Science and aesthetics

in sound and hearing

85 Comment
Keith Attenborough

91 Sound recording and reproduction

Maurice Jessel

i n Musical curiosities in the temples of South India

H. V. Modak

121 T h e acoustical problems posed by multipurpose halls

Tamas Tarnóczy

135 Education in acoustics

G. L. Fuchs

149 Sound in the ocean, atmosphere and solid earth:

theory and application
Guan Dinghua

159 Echo-acoustics, or exploration by sound

A. J. Berkhout

167 Some industrial applications of acoustics

Ignacy Malecki

177 Lasers in acoustics

Leonid M . Lyamshev

187 Noise pollution: a neglected threat

Akhtar Mahmud Faruqui

197 Noise and hearing damage: h o w m u c h is too much?

Karl D. Kryter

207 T h e loudness of some leisure activities

Alan D. Wallis

217 International co-operation in acoustics

Fritz Ingerslev

225 Readers' forum

© Unesco 1985
ISSN 0019-2872
ISSOA8 (138/139) 83-225 (198S)
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Comment
The editorial that follows was written by Dr Keith Attenborough,
an Anglo-Indian who works at the Open University in the
United Kingdom where he is senior lecturer in engineering mechanics.
Dr Attenborough, a physicist by training, is a Fellow of the Institute
of Acoustics (United Kingdom) and has lectured and carried out research in
acoustics and noise control at several universities and research
institutes in Europe, the United States and India. He is currently
studying aspects of outdoor sound propagation and of penetration of
sound into soils. The latter work includes the development of
acoustical methods of surveying soil properties. He is joint author of
Noise Assessment and Control, published by Longmans, and an
enthusiastic amateur musician. His address: Faculty of Technology,
The Open University, Milton Keynes, MKy 6AA (United Kingdom).

It m a y be argued that the sense of hearing is the most important of

our senses. After all, w e rely upon our ears for detecting audible
warnings, such as an alarm clock ringing, even w h e n our sense of sight
is at rest and our eyes are closed. W e cannot close our ears. W e
live in a world of sounds covering enormous ranges in strength
and type from the roar of an erupting volcano to the rustle
of leaves in the lightest breeze, from the crash of storm-driven
waves on the shore to the whine of the gnat.
T o this panoply of naturally occurring sounds, which have
been a source of fascination and study for m a n through the
centuries, increasing mechanization and industrialization are
adding a plethora of artificial sounds. Measurements taken by
students of the O p e n University Foundation Course in
Technology in the period 1972 to 1980 have shown that
background-noise levels throughout the United K i n g d o m are rising
steadily and inexorably each year. That this trend is part of
industrial development worldwide is highlighted by Akhtar
M a h m u d Faruqui in his contribution to this special issue. There
g is a trend also towards increasingly noisy leisure activities, which is
I examined by Dudley Wallis, w h o has designed m a n y systems
Q for measuring, monitoring and controlling noise levels. T h e nature of
the threat posed b y increasing exposure to noise levels in
everyday life and the workplace is described by Karl Kryter,
w h o also makes s o m e important observations about the limits that
should be placed u p o n this exposure. Increasing realization of the
effects of noise exposure has led to individual and concerted
actions by legislatures and directed research in acoustics and
noise control in m a n y countries. S o m e of these actions and research,
and the development of associated professional organizations,
are recounted by Fritz Ingerslev, w h o himself has played a
large part in the founding and development of the International
Institute of Noise Control Engineering.
A n important background to discussions of noise annoyance and
disturbance, and of hearing damage risk, is an appreciation
of hearing ability and its relationship to mechanisms of the ear and
of the psychophysiology of hearing process. M a n y talented musicians
are said to have perfect pitch. O u r sense of pitch is related to our
ability to recognize a characteristic of a sound k n o w n as its
frequency. T h e frequency of the sound is related to the rapidity
of the vibrations of the source that produces it and is measured in
hertz. Someone with perfect pitch is able to identify and/or
reproduce the frequencies of tones with remarkable precision.
Even the least musical of people are able to discriminate between
very small differences in frequency. T h e least change in frequency
that is perceptible as a change in pitch for comparatively
high-pitched sounds (1,000 to 5,000 H z ) is about 0.3 per cent.
At low frequencies the ability is not as good, for example at 100 H z
it is only 3 per cent. T h e span of frequencies that w e can hear is
called the auditory range. This range is normally from 16 H z u p
to 15,000 H z in young adults. Children can hear frequencies
up to 20,000 H z or more, while m a n y elderly people, particularly
after a lifetime of noise exposure in the workplace, cannot
hear beyond 3,000 H z .
There is considerable variation between individuals in each
age-group, but in general the ability to appreciate high frequencies
deteriorates with advancing years. Throughout life the sensitivity
of hearing varies from frequency to frequency. T h e frequency
content of a sound also influences our impression of its loudness.
Different tones of equal intensity are not heard to be equally
loud. T h e difference in loudness depends not only on the frequencies
of the tones being compared but also on the intensity at which
they are produced. T h e loudness difference appears to be m u c h
smaller at high intensities than at slight intensities.
T h e ability of people to notice quite small differences in
loudness plays an important part in communication. Emphasis and
stress are essential ingredients of spoken language and music. g
T h e y depend largely on the use of changes in loudness. Detection |
of these nuances becomes increasingly difficult in noisy Q
surroundings, for example w h e n m a n y other people are talking at
the same time—the 'cocktail-party' effect. Quite low levels of
noise m a y produce such difficulties, called masking. Nevertheless
from c o m m o n experience w e k n o w that quite weak sounds can
be heard easily in the presence of strong ones provided that the
frequencies of the different sounds are separated. T h e single
voice of the soloist at a higher pitch than a hundred-voice choir singing
at the same time is quite clearly distinguishable as can be the
sound of a referee's whistle above the cheering of several thousand
spectators at a football match. At a separation in frequencies of one
octave or more our ability to detect change in loudness and
other characteristics is quite unaffected by the level of background
noise. In other words w e have the remarkable ability of frequency
selectivity. It has been shown, in fact, that the information in
each narrow band of sound-wave frequencies is channelled
separately to the brain.
W e are able to use our ears to decide upon the direction from
which a particular sound is coming even if w e cannot see the
source. This ability results from our processing of high-frequency
information. T h e head tends to shield the ear furthest from the
source and the resulting differences between the sounds at the two
ears help to indicate the direction. This is not the complete
story but it is an important part. A s with m a n y animals, our ability
to locate sound sources is vital to our survival and it is significant
that m a n y sounds in nature whether vocal or otherwise contain
components of high frequency which can provide auditory clues to the
direction of this source.
Having described hearing from the psychological standpoint,
w e should also deal with the components and mechanics of the
hearing mechanism—the physiology of hearing. This m a y be
done simply in three parts. T h e observable part of our ear, the outer
ear, serves to modify incoming sound and accounts, in part at
least, for the greater sensitivity of hearing at those frequencies
important for the perception of speech. T h e function of the
outer ear provides significant clues. A s the size of ears decreases
from species to species the frequencies of m a x i m u m sensitivity
increase. T h e general relationship between the different
frequencies of m a x i m u m sensitivity of the hearing of different
animals, their modes of aural communication and the sound-propagation
characteristics of their habitats is a topic of great current interest in
ecology.
Beyond the outer ear, sound entering our ears meets the
ear-drum and a mechanical linkage, by means of which vibrations
of the ear-drum are transmitted to the fluid contained within
87
g the inner ear. T h e mechanical system of the middle ear both
I magnifies and concentrates the sound collected over the surface of
Q the ear-drum onto a m u c h smaller area at the other end of the
mechanical linkage. D a m a g e to the middle-ear mechanism associated,
for example, with rupture of the ear-drum, follows exposure to
extremely intense sounds such as blasts, and results in severe
hearing impairment. Several surgical techniques, including the
insertion of prostheses, are available to remedy such damage.
Very little can be done, however, to repair damage to the most sensitive
components of the inner ear.
T h e inner ear is responsible not only for the reception of sound
waves but also contains the organs of position and acceleration
sense. These organs are housed within a system of fluid-filled,
interconnecting tunnels in the substance of the skull. In m a n and
other primates this labyrinth is buried deeply in bone and it is
impossible to m a k e out anything of its form by inspecting the
internal or external surfaces of the skull.
T h e organ responsible for hearing is contained within a tiny spiral
tunnel called a cochlea. In m a n this entire structure occupies less
than half the volume of a cube with sides measuring 10 m m .
T h e receptors of hearing contained within the hearing organ are hair
cells. Nerve fibres from the hair cells are connected permanently, by
way of the cochlear nerve and other relay stages, to the auditory
region of the brain. It is k n o w n that localized damage within the
arrays of hair cells follows long-term exposure to intense noise.
This results in an individual having a tonal gap: hearing is normal
except for a band of frequencies usually around 4 k H z . This
damage is permanent and is called noise-induced hearing loss.
Temporary impairment of hearing m a y follow brief exposures to high
levels of noise.
M u c h remains poorly understood about the functions of the
hearing mechanism. For example no one has yet seen the way in which
a hair cell responds naturally to a sound wave. It is not k n o w n
precisely what operating principle lies behind our judgement of pitch,
although different frequencies m a y be related to excitation of different
areas of hair cells. It is k n o w n that particular areas of the brain
process information content transmitted from the ear, yet exactly h o w
this is done remains far from understood. Consequently the study
of hearing is a current and exciting branch of both physiology
and psychology.
There is n o doubt that the sense of pitch is the most specialized gift
of hearing. This sense is of course most relevant to our enjoyment
of music. Music has played an important part in civilizations
throughout the ages. Methods of making music and of
constructing places for the enjoyment of music constitute two of
the oldest of mankind's technologies. T h e article by D r M o d a k
in this issue, devoted to study of the tone-producing pillars and steps of
ancient India, highlights both the age of these technologies and g
the consistent ingenuity that has been associated with them. This |
ingenuity is explored in a modern context by the articles on the °
recording and reproduction of sound b y T a m a s Tarnóczy and
Maurice Jessel.
Although w e hear sound travelling through the air, sound will
travel through any gas, liquid or solid. Often it will penetrate
where light cannot. This has led to the widespread use of
water-borne and solid-borne sound in earth sciences both for
underwater exploration near the bottom of the world's oceans and in
seismology. These applications are reviewed in articles by
Professors Dinghua and Berkhout. T h e article by Professor Berkhout
also introduces the uses of ultrasound in medicine and in
non-destructive testing of materials, medical techniques that are
becoming increasingly important and popular and include
ultrasonic scanning of foetuses, ultrasonic studies of heart function and
ophthalmic surgery using high-intensity ultrasonic beams. A s
pointed out by Professor Maleöki in his article, non-destructive
testing of materials is but one of a host of industrial applications of
acoustics.
Although it is conventional today for most physicists and
physics departments to regard acoustics as the proper domain of
engineers and engineering departments, the science of acoustics plays
an important role in m o d e r n physics. T h e development of the
acoustic microscope and the scanning acoustic microscope are
outstanding examples of this role. Professor Lyamshev, a leading
Soviet scientist, describes the related example of the photo-acoustic
effect, the discovery of which has been associated with both the
development of acoustic microscopy a n d the tremendous strides
m a d e in laser physics.
T h e wide range offieldsin which sound m a y be studied and used
means that acoustics is an increasingly important subject in school
and college curricula. Professor Fuchs explores this idea in his
article.
T h e lack of an acoustics input to m a n y degree-level courses in
physics or engineering means that high-technology employers
are forced to offer their n e w recruits basic training in acoustics at a
post-graduate or post-experience level. It is hoped that the
relevance of the study of sound to training needs in science and
technology shown in part by this issue, will be accepted and
established both in industrial and developing countries, and will elicit
a systematic response from educators and employers alike. •

Keith ATTENBOROUGH

89
The Dirac Medal
T o honour one of the greatest physicists of this century and
a staunch friend of the Centre, the International Centre
for Theoretical Physics, Trieste (Italy) announces the

Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac Gold Medal Award

The medal will be awarded annually for the highest

achievement in theoretical physics and will be announced
on 8 August, the anniversary of Professor Dirac's birth.

The Selection Committee for 1985 consists of

Stig Lundqvist, Göteborg University
Robert Marshak, Virginia Polytechnic
Abdus Salam, ICTP, Trieste
Julian Schwinger, University of California, Los Angeles
Leon V a n Hove, C E R N , Geneva
Steven Weinberg, University of Texas, Austin

Note: O n 11 November 1985, the Centre will commemorate

the life and work of another Nobel Laureate in physics,
Alfred Kastler (1902-84), chairman of ICTP's Scientific
Council from 1970 to 1982.
In 1877, one of the oldest dreams of mankind came true: Thomas Edison and his ^
technician, John Kruesli, experimented with thefirstphonograph, an instrument ~¡~
which recorded, stored and reproduced the human voice. Since then, there have £>
been new inventions and innumerable improvements on that original. The most ¿
refined, complex musical sounds and the most varied 'soundscapes' can now be S3
recorded, stored and reproduced. The social (cultural, economic and even political) ¿£
impact of all these techniques has been awe-inspiring. •*}

R
o

'0

Sound recording
and reproduction £
Maurice Jessel

The author is a senior research worker at the Mechanics and Acoustics Laboratory
of the French National Centre for Scientific Research. Following some original
work on wave propagation, he resumed an earlier project on sound absorption
through 'compensating waves' and also put forward a theory on holophony. He is
now studying the broader implications of the concepts of holophony and active
absorption for cybernetics and system technology. Maurice Jessel is the author of
many articles and papers as well as a book on theoretical acoustics. He is a Fellow
of the Acoustical Society of America. His address is: C N R S - L M A , Boîte
postale 71,13277 Marseille Cedex 9 (France). 91
Is it reasonable to think that phonography (this term is used to cover the science
and technique of recording, storing and reproducing all audible messages) has
now done all it is capable of doing, and that no more is to be expected of it? This
is not m y view, and I intend to show that it has before it a future worthy of its
past and its present.

The sound phenomenon and fine distinctions

I shall attempt to give a general definition of the phenomenon of sound, starting

with the essential magnitudes and figures.

Magnitudes

It has long been known that sound is a vibratory disturbance of the air. This
vibration can be characterized by a vector describing the excursion of an infini-
tesimal particle of air around the position that it would have kept if there had
been silence, that is to say in an absence of the sound phenomenon in question.
Often, instead of the displacement vector, its temporal derivative is preferred,
that is to say more specifically, its variation during a very short,fixedtime interval,
for example, at least a microsecond.1 This vector is called 'particle velocity',
which is not to be confused with the speed or velocity of sound; the former rarely
exceeds one centimetre per second and depends primarily on the intensity of the
sound phenomenon, whereas the latter is nearly a constant and its order of magni-
tude is 330-350 m/s or, in other words, 1 k m per 3 seconds.

Important dates in the evolution

of phonography
Date Inventor Category1 Subject
1857 E . Scott de Martinville P T h e phonautograph
1876 Alexander G r a h a m Bell G T h e microphone, the
telephone
1877 E . Wermer G T h e ancestor of the
loudspeaker
1877 Charles Cros (registered P T h e palaeophone (type
mail) of phonograph)
1877 Thomas A . Edison (patent) P T h e tin-foil phonograph
1878 Charles Cros (patent) P T h e phonogramme
1881 Thomas A . Edison P T h e wax-cylinder
phonograph
1886 Alexander Graham Bell P T h e graphophone
1887 Emil Berliner P T h e record gramophone
1888 Oberlin Smith M Idea about magnetic
tape recording
1893 Deutsche G r a m m o p h o n P Duplication of records
Gesellschaft using pressing
techniques
1894 Dussaud PF T h e electric
microphonograph
(synchronization of
sound and image)
 :prod uction
Date Inventor Category1 Subject
1898 Oliver Lodge G T h e loudspeaker
1898 Valdemar Poulsen M T h e telegraphone
(magnetic wire)
1906 Lee DeForest G T h e three-electrode
valve (triode) a

3 SUIT.
1913 E . A . Lauste F Photographic sound
recording
1923 Schottky and Gerbach G T h e ribbon loudspeaker U
O

Sounid rec
1924 C . W . Rice; E . W . Kellogg G T h e Radiola 104
amplifier
1926 P . M . Rainer G Pulse-code modulation
(PCM)
1926 Victor Talking Machine C o . P Electrical recording
1928 K . Stille M Metal-ribbon magnetic
recorder
1928 Pedersen and Poulsen F Photographic sound-
track film
1930-35 AEG M Magnetic tape-recorder
using iron-oxide
plastic tape
1933 E M I (Blumlein) P Stereophonic record
1939 Walt Disney Productions, F Stereophonic cinema
Inc. sound-track
1943 AEG M K - 7 vinyl-ribbon
magnetic tape-
recorder
1944 Decca Ltd P 'Full-frequency range
recording' ( F F R R )
1947 C B S (Goldenmark) P Microgroove record
1948 J. Bardeen; W . Shockley; G Semiconductor
W . Brattain transistor effect
1952 S.Klein G Hot-plasma loudspeaker
1963 Philips, Grundig M Cassette tape-recorders
1967 Ray Dolby G Reduction of phonogram
background noise
1976 T . G . Stockham P Rerecording of old
records
1979/80 Philips, Sony P Compact Disc
1979/80 A E G Telefunken P Minidisc
1979/80 JVC P A H D (audio high
density) record
1979/80 Digital Recording P Audiophile format card2
Corporation (sound recording on
cards)
1982 Henri Bondar G Cold-plasma loudspeaker
1983 Tsang, Olsson and Logan G C 3 (cleaved coupled
cavity) laser
1984 Ifukube, Asakura and P Laser-rerecording of old
Kawashima phonograms

P = Mechanical or electromechanical phonography.

