European nations like Germany, France and the Soviet Union. Here,
Nehru got an opportunity to meet various Communists, Socialists, and radical leaders from Asia and
Africa.
• Nehru was also impressed with the economic system of the communist Soviet Union and wished to apply
the same in his own country.
• In 1927, he became a member of the League against Imperialism created in Brussels, the capital city of
Belgium.
• During the Guwahati Session in 1928, Mahatma Gandhi announced that the Congress would launch a
massive movement if the British authority did not grant dominion status of India within next two years.
It was believed that under the pressure of Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose, the deadline was reduced
to one year.
• Jawaharlal Nehru criticized the famous “Nehru Report” prepared by his father Motilal Nehru in 1928 that
favored the concept of a “dominion status for India within the British rule”.
• In 1930 Mahatma Gandhi advocated Nehru as the next president of the Congress. The decision was also

E
an attempt to abate the intensity of “communism” in the Congress. The same year, Nehru was arrested
for the violation of the Salt Law.
OR
• In 1936, Nehru was re-elected as the president of the Indian National Congress.
• Fifteen years after the Guwahati Session, on 15 August, 1947, the congress succeeded to overthrow the
influential British Empire. Nehru was recognized as the first Prime Minister of independent India.
• In the year 1949, Jawaharlal Nehru made his first visit to the United States, seeking a solution to India’s
SC

urgent food shortage.

• In 1951, Jawaharlal Nehru launched the country’s “First Five-Year Plan” emphasizing on the increase in
the agricultural output.
• He was also the chief framer of domestic and international policies between 1947 and 1964.
GS

• Nehru played a predominant roles in substantiating India’s role in the foundation of NAM. He advocated
the policy of Non-Alignment during the cold war and India, subsequently, kept itself aloof from being in
the process of “global bifurcation”.
• In 1964, Jawaharlal Nehru suffered a stroke and a heart attack and on 27 May 1964, Nehru passed away.
• Nehru was cremated at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River, Delhi
VALLABHBHAI PATEL
• Vallabhbhai Patel was born on October 31, 1875 in Gujarat to Zaverbhai and Ladbai.
• He completed his law studies in 1913 and came back to India and started his law practice.
• For his Excellencies in Law, Vallabhbhai was offered many lucrative posts by the British Government but
he rejected all.
• Later, inspired by Gandhi’s work and philosophy Patel became a staunch follower of him.
• In 1917, Sardar Vallabhbhai was elected as the Secretary of the Gujarat Sabha. The next year, when there
was a flood in Kaira, the British insisted on collecting tax from the farmers. Sardar Vallabhbhai led a
massive “No Tax campaign” that urged the farmers not to pay their land.
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• The peaceful movement forced the British authority to return then land taken away from the farmers. His
effort to bring together the farmers of his area brought him the title of ‘Sardar’ to his name.
• In 1928, the farmers of Bardoli faced a similar problem of “tax-hike”. After prolonged summons, when
the farmers refused to pay the extra tax, the government in retaliation seized their lands. Under the
leadership of Vallabhbhai Patel the agitation took on for more than six months and after a deal struck
between the government and farmer’s representatives, the lands were returned.
• In 1930 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was imprisoned for participating in the famous Salt Satyagraha called by
Mahatma Gandhi.
• His inspiring speeches during the “Salt Movement” transformed the lives of numerous people, who later
played a major role in making the movement successful.
• Sardar Patel was freed in 1931 following an agreement signed between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin,
the then Viceroy of India. The treaty was popularly known as the Gandhi-Irwin pact.

E
• In 1931 Patel was elected as the president of Indian National Congress Party for its Karachi session.In
the Karachi session, the Indian National Congress Party committed itself to the defence of fundamental
rights and human rights and a dream of a secular nation. An agreement regarding this was also sanctioned.
•
OR
In 1934, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel led the all-India election campaign for the Indian National Congress.
Though he did not contest a seat for himself, Sardar Patel helped his fellow party mates during the
election.
• At the time of independence, Indian territory was divided into three parts. First, the territories under the
SC
direct control of the British government, second were the territories over which the hereditary rulers had
suzerainty. The regions, which had been colonized by France and Portugal, formed the last. India, without
the integration of these different territories under one roof, could not be considered as a unified and total
country. Vallabhbhai Patel played a crucial role during the freedom struggle of India and was instrumental
in the integration of over 565 princely states into the Indian Union.
BAL GANGADHAR TILAK
GS

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak was a social reformer and freedom fighter and was one of the prime architects of
modern India and strongest advocates of Swaraj (Self Rule).
• He was a great reformer and throughout his life he emphasized on the concepts of women education and
women empowerment.
• To inspire a sense of unity, he introduced the festivals like ‘Ganesh Chaturthi’ and Shivaji Jayanti’. In
present times Ganesh Chaturthi is considered as the prime festival of the Marathis.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak launched two newspapers called ‘Mahratta’ (English) and ‘Kesari’ (Marathi). Both the
newspaper stressed on making the Indians aware of the glorious past and empowered them to be self
reliant. The newspaper actively propagated the cause of national freedom.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak joined the Indian National Congress Party in 1890.
• Realizing that the constitutional agitation in itself was futile against the British, Tilak opposed the moderate
views of the party. This subsequently made him stand against the prominent leaders like Gopal Krishna
Gokhale.
• His movement was based on the principles of Swadeshi (Indigenous), Boycott and Education. But his
methods also raised bitter controversies within the Indian National Congress Party and the movement
itself.
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• As a result, Tilak formed the extremist wing of Indian National Congress Party. Tilak was well supported
by fellow nationalists Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab. The trio was referred
to as the Lal-Bal-Pal.
• A massive trouble broke out between the moderate and extremist factions of the Indian National Congress
Party in the 1907 session of the Congress Party. As a result of which, the Congress split into two factions.
• During 1908-1914, Bal Gangadhar Tilak spent six years rigorous imprisonment in Mandalay Jail, Burma.
He was deported because of his alleged support to the Indian revolutionaries, who had killed British
people.
• Tilak returned to India in 1915 when the political situation was fast changing under the shadow of World
War I.
• Tilak decided to re-unite with his fellow nationalists and founded the All India Home Rule League in 1916
with Joseph Baptista, Annie Besant and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• In mid-July 1920, his condition worsened and on August 1, he passed away.

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GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHALE
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale was one of the pioneers of the Indian Independence Movement and was a senior
OR
leader of the Indian National Congress.
• He was a leader of social and political reformists and one of the earliest and founding leaders of the Indian
Independence Movement and was respected widely in the Indian intellectual community.
• In 1884, after the completion of his graduation in arts at the Elphinstone College, Bombay, Gokhale joined
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as professor of history and political economy at the Fergusson College, Poona. He remained on the staff,
finally as principal, until 1902.
• Becoming actively identified with the National Congress movement, he was for some years the joint
secretary and in 1905 president at the Benares session.
• The higher education made Gokhale understand the importance of liberty, democracy and parliamentary
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system of the government.

• In 1985-86, Gopal Krishna Gokhale met a great scholar and a social reformer Mahadev Govind Ranade.
Ranade was a great leader, judge, scholar and above all social reformer. Gokhale regarded Mahadev
Govinda Ranade as his “Guru”.
• Ranade helped Gokhale in establishing the “Servants of India Society” in 1905. The main objective of
this society was to train Indians to raise their voices and serve their country.
• Gokhale also worked with Ranade in a quarterly Journal, called “Sarvajanik”. The Journal wrote about
the public questions of the day in frank and fearless manner.
• Gokhale was the secretary of the “Reception Committee” of the 1895 Poona session of Indian National
Congress and from this session, Gokhale became a prominent face of the Indian National Congress.
• For a while Gokhale was a member of the Bombay Legislative Council where he spoke strongly against
the then Government.
• In 1905, Gokhale was sent by the Congress on a special mission to England to spread India’s constitutional
demands among the British leaders.
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• Gokhale was instrumental in the formation of the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909, which was tabled. The
Reforms Act became law in 1909 but it was disappointing that despite Gokhale’s efforts, the people were
not given a proper democratic system.
• However, Gokhale’s efforts were clearly not in vain and Indians now had access to seats of the highest
authority within the government, and their voices were more audible in matters of public interest.
• Gokhale, during his visit to South Africa in 1912, met Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
• Gokhale made him aware of the issues confronting common people back in India.
• In his autobiography, Gandhi calls Gokhale his “mentor and guide”.
• Not only Gandhi, Gokhale also guide Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah.
SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE
• Subhash Chandra Bose was born into an affluent Bengali family on January 23, 1897 in Cuttack, Orissa.

E
• During the period of civil disobedience movement called by Mahatma Gandhi Bose resigned from the ICS
in April 1921 to join the freedom struggle.
•

•
eloquence and leadership skills. OR
He joined the youth wing of the Congress Party and soon rose up the party hierarchy by virtue of his

At an early stage of his life Subhas Bose accepted Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das as his political guru.
• Over a span of 20 years, Bose was imprisoned eleven times by the British, the first one being in 1921.
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In 1924, after a brief period of incarceration, Bose was exiled to Mandalay in Burma.
• Subhash Bose was imprisoned again in 1930 and deported to Europe. During his stay in Europe from 1933
to 1936, Subhash Bose zealously espoused the cause of Indian freedom while meeting a number of
prominent European statesmen.
• In 1937, Bose married Emilie Schenkl who was his secretary.
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• Subhash Bose was twice elected president of the Indian National Congress (1938 and 1939) but following
his disagreements with Mahatma Gandhi he relinquished his post and formed a progressive group known
as the Forward Block.
• The principles and the philosophy of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose were instrumental factors in his
embracing of armed revolution in the later part of his political career.
• Initially Bose was a follower of the Gandhian way of freedom movement but years of travel in European
countries during exile and the ripening of mental faculties with age made him disenchanted with the ways
of the Indian National Congress.
• Disappointed with the leniency shown by some Congress leaders towards the British, Bose became
increasingly convinced that the goal of achieving freedom would remain a pipedream as long as the British
held sway over the land and peaceful protests would never be able to throw the British out.
• While outlining his vision for a free India, Subhash Chandra Bose proclaimed that socialist authoritarianism
would be required to eradicate poverty and social inequalities from a diverse country like India.
• He openly espoused for an authoritarian state on the lines of Soviet Russia and Kemal Atatürk’s Turkey.
• Bose was also an exponent of socialism and opined that industrialization and Soviet-style five-year plans
held the key to a vibrant Indian nation.
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• The Second World War broke out in 1939 and Bose launched a campaign of mass civil disobedience to
protest against the Viceroy’s decision to declare war on India’s behalf.
• Bose was placed under house arrest. Taking advantage of the laxity of the house guards and aided by his
cousin Sishir Bose, Subhash managed to escape and traversing through enemy territories he reached
Moscow.
• Bose tried to garner the help Nazi Germany but due to the indifferent attitude of Hitler and other German
leaders he left for Japan and soon assumed the leadership of Indian National Army (INA) founded by
Rash Behari Bose.
• Bolstered by material assistance from the Japanese forces, the INA attacked the British forces in Manipur
and Nagaland in northeastern India and hosted the National Flag in the town in Moirang, in Manipur.
• But with the defeat of Japan, the invasion by the INA soon petered out and Netaji was forced to retreat
to Malaya.
• Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose allegedly died in a plane crash over Taiwan, while flying to Tokyo on August
18, 1945.
LALA LAJPAT RAI