G = General.
M = Magnetic recording.
F = Sound motion picture recorder.
Digital recording and reproduction on rectangular cards.
« T h e air disturbance is also reflected in a fluctuation o f atmospheric pressure
«, around its reference value during a m o m e n t of silence. T h i s fluctuation is called
j> s o u n d pressure. Like particle velocity, this m a g n i t u d e varies not only in time b u t
§ also according to the observation point, thus providing a n e x a m p l e of w h a t c a n
g b e called a 'physical field'. T h e 'geometric field' is merely the spatial area in w h i c h
the physical p h e n o m e n o n in question occurs. I n addition, acoustic intensity, w h i c h
represents the flow o f energy transported b y the acoustic w a v e in question a n d is
m e a s u r e d in watts per square metre, can b e obtained b y multiplying particle velocity
b y s o u n d pressure.

Order of magnitude values

Let u s start with the s o u n d level that is easiest o n the ear: 6 0 decibels (dB). A t this
level, acoustic intensity is 1 million times its value at the threshold of hearing
w h i c h , b y definition, is zero o n the decibel scale (see b o x ) . A t 6 0 d B , acoustic
intensity is only o n e microwatt per square m e t r e , w h i c h is really very little. A t the

W h a t is a decibel?
T h e decibel is thefirstsubmultiple of the bel. T h e bel is not a unit but
the logarithm of the ratio between two magnitude values, one of which
is a reference value. In acoustics it is an intensity ratio, the reference
being the threshold of detectability of auditory sensations. Sixty decibels
(or 6 bels) means that the ratio is 1 million, since the decimal logarithm
of 1 million is 6. Practical rule: adding 10 d B amounts to multiplying
acoustic intensity by 10.

threshold of perceptibility (o dB), it would therefore be one picowatt per square

metre; it is hard to imagine this value since it is so close to the infinitely small.
At 0 d B , sound pressure is 20 micropascals. T h e pascal, the SI unit of pressure,
is only worth one hundred thousandth of atmospheric pressure (the old unit is
the bar or atmosphere). W h e n Edison shouted the well-known nursery rhyme
'Mary had a little lamb, its fleece was white as snow' into the acoustic horn in his
initial experiment with the tin-foil phonograph, he could undoubtedly have
exceeded 90 d B by producing a sound pressure of about one pascal, a magnitude
of which one can very easily get an idea merely by cutting out a square of ordinary
paper one centimetre square and putting it in the palm of one's hand. This piece
of paper weighs about one centigram and its pressure on the skin is about one
pascal.
These magnitude values give some idea of the difficulty facing the pioneers w h o
wanted to pick up sounds from the air and record them directly on a solid m e d i u m .

The history of phonography

T h e history of science and technology is full of lessons that are all the more
important as h u m a n societies are changing more and more rapidly and n o w on a
global scale. Given the variety and scope of its applications, phonography has not
been a negligible factor in this trend.
94 Specialized works such as La passionnante histoire du phonographe by Horace
H u r m (1943) or Les Mémoires de l'ombre et du son by Jacques Perriault (1981), or §
even the entry on the phonograph in Volume II of the supplement to Louis G
Figuier's Merveilles de la science published around 1892 are recommended reading "g
for those interested in details. a
u
A rapid overview will help us to understand the current state of the art and to
foresee possible developments. (The main chronological details are s u m m e d up c
under the heading ' T o delve more deeply', at the end of this article.) «
•5
•a
u
Early history: before 1877 £
u
T h efirstmeans of recording, storing and reproducing speech was writing, through |
ideograms, syllabic characters and, later on, alphabets. Special notations were ,°
also invented for music. For sounds other than speech and music, onomatopoeia
had to suffice. But the arbitrariness of all these systems was recognized very early.
Other precursors of the phonograph were musical automata, music boxes,
bird organs or machines imitating the h u m a n voice, which all sought to reproduce
sounds though not to record them.
With regard to recording, there was a 'piano phonograph' as early as 1827 and
then an 'electromagnetic phonograph' in 1863, which were attached to keyboard
instruments so that a record of the music played on them would be kept. There
were also hopes that natural phonetic stenography might hold the key to recording
the h u m a n voice graphically. This was the aim of E . Scott de Martinville
(1802-79) w h e n he invented his 'phonautograph', modelled on the h u m a n
ear. A pyramid-shaped horn closed by a membrane of parchment was used
to stimulate the auditory canal and the ear-drum, while a system of levers was
used to imitate the malleus and incus and to m o v e a stylus the tip of which left
a track on a cylinder bearing a sheet of paper coated with lampblack.
T h e introduction of reversibility into Scott de Martinville's phonautograph
was all that was needed to produce the invention of the palaeophone and the
phonograph. T h e idea was openly discussed for about twenty years. ' W h e n are w e
to have a daguerreotype for sound?' the photographer Nadar asked around i860,
specifying that by that he meant not only recording but also reproducing sounds.
Photography, electroplating and the telegraph (called 'singing wires' by A m e r -
ican Indians) all go back to 1840 or earlier. They form the historical and techno-
logical context in which the phonograph came into being. O n e m a y also add the
telephone, which dates back to 1876.

The heroic era: 1877-1935

This was the period of key inventions and developments, starting with the first
phonograph and ending with the coming into operation of the magnetic tape-
recorder.
T h e phonograph actually dates back to 1877, whether in terms of its precursor
designed (as the palaeophone) by Charles Cros (1842-88) or of its 'nunimal'
production so to speak by T h o m a s Alva Edison (1847-1931) helped by John
Kruesli. W h y did Charles Cros not get the backing and funds required to produce
the prototype of his palaeophone? This is still an open question which, no doubt,
has several complementary answers. O n the one hand, it seems to be a well-
established fact that the French inventor found the path blocked by an unexpected
and fatal enemy, one Theodose D u Moncel (1821-84), a m e m b e r of the Académie
Française, w h o had probably been offended by some of Charles Cros's earlier
inventions. This kind of animosity is c o m m o n in all periods. In addition, the 95
building of the palaeophone would undoubtedly have been m u c h more expensive
at the time than the American project. A s it is often said, the better is often the
e n e m y of good. In any event, Edison's phonograph was operational as of
December 1877 but had to undergo extensive changes before it could provide
acceptable performances (towards 1889/90).
At that exact m o m e n t , Edison was joined by Emil Berliner (1851-1921), w h o
demonstrated the superiority of the disc over the cylinder and founded the Deutsche
G r a m m o p h o n Gesellschaft, a n a m e still well known to music-lovers. Berliner,
however, was only following the path mapped out by Léon Scott and Charles
Cros, and the cylinderfinallygave w a y to the disc in 1910. At the same time, the
reversibility which m a d e it possible to use certain wax-cylinder phonographs as
dictaphones had to be abandoned.
Butrightat the end of the nineteenth century (between 1898 and 1900), a major
rival of the phonograph, the magnetic tape-recorder, invented and developed by a
D a n e , Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942), under the n a m e 'telegraphone', m a d e its
first appearance. T h e same Poulsen was later to be one of the promoters of optical
sound-recording of films, thus paving the way for talking films (1925). Magnetic
tape-recording remained on the sidelines for a long time until wire and steel ribbon
were finally replaced by ferromagnetic compounds deposited on plastic tape.
These new media m a d e slower tape speeds possible, thus giving rise, from 1935,
to the modern magnetic tape-recorder boom.

The heyday of 'mono' sound recordings: 1935-55

After a period of trial and error leading to the invention itself comes a period
during which practical applications are developed. However, this period can be
very short as the speed of progress accelerates: in the face of international and
industrial competition as well as inventors' ingenuity, the benefits accruing from
having pulled ahead of one'srivalsdo not last long.
In 1935, with the electric phonograph pick-up, followed by amplifier circuits and
electromagnetic or electrodynamic loudspeakers, sound reproduction quality
attained a standard which made the record player more and more popular. T h e
sale of records and players increased each year by 50 per cent or more. However,
the 78-revolutions-per-minute (rpm) record had two major defects which were
acceptable during the heroic era of the mechanical-diaphragm phonograph but
which became less acceptable as standards improved: it was fragile and did not
play for very long (three to four minutes each side).
Attempts were also made to cut more grooves (or rather to have a more tightly
w o u n d groove, since purists insist that there is only one groove!) on a record
m a d e of a less fragile material and to slow the disc d o w n in order to produce a
long-playing record. These efforts were crowned with success between 1945
and 1955, and the 78-rpm record gave way to the 33^-rpm microgroove record
with a diameter of 25 to 30 c m , and to the 45-rpm record with a diameter of
17 c m . T h e 78-rpm disc was completely replaced by 1955.

Stereo phonography: 1955-

It was realized as early as 1933 that two 'bits' of information could be recorded
in a groove instead of one, simply by combining vertical recording (as used in
the Edison system, which became obsolete in 1905) with lateral recording. By
cutting the two sides of a V-groove in different ways, it was possible to feed the
audio signal separately to two loudspeakers and thus send different messages to
the left and the right ear, thus providing a n e w sensation, that of stereophony. §
After 1958, the transition was facilitated by compatible recording, which m a d e it tí
possible to listen to a microgroove record in monophonie as well as in stereophonic "g
modes. D,
u
T h e success of high-fidelity (hi-fi) phonography was remarkable, as can be
seen from the sale of equipment (record players, hi-fi magnetic tape-decks) and a
of phonograms (records and recorded cassettes) until 1978. After that came satu- g>
ration and decline, accompanied by a rise in recording or copying by private ^
individuals using blank tape cassettes, especially after 1981. 8
In addition a number of three- or four-channel systems designed to outclass •-
stereophony emerged towards 1972, but they had little impact, at least in respect q
of amateur phonography. T h efittingof public auditoria with public address <°
systems is a special problem, dealt with on an ad hoc basis. All these problems can
be examined and placed in context in relation to a general theory of the spatial
reproduction of the sound field which has been called holophony and which
will be discussed later. 'Analogue' phonography reached its zenith during the
decade 1965-75. Palliatives had been found for nearly all the (numerous) faults
in the various sound recording and reproducing machines as well as in storage
media. T h e most flagrant defects in the primitive phonograph included the lack
of dynamism, narrow transmission bands and a weak signal-to-noise ratio.
In order to reduce thefirstdefect, manufacturers embarked upon a race to
increase amplifier power output, which had the effect of exposing discothèque
clients to truly traumatic intensities of sound. T h e second defect was corrected
by the introduction of the negative-feedback amplifier, and replacing the steel
needle following a coarse groove by a fine sapphire or diamond tip following a fine
groove. T h e large amount of background noise on mechanical phonographs and
thefirstelectric record players was atfirstreduced by means offilters.Later,
with microgroove records and hi-fi tape-recorders, more sophisticated techniques
emerged such as the Dolby noise-reduction processes in which recording and,
necessarily, play-back involves differential processing of signals according to
their level and frequency. Since background noise is characterized by a lower
level and a higher average frequency than the useful signal, these make at least
partial elimination of noise possible.
Equalizers also m a k e possible the ultimate refinement, adaptation of the repro-
duction system to the acoustic properties of a given auditorium or to the ear of the
individual listener.
A s a result of these improvements, and m a n y others, over the past twenty years
there has been an extraordinary increase in the n u m b e r of hi-fi systems, each
supposedly better than the others and often with fanatical supporters despite
performances which w h e n objectively assessed are very little better than those of the
vast majority of its competitors. T h e choice is often a matter of taste or one-
upmanship, not to mention gullibility. However, intolerance of any imperfection
is one of the main spearheads of ever more rapid progress.

The advent of digital phonography: 1980-

T h e idea of digital signal processing is not new. O n e of thefirststeps in this

direction was undoubtedly pulse-code modulation, which dates back some sixty
years (American patent held by P. M . Rainey, 1926). Optical data were stored item
by item on a 78-rpm disc as early as 1927 by J. L . Baird, the television pioneer.
However, electrically or optically read video-discs were only experimented with
on a pre-industrial scale after 1971. Transposed to acoustics, this technique led in 97
part to piezo-electrically-read digital phonograph records which were taken beyond
the experimental stage. It was only thermoplastic discs recorded and read by lasers
thatfinallyovercame all the obstacles and were marketed, under the name ' C o m -
pact Disc', as of 1982—a venture which it n o w seems possible to regard as a success.
It must also be noted that digital processing had been used a little previously in
recording the traditional type of microgroove records and thus m a d e it possible for
them to attain an exceptional degree of recording quality.
T h e magnetic tape-recorder is also being improved at present thanks to digital
techniques, and competition promises to be keen. At the same time, hi-fi equipment
is being miniaturized and its combination with micro-computers seems to be
opening up undreamed-of prospects for digital phonography.

A plethora of techniques, but technology falls behind

Edison could be regarded as a most efficient technician, but Charles Cros was
something else: he was the theoretician of a science in the making—technology.
Technology should not, in our view, be confined to describing and classifying
techniques, or even to attaching them, with hindsight, to scientific knowledge. If
it is really to claim the status of a fullyfledgedscience, it must be given an original
vocation, a purpose, which would be to guide the engineer with as little trial and
error as possible towards set objectives, and thus be able to proceed from a pre-
established goal to the most appropriate means of attaining it.
It would be tedious to enumerate and describe all the various techniques used
successively in phonography. T h e y were mentioned in our historical presentation,
and detailed descriptions can be found in m a n y encyclopedias and specialized
works. Moreover, most readers have acquired practical knowledge as users of tape-
recorders and hi-fi equipment. Only the two ends of its development, that is to say,
Edison's and Berliner's purely mechanical processes, because of their simplicity,
and the digital laser-read process because of its novelty, will be considered here. A
few comments will then be m a d e on current ambisonic and stereophonic sound-
recording techniques; this will provide an opportunity to present a purpose-
oriented theory (along the lines indicated earlier) on the rendering of a three-
dimensional acousticfieldwhich shall be called 'holophony'.

Longitudinal and lateral recording

Earlier, w e saw the order of magnitude or rather, the order of smallness, of acoustic
forces. Figures 1 and 2 are rough diagrams of the mechanical systems used by
Edison and Berliner to transmit air vibrations to a cutting stylus and to record them
on a layer of wax placed on a cylinder or a disc, along a groove of variable depth and
length.
T o understand h o w they worked, w e m a y consider the principle of tie drawing-
pin (that broad-headed, sharp-pointed nail which is driven h o m e with the thumb).
W h e n a drawing-pin is pressed into a piece of wood, force is economized: the force
exerted by the t h u m b amounts to a relatively moderate amount of pressure on the
head of the tack, whilst this same force, divided by the tiny area of the tip, exerts
enough pressure at this point to penetrate the wood. Likewise, the small amount
of pressure exerted by the sound wave on the membrane (Me) (Figs. 1 and 2) is
multiplied by a factor of 1,000 or 10,000 at the tip of the stylus which makes it
possible for it to penetrate the layer of wax ( W a ) and to open u p the groove (Gr).
This argument assumes that the entire membrane moves like a solid piston or like
the head of a pin, which is true at least for low-pitched sounds.
 Vertical
recording Layers of
3
T3
O
u
Horn
a
a
«
Groove
C
Membrane

•d

H —•• Stylus c
o
00

Aerial
sound

W a x layer

F I G . I. Hill-and-dale recording used in Edison's cylinder phonograph.