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OR
• Lala Lajpat Rai immensely contributed in attaining independence the nation and helped to establish the
nationalistic Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School and became a follower of Dayanand Saraswati.
• In 1888 and 1889 he was a delegate to the annual sessions of the National Congress.
• In 1895 Rai helped found the Punjab National Bank, demonstrating his concern for self-help and enterprise.
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• In 1897 he founded the Hindu Orphan Relief Movement to keep the Christian missions from securing
custody of these children.
• In the National Congress in 1900 he stressed the importance of constructive, nation-building activity and
programs for self-reliance.
• In October 1917, he founded the Indian Home Rule League of America in New York.
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• In 1920, after his return from America, Lajpat Rai was invited to preside over the special session of the
Congress in Calcutta, (now Kolkata).
• He plunged into the non-cooperation movement, which was being launched in response to the Rowlatt
Act, in principle.
• The movement was led by Lajpat Rai’s in Punjab and he soon came to be known as “Punjab Kesri” (The
Lion of Punjab).
• Lala Lajpat Rai was also a noted writer. The United States of America: A Hindu’s impressions and a
study, History of the Arya Samaj, Swaraj and social change, England’s Debt to India: India, The Problems
Of National Education In India were among the books, he had written.
• On October 30, 1928 he died after the police lathi-charged on the activists, protesting the arrival of Simon
Commission. .
MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was one of the foremost leaders of Indian freedom struggle. He was also a
renowned scholar, and poet.
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• Imbued with the pan-Islamic spirit, he visited Afghanistan, Iraq, Egypt, Syria and Turkey.
• In Iraq he met the exiled revolutionaries who were fighting to establish a constitutional government in Iran.
In Egypt he met Shaikh Muhammad Abduh and Saeed Pasha and other revolutionary activists of the
Arab world.
• He had a firsthand knowledge of the ideals and spirit of the young Turks in Constantinople. All these
contacts metamorphosed him into a nationalist revolutionary.
• On his return from abroad, Azad met two leading revolutionaries of Bengal- Aurobinto Ghosh and Sri
Shyam Shundar Chakravarty, and joined the revolutionary movement against British rule.
• Azad observed that the revolutionary activities were restricted to Bengal and Bihar, and within two years,
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad helped set up secret revolutionary centers all over north India and Bombay.
• During that time most of his revolutionaries were anti-Muslim because they felt that the British government
was using the Muslim community against India's freedom struggle. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad tried to

E
convince his colleagues to shed their hostility towards Muslims.
• In 1912, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad started a weekly journal in Urdu called Al-Hilal to increase the

•
revolutionary recruits amongst the Muslims.
OR
Al-Hilal played an important role in forging Hindu-Muslim unity after the bad blood created between the
two communities in the aftermath of Morley-Minto reforms. Al-Hilal became a revolutionary mouthpiece
ventilating extremist views. 'The government regarded Al- Hilal as propagator of secessionist views and
banned it in 1914.
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• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad started another weekly called Al-Balagh with the same mission of propagating
Indian nationalism and revolutionary ideas based on Hindu-Muslim unity. In 1916, the government banned
this paper too and expelled Maulana Abul Kalam Azad from Calcutta and put him in jail at Ranchi from
where he was released after the First World War 1920.
• After his release, Azad roused the Muslim community through the Khilafat Movement. The aim of the
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movement was to re-instate the Khalifa as the head of British captured Turkey. M
• aulana Abul Kalam Azad supported Non-Cooperation Movement started by Gandhiji and entered Indian
National Congress in 1920.
• He was elected as the president of the special session of the Congress in Delhi (1923).
• Maulana Azad was again arrested in 1930 for violation of the salt laws as part of Gandhiji's Salt Satyagraha.
He was put in Meerut jail for a year and a half.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad became the president of Congress in 1940 (Ramgarh) and remained in the
post till 1946.
• He was a staunch opponent of partition and supported a confederation of autonomous provinces with
their own constitutions but common defense and economy. Partition hurt him greaty and shattered his
dream of an unified nation where Hindus and Muslims can co-exist and prosper together.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad served as the Minister of Education (the first education minister in independent
India) in Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru's cabinet from 1947 to 1958.
• He was appointed as India’s first Minister for Education and inducted in the Constituent Assembly to draft
India’s constitution.
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• Under Maulana Azad’s tenure, a number of measures were undertaken to promote primary and secondary
education, scientific education, establishment of universities and promotion of avenues of research and
higher studies.
• For his invaluable contribution to the nation, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was posthumously awarded
India’s highest civilian honor, Bharat Ratna in 1992.
RAJENDRA PRASAD
• Rajendra Prasad was a great leader of the Indian Nationalist Movement and also one of the architects of
the Indian Constitution.
• He was elected as the first President of Republic of India.
• In 1911, during his stay in Calcutta (now Kolkata) as a legal practitioner, Rajendra Prasad joined the Indian
National Congress Party and was subsequently elected to the AICC.
• During the Champaran movement, Mahatma Gandhi asked Rajendra Prasad to visit Champaran along
with the other volunteers and partisans of the Indian National Congress.
•

E
Initially Rajendra Prasad was not impressed with Gandhiji’s appearance and conversation but deeply
moved by the dedication, conviction and courage of Gandhi.
OR
• Rajendra Prasad also responded to the call of Mahatma Gandhi to boycott Western education.
• He asked his son Mrityunjaya Prasad, a brilliant student to leave the University and enroll himself in Bihar
Vidyapeeth.
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• He wrote articles for magazines like “Searchlight” and “Desh”.

• Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of the Bombay session of the Indian National Congress
Party in October 1934.
• In July 1946, when the Constituent Assembly was established to frame the Constitution of India, Dr.
Rajendra Prasad was elected its President. And, eventually he was also elected as the first President of
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Republic of India.
• He was also awarded with Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award.
• Following a brief illness, he passed away in 28 February, 1963.
SAROJINI NAIDU
• Sarojini Naidu was known by the sobriquet “The Nightingale of India” and her contribution was not
confined to the fields of politics only but she was also a renowned poet.
• Sarojini Naidu was moved by the partition of Bengal in 1905 and decided to join the Indian freedom
struggle.
• She met regularly with Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who later introduced her to the stalwarts of the Indian
freedom movement. She met Mahatma Gandhi, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, C. P. Ramaswami Iyer and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• Sarojini later moved on to become leader of the Indian National Congress Party. She traveled extensively
to the United States of America and many European countries as the flag-bearer of the Indian Nationalist
struggle.
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• During 1915, Sarojini Naidu travelled all over India and delivered speeches on welfare of youth, dignity
of labor, women’s emancipation and nationalism.
• In 1916, she took up the cause of the indigo workers of Champaran in the western district of Bihar.
• Mahatma Gandhi organized the Non-Cooperation Movement to protest against Rowlatt Act and Naidu
was the first to join the movement.
• Sarojini Naidu also actively campaigned for the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, the Khilafat issue, the
Sabarmati Pact, the Satyagraha Pledge and the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• In 1919, she went to England as a member of the all-India Home Rule Deputation.
• In January 1924, she was one of the two delegates of the Indian National Congress Party to attend the
East African Indian Congress.
• In 1925, she was elected as the President of the Indian National Congress Party.

E
• In 1905, her collection of poems was published under the title “Golden Threshold”. Later, she also
published two other collections called “The Bird of Time”, and “The Broken Wings”.
•

•
Conference in 1947 was highly-appraised.
OR
Sarojini Naidu was the first woman Governor of Uttar Pradesh. Her chairmanship of the Asian Relations

On 02 March 1949, Sarojini Naidu died at Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI
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• Lal Bahadur Shastri (2 October 1904 – 11 January 1966) was the third Prime Minister of the Republic
of India and a leader of the Indian National Congress party.
• Shastri joined the Indian independence movement in the 1920s. Deeply impressed and influenced by
Mahatma Gandhi, he became a loyal follower, first of Gandhi, and then of Jawaharlal Nehru.
• During the “Salt Movement” Lal Bahadur lead a door-to-door campaign, urging people not to pay land
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revenue and taxes to the British authority.

• He was one of the leading and prominent faces that continued the Quit India movement, called by
Mahatma Gandhi.
• Lal Bahadur, in 1937, was elected to the UP Legislative Assembly.
• After Independence, he became the Minister of police in the Ministry of Govind Vallabh Panth in Uttar
Pradesh. His recommendations included the introduction of “water-jets” instead of sticks to disperse the
unruly mob.
• Impressed with his efforts in reforming the state police department, Jawaharlal Nehru, invited Shastri to
join the Union cabinet as a Minister for railways.
• He was a responsible man and known for his ethics and morality. In 1956, Lal Bahadur Shastri resigned
from his post, following a train accident that killed around 150 passengers near Ariyalur in Tamil Nadu.
• Nehru, had once said, “No one could wish for a better comrade than Lal Bahadur, a man of the highest
integrity and devoted to ideas”.
• In 1961, he became Minister for Home and formed the “Committee on Prevention of Corruption” headed
by of K. Santhanam.
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• Jawaharlal Nehru was succeeded by a mild-mannered and soft-spoken Lal Bahadur Shastri on 9 June,
1964.
• He was a follower of Nehruvian socialism. Shastri tackled many elementary problems like food shortage,
unemployment and poverty. To overcome the acute food shortage, Shastri asked the experts to devise a
long-term strategy. This was the beginning of famous “Green Revolution”.
• Apart from the Green Revolution, he was also instrumental in promoting the White Revolution. The
National Dairy Development Board was formed in 1965 during Shastri as Prime Minister.
• The 1965 Indo-Pak war took place during the tenure of Shastri which ended on 23 September 1965 after
the United Nations passed a resolution demanding a ceasefire.
• The Russian Prime Minister, Kosygin, offered to mediate and on 10 January 1966, Lal Bahadur Shastri
and his Pakistan counterpart Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Declaration.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri, who had earlier suffered two heart attacks, died of the third cardiac arrest on 11
January, 1966.

E
• He is the only Indian Prime Minister, to have died in office, overseas.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri was the first person to be posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, (India’s highest
OR
civilian award).
CHANDRASEKHAR AZAD
• Chandrasekhar Azad waged a valiant battle against the British and inspired the youth of the nation with
his heroics.
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• Chandrashekhar was deeply troubled by the Jalianwalabagh massacre in Amritsar in 1919 and at an age
of 15, got involved in the revolutionary activities.
• He was caught by the British police while participating in the non-cooperation movement and sentenced
to whip-lashes as punishment.
• When the magistrate asked him his name, he said “Azad” (independence). From that point onwards,
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Chandrashekhar assumed the title of Azad and came to be known as Chandrashekhar Azad.
• After the suspension of the non-cooperation movement by Mahatma Gandhi, Azad, along with Bhagat
Singh distanced themselves from the paths of Gandhi. They were more attracted by the aggressive and
violent revolutionary ideals and means.
• They formed the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association and trained the revolutionaries like Sukhdev,
Batukeshwar Dutt, and Rajguru.
• Azad was instrumental in carrying out numerous acts of violence which included the Kakori Train
Robbery in 1926, assassination of John Poyantz Saunders in 1928 at Lahore to avenge the killing of Lala
Lajpat Rai.
• On February 27, 1931, surrounded by police in the Alfred Park, Allahabad and all escape routes sealed,
Azad fought and ultimately took his life with the last bullet of his pistol.
BHAGAT SINGH
• Bhagat Singh joined the Hindustan Republican Association, a radical group, later known as the Hindustan
Socialist Republican Association.
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• He established contact with the members of the Kirti Kisan Party and started contributing regularly to
its magazine, the “Kirti”.
• In March 1926, the Naujawan Bharat Sabha was formed with Bhagat Singh, as its secretary.
• As an avenge to the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bhagat Singh and his associates plotted the assassination
of Scott, the Superintendent of Police, believed to have ordered the lathi charge.
• The revolutionaries, mistaking J.P. Saunders, an Assistant Superintendent of Police, as Scott, killed him
instead. Bhagat Singh quickly left Lahore to escape his arrest.
• In response to the formulation of Defence of India Act, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
planned to explode a bomb inside the assembly premises, where the ordinance was going to be passed.
• On April 8, 1929 Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb onto the corridors of the assembly
and shouted ‘Inquilab Zindabad!’.The bomb was not meant to kill or injure anyone and therefore it was
thrown away from the crowded place. Following the blasts both Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt

E
courted arrest.
• Bhagat Singh along with other revolutionaries found responsible for the Assembly bombing and murder

•
of Saunders.