Rotation of
disc

F I G . 2. Lateral recording with a stylus mounted on a jointed arm (Berliner technique). 99

Great moments in phonography,
past and present
i Recording without playback (phonautograph)
Before 1877
I Play-back without recording (music box)
1877-81 Tin-foil phonograph
1881-1905 Wax-cylinder phonograph
1887-1926 Disc gramophone (endless groove, mechanical reproduction)
1893-1900 Establishment of phonographic industry
[ Electrical transcriptions on disc
1926-55 j Period of electrical recording devices (pick-up and amplifier)
( with 78-rpm disc
1928 Film with optical sound-track
1 Tape-recording of discs
1948
I Monophonie microgroove discs
1957 Stereophonic microgroove discs
1968 Cassette tape-recorder
1970-73 Tetraphony ('quadriphony')
1979 Advent of 'Walkman' (personalized tape-recorder)
1982 Compact Disc

T h e difference between hill-and-dale (also called vertical) recording and lateral

(also called tangential or horizontal) recording is merely that there is an additional
joint and lever. This is shown in the diagram in Figure 2. T h e system of levers used
previously by Scott in 1857 w a s more complicated and was modelled on the chain
of small bones in the middle ear.

Digital phonography and influence of the laser

A n analogue signal is conveyed by a continuously variable physical quantity (sound

pressure, movements of an index, electric current, magneticfield),in accordance
with the age-old adage natura non facti saltus (nature makes no leap). A digital
signal is one that varies in terms of whole numbers and therefore discontinuously,
there being at least one unit missed out. If these numbers are written using a binary
system, no more than one unit can ever be skipped, in one order or another, since
the numbers will only be written as zeros and ones. T h e transition from analogue
to digital involves sampling followed by a readjustment of each sample to the
nearest whole number. T h e process is illustrated in Figure 3, showing an acoustic
speed signal with amplitudes sampled and noted from o to 7 (i.e. from 000 to i n
in binary). T h e message is represented in pulse-code modulation with eight values
through a sequence of N pulses ranging from o to 7, and the base is then changed
to 3 N pulses with o or 1 values only.
This is the kind of message that is plotted by laser on to the Compact Disc. But
in binary, each sample becomes a sequence not of 3—as on our graph—but of
16 elementary pulses (or bits); in other words, each section sampled can take on 2 1 6
or about 60,000 different values, a degree offine-tuningwhich is far beyond that of
the most sensitive ear. Samplings are performed about 44,000 times per second,
which is also amply sufficient since, according to a famous theorem of information
theory, it corresponds to a limit of 22,000 hertz, a level which very few people are
capable of hearing.
There is another order of magnitude value which should be borne in mind:
 Analogue values (by samples)

Quantified values

3
•a
o
u
a
0)
u
TJ
S
I
60
u
O
u
u

o
C/J

lu—Lr~Lnr~Ln
Digital signal
n. LT
FIG. 3. Conversion of an analogue signal to a digital signal, base 2. A = Axis of signal
amplitude; t = time axis. • = Samples, quantified intensities, x = Points corresponding
to moie precise sampling and quantification.

all fine details on the Compact Disc as well as on its future rival, the digital magnetic
tape, are on the micrometre (or micron) scale, that is to say one-thousandth of a
millimetre. Recording and reading lasers are infra-red and their wavelength is close
to the micron.
T h e digital track is m a d e of an alternation of shiny 'flats' which correspond to the
blank part of the disc surface and dull 'holes' which correspond to those parts
recorded by the recording laser. (See Fig. 3, left and right, and the bottom of
Fig. 4.) These holes are half a micron wide and vary in length from 1 to 3 microns.
T h e distance between two contiguous tracks is 1.6 microns. It is read at a rotating
speed of 500 to 200 revolutions per minute, starting at the centre of the disc, and
linear speed is about 130 centimetres per second. M a n y precautions have been
taken to prevent the laser beam, which is also very thin, from straying from the
track being followed and on to the neighbouring track. Reading is based on the
difference in reflecting power of the holes as compared with theflats.T h e latter
reflect the laser b e a m back through a semi-transparent prism to a photo-electric
cell. T h e holes reflect no or very little light and are read by the cell as 'black holes';
as a result the cell faithfully transforms the binary digital message recorded on
the track of the disc into electrical time-signals. T h e different stereophonic (left
and right) or even quadraphonic or ambisonic (left front, right front, left rear, right
rear) channels are, or could be, recorded in a single message through the multiplex
process which alternates, in shared time, what must be sent to each channel.
It must be recognized that the impression w h e n listening to a Compact Disc today
is one of unrivalled perfection. But this was also true w h e n the microgroove record
replaced the 78-rpm record and w h e n frequency modulation ( F M ) started to
compete with amplitude modulation ( A M ) in radio broadcasting. But will this
perfection continue to be unsurpassed in the future? It seems clear that it cannot. 101
 FIG. 4. Reading unit of a digital disc. The two arrows indicate the path followed
by light: from laser to disc and from disc to photoelectric cell.

For there are still some weak or perfectible links in the complex chain between
the original sound to be recorded (primary soundfield)and the sound to be repro-
duced (secondary soundfield),even though the insertion of digital links between
the two has made it possible to eliminate nearly all transfer, copying, storage and
rereading noise. It seems that loudspeakers and even the very principles of sound
recording are capable of still further improvement. It is this latter point which
will n o w be discussed.

Sound recording and related problems

Sound recording was simple with the cylinder phonographs: one simply had to
shout, sing or play fortissimo as closely as possible to the acoustic horn, at the
bottom of which was a membrane which activated the recording stylus. With the
improvement of the reception accuracy of the recording device more natural
performances became possible, but the unequal sensitivity of microphones as well
as other technical difficulties called for multiple sound recording by means of a
n u m b e r of different microphones placed as judiciously as possible. Mixing, at a
special console, became necessary in order to balance and mix the various inputs
from each microphone. Little by little, the sound engineer became an important
person; indeed it had to be admitted he was as m u c h an artist as the performer,
singer or instrumentalist. Recording has come to require practical skills and also
theoretical knowledge in both the artistic and technicalfields.As art and certain
techniques are a matter of experimentation and personal experience, this makes it
easier to understand the great amount, variety and even divergence of current
points of view and theories on sound recording.
Subjective views were bound to emerge in this area. Roland Condamines views
102
sound recording as the aggregate of techniques seeking to create in the audience a
set of perceptions which correspond to a set of desires or ideas developed b y the 8
composer. A 'good' sound recording is for h i m a recording which reproduces *g
characteristics such as balance, innovation, sincerity, fervour, enthusiasm a n d cL
knowledge of m e n , which are to be found in any worthwhile w o r k of art.2 *
Such points of view must obviously be respected. But there is n o reason w h y g
w e should not distance ourselves from t h e m , and put forward a strictly objective w>
point of view, that of holophony, which is m u c h more difficult to put into practice TS
but w h i c h would have the advantage of being perfectly in line with the 'sound 8
landscape' concept recently postulated b y R . M . Schafer. n
A sound landscape exists wherever there is an atmosphere or environment g
capable of transmitting audible acoustic waves. There is obviously a sound landscape ,°
in a concert hall or auditorium, but also in a railway station or a factory, in a
Carpathian forest or in the A m a z o n basin, in a souk in Tunis, a street in Paris,
T o k y o or Istanbul, and even beneath the surface of a lake or the sea. T h e essential
goal of holophony is to reproduce, with absolute precision, any sound landscape,
but with the equally essential proviso that such reproduction shall only take place
in a clearly defined place with a clearly defined volume. Although it pursues an
ideal objective, holophony will not be a utopia, precisely because play-back will
only occur in a restricted space.

A matter of terminology
W e need a term to designate the field of recording technique and the
preservation and reproduction of sound of all kinds. T h e w o r d 'phonography'
is in use, from which is derived ' p h o n o g r a m ' , signifying any form b y which
sound is recorded: disc, magnetic tape, film sound-track, and so on. This
tendency is worth encouraging in spite of the etymological proximity of the
n a m e to 'phonograph', an apparatus n o w obsolete.
Yet the dual terms of 'phonography-phonogram' d o not seem to meet all
requirements. W h a t w e need is another couple of terms designating purely
m o n o p h o n i e recording, as it was k n o w n before the days of stereophony. I
suggest 'sonography-sonogram'. T h e similarity to the n a m e of the device
k n o w n b y the trade-name of'Sonagraph' (used to m a k e sonagrams, which
are frequency-time diagrams) should not b e bothersome, particularly since
w e are dealing here with the processing of a single, and therefore
monophonie, message.
T h e Latin word from which w e obtain these terms is the n o u n sonus,
meaning sound. O n e could also use the Greek verb akouein (to hear or
to listen), which would give 'acoustography' and 'acoustogram', but w e
might keep these in reserve for recordings extending towards inaudible ranges,
in both infrasound and ultrasound.
In the text there are defined the neologisms 'holophony' and 'holochory',
developed b y analogy with the term 'holography', invented about 1945
b y Sir Dennis Gabor.

Stereophony, quadriphony and ambisonics (See Fig. 5)

T h e meaning of audition is not merely to record a message conveyed by sound
waves but also to identify, albeit imperfectly, the sound source emitting the
 'êr\
Orchestra

M M
Concert hall

Reproduction
room

(a)

FIG. 5. Some examples of recording and reproduction: (a) diphony and

pseudo-tetraphony, or pseudo-ambisonics (broken lines); (b) tetraphony (also called
quadriphony); (c) ambisonics.
M = Microphone; L = Front left loudspeaker; R = Front right loudspeaker; L R = Rear
left loudspeaker; R R = Rear right loudspeaker.

message. Taken in isolation, the message has only one dimension, that of time.
As to spatial localization, it can be in one, two or three dimensions, according to
whether it determines the direction of the sound source by means of a single
angle on a horizontal plane, two angles (one horizontal and the other vertical)
or, in exceptional circumstances, two angles and a distance (radius vector). All
in all, one can speak of i - D , 2 - D , 3 - D and 4 - D perception, by adding to the time
dimension one, two or three spatial dimensions. Experience has already demon-
strated the existence of 3 - D perception. However, techniques currently used are
aimed only at 2 - D perception. (See Fig. 3.)
B y more or less tacit convention, the word 'stereophony' is synonymous with
the word 'diphony' which denotes two-channel phonography, involving two
loudspeakers, one on the right and the other on the left at the front of the repro-
duction room. It was obviously a very substantial improvement on monophony,
making it possible to distinguish the instruments placed on the right from those
placed on the left in the orchestra. If the waves coming from the right and from
the left are identical, to the listener in the centre of the room it appears that the
primary source is in the centre of the stage.
Systems with more than two channels generally seek only to add the sound
waves reflected from the walls of the room to diphony. There are exceptional
cases of modern composers using these systems to give the illusion of a group of
musicians moving around the room as they play.
Quadriphony (also called tetraphony, quadraphony or quadrophony) uses four
channels and four reproducing sources, located in the four corners of a square
or rectangular room. T h e two sources at the rear are required, in particular, to
provide the echo or reverberation effect which is perceived in large halls. T h e
corresponding signals are obtained either by direct recording or by special pro-
cessing offrant signals. In the latter case, the word pseudo-tetraphony is sometimes
used. Sometimes phonograms are quadrupled (four magnetic tapes or sound-
tracks) or require special modulations (carrier frequencies on two-track tapes or
104
right and left circular polarization for microgroove records). S o m e of the various
sound-recording techniques focus on the idea of a panoramic effect, the micro- u
phones being placed around the orchestra, a curious arrangement which also "g
deserves to be discussed. o,
Ambisonics later sought to replace quadriphony, the commercial success of **
which was rather limited. It can use the same reproducing material although g
ambisonics can be designed for three or more than four channels. A characteristic M
feature of ambisonics is the orientation of sources at the rear, which are turned '-3
towards the wall. O n e is thus using the reflection of sound waves from the walls 3
u
of the room where the music is reproduced. Ambisonics could be placed in the
category of special effects which are sometimes very successful and sometimes a
less so. A s in the case of quadriphony, there are also m a n y different methods of
sound recording. Certain variants, which probably account for the superiority
of ambisonics over tetraphony, seem quite compatible with the theory of holophony.

Holophony, the ideal four-dimensional stereophony

Holophony must be to acoustics what holography is to optics. Just as the latter

would claim to be the ideal optical illusion, so would the former claim to be the
perfect auditory illusion. But both see themselves merely as illustrations of a
general principle whose theoretical basis was obtained by analogy with the process
used successfully in mathematics by the Nicolas Bourbaki group, that is to say,
holochory (which comes from the Greek holos, 'whole', and chorion, chara or
choros, 'field'), which concerns the complete reconstitution of a given physical
field. In other words, the method proposed to reconstruct afieldwill not depend
on the physical nature of the field in question, but would be valid and could be
stated independently of relations existing between various field components.
Given the novelty of this approach, a few qualitative details are presented below.

The Bourbaki approach

Nicolas Bourbaki is the collective pseudonym of a group of French mathematicians
formed in 1934 w h o published, as of 1939, the Éléments de mathématiques, whose
stringency, abstraction and versatility have been m u c h admired. T h e most original
feature of the Bourbaki approach was that it considered mathematics from a
m u c h more general point of view than that adopted previously. Basic axioms were
applied not to objects clearly specified in advance, but to mathematical structures,
that is to say, entities not specified from the outset, except in that certain relations
exist between them. B y increasing the n u m b e r of axioms on which the elements
of a structure would depend, or by specifying content, problems which had been
treated directly and separately in the past emerged as so m a n y illustrations of a
general principle.
T h e greatest advantage of this approach is that any theorem which has been
demonstrated for a general structure can provide, simply by application to particular
cases, a whole family of theorems each valid individually in a branch whose theory
complies with the same axioms as the initial general structure.

Reshaping, holochory and holophony

W e thought there was no reason w h y w e should not attempt what Bourbaki had
achieved in mathematics in thefieldof the natural sciences (i.e. mechanics, physics,
chemistry, biology). T h e phenomenon of waves (or offieldsextending tofilla
certain area from points referred to as sources) can perfectly well be regarded as
 an abstract structure if its nature and m e d i u m are not specified beforehand. It
will simply be assumed that between thefieldF and its sources S there is a very
general type of relation, such as O P F — S for example; this formula means that
a certain sequence of operations symbolized by operator O P can be carried out
on the components of thefieldF, making it possible to go back to the sources 5
of the phenomenon under consideration.
Quite fundamental structural theorems can be demonstrated on the basis of
such simple premises. O n e of the most direct theorems is that of 'reshaping'.
T h e reshaping offieldF means replacing it b y afieldM F , in which M is a m o d i -
fication operator. This operation can be carried out by resorting to secondary
sources S", the reshaping theorem of which can be stated as follows:
S" = (OPM—MOP)F.

Particular cases of acoustics: holochory becomes holophony

In space VR (reproduction space), a field F is assumed to have been created

earlier in space VP (projection or propagation space). T h e reshaping theorem
shows h o w to carry out this reconstitution: secondary sources S" must be consti-
tuted in accordance with the general formula stated above and provided with
appropriate inputs. T o avoid repeating ourselves w e shall n o w consider the case
of acoustics and turn our attention to holophony. Space VP will for example be a
concert hall (Fig. 6) equipped with a stage and an orchestra pit where there are
sound sources 5 producing the acousticfieldF. T h efieldF which existed in a
selected area in VP during the performance is to be reconstituted in an audi-
torium VA (which could be any music lover's living-room). According to

FIG. 6. Holophony principle: (a) sound projection area (Kp); (b) reproduction
area (VA).
S = True primary sources; S' = Auxiliary primary sources producing real or differed
echoes; VR = Precise volume of reproduction; Z = Area related to secondary
io6 reproduction sources S"; C = Acousticfieldproduced by sources 5 and S'.
our theory this would require a number of appropriate sound sources (groups g
of loudspeakers) to be deployed in VA which, for listeners L sitting in VR (the ö
central part of VA) would replace the sources 5 that they would hear if they were "g
sitting in seats L' in theatre VP. p.
u
In principle, the secondary sources 5 " shouldfillthe whole of volume Z, in
the form of a halo surrounding VR, and each of them should be piloted by the g
values offieldF picked up by microphones placed in VP in areas similar to M
areas S", if one imagines the reproduction space in the appropriate position T3
within the projection space. These are ideal conditions, but they do offer an g
approach and a research programme which could be adopted to bring about "
improvements in 3 - D and 4 - D sound relief in the near future. In any event, c
they identify several shortcomings in current sound-relief technology, be it in the £
area of real-time sound systems or play-back.

Holophony and sound recording

In theory holophony requires a host of individual sourcesfillingthe entire volume

between the walls of the room to befittedand that part of the room where the
sound reproduction is required to be absolutely identical with the original. H o w -
ever, m a n y arguments can be adduced to suggest that a fairly limited number
of secondary sources would suffice to provide a very presentable 'auditory illusion'.
It will be remembered, in particular, that the threshold of perception of different
acoustic intensities is hardly less than the decibel, that is to say, about 10 per cent.
If matters were to be taken further, to see h o w far it is possible to go in faithfully
reproducing an acousticfield,one would have to have recourse to the principle
of opposition (or the zero method), well k n o w n in electricity as the Wheatstone
bridge, whereby thefieldof the secondary sources would be inverted and super-
imposed on the primaryfieldand the approximation point at which a reading of
zero is obtained in the reproduction space identified.3 It might be worth conducting
that experiment.
Another approach is to compare the different sound-recording procedures or
theories with the precepts of holophony in similar configurations. Certain ambi-
sonics are then found to be very close to holophony, with however a slight
difference which seems paradoxical: loudspeakers to the rear must be turned
towards the auditorium even though the corresponding microphones face the other
way. This accords perfectly with the principle of propagation continuity.

Cultural, social and economic impact of phonography

Pre-recorded phonogram reproduction machines are still the most popular. In

France, for example, there is an average of one in each h o m e . But recording
equipment (magnetic tape-recorders and radio cassettes) are gaining ground and
perhaps beginning to outstrip them, which partly explains w h y sales of records
and pre-recorded cassettes are low at the m o m e n t .
T h e most c o m m o n form of private use is undoubtedly listening to music,
but there are others such as the collection of family sound recordings, language
learning, and learning to play a musical instrument, for example. However, public
and industrial use is not losing ground to private use in terms of importance.
In broadcasting, far more material is transmitted recorded than live. Account
must also be taken of the importance of the audio component in mixed (audio-
visual) activities. This can easily be appreciated if the sound on a television set is
turned off. 107
 With regard to taxation, 33 per cent value-added tax (the rate for luxury goods)
is levied on records in France, which makes them a gold-mine for the state, but
gives a curious idea of the value attached to the development of culture in its
various manifestations.
If w e inquired about the n u m b e r of people employed in the phonogram and
phonogram-instrument industry, w e would be surprised to find there were so
few of them—roughly 10,000. If those involved in sales were also taken into
account a grand total of 50,000 (estimate of full-time employees) could no doubt
be attained. This total is to be set against the influence exerted on the population
of the country, which is over 50 million. It seems odd that such a small number of
people should exert such influence on so great a number. T h e amount of money
involved is 5,000 million francs ($450 million)—three for equipment and two for
phonograms.

W h a t is at stake, and what does the future hold?

T h e history of phonography is instructive in more than one way. Scientific laws

and theories have played only a limited role in its development, and the inventions
of pioneers like Poulsen have had to wait more than thirty years before being put
into practice. But as the speed of progress increases, a more scientific and efficient
strategy can be expected.
Current research can provide some idea of what the future holds. T h e oldest
phonograms (wax cylinders) can n o w be read by laser and transcribed in digital
code on to modern materials. W e can perhaps look forward to a day w h e n it
will be possible to have access from one's h o m e on a videotex console to the treasures
of the national record libraries of different countries: to hear the voice of Gustave
Eiffel or that of the Emperor Franz-Joseph, Pasteur or Einstein, or to compare
different orchestras playing given passages of given symphonies, without having
to buy all the necessary phonograms, if they are on sale.
With regard to digital phonography, w e know that the magnetic tape-recorder
is set to become arivalof the Compact Disc; but digital disc promoters, not to be
outdone, are studying an erasable version with a sensitive magnetic-optical layer.
O n the other hand, specialists arefine-tuningthe precision of laser furrows which
should become capable of conveying an information flow of about 1,000 million
bits per second.
W e should like to express the hope that there will be some renewal of the loud-
speaker industry. Microphones have recently benefited from the introduction of
electrets, which are the electrostatic equivalent of permanent magnets. T h e
possibility of electret loudspeakers is n o w under study, but others place their
hopes on cold-plasma loudspeakers (patent held by H . Bondar), which will have
no inertia and be capable of functioning at infra- and ultrasonic frequencies.
Loudspeakers n o w seem to be the weakest link in the chain between a soundscape
and play-back as an auditory illusion.
Other research efforts are focusing on transducers, which could also be used
as analogue-digital converters, or vice versa, with microphones providing electrical
signals directly in binary code or loudspeakers controlled directly by such signals.
T h e synthesis or symbiosis of the different lines of research, of which w e have
just mentioned the most important, is also a possibility.

And to conclude

In the audio-visual duo, the visual component has always taken precedence over
the audio component and one m a y wonder whether this domination is going to
increase or diminish. In the scientific world, optics has a reputation for precision a
and openness towards the future, whereas acoustics is considered a second-rate v»
science. W e m a y perhaps hope that the future will redress this balance, and that u
acoustics will be seen once again as an open, reliable and useful scientific 0
O
discipline. • u
p.
<u
u
•a
Notes a
a
be
i. T h e prefix 'micro-' divides the unit following it by i million, the prefix 'nano-' .5
-a
by 1,000 million and the prefix 'pico-' by 1 million million.
2. See R . Condamines, Stéréophonie—Cours de relief sonore théorique et appliqué, p. 94,
o
Paris, Masson, 1978. C/3
3. This is also the principle used in a new noise-control method—active acoustic
absorption.

Bibliography

B O N D A R , H . Procédé et dispositif pour transformer une tension électrique périodique

B . F . en ondes acoustiques ou inversement. European Patent N o . 0 065 911 (Al)
dated il M a y 1982.
C O N D A M I N E S , R . Stéréophonie—Cours de relief sonore théorique et appliqué. Paris,
Masson, 1978.
D O L B Y , R . M . A n Audio Noise Reduction System. Journal of the Audio Engineering
Society, Vol. 15, 1967, pp. 383-8.
F E L L E R , K . H . ; W A R G , L . Elektroakustische Heimgeräte. Leipzig, V E B Fachbuchverlag,
1977 (See Chap. 4, Sections 4.2.4-5, pp. 85-95 and Chaps. 7-9, pp. 208-59).
H U R M , Horace. La passionnante histoire du phonographe, suivie de la première méthode pour
en jouer avec art. Paris, Les Publications Techniques, 1943.
I F U K U B E , T . ; A S A K U R A , T . ; K A W A S H I M A , T . W a x e d Phonograph Cylinders Recorded
by Pilsudski and its Reproduction Methods. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of
Japan, Vol. 40, N o . 3, 1984, pp. 167-74.
JESSEL, M . Acoustique théorique, propagation et holophonie. Paris, Masson, 1973.
P E R R I A U L T , Jacques. Mémoires de Vombre et du son, une archéologie de l'audiovisuel. Paris,
Flammarion, 1981.
S I N G H , D . Vision: Its Creativity, Limits and Paradoxes. Impact of Science on Society,
Vol. 31, N o . 2, 1981, pp. 139-49. (Cf. pp. 148-9—Holography.)

To delve more deeply

C H E W , V . K . Talking Machines 1877-1914. L o n d o n , Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1967.

H E N N I O N , A . Les professionnels du disque. Paris, Éditions A . M . Métaillé, 1981.
H U N T , F . Electroacoustics—The Analysis of Transduction and its Historical
Background. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1954.
L A G A D E C , R . Les nouveaux procédés d'enregistrement. TJniversalia 1983. Paris,
Éditions l'Encyclopaedia Universalis, 1983.
L E I P P , E . Acoustique et musique. Paris, Masson, 1971.
. La machine à écouter. Paris, Masson, 1977.
R E A D , O . ; W E L C H , W . From Tin Foil to Stereo. (2nd ed.), Indianapolis,
H . W . Sams & Co., 1977.
P I E R C E , J. Le son musical. Paris, Belin, 1984.
RISSET, J.-C. Musical Acoustics. In: Carterette and Friedman (eds.), Handbook of
Perception, Vol. IV. N e w York, Academic Press, 1978, p p . 546-8.

109
 Seminar

European Federation of National Associations of

Engineers ( E F N A E )
Dublin, 25-27 September 1985

CASE-HISTORIES
IN TECHNOLOGY
TRANSFER
A meeting of engineers from European and developing
countries will be held on the following themes: water,
energy, low-cost housing and food industries. Problems to
be dealt with will involve information, innovation and
education.
The seminar is being organized by the Industry
Commission of E F N A E and the Engineering Institute of
Ireland, one of its member organizations, on the occasion
of the Federation's 150th anniversary. The seminar will be
held under the patronage of the Secretary-General of the
Council of Europe and with the co-operation of the World
Federation of Engineering Organizations and the support
of Unesco.

Please contact: M r P . F . Callanan,

President, Industry Commission,
c/o The Institution of Engineers of
Ireland,
22 Clyde Road,
Ballsbridge,
Dublin 4
(Ireland)
Religious belief was the driving force in the construction of monumental art in ^
India from the sixth to the fourteenth centuries. Temple sculpture portrayed music ~~
and dance, and stone was carved to represent these arts. Pillars, stairs, bells, pipes JJ1
and special icons were carved or assembled so as to produce musical tones. The o
heritage of a millennium ago is now being rediscovered, using scientific technique. £5

So
«o

Musical curiosities s

in the temples +*
of South India o
«
a
E
H . V. Modak

Dr Modak is working as a säentist at the National Centre for the Performing

Arts, Nariman Point, Bombay, as well as guiding postgraduate research in
electro-acoustics at Poona University. One of his papers, 'Propriety of Dividing an
Octave into Twenty-Two Srutis' is well known in India and abroad, and the author
recently won a national award in inventions for an automatic musical instrument.
Dr Modak can also be contacted at the Electroacoustics Research Laboratory,
N. Wadia College, Poona I (India), where he is working as honorary professor. m
is South India is often described as a land of temples. T h e gopuram, a pyramidal
o multi-storeyed tower built over the gateway to a temple, dominates the landscape
^ of every village or town. Such temples represent some of the finest specimens of
^ ancient architectural sculpture and engineering—architecture and sculpture rooted,
X as the other arts, in religious fervour. T h e sculptors treated various subjects, such
as music and dance. T h e walls, pillars and brackets (or corbels) are decorated
with carved figures of gods, goddesses, stylish lions, graceful elephants, horses,
warriors, musicians, dancing girls and m a n y other representations.
T h e temples play an important role in the social, economic and spiritual life
of the people. Entire villages and towns, in fact, have grown around these temples.
T h e Pallava kings, w h o ruled South India from the sixth to the ninth cen-
turies A . D . , were pioneers in temple construction. T h e monolithic cave temples
and the bas-reliefs at Mahabalipuram, 60 k m south of Madras, comprise the oldest
storehouse of art and history in the country.
T h e art of temple construction reached its zenith during the Chola hegemony,
from the tenth to the fourteenth centuries. T h e art of bronze sculpture also
attained perfection during this period, the most outstanding being the represen-
tation of Nataraja, or Lord Siva, in the 'cosmic dance' pose. T h e successive dynasties
of the Pallav Chola, Pandya and Nayak rulers endowed and enriched this land with
temples and monuments.
In the world-famous temple of Nataraja at Chidambaram, 240 k m from Madras,
one can see the sculptural representation of 108 postures relating to Bharata's
science of dancing. T h e ancient sculptors infused, in a similar way, music in the
stones used for temple construction. T h e y not only used their skill in carving
figures of musicians playing on musical instruments, they also chiselled wonderful
objects producing musical tones. Situated in various temples, w e find musical
pillars, musical stairs, bronze and stone musical icons, musical bells, and musical
pipes m a d e of stone.

Musical pillars

T h e South Indian sculptors used their amazing skills to chisel rocks and shape
musical pillars, the 'stone pianos'. This art was at its best during the period of the
Vijayanagar kingdom, from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. These pillars
adorn the temples at H a m p i , Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Thadikombu, Madurai, Algarkoil,
Courtallam, Tenkashi, Tirunelveli, Alwartirunagari, Suchindram and Trivendrum.
These places are reproduced in Figure 1.
Hampi is a deserted city near Hospet in Karnatak State and the former capital
of the Vijayanagar Empire. T h e Vitthal temple, though incomplete, is the grandest
structure of the period. In its Music Hall are foundfifty-sixclusters of musical
pillars of varying construction. Tadpatri, near Guntkal, and Lepakshi, near
Hindapur, are small villages in Andhra State. T h e temples here are beautiful,
fashioned in the Vijayanagar style. Thadikombu, a small village near Dindigal in
Tamilnadu (Madras) State, has a temple with nicely carved pillars. Madurai is
the second largest city in Tamilnadu, and its famous Meenakshi Temple is an
exquisite example of Dravidian architecture and sculpture. (Dravidian, together
with Northern and Chalukyan, is one of the three main Hindu styles.) T h e most
interesting feature of this temple is the thousand-pillared hall built in the sixteenth
century. T h e pillars bear a repeated motif of a stylized dragon. At the entrance
to the hall, there are two clusters of musical pillars; there are similar pillars in the
outside corridor as well.
112 Algarkoil is 18 k m from Madurai. T h e hall facing its shrine contains some
FIG. I. Sites of musical curiosities.

fine sculpture; its musical pillars are in good condition. Courtallam, Tenkashi,
Tirunelveli and Alwartirunagari are in the Tirunelveli district, and there are two
large clusters of fifty pillars in each of the temples at the latter two places.
Suchindram in Kanyakumari, India's southernmost district, has a temple k n o w n
for its musical pillars. Trivandrum, the capital of Kerala State, boasts musical
pillars in good condition at the famous ancient temple of Shri Padmanabhaswami
(Vishnu).
But what are musical pillars? They are columns of stone clustered round a
central, massive pillar supporting the roof. Figure 2 shows the cross-section of
one such cluster, found in the Tirunelveli temple. If the pillars are tapped with a
light, wooden mallet, they produce notes of various frequencies and their quality
is somewhat similar to that of a xylophone. T h e pillars are of various shapes:
circular, square or octagonal. T h e pillars range in height, in various temples,
from one to two metres; those forming a single cluster are of the same height,
but they differ in cross-section and shape. T h e entire cluster of pillars, with
massive base and top (capital), is carved from a single block of granite. T h e pillars
thus form firm columns, clamped at both ends, and they are not as hollow as one
might think. T h e number of pillars in a cluster varies from three at Lepakshi to
fifty at Tirunelveli and Alwar Tirunagari.
M
¡a
T)
O f 46 J W/W Mi
( "8 J H Ü D° Í ^ J
>
X 0 0 0 ¡¡1*0 0 0
Í 34 J 35 f 36 J 37 f 38 J 39

29 Sol

Central

O O O© weight-
bearing
column

© 16

0 H 0
O 0 0 0 0 0
OH 0
F I G . 2. Cross-section of a cluster offiftypillars found in the Sri Nelliappar temple
at Tirunelveli.