OR
On March 23, 1931, Bhagat Singh was hanged in Lahore with his fellow comrades Rajguru and Sukhdev.
ANNIE BESANT
• Annie Besant (1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was a prominent British socialist, theosophist,
SC
women’s rights activist, writer and orator and supporter of Irish and Indian self-rule.
• In 1890 Besant met Helena Blavatsky and became a member of the Theosophical Society and a prominent
lecturer on the subject. As part of her theosophy-related work, she travelled to India.
• In 1898 she helped establish the Central Hindu College and in 1922 she helped establish the Hyderabad
(Sind) National Collegiate Board in Mumbai, India.
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• In 1907 she became president of the Theosophical Society, whose international headquarters were in
Adyar,Madras, (Chennai).
• She also became involved in politics in India, joining the Indian National Congress.
• In 1916 Besant launched the Home Rule League along with Lokmanya Tilak, once again modelling
demands for India on Irish nationalist practices.
• This was the first political party in India to have regime change as its main goal. Unlike the Congress itself,
the League worked all year round. It built a structure of local branches, enabling it to mobilise demonstrations,
public meetings and agitations.
• In June 1917 Besant was arrested and interned at a hill station, where she defiantly flew a red and green
flag. The Congress and the Muslim League together threatened to launch protests if she were not set free;
Besant’s arrest had created a focus for protest.
• The government was forced to give way and to make vague but significant concessions. It was announced
that the ultimate aim of British rule was Indian self-government, and moves in that direction were
promised.
• Besant was freed in September 1917, and in December 1917 she took over as president of the Indian
National Congress for a year.
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• She continued to campaign for Indian independence and for the causes of theosophy, until her death in
1933.
BHIMRAO RAMJI AMBEDKAR
• Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956), popularly known as Babasaheb, was an
Indian lawyer, politician and academic who inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement and worked for equal
rights for the Dalit.
• As independent India’s first law minister, he was principal architect of the Constitution of India.
• Ambedkar opined that there should be separate electoral system for the Untouchables and lower caste
people.
• He also favored the concept of providing reservations for Dalits and other religious communities.
• Ambedkar began to find ways to reach to the people and make them understand the drawbacks of the
prevailing social evils.
• He launched a newspaper called “Mooknayaka” (leader of the silent).
•

E
In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent Labor Party.
OR
• In the 1937 elections to the Central Legislative Assembly his party won 15 seats.
• Ambedkar oversaw the transformation of his political party into the All India Scheduled Castes Federation,
although it performed poorly in the elections held in 1946 for the Constituent Assembly of India.
• Ambedkar was appointed on the Defence Advisory Committee and the Viceroy’s Executive Council as
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Minister for Labor.

• His reputation as a scholar led to his appointment as free India’s first, Law Minister and chairman of the
committee responsible to draft a constitution.
• Ambedkar emphasized on the construction of a virtual bridge between the classes of the society. According
to him, it would be difficult to maintain the unity of the country if the difference among the classes were
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not met.
• After his return from Sri Lanka after attending a convention of Buddhist scholars and monks in 1950
converted himself to Buddhism. I
• In his speeches, Ambedkar lambasted the Hindu rituals and caste division.
• Ambedkar founded the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha In 1955.
• His book “The Buddha and His Dhamma” was published posthumously.
• Ambedkar was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, in 1990.
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PERSONALITIES
ACHARYA VINOBA BHAVE
• Acharya Vinoba Bhave was a freedom fighter and a spiritual teacher.
• He is best known as the founder of the ‘Bhoodan Movement’ (Gift of the Land).
• The reformer had an intense concern for the deprived masses.
• Vinoba Bhave had once said, “All revolutions are spiritual at the source. All my activities have the sole
purpose of achieving a union of hearts.”

E
• In 1958, Vinoba was the first recipient of the international Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community
Leadership.
•
• Bhoodan Movement OR
He was also conferred with the Bharat Ratna (India’s highest civilian awards) posthumously in 1983.

In 1951, Vinoba Bhave started his peace-trek on foot through the violence-torn region of Telangana.
• On April 18, 1951, the Harijans of the Pochampalli village requested him to provide them with around
SC
80 acres of land to make a living.
• Vinoba asked the landlords of the village to come forward and save the Harijans. A landlord, responded
to the call and offered the required amount of land.
• This incident added a new chapter in the history of sacrifices and non-violence and was the beginning of
the Bhoodan (Gift of the Land) movement.
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• Following this, Vinoba Bhave traveled all across the country asking landlords to consider him as one of
their sons and so give him a portion of their land. He then distributed those portions of land to the
landless poor.
• He always followed the path of truth and Non-violence, as shown by Mahatma Gandhi.
SRI AUROBINDO
• Sri Aurobindo was a revolutionary, poet, philosopher, writer, and spiritual master, during the course of his
life.
• He became one of the primary leaders fighting for Indian independence, from British rule.
• With time, Aurobindo drifted from his political career and found a new motive in life - bringing a new
spiritual consciousness amongst people.
• Yoga and meditation became his primary concerns in life and thus, emerged the development of a new
spiritual path, which he termed as Integral Yoga. It was during this time that Sri Aurobindo Ashram, also
known as The Mother, was formed. Started as a small unit, the organization soon grew is size as well as
reach and is operational till date.
• In 1906 that Sri Aurobindo joined the Indian Nationalist Movement in Calcutta.
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• Working as an editor in the newspaper Bande Mataram, he brought forward the idea of independence from
British.
• He was also one of the founders of the Jugantar party, an underground revolutionary group.
• Sri Aurobindo’s spiritual mission commenced when he became a prominent figure in the world of politics.
It was, thence, that he came across Lele Maharaj, a teacher of meditation, who taught him the art of
controlling his thoughts and beliefs. A
• urobindo was arrested for the possession of weapons in 1908 and was held in jail for a year. It was during
this time only that he became conscious about his inner self.
• He practiced meditation in his cell, read about the ancient principles of yoga and realized the omnipresence
of God.
• Becoming aware of a divine inner guidance, Sri Aurobindo listened to his inner command, which instructed
him to leave politics and work for the renewal of sanatana dharma, ‘the eternal religion’.
• After coming out of the jail, he came in contact with Sister Nivedita, a disciple of Swami Vivekananda.

E
Thereafter, he changed his abode, from Calcutta, to Pondicherry and devoted himself completely towards
spiritual disciplines.
OR
• Sri Aurobindo also became a prolific writer, producing many articles, writings and poetry. Eventually,
Pondicherry became a mecca for spiritual seekers.
• Sri Aurobindo believed that every religion was right in its own way.
• A poet, philosopher, writer and spiritual master, he offered a new vision of yoga and a spiritual path that
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could be followed by his disciples.

• Out of his many works, one of the most praiseworthy is ‘The Life Divine’, a comprehensive explanation
of his integral yoga.
RABINDRANATH TAGORE
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• Rabindranath Tagore, the brilliant poet and eminent educationist was born on 6th may 1861 in Calcutta.
• In 1878 he went to London and studied law for two years, but returned to India without a degree.
• On the way over to England he began translating, for the first time, his latest selections of poems,
Gitanjali, into English.
• According to him the prevailing schooling system was defective and cannot favourable influence on his
life. So he founded an educational institution based on his own philosophy of life and education at
Santiniketan near Bolepur in West Bengal.
• He participated in the movement on Bengal division in 1905.
• His literary excellence, outstanding Educational philosophy and broad cultural outlook made him popular
and famous.
• In 1913 he was awarded with the prestigious Nobel Prize for his great literary work “Gitanjali”. He was
the first non-westerner to be so honored.
• In 1915 he was knighted by the British King George V. In 1919, following the Amritsar massacre of 400
Indian demonstrators by British troops, Sir Tagore renounced his Knighthood.
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• Although a good friend of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, most of the time Tagore stayed out of
politics.
• He was opposed to nationalism and militarism as a matter of principle, and instead promoted spiritual
values and the creation of a new world culture founded in multi-culturalism, diversity and tolerance.
• Although Tagore is a superb representative of his country - India - the man who wrote its national anthem
- his life and works go far beyond his country.
• He is truly a man of the whole Earth, a product of the best of both traditional Indian, and modern
Western cultures.
DADABHAI NAOROJI
• Dadabhai Naoroji (4 September 1825 – 30 June 1917), known as the Grand Old Man of India, was a
Parsi intellectual, educator, cotton trader, and an early Indian political and social leader.

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• He was a Member of Parliament (MP) in the United Kingdom House of Commons between 1892 and
1895, and the first Asian to be a British MP.
•

•
Dinshaw Edulji Wacha.
OR
Naoroji is also credited with the founding of the Indian National Congress, along with A.O. Hume and

He was also member of Second International along with Kautsky and Plekhanov.
• He viewed that the intervention of into India by foreigners were clearly not favorable for the country.
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• R.C. Dutta and Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the drain of wealth theory.
• Naoroji’s book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ brought attention to the draining of India’s wealth
into Britain. R C Dutt blamed the British policies for economic ills in his book “Economic History of
India”.
• Drain of wealth refers to the portion of national product of India, which was not available for consumption
GS

of Indians.
• Drain of wealth began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey when the Company’s servants began to extort
fortunes from Indian rulers, zamindars, merchants and common people and send home.
• In 1765, the Company acquired the Diwani of Bengal and began to purchase the Indian goods out of the
revenue of Bengal and exported them. These purchases were known as Company’s investments. Duty free
inland trade provided British merchants a competitive edge over their Indian counterparts.
• The actual drain, as a part of the salaries and other incomes of the English officials and the trading
fortunes of English merchants, was even more.
• The drain of wealth stunted the growth of Indian enterprise and checked and retarded capital formation
in India.
MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah (25 December 1876 – 11 September 1948) was a lawyer, politician, and eminent
leader during national movement.
• Jinnah began political life by attending the Congress’s twentieth annual meeting, in Bombay in December
1904.
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• Born in Karachi and trained as a barrister at Lincoln’s Inn in London, Jinnah rose to prominence in the
Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century.
• He was a member of the moderate group in the Congress, favouring Hindu–Muslim unity in achieving
self-government, and following such leaders as Mehta, Naoroji, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• In these early years of his political career, Jinnah advocated Hindu–Muslim unity, helping to shape the
1916 Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the All-India Muslim League, a party in which Jinnah had
also become prominent.
• Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League, and proposed a fourteen-point constitutional
reform plan to safeguard the political rights of Muslims should a united British India become independent.
• In 1920, however, Jinnah resigned from the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of satyagraha,
or non-violent resistance, advocated by the influential leader, Mohandas Gandhi.
• In 1940, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation.
• During the Second World War, the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned,

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and in the elections held shortly after the war, it won most of the seats reserved for Muslims.
• Ultimately, the Congress and the Muslim League could not reach a power-sharing formula for a united
OR
India, leading all parties to agree to separate independence for a secular India, and for a Muslim-majority
state, to be called Pakistan.
• Jinnah served as leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until and as Pakistan’s first Governor-
General from independence until his death.
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KHÂN ABDUL GHAFFÂR KHÂN