The science of the pillars

Systematic study of the musical pillars was undertaken by the author, assisted
by S. R . Chandorkar, S. Parameswaram and K . V . Desa, in work supported by
the Government of Maharashtra. O n e of the aims of our study was to measure
frequencies of the notes emitted by the pillars in order to ascertain which musical
scales could befittedto them. A n early method was to tape-record the sounds,
then submit them to frequency analysis carried out by the Electroacoustics
Research Laboratory in Poona.
In a later method, resonance technique was used to obtain accurate measurement
of the frequencies after the pillars had been set into resonant vibration by a reed-
vibration unit. (The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.) T h e reed-
vibration unit is connected to an audio oscillator, and vibrations of the reed are
'coupled' to the pillar. A s the audio-oscillator frequency is varied, the pillar emits
an audible note in resonance. T h e audio-oscillator frequency in this position is the
frequency of the pillar. For more accuracy, a digital frequency meter is used to
read the oscillator's frequency. T o obtain the exact resonance setting, a contact
microphone is clamped to the base of the pillar. T h e microphone signal is amplified,
and the amplifier output is connected to a meter as well as to a loudspeaker. At
resonance, the meter shows a maximal reading and the loudspeaker gives the
loudest audible note. T h e pillar resonates w h e n the frequency of the oscillator
114
 Audio
oscillator

0 0 1 2 3

Digital counter

F I G . 3. Experimental arrangement in method to measure accurately frequencies of

vibrating musical pillars. "5
 Group Group Group Group
of of of of
six four four six

Group Group Group Group

of of of of
fifty ten nine fifty

F I G . 4 . General plan of the musical pillars found in the hall facing the main shrine,
Sri Nelliappar temple, Tirunelveli.

coincides with the fundamental frequency or any of the pillar's overtone fre-
quencies. Hence, using this method, overtones emitted by the pillars can also be
determined.
T h e resonance method has been used to establish the frequencies of the pillars
in the Swami Nelliappar T e m p l e at Tirunelveli. Figure 4 shows the general
plan of the musical pillars in the hall facing the main shrine there, whose cross-
section (in the left-hand cluster offiftypillars) is shown in Figure 2.
T h u s , musical pillars are looked upon as solid bars firmly fixed at each end.
For a bar of uniform cross-section rigidly clamped at both ends, the relative
frequencies of the fundamental and the overtones (1, 2) are given b y / 1 5 2.756/!,
5.404/1, 8.933 A • • -3 an<i s o o n ? w h e r e / ! is the fundamental frequency as given by:

I-I33* m
h=
where / is the length of the bar, p the density of the bar, Q is Young's modulus
(an elastic constant) of the bar's material, and k is the radius of gyration.
In the cluster offiftypillars (Fig. 2), there are few pillars of nearly uniform
cross-section. These have a rough surface and hardly any decoration. T h e measured

T A B L E I . Measured a n d theoretical relative frequencies of pillars

Pillar n o . 1 Measured Measured Theoretical

and cross- frequency relative relative
section in H z frequency frequency

2 8 (circular) /1 = 149 I.OOO I.OOO

h = 388 2.604 2.756
h = 780 5.235 5.404
35 (square) A = 170 I.OOO I.OOO
h = 468 2.753 2.756
h = 910 5.353 5.404
1. T h e pillars have been arbitrarily numbered for identification.
and theoretical relative frequencies of two such pillars are given in Table i,
showing a close agreement of the results. T h e slight deviation from the theoretical
values is attributable to the roughness of the surfaces as well as minute variations
in the cross-section.

S o m e music-making physics

T h e cross-sections of the pillars are not uniform along their length, resulting in a
deviation of relative frequencies from those of a uniform bar. It is interesting to
note, however, that in the case of some pillars the overtones generated are har-
monics. W h e n tapped, these pillars produce pleasing tones. T h e measured fre-
quencies of three such pillars, taken as specimens, are shown in Table 2.

T A B L E 2. Frequencies of overtones produced by selected pillars

Pillar Fundamental First Second

No. in H z overtone overtone

CA) (/2) C/ 3 )
2 150 396 750 (5/1)
33 118 306 612 (2/2)
22 132 396 (3A) 660 (5/i)

Comparing the relative intensities of the fundamental frequency and overtones

(from an analysis of recorded notes), w e note that the fundamental is weak. W h a t
w e hear is mainly the sound offirstand higher overtones.
Although there arefiftypillars in the cluster examined, only one or two musical
scales can be (nearly)fittedamong the notes emitted by the vertical sculptures. This
is because the frequencies are not properly distributed. T h e serial numbers of the
pillars forming one of the Indian musical scales, multani, are shown below:

Note Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do

Indian notation sa n ga ma pa dha ni sa

Pillar number 49 43 47 19 30 31 33 10

T h efirstsix notes correspond to thefirstovertones of the respective pillars and the

last two notes correspond to the second overtones of the last two pillars.
T h e pillars that emit notes according to the musical scale are not suitably situated
within the cluster. It is, moreover, difficult to strike the pillars that are in the inner
rows; so that it is not easy for a single artist to play music on the pillars. It would
appear, therefore, that musical pillars were not constructed for the playing of music
of the present-day type composed of seven or more notes. It appears that the pillars
might have been used for accompaniment music, composed in three- to five-note
combinations, as in religious hymns. It is possible to select the pillars near to each
other producing notes in such scales.
T h e author has recorded an artist singing a religious song and accompanying
himself by striking the pillars. A n d because rhythm music used in singing or
dancing is composed of few notes, it can be played on the pillars. W e have also
recorded rhythm music, with the artist using metal rings slipped on hisfingersin
order to play the pillars. Frequency analysis of musical pillars found in other
temples leads to conclusions similar to those above.
Sculptural and masonry sources of music

By using a contact microphone and an amplifier-loudspeaker system, a cluster of

musical pillars can be converted into an electromechanical instrument, such as an
electronic guitar.
T h e halls in which musical pillars have been installed have no side-wall enclos-
ures, so that the sounds coming from the pillars are not modified by room acoustics.
In some clusters, w efindtwo or three pillars having the same frequency. In these
cases, w h e n a single pillar is struck the other pillars of the same frequency begin
vibrating by resonance.
If a singer should stand close to a cluster and sing loudly in tune with the pillars,
the pillars resound, albeit very feebly, because of the impedance mismatch between
air and stone. T h e sound of resonating pillars can be m a d e audible by electronic
amplification.
A recording of vocal music (specifically, religious hymns), with electronically
amplified accompaniment, has been m a d e of resonating pillars. T h e accompani-
ment is automatic, not played on the pillars.
Recently, the ancient art of chiselling stone musical pillars has been revived, and
the construction of new pillars has been undertaken by sculptors at Mahabalipuram.
T h e designing of musical pillars opens n e wfieldsin musical acoustics and the art
of carving. I, for one, believe that retaining musical standards along with sculptural
beauty can be achieved by using modern science and research methods.
Musical pillars have suffered deterioration, in some places, because visitors have
hammered o n them with hard objects. In order to avoid further damage, it is
suggested that a contact microphone, with amplifier and loudspeaker system,
should be used during exhibits to visitors. Using such an arrangement, a mere,
light tap on the stone gives a loud sound.

Musical stairs
K u m b h a k o n a m in the Tanjore district was once a capital of the Chola kings, and
the city and its surroundings are studded with m a n y shrines. Near the city, at
Darasuram, w e find musical steps, the sides of the stone staircases of which are very
beautifully carved. W h e n seven of the eight stair treads not fixed to the ground
are struck, each produces a different tone.

Musical icons in stone

Beautifully sculptured figures offineworkmanship are also k n o w n , cut from the
same granite stone as that used to construct musical pillars. In Tanjore's Brindeswara
temple, there are icons of Lord Ganesh and Garud. In the Vishnu temple at
Shanbagramanallur, there are icons of Rati and M a n m a t h a , and similar sculptures
are found in the Krishnapuram temple of Tirunelveli District. T h e various limbs of
these icons, w h e n struck, give out distinct musical notes.

Musical icons and bells in bronze

There are also musical icons cast in bronze, similar to the stone ones. There is a
bronze icon at the Tirumangai temple, near Kancheepuram, called the Seven-note
M a h a Vishnu. All seven notes of the octave are produced w h e n the statue's seven
limbs are struck. There are, as well, musical bells of bronze; one with a cluster of
seven bells is to be found at the Raja Kelkar M u s e u m , Poona. Each of its bells
yields a different musical note.
Stone musical pipes

At the above-mentioned Siva temple of Shanbagaramanallur, there is a musical

pipe drilled through a stone pillar supporting the roof; the pipe is conical in shape.
W h e n blown sharply from the other end of the pipe, the sound produced is similar
to that of a brass blow-pipe.
Nagaswaram pipes made of hardwood are used during festivals in daily temple
rituals, for weddings and at other social functions. In the Sri Adi Kumbheswara
temple at K u m b h a k o n a m , there are two Nagaswaram pipes made from soapstone.
Each pipe is 55 c m in length, including a 17-cm mouthpiece of brass. A long,
narrow hole runs the length of the pipe,flaringto a width of 2.5 c m at its end. T h e
shell of the pipe is formed by three pieces held together with metallicrings.A n d
there are two, similar stone pipes to be found in the gallery of musical instruments
of Poona's Raja Kelkar M u s e u m .
There is also a stone pipe, called M u k h a Veena, still used in the Sri Adi-Nath
temple at Alwartirunagari (in Tirunelveli). Excluding its mouthpiece, it is 20 c m
long, though it is made of a single piece of stone and has a tapering hole. This pipe
is said to have been presented to the temple by a Nayak king, and originally
employed in the dance recitals that were formerly given in the temple.

Conclusion

Musical pillars and similar objects m a d e of stone have preserved for us a treasure-
chest of knowledge concerning ancient music and art, a chest that can be opened
and researched in a scientific way.

References

M O R S E , P. M . Vibration and Sound, 2nd ed., p. 123. N e w York, McGraw-Hill, 1948.

O L S O N , H . F. Physics, Music and Engineering, 2nd ed., p. 77. N e w York, Dover, 1967.
Did you k n o w that
educators, research workers and
students can use Unesco coupons to purchase

books, periodicals, films

art work, sheet music

radio and television sets

typewriters
scientific equipment
tape-recorders machine tools
musical instruments
measuring instruments

U N E S C O C O U P O N S can also be used to pay for subscriptions to

educational, scientific or cultural publications, for university
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In every user country there is a body—often the National Commission for
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Write to Unesco Coupons Office, Unesco, 7 place de Fontenoy,
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You pay for the coupons in your own currency and enclose the coupons with your
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The multiple use of auditoriums poses many acoustical problems, some of which are
discussed here, using experience with existing halls as examples. In thefinalanalysis,
there may be no panacea in terms of a single design for an auditorium that must
serve such disparate purposes as musical concerts, grand opera, dramatic
presentations, and meetings and conferences.

The acoustical
problems posed
by multipurpose halls
T a m a s Tarnóczy

The author is a physicist who has been active in acoustics for aboutfiftyyears.
Director of the Acoustical Laboratory of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
from 197s to 1981, he earned his doctorate in 1943 under Professor Georg von
Békésy, who later won the Nobel Prize in medicine for his discoveries relating to
the mechanism of the ear. Dr Tarnóczy has taught in three Hungarian universities
and is the author of eight books and more than 2$o scientific articles. A fellow of
the Acoustical Society of America, honorary member of three other acoustical
societies, and president of Hungary's Acoustical Commission, he has been on
the International Commission on Acoustics of the International Union of Pure and
Applied Physics for twelve years. His address is: c\o Scientific Laboratories of the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budaörsi ut 45, H-1112, Budapest (Hungary).
& Introduction
o
-o
a
S It is difficult to conceive of an acoustically effective hall being built to serve more
M than one purpose, even though almost all halls are sometimes used for something
g other than that for which they were originally designed. For example, lecture halls,
H cinemas and theatres are also often used to house mass meetings. Concerts are
sometimes organized in university assembly halls, theatres or churches.
These occasional practices m a y , however, not be regarded as true dual-purpose
utilization. A hall designed for one specific purpose is normally used for others only
for about 15 per cent of the time. A n d even a dual-purpose hall has m a n y demands
for other uses.
Fields of utilization should be properly defined, because even if a given hall is
used in ten different ways, none of them will amount to 15 per cent of the total
utilization.
Here w e will deal with six different ways in which a hall m a y be used: (1) for
orchestral concerts, chamber music, choirs, solo recitals; (2) for operas, operettas,
ballet, musicals; (3) for dance music, light music, beat, pop, rock, jazz, etc.; (4) for
prose reading and dramatic performances; (5) for motion pictures; and (6) for
meetings, conferences, lectures and speeches.
Halls unambiguously built for purposes (1), (2) and (6), respectively, usually are
used only for a single purpose. However, the use of certain halls for joint purposes,
e.g. (1) and (2), is not rare. Halls for purposes (4) and (5) m a y be used infrequently
for other purposes. Premises built especially for purpose (3) in practice do not
exist. Such buildings have requirements similar to those designed for other musical
performances. But popular music requires large halls and it is not impossible that
it was precisely for this purpose that the building of large multipurpose halls was
originally promoted.

Rock bands: the 'invading enemy'

T h e acoustics of concert halls lend themselves least to other uses. Consequently

m a n y specialists are not happy w h e n halls with artificial reverberation tuned for
music are used for speech. Acoustical harmonization of concert-hall and opera-
house usage is similarly difficult, though these two uses are the ones most fre-
quently paired.
W h a t all experts unanimously reject is the use of concert halls for rock concerts
and the like. In this connection, V . L . Jordan speaks of such bands as the 'invading
enemy'. 1 T h e acoustics of concert halls cannot be harmonized with the volume of
electrical instruments, in terms either of reverberation time or the energy of the
reverberating sound.
In developing an acoustical judgement of a hall, the perception of early lateral
reflection plays an important part, and from this point of view large halls have
disadvantages. Another important factor in judging a hall is the length of time
sound waves take to rise and decay, although an observer does not perceive the
physical reverberation time, but the audible one. Background noise—increasing
with the size of the audience—also influences judgement and unfavourably affects
the acoustics of extremely large halls.

Dual-purpose halls

T h e most c o m m o n dual-purpose halls m a y be ranked into two groups. O n e is the

I22 combination concert and opera hall. L . L . Beranek mentions several examples,
unfortunately without giving percentages of utilization for the two purposes.2
Another popular combination couples uses (i) and (6) (orchestral/vocal music and -3«
conferences/speeches). This is c o m m o n in American universities, where halls are g
used for both speeches and concerts or operas. A recent practice constitutes a &
variant of the former: the building of increasingly popular 'conference halls'. .&
T h e original purpose for which a hall was built m a y usually be determined on 3
the basis of its layout and acoustics. In Baltimore the large Lyric Theatre was built "
in 1894, with the characteristics of the traditional concert hall, including a wide -°
stage. Only 35 per cent of it is used is for concerts, however; while the stage is «
really too small for grand opera, 10 per cent of its time is devoted either to opera or â
ballet. Theatrical performances take up another 25 per cent of the time, and other g
events (some of them musical) 30 per cent. ii
T w o Canadian halls of similar character built in 1957, both resembling the City g
(now Erkel) Theatre (use 3) built in Budapest between 1909 and 19133 in size, layout _
and even inner appearance, are the Alberta Jubilee Auditoriums of Edmonton and .y
Calgary.
low bassTratio
h e good
(£ =orchestra shell
0.95). In may, however,
addition, not make uptime
mid-reverberation for the
is unfortunately
too short for <¿o3
concert music. These halls are used for a multitude of purposes.
H
Leonard Bernstein'sfirstchoice for South America
A real dual-purpose (1 and 6) hall is the Aula M a g n a in Caracas. Here, special
advice on acoustics was requested for the unusual shape of the hall only after it was
built, at which time progress could be achieved only by using spatially located
shields (called clouds). The result is that the audience experiences f dry' acoustics,
which give little impression of space. As an example of h o w unreliable are conduc-
tors' judgements, Leonard Bernstein considers it the best concert hall in South
America! For conference uses, electro-acoustical equipment is available.
Finally another Canadian dual-purpose hall deserves mention: the Queen
Elizabeth Theatre built in Vancouver in 1959. Opera performances are rarely
held in it, while the proportion of speech presentations to music is 2:1. It is of
standard size for concerts (16,750 m 3 ) and as a theatre (14,870 m 3 ) .
T h e interior design is pleasing, but probably because of the proportion of direct
sound to reverberant sound the hall sounds rather dry. Investigation suggests that
the shape of orchestra shell is to blame for that, since it was not developed according
to acousticians' advice. It has since been re-designed in consequence, but the results
are not yet known. Reviewing the theatre's opening, the New York Times reported:
'At present w e feel that multi-purpose acoustics provide no ideal solution for
definitely musical purposes.' O n the other hand, the conductor Herbert von
Karajan, w h o began his career as a pianist, is definitely in favour of halls with
dry acoustics and thus judges this one excellent. Sir T h o m a s Beecham and Isaac
Stern, however, consider it too dry. According to Isaac Stern, the ideal hall acous-
tically is the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires, also a double-purpose hall. Its rever-
beration time is m u c h longer, giving a more spacious sound.

A triple-purpose hall
T h e Neues Festspielhaus in Salzburg, built in i960, is a triple-purpose establish-
ment, since plays, Mozart operas and concerts are presented there.4 A s a result
of the location the hall has almost the form of a square of more than 35 metres a
side. Its acoustical difficulties are increased by its special stage, whose longitudinal
dimension m a y be extended almost to the full breadth of the hall. Apron walls
><
N
U
•O
C
u
a
h
B
a

10 15 20 25m

F I G . I. Longitudinal section and ground

plan of Neues Festspielhaus, Salzburg,
Austria.

that can be pushed aside enable a stage breadth of 21 to 30 metres with a height
of 9 metres. T h e volume of the stage is double that of the hall. Figure 1 shows a
section, while the ground plan suggests there are unfortunate lateral reflections.
Even the huge proscenium m a y not help here. In addition, its formation upsets
the balance between orchestra and singers since, due to the upper sound baffle,
the voice of singers is directedfirstto the balcony, while the sound of the orchestra
travels mainly to the rear part of the parterre.