• Khân Abdul Ghaffâr Khân (6 February 1890 – 20 January 1988) was an independence activist of Pashtun
descent.
• He was a political and spiritual Gandhian, leader known for his non-violent opposition to the British Rule
in the sub-continent, and a lifelong pacifist and devout Muslim.
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• A close friend of Mahatma Gandhi, Khân Abdul Ghaffâr Khân has been nicknamed Frontier Gandhi.
• In 1910, he opened a mosque school at his hometown Utmanzai, and in 1911 joined the freedom
movement of Haji Sahib of Turangzai. However in 1915, the British authorities banned his mosque
school.
• Having witnessed the repeated failure of revolts against the British Raj, he decided that social activism
and reform would be more beneficial for the Pashtuns. This led to the formation of Anjuman-e Islâh al-
Afghân (“Afghan Reform Society”) in 1921, and the youth movement Paxtûn Jirga (“Pashtun Assembly”)
in 1927.
• After he returned from the Hajj in May 1928, he founded the Pashto language monthly political journal
Paxtûn.
• In November 1929, Khan founded the Khudai Khidmatgar (“Servants of God”) movement, whose
success triggered a harsh crackdown by the British Empire against him and his supporters and they
suffered some of the most severe repression of the Indian independence movement.
• In 1962, he was named the Amnesty International Prisoner of Conscience of the Year.
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• In 1987, he became the first non-Indian to be awarded Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award.
• Khan is a Pashtun national hero and a key figure of Pashtun nationalism.
• Khan strongly opposed the All-India Muslim League’s demand for the partition of India.
• After partition, he pledged allegiance to Pakistan and demanded an autonomous “Pashtunistan”
administrative unit within the country.
CHAKRAVARTI RAJAGOPALACHARI
• Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (10 December 1878 – 25 December 1972) was a lawyer, independence
activist, politician, writer and statesman.
• Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General of India.
• He joined the Indian National Congress and participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act, joining
the Non-Cooperation movement, the Vaikom Satyagraha, and the Civil Disobedience movement.

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• In 1930, Rajagopalachari risked imprisonment when he led the Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha in response
to the Dandi March.
•

•
OR
In 1937, Rajagopalachari was elected Premier of the Madras Presidency and served until 1940, when he
resigned due to Britain’s declaration of war on Germany.
He later advocated co-operation over Britain’s war effort and opposed the Quit India Movement.
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• He favoured talks with both Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League and proposed what later
came to be known as the C. R. Formula.
• In 1946, Rajagopalachari was appointed Minister of Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the
Interim Government of India, and then as the Governor of West Bengal from 1947 to 1948, and Governor-
General of India from 1948 to 1950.
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• He also served as Minister for Home Affairs of the Indian Union and Chief Minister of Madras state.
• Rajagopalachari founded the Swatantra Party and was one of the first recipients of India’s highest civilian
award, the Bharat Ratna.
• He vehemently opposed the use of nuclear weapons and was a proponent of world peace and disarmament.
PANDIT MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA
• Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya (1861–1946) was an Indian educationist and politician notable for his role
in the Indian independence movement and his espousal of Hindu nationalism (being one of the initial
leaders of the far-right party Hindu Mahasabha).
• Later in life, he was also addressed as ‘Mahamana’.
• He was the President of the Indian National Congress on four occasion.
• He founded the largest residential university in Asia and one of the largest in the world, Banaras Hindu
University (BHU) at Varanasi in 1916, of which he also remained the Vice Chancellor from 1919 till 1938.
• Pandit Malviya was one of the founders of Scouting in India.
• He also founded a highly influential, English-newspaper ‘The Leader’ published from Allahabad in 1909.
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RAM MANOHAR LOHIA

• Ram Manohar Lohia, a socialist political leader as well as a noted freedom fighter of India was born in
the village of Akbarpur, Uttar Pradesh on 23rd March, 1910.
• Ram Manohar was highly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi ideas which instigated the feeling of Swaraj
(freedom) into him.
• ‘Salt Satyagraha’ was his subject in the PhD thesis paper.
• Though he had a good affinity with Jawaharlal Nehru but dissented with him on many political issues.
• His first contribution as a nationalist leader was organizing a ‘hartal’ on Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s death.
• In 1928, he joined protests against the Simon Commission.
• In Europe he organized ‘Association of European Indians’ .
• Joined Indian National Congress and established Congress Socialist Party,1934.

E
• He was elected the Secretary of All India Congress Committee (1936).
• He was arrested on 7th June, 1940 and sentenced to two years imprisonment for writing an article
OR
‘Satyagraha Now’ in Gandhiji’s newspaper Harijan.
• He published and circulated posters and pamphlets on ‘Do or Die’ during the ‘Quit India Movement’,
1942.
• He along with Aruna Asaf Ali edited a Congress Party monthly newspaper called ‘Inquilab’.
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• Post-independence Lohia took the leadership of building a dam on river Paniyari called ‘Lohia Sagar Dam’.
• He founded ‘Hind Kisan Panchayat’ to provide solution to the farmers after independence.
• He also set up World Development Council and World Government to retain peace.
ARUNA ASAF ALI
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• Aruna Asaf Ali played a leading role during Quit India Movement; elected as Delhi’s first Mayor; awarded
the Lenin Prize for peace in 1975 and the Jawahar Lal Nehru award for International understanding for
1991; honored with Bharat Ratna in 1998.
• Her first major political action was during the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 when she addressed public meetings
and led processions.
• In 1942 she attended the Bombay Congress Session, where the historic Quit India resolution was passed
on 8th August.
• When the Congress leaders were arrested on the day after this resolution was passed, Aruna presided over
the flag-hoisting ceremony at Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay.
• Her moment of reckoning came in 1942 during Quit India Movement and she rose to the occasion. She
provided the spark that ignited the movement. She became a full-time activist in the Quit India movement.
MAHADEV GOVIND RANADE
• Mahadev Govind Ranade, (18 Jan, 1842 – 16 Jan, 1901), a Citpavan Brahmans of Maharashtra who was
a judge of the High Court of Bombay, a noted historian, and an active participant in social and economic
reform movements.
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• During his seven years as a judge in Bombay, Ranade worked for social reform in the areas of child
marriage, widow remarriage, and women’s rights.
• After his appointment as instructor of history at Elphinstone College, Bombay (1866), he became interested
in the history of the Marathas.The publication of his ‘Rise of the Maratha Power’ followed in 1900.
• Ranade has been called the father of Indian economics for urging (unsuccessfully) the British government
to initiate industrialization and state welfare programs.
• He was an early member of the Prarthana Samaj (“Prayer Society”), which sought to reform the social
customs of orthodox Hinduism.
• He regularly voiced views on social and economic reform at the annual sessions of the Indian National
Social Conference, which he founded in 1887.
• Ranade inspired many other Indian social reformers, most notably the educator and legislator Gopal
Krishna Gokhale, who carried on Ranade’s reform work after his death.