Terminology and symbols

Reverberation time Generally speaking, the time it takes
(in seconds) for sound to decay in intensity
by 60 d B .
Mid-reverberation time (T) This means reverberation time at middle
frequencies (500-1,000 H z ) in occupied halls.
Bass ratio (B) Ratio of half the reverberation times at 125 H z
and 250 H z to the mid-reverberation time
B=(T12b+T260)l2T.
Direct sound T h e part of the sound energy travelling
directly to the listener's ear.
Reverberant sound T h e part of the sound energy that originates
from reflected sound waves.
Artificial reverberation Extension of the original reverberation
time in a room by electro-acoustical methods.
Assisted resonance A special method—by electro-acoustical
feedback of the sound with aid of m a n y
resonators—for generating artificial
reverberation, especially at low frequencies.
A-weighted decibel (dBA) Sound-levels measured by an amplifier with
transmission characteristics that suppress low
frequencies.
124
 T h e volume of the hall in its theatre m o d e is 13,000 m 3 , and for a concert using
a
the orchestra shell 14,000 m 3 . Seating capacity in case of an opera performance -13
or concert is 2,160, while in the case of a theatre performance, with n o orchestra, g
it is 2,340. T h u s the reverberation time is s o m e w h a t controlled, demonstrating &
that b y controlling the size a n d capacity of a hall, a proper solution to multi- .£•
purpose utilization m a y b e achieved. "3
B
T h e hall has been both praised and criticized. M o s t satisfied have been the
audiences, since the m e t h o d k n o w n as 'assisted resonance'—introduced in ->.
0

Britain's Royal Festival Hall because of dry acoustics—has been successfully ¿>
applied here as well.5 H i d d e n loudspeakers are located o n side walls, in the ceiling p,
a n d o n the back wall. Electro-acoustical equipment is used also to transmit g
the sound of the organ. •§

In Japan 'dry' sound is the norm g

4-»
VI

In Japan all halls are designed as multipurpose ones, almost all of t h e m with g
electro-acoustical amplification. Strangely, all halls have short reverberation "
times, 8 though their volumes are usually adequate: six to ten square metres per [^
person. This volume refers, however, only to seating space, while standing-room
usually is also available in large n u m b e r s . F o r example, the T ö k a g o k u - d ö hall
in T o k y o w a s established for musical purposes, with a volume of 5,110 m 3 ,
containing only 150 seats. T h e hall contains m a n y suspended baffles to adjust the
reverberation time. But in the presence of 500 people it decreases b y 4 0 per cent.
A similar situation occurs in t w o of the biggest halls in Japan (43,600 and
40,180 m 3 ) where equipment generates artificial reverberation. S o m e thirty halls
with similar purposes and acoustics were built in Japan between i960 a n d 1970,
with volumes ranging between 10,000 and 20,000 m 3 . Utilization statistics of
several halls of about 20,000 m 3 gave the following: (1) 16 per cent; (3) 37.5 per
cent; (6) 29 per cent. T h e remaining 17.5 per cent consisted of mixed uses.
C o m p a r e d to this is a n American example in Baltimore, the Lyric Theatre:
(1) 35 per cent; (2) 10 per cent; (6) 2 5 per cent; other 3 0 per cent. According to
experience the most suitable reverberation time is T — 1.8 s if such halls are full.
In large halls of T o k y o , K y o t o and Osaka values of 1.2 to 1.6 s can b e measured
even w h e n they are empty. A t the s a m e time, in European and recently also in
American concert halls, values of fully occupied halls range from T = 1 . 8 to
2.2 s. According to our information, the largest concert hall in E u r o p e is the D e
Doelan in Rotterdam, with a volume of 27,000 m 3 , w h e r e the mid-reverberation
time is 2.15 s.

Enormous halls are no good for sound quality

In the United States several e n o r m o u s 'multipurpose' halls were built prior

to i960. In Chicago, for example, a hall with a v o l u m e of 37,500 m 3 , at L e n o x ,
Massachusetts, one with 42,450 m 3 a n d at Lafayette, Indiana, o n e with 37,500 m 3
were built. T h e s e are not really halls but premises that can a c c o m m o d a t e 5,000-
6,000 persons, with side walls 55-65 m from each other; therefore they are not
suitable in our opinion for any purpose from the standpoint of sound quality. A n
evaluation b y Beranek nevertheless suggests these halls can be to s o m e extent
useful.7 H o w e v e r , his evaluation is based o n m e r e values of sound travel that
would produce worse audible results in practice than these values suggest.
Another important factor that Beranek could not have taken into consideration
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 N is the decisive effect of initial lateral reflections as against those from the ceiling.
"g This is w h y broad halls have less acoustical value than long ones. O n the other
S hand a hall's length cannot be increased without limit because sound energy
M limits the travel of sound waves. This means that the volume of a hall with good
g acoustics is limited, and that such halls with a capacity of 5,000-6,000 persons
h should not be built for any purpose. Are such halls in fact needed at all?
Here it is worth dealing briefly with the acoustics of one of the world's most-
debated multipurpose halls. This is the Northrop Memorial Auditorium in
Minneapolis, built as a university auditorium in 1928, but explicitly with theatre
in mind. T h e volume of the hall is 32,500 m 3 for musical performances, 30,000 m 3
with the safety curtain d o w n , while the stage space is also considerable—15,700 m 3 .
Above the mildly rising parterre there is a very steep (28-degree) rear balcony.
T h e breadth of the parterre is 44 m , exceeding its length, while the balcony alone
is 31 m long. T h e point is that the hall was designed with T = 0.9 s to a c c o m m o -
date the Minneapolis S y m p h o n y Orchestra. It is no wonder that attempts to
improve its acoustics have been m a d e over m a n y years with little result. Finally,
in 1970, Ramakrishna and Smith m a d e a thorough survey of the hall.8 In addition
to the hall's short reverberation time, background noise was too high: in a full
hall with a 'silent' audience it was 42 to 62 d B A . Ramakrishna and Smith
then suggested installing sound baffles and simultaneously replacing electro-
acoustical equipment. With appropriate regulation of these they achieved a
syllable intelligibility of 80-85 P e r c e n t m t n e entire hall. All this cannot however
be used to improve musical quality because it involves central, undelayed sound
amplification. For this another solution must be sought.

Changing the acoustics to suit the use

H u g e halls require electro-acoustical assistance and therefore no longer conform

to normal acoustical standards. In Lafayette, for example, a central stereophonic
system is used. This is not the best solution.
There is, however, an old idea that might solve the problem: the variable-
acoustics hall. T h efirstversion was designed in 1941 by K . F . Darmer, a German
acoustician.9 His solution was to use columns rotated by remote control and
covered with absorbing surfaces. T h e 'Espace de Projection'10 produced in 1982
at the Pompidou Centre in Paris seems to be a very good solution to the need for
a hall withflexiblyvariable acoustics (Fig. 2) for experimental purposes. However,
it was in the United States that it wasfirstadmitted that failure was inevitable in
attempts to control adequately the acoustics of huge halls.
During the last 10-15 years a technical solution for halls with variable seating
capacity has been elaborated. Attendance is a variable that m a y properly be
co-ordinated with acoustical requirements. A 'concert' mobilizing masses of
youth, but making m i n i m u m acoustical demands, m a y attract a full house even
in a sports stadium. At the same time it makes n o sense to perform classical
plays in halls with a capacity of 3,000, since so large an audience could not be
attracted even in a large city. T h u s not only acoustics but also hall size should be
adjusted to suit the character of the acoustical event. If separate halls for each
purpose are not desired, a forced solution m a y be achieved only with halls of
variable size.
Let us consider E d w i n T h o m a s Hall of Akron University (Ohio) as an example. 11
This theatre, with a volume of 18,200 m 3 , is similar to traditional university
auditoriums and is almost as big as Symphony Hall in Boston (Fig. 3 (a)). Seating
I28 capacity totals 3,008. O n the suspended balcony 687 people m a y be accommodated.
T h e balcony seating rises at an angle of 27 degrees above the horizontal and the
farthest seats are 40-42 m from the centre of the stage. T h e not-too-long m i d -
reverberation time is T = 1.8 s and the bass ratio B — 1.11.
For opera performances the suspended balcony is eliminated by lowering the
rear part of the ceiling and simultaneously reducing the side dimensions. T h e
slope of rows in the upper part then becomes 18 degrees, the overall number of
seats is reduced to 2,321 and the reverberation time becomes 7 = 1 . 6 s. T h e
orchestra shell, normally located on the stage, is moved under computer control
to the stage-loft, and the slope of the proscenium is somewhat changed. All kinds
of opera sound well in the hall despite the fact that reverberation time is character-
istically 'Wagnerian'.
Finally, in its third m o d e , the hall m a y be transformed into a small dramatic
theatre through alterations shown in Figure 3 (c), with a volume of 3,920 m 3 ,
894 seats and a 7-degree slope in the seating area. T h e n the length of the hall
becomes 22 m , but since the ground plan is cone-shaped, it is natural also that
the breadth decrease proportionally. Reverberation time in this state is not short:
T = i . 4 s.
T h e mechanical solution of moving ceiling elements is not peculiar to the
Edwin T h o m a s Hall. Half a dozen similar halls are known and several others are
being designed. T h e elements suspended by cable are kept in equilibrium by balance
weights. In the Edwin Thomas Hall absorbing tables covered by steel
plates—3,600 pieces of which form the entire ceiling surface—are divided into
nine separately movable islands. Computer programming enables not only the
movement of surfaces, but also changing absorption values within certain limits.
T h e real multipurpose hall, therefore, vues both variable volume and variable
absorption.
T h e acoustical plan of the Edwin T h o m a s Hall was the last great work of
V . O . Knudsen, finished in 1973, a Y e a r prior to the death of the great acous-
tician. T h e designer of the theatre w a s George C . Izenour.12
 FIG. 3. Schematic
longitudinal sections of
Edwin Thomas Performing
Arts Hall, Akron (Ohio) in
three modes: (a) concert
hall, (b) opera house,
(c) dramatic theatre. (After
10 15 20 25 m G . C . Izenour.)

Future solutions: multipurpose halls or cultural centres?

Nowadays organization is given m o r e and more importance in every aspect of life.

Entertainment requires mass audiences. Art and cultural events need to be brought
nearer to each other. T r a m e difficulties in large cities force specialists to think more
deeply about the location and design of cultural buildings. Instead of dispersing
units haphazardly, it seems better, at least in towns, to bring institutions with
similar destinations closer to each other.
There are two possible solutions to the problems of multipurpose halls. O n e is
to build a true multipurpose single hall, while the other is to build several halls for
every different purpose. Both have benefits and disadvantages, but there are also
transitional solutions.
Let usfirstconsider the single hall. In the beginning huge halls were considered
the proper solution. A t the Radio City Music Hall in N e w York, performances go
on daily from n o o n to midnight without interruption: film projections, shows,
dancing events, music, acrobatics, and variety shows or ballets follow each other.
T h e hall, with an estimated volume of 50,000 m 3 ( T = i . 5 s) can accommodate
6,200 people. T h e farthest points of the hall—an amphitheatre—are more than
o
50 m from the stage. It is therefore natural that sound events have electronic sound
amplification. T h e majority of a musically not-too-demanding audience do not
even notice that they hear almost no natural sound. However, no electro-acoustic
transmission is provided for a huge sound source such as a large orchestra.
-0
A theatre-in-the-round O

A more up-to-date example, which, accompanied by acoustical experiments and

judgement, illustrates the essence of the matter is the Festhalle of Hoechst A G
(Frankfurt a m Main) built in 1963. Its ground and section plans m a y be seen in o
Figure 4. 13 In this large circular space sound baffles are placed on the ceiling. In
addition, the speakers' stand and the seats are placed in such a way that they give
the impression of a medium-size hall. This is, however, really only an illusion,
%.
since the stage has a surface of 250 m 2 , and the farthest seat from its centre is at
a distance of 54 m . T h e surface isflat,so the hall m a y also be used for receptions
and balls. T h e inner 'hall' developed in this w a y is open from the side, thus a part
of the sound energy is lost through absorption, just as it is in an open space. T o
replace the lost energy, delayed loudspeaker sound is supplied from the side. T o
simulate acoustical phenomena, an enormous apparatus is required. Reverberant
sound is introduced into the space by ninety loudspeakers and twenty-five bass

10 20 30 m

F I G . 4. Longitudinal section and ground plan of Festhalle of Hoechst A G ,

Frankfurt a m Main, Federal Republic of Germany, with loudspeaker locations marked. 131
 radiators, with two different values of time delay. In this way the frequency curve
•s of the reverberation m a y also be controlled. T h e mid-reverberation time even
without manipulation, is T= I.I s in the empty hall and 7 = 2 . 3 s if artificial
reverberation is used. With full occupancy (2,300 persons) the natural reverberation
s« of the hall hardly changes (T= 1.0 s) because with the considerable absorption
built in, the damping provided by the audience does not amount to m u c h . With
h
artificial reverberation added, however, reverberation time is between T= 1.2
and T = 2.2 s. In thefirstcase the artificial reverberation is 20 d B lower than the
natural reverberation, while in the latter case there is a difference of 4 d B .
W h e n the acoustics of the hall are set for speech, no additional reverberation is
needed, while central amplification and delayed 'reflection' are used. For music
reverberation time is short, and artificial reverberation is added. Delayed sound
from the side is not too important with music, but central amplification should
never be switched on because it would spoil the sound quality. W h e n a smaller
part of the hall is used (7,000 m 3 ) , no reverberation is added for speech and only a
small amount for chamber music. The hall was judged not suitable for performances
by a large orchestra if any artificial sound was added.

Acoustical transformations
It m a y be seen from this example that in a space with an unfavourable shape and
size from an acoustical point of view, an appropriate multipurpose hall m a y be
formed by adequate separation of performers and audience, appropriate design of
the room andfinallyby electro-acoustical improvement. Costs of such a trans-
formation would, however, be about equal to those of the construction costs for the
entire building. A n d even so, utilization as a concert hall would be impossible.
A n example of a m u c h simpler sound-amplification solution and also for a m u c h
better hall configuration is the multipurpose hall of Washington State University
(Pullman, Washington) called the Coliseum.14 Dealingfirstwith the hall configur-
ation, the ground plan of the hall (Fig. 5) shows that two kinds of space separation
are possible for concerts and opera performances, respectively. T h e volume of the
original hall is about 160,000 m 3 and w h e n it is separated into a concert hall
about 18,000 m 3 . T h e hall seats 2,670 persons. A delayed sound system improves

[
-E—tf

F I G . 5. Plan of the Coliseum, Pullman, Washington, with marking of spaces used for
concert and for opera performances, respectively. (After G . C . Izenour.1
reverberation, working in the space between orchestra shell and ceiling, as well as
between side walls and ceiling respectively. In the 'theatre' configuration the
volume is about 7,000 m 3 , 1 , 0 7 0 seats are available, and loudspeakers located beneath
the upper baffle of the proscenium produce direct sound for the audience. W e can
see from this example that a small section m a y be used in an arena to enable the
development of more or less acceptable artificial acoustics.
T h e above-mentioned examples suggest that several hall sizes are required for a
multipurpose acoustical solution. Therefore, a really consistent solution is provided
by halls with variable roof structures. Such halls m a y be used for several purposes
even with two seating arrangements, while with three arrangements they become
truly multipurpose halls. N o electro-acoustical sound system is used except for
mass meetings.
Building transformable halls is a viable way to concentrate cultural sound events
in a single location. Nevertheless, only one performance m a y be held at any one
time. For the rearrangement of a hall of the Festhalle type half a day is sufficient,
while the transformation of a sports hall requires as m u c h as 1-2 days. A s a result,
one type of performance will usually be continued for a longer time, with the
consequent disappearance of the advantage of multipurpose use. T h e rearrange-
ments of halls with variable roof structures can be carried out more quickly than
re-setting the stage, so as m a n y as three kinds of performances can be presented in
a single day. In such a situation, however, there is no possibility of presenting all
the different types of performance simultaneously. Thus the planned cultural
concentration cannot be achieved.

The Sydney Opera House: an Australian solution

For ensuring audiences a simultaneous choice, several examples are k n o w n , halls
of type (2) and (3) usually being built in different sizes and for different purposes.
T h e most up-to-date and really successful solution of this form is Sydney Opera
House Australia.15 O n e canfindthere besides the concert hall, an opera house and
drama theatre, a large sound-recording studio, two music rehearsal rooms as well
as three other rehearsal rooms, a library, an exhibition room and two res-
taurants—all concentrated on one site. If all these were used to full capacity
6,000 people could gather in them simultaneously.
Such an enormous establishment really constitutes a transition towards such
complexes as the Lincoln Center in N e w York or the South Bank Arts Complex in
London. While the Sydney example is a cultural centre, the others m a y be
regarded as cultural town districts. T h e advantage of separate halls in which several
events m a y take place simultaneously is, at the same time, a disadvantage because
for each evening on which concert, opera, chamber music and theatre performances
are held, a continuing interest of about 6,000 people is required. This m a y be
ensured only in a metropolis.

No real solution?

Therefore, in answer to the central question raised by this article—how to build

an acoustically effective hall for more than one purpose—no unambiguous reply
m a y be expected. Very likely the solution of the future will not be the multipurpose
use of huge halls. Good quality m a y be achieved in such halls only with considerable
investment and transformation. Attempts to economize would be hopeless.
Permanent transformation work is highly cost- and materials-intensive. O n the other
hand, however, the transformation of a building into a theatre or concert hall only
a few times a year makes no sense.
 ff T h e solution o f a variable roof structure is up-to-date and advantageous from
"g the standpoint o f quality. But its planning and construction require the most
Ö advanced technology—and would be anything but cheap. In the final analysis, the
M m a i n reason for questioning the future o f this type o f solution is that parallel
Ë performances of different kinds are impossible.
h T h e other trend, establishing cultural centres, is perhaps m o r e attractive in the
long run. W e should not forget, however, that a carefully designed plan is required
for this. Solutions decided u p o n without adequate consideration will later fail. T h e
development of a t o w n district should b e planned to anticipate conditions that
will obtain at least forfiftyyears in the future, including the expected trend of
traffic a n d technological development, a n d even changes in h u m a n taste. F o r a
cultural centre in a small t o w n , a house of culture with a n auditorium, a music hall,
a cinema and a lounge will do; for Stuttgart, the Liederhalle with three halls is
sufficient; while in N e w Y o r k , even the cultural buildings erected all around the
h u g e square of Lincoln Center cannot fully meet the acoustical, visual, cultural a n d
entertainment requirements of the population. •

Notes

i. V . L . Jordan, 'Acoustical Design of Concert Halls and Theatres', Appl. Sei. Publ.
(London), 1980.
2. L . L . Beranek, Music, Acoustics and Architecture, N e w York, John Wiley, 1962.
3. T . Tarnóczy, Acústica, Vol. 4, 1954, p. 665.
4. F . Bruckmayer, Schalltechnik in Hochau (D. Ill), Vienna, Deuticke, 1962.
5. P. H . Parkin and K . Morgan, J. Sound Vib., Vol. 2, N o . 74, 1965; J. Acoust. Soc.
Am., N o . 48, 1970, p. 1025.
6. Y . Sakamoto et al., Techn. y. Jap. Broadcast, Corp., Vol. 12, i960, p. 419.
7. Beranek, op. cit.
8. B . S. Ramakrishna and T . I. Smits, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., N o . 47, 1970, p. 951.
9. K . F . Darmer, Ahmt. Z., Vol. 6, 1941, p. 331.
10. V . M . A . Peutz, Proc. FASE-DAGA'82 (Göttingen), 1982, pp. 143-54.
11. G . C . Izenour, Theatre Design, N e w York, McGraw-Hill, 1977.
12. Ibid.
13. E . Meyer and H . Kuttruff, Acústica, Vol. 14, 1964, p. 138; J. Wengler and
G . Quietzsch, ibid., Vol. 15, 1965, p. 436.
14. Izenour, op. cit.
15. J. Yeomans, A Guide to Sydney Opera House, Sydney, A S O H Trust Publications,
1973.

134
Acoustics, one of the oldest branches of physics, is difficult to define, and the ^
approaches to its study vary greatly from country to country. What follows is a ¿~-
review of acoustics curricula in ten countries or groupings of countries, together JJ
with some observations about the speciality itself. ¿

Education in acoustics
C
G. L. Fuchs C
•*
o
m
a
E

Professor Fuchs is the director of CIAL, the Research Institute on Acoustics and
Lighting at Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, Argentina, and Professor Emeritus of
the National University of Córdoba. Among his overseas assignments were included
that of research scholar of the Organization of American States at the University
of California, and of the British Council at the DSIR Building Research Station
in the United Kingdom. A winner of many awards in science and engineering, he
counts among his technical accomplishments the title of Expert Translator. His
address: Centro de Investigaciones Acústicas (CIAL), Ciudad Universitaria,
Est. 32, 5000 Córdoba (Argentina).
J3 History and development
o

Acoustics, currently defined as the study of mechanical radiation in any physical

m e d i u m , is one of the oldest branches of physics: it began with the study of audible
O sounds, especially musical ones, at the time of Pythagoras. In 1701, the physicist
Joseph Sauveur gave it its n a m e , the 'science of sound', from the Greek verb 'akoueiv',
'to hear'. In an interesting history of its development, R . Bruce Lindsay 1 relates
that little progress was made in acoustics for centuries until great mathematicians
and physicists such as Newton, D'Alembert, Euler and Rayleigh developed it as
a theoretical discipline; subsequently the technological discoveries of two world
wars established it as an independent one.
Today the Acoustical Society of America (the first and largest in the world) has

Sonic and \ , Electrical and

Biology ultrasonic )"*~-\
electroacoustics J ^ v
chemical
engineering
^

S
r Noise ^ S .
control, \~"—-*- Mechanical
Physiology
vibrations and y v engineering
^
V shock y \

K, Psychology
^

Linguistics

F I G . 1. Acoustics: the study of mechanical radiation in any physical m e d i u m .

T h e diagram shows the sciences and disciplines to which according to the
Acoustical Society of America are linked the various branches of acoustics.
136 T h e figures correspond to the American Institute of Physics classification (PACS).
divided acoustics into eighteen main recognized branches belonging to no less than
twelve of the natural sciences and extending to the arts (see Fig. i).
This diversification, and specialfieldssuch as electronics, calculation, psychology
and physiology, have undermined the unity of acoustics to such an extent that today
m a n y of those engaged in its study regard themselves less as acousticians than as
specialists in one or more of its branches or applied sciences. This interdisciplinarity
makes it so difficult to define acoustics that international congresses on the subject
are beginning to divide u p the themes covered or else refer them to a n u m b e r of
related symposia for study.

Teaching of acoustics

T h e brief review above explains, at least in part, the problems of identifying acoustics
not only as an autonomous discipline but also as a profession, even one with
recognized special fields.
A s will be seen later on, universities and institutes of technology, at least in the
developed countries, offer self-contained courses of study in acoustics at the third
or postgraduate level. Generally, however, those w h o wish to specialize in acoustics
have to m a k e u p a total of credits in other subjects in order to obtain a Bachelor's
or Master's degree, and subsequently a doctorate, in the latter case a thesis being
also required.
In most countries of Latin origin there are few courses of study at these clearly
defined levels; the usual practice is to award a degree of technician, engineer or
doctor of science, degrees or courses in acoustical engineering being very rare. A s a
result, most acousticians graduate in English-speaking countries or go abroad for
postgraduate or doctoral studies. This creates a vicious circle: no specific courses
in acoustics are offered because of the lack of demand for them. Electronic, civil or
mechanical engineers and a few architects, psychologists and physiologists engage
in academic or professional research on acoustics, working in existing laboratories.
Another obstacle to the development of acoustics in Latin countries is that
industrial research is virtually non-existent, so that the study of acoustics is largely
confined to the professions and universities.
In Europe, France and Italy stand out a m o n g countries with a Latin tradition,
but even so, their industries provide relatively little support to acoustics as a subject
of theoretical or applied research.
In the United States, Pennsylvania State University offers graduate courses
covering the scientific, biological, communications and engineering aspects of
acoustics.
In Latin America, with a population of over 200 million, there are more than
thirty countries in which work on acoustics is carried out intermittently and spora-
dically. Efforts to redress this situation led to the establishment in 1965 in Córdoba,
Argentina, of the international body k n o w n as the G r o u p of Acousticians of Latin
America ( G A L A ) . A great deal of work went into the organization of half-a-dozen
Latin American congresses in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Venezuela and Mexico.
National societies struggle to exist in Argentina and Brazil, and their influence
makes itself little felt.
Despite efforts by Spain and Portugal to maintain s o m e continuity in research
there is very little formal education in acoustics in these countries, and as in some
Latin American countries, important publications are generally in English. This
predominance of English partly explains w h y acoustics is little taught in Spanish-
speaking countries.
O n the occasion of thefiftiethanniversary of the founding of the Acoustical
Society of America, and at its most recent congresses (the tenth in Sydney, Australia,
and the eleventh in Paris), the developing countries m a d e stirring calls on the
developed countries for help in cases where development does not occur naturally;
they asked for the provision of financial and scientific support by the major industrial
powers, Unesco and international organizations.
Japan is a country that has m a d e exceptional progress. Overcoming barriers of
language and distance, it has a n u m b e r of universities conducting research and
providing courses in acoustics; it also has the world's second largest acoustical
society.
China has a large Institute of Acoustics at Nanjing University which offers
courses and degrees in acoustics in addition to research facilities.

Emphasis on social problems

In the field of technology, the Acoustical Society of America at its Conference

on Acoustics Societal Problems (1972) found that knowledge was insuf-
ficiently disseminated. It was recommended that assistance be provided to edu-
cation through the production of suitable textbooks and audio-visual aids, which
would facilitate the introduction of acoustics both at the technical level and in
elementary physics courses that do not include acoustics; and that particular
emphasis should be placed on social problems such as noise-control in general,
environmental planning, occupational deafness and noise-control in industry. T h e
results of these recommendations are not k n o w n , but w e have seen very little in the
form of bibliographies or in the teaching of acoustics at the secondary level. T h e
debates at the conference showed that there were few, if any, university extension
courses, and a dearth of adult education or further education for graduates in
acoustics.
A s the basic concepts of acoustics are lacking in secondary courses, the physics
of sound has had to be included in professional courses such as architecture,
planning (including town planning), sociology, law and public health.
T h e interdisciplinary aspects of acoustics require special courses covering both
physical theory and its applications in the above-mentionnedfieldsand professions,
in other words, environmental acoustics. A few textbooks and other works are
beginning to appear on this subject, but there is no overall approach to the provision
of regular courses at the technical, postgraduate, extension or further education
levels. Distance teaching is suitable for interdisciplinary courses of this kind, which
are useful for research team workers.
Current university curricula include specialfieldssuch as underwater acoustics,
architectural acoustics, physiological acoustics, psycho-acoustics, ultrasonics,
electro-acoustics, macrosonics and signals processing, oriented towards specialized
research rather than social applications.
Clifford Bragdon has suggested in a recent article that this n e w branch of
science might be called 'political' acoustics, that is to say, acoustics in relation to
society and the institutional structure of each country. H e considers that the
acoustician is specialized in his technical subject but lacks the interface between
his knowledge and the community. This form of training, a qualification n o w to be
found among some members of the legislature and the administration in the United
States, would m a k e it possible to replace coercive policies by mediation and social
planning, designed to solve the conflicts created by poor acoustical engineering
and the uncontrolled spread of technology. This would bridge the present ever-
widening gap between technology and science and the social problems to which
they should be applied.
State-of-the-art and prospects .8
(A

Returning to the present pattern of acoustics and its branches (see Fig. i) and 8
their interaction with the sciences and the arts, what stands out is the marked degree g
of specialization within each specific branch, together with the links with entirely a
different sciences, professions and special subjects. This makes acoustics necessarily c
an interdisciplinary science, a trend not peculiar to acoustics but also to be found 3
in chemistry, biology, psychology and elsewhere. W
This means that the graduate in acoustics is confined to a specific branch of
activity, chiefly research, and thus fails to dominate the subject as a whole. Only
professional consultants are forced by the requirements of their profession to keep
abreast of developments in different branches of acoustics.
It is not rare for research groups in very diverse disciplines to form research
teams in order to solve specific problems and m a k e progress in the general k n o w -
ledge of acoustics. Such groups exist in universities and advanced institutes such as
Harvard University, M I T , Göttingen and elsewhere in various Western and
Eastern industrialized countries. In non-profit-making research institutes such as
the Illinois Institute of Technology, the Stanford Research Institute and the Battelle
Institute, temporary interdisciplinary teams are set up w h e n the research subject
so requires.
W h a t usually happens, however, is that an engineer, architect, psychologist
or other specialist, w h o has studied acoustics works in isolation or in a team with,
in most cases, technical rather than purely scientific objectives.
T h e question arises whether it is sensible to continue thinking of graduates or
doctors of acoustics rather than of specialists in other branches of science and
technology w h o have also trained in acoustics. Both types of qualificationfindtheir
place in technologically developed countries, in universities, institutes of tech-
nology, industry and consultants' offices. B y contrast in developing countries,
although acoustics is m u c h needed in branches such as noise control and the design
of buildings, factories or government offices, there are no financial openings for
professional acousticians: the only career prospects are for m e m b e r s of a profession
w h o have also studied acoustics. Thus in developing countries, universities and
institutes of technology are not interested in offering acoustics courses.
In physics there is a marked tendency for curricula to cover modern physics,
and acoustics is included only in connection with signals processing, microwave
propagation and some non-linear phenomena.
Courses in engineering and architecture deal only briefly with acoustics in
general terms or as an optional subject without reference to basic or applied
research. In the biological sciences the tendency is to resort to teamwork, though
acoustic physicists are generally hard to find.
Acoustics could probably be introduced in developing countries in the form of
postgraduate or university extension courses or through distance teaching. Serious
cases have been observed, particularly in little-developed countries, of engineers,
architects or technicians studying acoustics o n their o w n and then passing them-
selves off as 'acoustics consultants'. W e consider it important for these countries
to offer proper courses in acoustics at the graduate, postgraduate and possibly even
doctorate levels.
Applied acoustics, which appeared at the beginning of this century, m a d e great
progress with the growth of communications, and this continued with defence
requirements in two world wars. Acousticians began as distinguished physicists
or engineers with a broad physics/mathematics base. T h e y were then gradually
joined by architects and structural engineers with a c o m m a n d of technical physics, I3
.tí and naval engineers with similar skills. T h e development of air travel and the
£ advent of the space age marked the emergence of experts in aerodynamics and
j telecommunications as a branch of acoustics. However, all these experts turned to
• research in highly specialized areas, and no professional acousticians as such
remained.

The need for trained acousticians

W e believe that an attempt should n o w be made to redress the situation by pro-
ducing a supply of trained acousticians, ranging from the technician to the doctorate
level; where necessary the appropriate educational facilities should be established.
Courses should be sufficiently comprehensive and interdisciplinary to meet n e w
needs for both researchers and consultants, and even for 'political acousticians'
(as suggested by Bragdon) to deal with the problems of control and legislation in a
society where noise pollution is n o w verging on an ecological disaster. H o w can
this 'endangered species' of qualified specialist be saved? First, as suggested above,
by providing postgraduate courses or specialization courses, including further
training, for professionals, and, secondly, by encouraging universities to provide
specific courses in acoustics at the degree and doctorate levels. Acoustics offers a
wide range of career possibilities, from research to consultancy and government
employment.
In countries insufficiently developed to introduce comprehensive acoustics
courses, either as regular or optional subjects or by means of distance teaching,
courses will probably have to be subsidized initially, perhaps with assistance from
international organizations and visiting experts.
Technological progress on the one hand, and increased pollution on the other,
have m a d e acoustics a science and an art whose political and social importance
would fully justify this effort.
At the technical level, the monitoring of industrial safety measures and occu-
pational health would require the type of acoustical technician recommended
above2 which in our opinion does not at present exist.