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CHITTARANJAN DAS
•

•
Party in Bengal under British rule.
OR
Chittaranjan Das (5 November 1870 – 16 June 1925) was a politician and leader of the Swaraj (Independence)

He was a leading figure in Bengal during the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1919-1922, and initiated the
ban on British clothes, setting an example by burning his own European clothes and wearing Khadi clothes.
SC
• He brought out a newspaper called Forward and later changed its name to Liberty to fight the British Raj.
• When the Calcutta Corporation was formed, he became its first Mayor.
• He resigned his presidency of the Indian National Congress at the Gaya session after losing a motion on
“No Council Entry” to Gandhi’s faction.
• He then founded the Swaraj Party, with veteran Motilal Nehru and young Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy,
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to express his immoderate opinions.

• He was a believer of non-violence and constitutional methods for the realisation of national independence,
and advocated Hindu-Muslim unity, cooperation and communal harmony and championed the cause of
national education.
• His legacy was carried forward by his disciples, and notably by Subhas Chandra Bose.
• He is generally referred to by the honorific Desh Bandhu.
JAYAPRAKASH NARAYAN
• Jayaprakash Narayan (11 October 1902 – 8 October 1979), popularly referred to as JP or Lok Nayak ,
was an Indian independence activist, social reformer and political leader, remembered especially for leading
the mid-1970s opposition against Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
• Narayan joined the Indian National Congress on the invitation of Jawaharlal Nehru in 1929; Mahatma
Gandhi became his mentor in the Congress.
• He actively participated in non cooperation movement and Quit India Movement.
• After independence, Narayan kept distance from active politics. Instead, he continue with the struggle for
social reforms and joined Vinoba Bhave’s Bhoodan movement.
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• He once again actively participated in politics against Indira Gandhi’s Emergency tenure.
• In 1999, he was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, in recognition of
his social work.
• Other awards include the Magsaysay award for Public Service in 1965.
PANDIT DEENDAYAL UPADHYAY
• Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay (25 September 1916 – 11 February 1968) was an Indian philosopher, economist,
sociologist, historian, journalist, and political scientist.
• He was one of the most important leaders of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, the forerunner of the present day
Bharatiya Janata Party.
• Upadhyaya conceived the political philosophy Integral Humanism.
• The philosophy of Integral Humanism advocates the simultaneous and integrated program of the body,
mind and intellect and soul of each human being.

E
• His philosophy of Integral Humanism, which is a synthesis of the material and the spiritual, the individual
and the collective, bears eloquent testimony to this.
OR
• He visualised for India a decentralised polity and self-reliant economy with the village as the base.
M.N. ROY
• Manabendra Nath Roy (21 March 1887 – 26 January 1954), born Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, was an
SC

Indian revolutionary, radical activist and political theorist, as well as a noted philosopher in the 20th
century.
• Roy was a founder of the Mexican Communist Party and the Communist Party of India.
• He was also a delegate to congresses of the Communist International and Russia’s aide to China.
• Following the rise of Joseph Stalin, Roy left the mainline communist movement to pursue an independent
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radical politics.
• In 1940 Roy was instrumental in the formation of the Radical Democratic Party, an organisation in which
he played a leading role for much of the decade of the 1940s.
• Roy later moved away from Marxism to become an exponent of the philosophy of radical humanism.
ERODE VENKATA RAMASAMY
• Erode Venkata Ramasamy (17 September 1879 – 24 December 1973), commonly known as Periyar also
referred as E. V. R. or Thanthai Periyar, was a social activist, and politician who started the Self-Respect
Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam.
• E.V. Ramasamy was born in Erode, Madras Presidency to a wealthy family of Balijas and at a young age,
he witnessed numerous incidents of caste and gender discrimination.
• E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919, but resigned in 1925 when he felt that the
party was only serving the interests of the Brahmins.
• He questioned the subjugation of Dravidian race as the Brahmins enjoyed gifts and donations from them
but opposed and discriminated them in cultural and religious matters.
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• In 1924, E.V. Ramasamy participated in a non-violent agitation (satyagraha) in Vaikam, Kerala.

• In 1939, E.V. Ramasamy became the head of the Justice Party, and in 1944, he changed its name to
Dravidar Kazhagam.
• The party later split and one group led by C. N. Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
(DMK) in 1949.
• While continuing the Self-Respect Movement, he advocated for an independent Dravida Nadu (Dravidistan).
• E.V. Ramasamy propagated the principles of rationalism, self-respect, women’s rights and eradication of
caste.
• He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the non-Brahmin Dravidian people of South India and
the imposition of what he considered Indo-Aryan India.
• His work has greatly revolutionised the Tamil society and has significantly removed caste-based
discrimination.

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• He is also responsible for bringing new changes to the Tamil alphabet.
•
OR
The citation awarded by the UNESCO described E.V. Ramasamy as “the prophet of the new age, the
Socrates of South East Asia, father of social reform movement and arch enemy of ignorance, superstitions,
meaningless customs and base manners.”
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