Monitoring the acoustical environment

Other types of relatively n e w activity in acoustics organizations are the monitoring
of the acoustical environment by government bodies such as the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States and similar organizations in Europe,
and the setting of standards by bodies such as the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO), all of which require well-informed technicians and
researchers to carry out their work. Important concerns such as environmental noise
and the siting of airports, major highways and heavy industrial zones call for action
by the authorities; thus as noted by Richard H . Bolt in his inaugural speech at the
Eighth International Congress on Acoustics held in London in 1974, acoustics is
removed from the sphere of 'private interest' which prevailed early this century
and is n o w a matter of public interest.
Another similar activity is the achninistration of funds for social housing schemes,
which have to be regulated from both the urban and the community points of view,
and also with reference to the public interest in abating environmental noise.
Typical organizations are the United States Office for Housing and Urban Devel-
opment ( H U D ) and its counterparts in the ministries of housing and the environ-
ment in Western Europe and the socialist countries.
Noise pollution: an inevitable evil?

Unfortunately, defence priorities and other types of ecological pollution reduce the
priority which should be given to the acoustical aspect of pollution, not because it is
less important but because it is less obvious to the general public, which considers
noise pollution as an inevitable evil which can eventually be put u p with.
This wide range of activities in the public interest calls for a substantial number
of experts in acoustics at the technical and scientific levels, w h o are at present not
available on the labour market simply because there are no training facilities. These
requirements are noted at major acoustics congresses, but the above-mentioned
financial and social pressures prevent action being taken on any plans or proposals.
Five years ago it was noted at a United Nations meeting in Stockholm that there
was a vital need to confront the social problem of noise pollution and its invasion
of the privacy of the individual, but there have been few practical results, apart
from a forthcoming publication by S C O P E . 3 There is a requirement both for
national organizations to introduce the necessary controls, and for trained acoustics
technicians and researchers, not enough of w h o m are being produced at present.
Acoustics, which has contributed so m u c h to general scientific and techno-
logical progress, is not being given the support that should be given to it in view
of its impact on society today.

Countries in which acoustics is highly developed

Table i shows the main current branches of acoustics as classified by the American
Institute of Physics (AIP), using the Physics and Astronomy Classification System
( P A C S ) . Each of these eighteen branches can be broken d o w n into themes and
subthemes.
T h e teaching of acoustics as a profession at thefirstlevel (technician) generally
covers T h e m e s 20, 30, 40, 50, 55, 66, 70 and 85. T h e remaining themes and
subthemes are covered in higher level professional courses (such as the Master's
degree or degree in engineering) and in greater detail still at the levels of post-

T A B L E I. A I P Physics and Astronomy Classification System (PACS) Section [43] Acoustics

[43] 20. General linear acoustics

25. Non-linear macrosonic acoustics
28. Aeroacoustics, atmospheric sound
30. Underwater sound
35. Ultrasonics, quantum acoustics and physical sound effects
40. Mechanical vibration and shock
50. Noise effects and control
55. Architectural acoustics
60. Processing of acoustic signals
63. Physiological acoustics
66. Psychological acoustics
70. Communication through speech
71. Perception of speech
72. Processing of speech
75. Music and musical instruments
80. Bioacoustics
85. Measurement, instruments and acoustical equipment
88. Transduction devices for the generation and reproduction of sound
graduate work, specialization and Doctor's degree, leading to research and the
teaching of acoustics.
W e shall n o w review some of the courses provided in countries for which
information is available worldwide. For North America (the United States and
Canada) w e have consulted the Graduate Education Catalog compiled b y the
Acoustical Society of America. For Europe w e have used as a guide the Federation
of Acoustical Societies in Europe ( F A S E ) list and that of the United K i n g d o m
Institute of Acoustics.6

United Kingdom
This country has the greatest density of graduate institutes awarding diplomas in
acoustics at various levels, with sixty-seven universities, sixty-two of which provide
courses up to postgraduate level. Although most of the institutes are in large towns,
geographical distribution is fairly uniform.
Industry provides extensive support to research in association with the univer-
sities. Noteworthy are the Southampton Sound and Vibration Institute, the
Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, Loughborough University
and Salford University for their long tradition of acoustics teaching. T h e Institute
of Acoustics conducts the examinations of various universities.8
T h e schools offering the largest n u m b e r of preparatory and graduate courses in
acoustics are those of physics, architecture, engineering (various branches such as
structural, mechanical, chemical, electronic and civil transport) and also medicine
(otolaryngology, biology, etc.).

North America
Note 7 lists ninety-two universities and institutes in the United States and Canada
offering graduate courses in the various branches of acoustics, seventy of them at
the doctorate level.
Judging from North America, the 'popularity' of the main branches of acoustics
can be noted in terms of the number of courses offered and the total number of
universities surveyed (Fig. 2). It will be seen that the subject in which most courses
are given is noise control (125); the smallest number of courses is in musical
acoustics (34) and architectural acoustics (42); while physiological and biological
acoustics range from seventy-seven to sixty-one courses. Electro-acoustics and
psycho-acoustics average eighty-eight. Non-linear acoustics is relatively little taught,
perhaps because it is a n e w subject.
Courses in acoustics are generally interdepartmental (several faculties or depart-
ments) and lead to the award of the Bachelor's or Master's degree or a doctorate
(Ph.D). All graduates find employment in research laboratories in universities or
industry.

The German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany

These are a m o n g the countries with the greatest tradition of teaching acoustics.
Although there are not m a n y teaching or research centres, mention can be m a d e of
the universities of Berlin, Dresden, Göttingen, Munich, Stuttgart and Hanover.
All branches of acoustics are studied in twelve universities and polytechnic
schools, with strong emphasis on theoretical and technical physics and engineering,
though the physiological and psycho-physical aspects are subsequently included
in research. Courses in almost all branches lead to a doctorate degree; some
research is carried out in industry, but most of it is concentrated in the universities.
Institutes of technology usually award technical and engineering degrees. Univer-
sities award degrees and doctorates in engineering, also doctorates in science.
////// • s s<rs s s s s s
' / / . /
/
*<**/ / ^/
^
i
/

F I G . 2. N u m b e r of courses offered in each subject in North America.

France
Although w e know of only seven universities or institutes that award degrees in
acoustics, France has a long-standing tradition in both the theoretical and the
technical fields.
Attention should be drawn to some interesting features of these degrees and the
manner of obtaining them. Apart from the purely technical levels, there is the D E A
degree (Diplome d'Études Approfondies), awarded to engineers graduating in
acoustics, which has a comprehensive curriculum and requires a previous degree in
a discipline such as physics, mechanics, mathematics, electronics, automation or
engineering. T h e Faculty of Sciences of the Université d u Maine at L e M a n s offers
a curriculum typical of a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach to acoustics. It
includes: advanced mathematics; method of finite elements; vibration physics;
electronics applied to acoustics; physical acoustics; electro-acoustics; ultrasonics;
physiological acoustics; architectural acoustics; signals analysis and acoustical
statistics.
With this knowledge, the holder of the D E A is in a position to carry out research,
teach or exercise the profession of acoustician. Calculus should probably be added
to the curriculum to bring it up to date, in view of the importance of rapid calcu-
lations in solving various problems in acoustics. T h e other French universities
include acoustics in their physics or applied sciences departments.
Belgium
A trend very similar to the one in France has been noted at the Universities of
Liège, Louvain, Ghent, Brussels and M o n s although not in as integrated a form as
at the Université du Maine at L e M a n s .

The Netherlands
In the Netherlands acoustics tends to be divided into noise control, engineering,
architectural acoustics and bioacoustics.

In the remaining European countries, including Italy, Norway, Sweden, Poland,

Austria, Switzerland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, D e n m a r k and Yugoslavia (see the
above-mentioned F A S E report), courses range from fundamental acoustics to
engineering, architecture, environmental engineering and the biological sciences.

Japan
Japan is a unique case of acoustics development in the Far East, with university
centres and independent institutes awarding degrees, including doctorates. T h e
Japanese Acoustical Society, the second in the world in terms of membership and
publications (in Japanese and English) is becoming increasingly important. E d u -
cation in Japan is similar to that in North America and Europe, and Japan's
advanced industrial base provides employment for all acoustics graduates. Kobe
University and the Kobayasi Institute are outstanding.

The USSR (and the socialist countries in general)

D u e to their political organization these countries do not provide detailed infor-
mation, but their acousticians (mainly in fundamental physics) are outstanding at
international congresses. Applications (environmental acoustics, psycho-acoustics
and noise control) do not seem to have been greatly developed. Distinguished
researchers are attached to the Acoustics Section of the Academy of Sciences of
the U S S R .
T h e following Institutes are found in Moscow: the Institute for Research on
Cinema and Photography (NIFKI); the Institute for Building Physics; the Pavlov
Institute of the U S S R Academy of Sciences (Department of the Physiology of the
Voice) and the Acoustics Laboratory of the Ministry of Communications. T h e
Institute for Electronics and the Sokolov Laboratory of Acoustics are in Leningrad.
In all these institutes, research on acoustics is conducted and training is provided
to researchers.

Australia
This far-off country, almost a continent, has inherited the British tradition in the
study of acoustics. T h e growing importance of the subject there was indicated by
the holding of the Tenth International Congress in Sydney in 1980.
Graduate courses are provided at the Universities of N e w South Wales, M o n a s h ,
Griffith, Macquarie and Melbourne. At the University of N e w South Wales,
Master's degree courses are provided with a syllabus including specialization in
architectural acoustics, physical acoustics, and acoustical engineering and environ-
mental acoustics. It is interesting to note that courses are divided into c o m -
pulsory and optional, thus allowing graduates a diversity of choice: acoustical
theory (compulsory); systems of measurement and electro-acoustics (compulsory);
advanced acoustical physics (optional); acoustic laboratory and signals analysis
(optional); vibrations and mechanical shock (compulsory); noise control (optional);
hearing and audition; conservation (compulsory); environmental noise (optional);
Thesis A (compulsory); Thesis B (compulsory); noise control in building (optional).
 T h e considerable distances between the populated centres of Australia prompted .3
the Acoustical Society of Australia to offer correspondence courses with audio- £
visual aids (video cassettes) based on the University of N e w South Wales. o

China g
In China approximatelyfiftyinstitutions in s o m e twenty cities provide training in '§
acoustics. Both universities and research institutions offer this subject. 3
T h e universities admit students in acoustics (as afieldof specialization within w
physics, radiophysics and applied physics and in departments of engineering
of an interdisciplinary type) at the undergraduate level, the graduate level or
both.
S o m e research institutes admit graduate students but offer no formal courses,
which are left to the universities; they concentrate exclusively on thesis preparation.
A typical example is the Postgraduate Department of Science and Technology of
the A c a d e m y of Sciences in Beijing.
T h e University of Qinghua (Beijing) offers courses on acoustics in various
departments: for example, architecture, physics and radio. T h e University of T o n g
Ji in Shanghai offers basic acoustics, general acoustics and noise control as optional
courses for students in applied physics. Courses on hydroacoustics are offered at
the Naval Institute at Harbin, the Océanographie Institute at Qingdao and the
Institute of Acoustics at Nanjing. 8
In contrast to the situation in the educational system in the West, the depart-
ments of Chinese universities cover a n u m b e r of special disciplines such as acoustics,
which is one of several taught in the Department of Radiophysics at the University
of Beijing. At the University of Nanjing, however, acoustics enjoys separate
status. At that university the Institute of Acoustics is closely associated with the
Department of Physics, especially as regards postgraduate education. T h e training
of university students in acoustics begins m u c h earlier than in the West, usually
at the 'junior' level. Another difference is that not all the universities that admit
undergraduates to acoustics offer postgraduate training in the subject and not all
those with a graduate-level programme accept candidates for a doctorate (Ph.D.).
All students must sit an examination after obtaining the degree of Bachelor of
Science (B.Sc.) in order to be admitted to a Master's degree ( M . S c . ) programme
in acoustics, which usually takes three years, while another two to three years
are required to obtain a doctorate. Students have to sit general and specialized
examinations at various levels and present their thesis. Thesis advisers at both
the Master's and doctoral levels must have their academic qualifications accepted
by the Degrees Committee of the National State Council.
T o clarify the picture, w e shall take as an example the University of Nanjing,
whose undergraduate education is typical and whose postgraduate programme is
highly varied and offered through several different institutions.
F r o m the beginning of thefirstjunior semester, the student of this discipline
has the same education as his colleagues in otherfields(crystallographic physics,
magnetism, semiconductors, low temperatures, theoretical physics, microwaves
and nuclear physics) in the Department of Physics. H e is subsequently required
to take four courses and some optional courses, and also to write a short
thesis—three months full time (see Table 2).
Optional courses are offered to graduates, but they must take at least one of
those listed in Table 2 . Students working for a Master's degree must also take
as compulsory subjects acoustical theory (six credits) and modern acoustics and
laboratory work (three credits), and they are also required to take part in a seminar
on advances in acoustics (eight credits in four semesters). W o r k on the thesis is 145
T A B L E 2. Undergraduate programme, University of Nanjing

Total hours
(lectures and
Type Number of courses Credits laboratory)

Compulsory Principles of Acoustics 5 90

Transducers 4 72
Measurements 4 72
Laboratory 2 90

Optional Ultrasonics 2 36
Architectonics and noise control 2 36
Speech and signals analysis 2 36
Q u a n t u m acoustics 2 36
Surface waves 2 36
Stereophony 2

Compulsory Dissertation 8 Full time;

3 months

usually begun in the second semester of the second postgraduate year. P h . D . can-
ditates spend the greater part of their time in preparing their theses.
T w o foreign languages are required for higher degrees. Extra courses, for
example on mathematics and chemistry, m a y also be taken in other departments
or institutes.
T h e main shortcomings in China are in physiological acoustics and pyscho-
acoustics, although progress is being m a d e in all fields.
In Nanjing there are 600 students specializing in acoustics w h o have completed
their basic studies, in addition to some twenty with Master's degrees w h o have
graduated since 1956, as well as those w h o are currently preparing their theses.

Conclusions

In the present state of the art, it is difficult to draw u p a detailed acoustics cur-
riculum due to the contrast between its interdisciplinary nature and the degree of
specialization achieved in the fields of research. However, an outline can be
provided of the basic requirements that would enable a graduate to identify
himself as an acoustician.
F r o m the above information on the teaching of acoustics it can be concluded
that there is a basic core of education that is recognized, and rightly so, in the
French D E A diploma (see above) comprising at least the following main subjects:
General subjects (technological): basic mathematics and calculation; physical bases
(wave propagation); physiology of audition and speech; structural acoustics;
quality and design of enclosures; underwater acoustics; noise engineering and
vibrations; instrumentation and measurement; musical acoustics.
Special subjects (basic): generation, propagation, reception; solid, liquid, gaseous
states; ultrasonics; infrasonics; underwater acoustics; psychological, physiological,
biological acoustics; interactions with radiating energy; non-linear acoustics.
Optional additions can be m a d e to this core in faculties such as physics, engineering
and architecture in countries with adequate scientific and industrial development,
or credits obtained through attendance at the school, faculty or institute where
the subject is taught. Both possibilities currently exist in the developed countries.
 In the developing countries it would be advisable to establish degree or special .y
courses in acoustics in institutions, schools or faculties of related subjects. Briefly, g
decisions must be taken to create facilities where these do not grow u p naturally. S
In addition to international financial support, foreign teachers and researchers a
will be required on the spot to provide courses during the initial years. • d
'g
•3
Notes W
i. R . Bruce Lindsay, 'The Story of Acoustics', JASA, Vol. 39, N o . 4, 1966, p. 629.
2. G . L . Fuchs and A . Lara Saenz, 'Aportaciones para u n plan a nivel nacional',
Transferencias (Universidad Nacional de Córdoba), N o . 7, June/July 1978, pp. 1-20.
3. R . W . B . Stephens (ed.), Noise Pollution, United Kingdom Scientific Committee
on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) (in press).
4. 'Classification of Subjects', J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, N o . 1, January 1978.
5. Federation of Acoustical Societies in Europe ( F A S E ) , 'L'enseignement dans le
domaine de l'acoustique', Reports of the ICA Secretariat, 1983.
6. Education in Acoustics, London, T h e Institute of Acoustics, 1978.
7. W . M . Wright, 'Directory of Graduate Education in Acoustics', JASA, Vol. 75,
N o . 1, 1984, p. 272.
8. Prospectus of Nanjing University, Institute of Acoustics, Nanjing University, 1981.

Appropriate Technology Directory

(Vol II)

by Nicolas Jéquier and Gérard Blanc

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Sound, long a means of communication and understanding between beasts and man, ^
is being used increasingly and with ever greater accuracy to measure -^~
environmental phenomena. The features and behaviour of the sea, the sea-bed and J!!1
underwater seismics are especially responsive to acoustical probing of various ¿
kinds—since light and eyesight are of extremely limited value in the examination of 55
the aquatic mass and its dynamics. ^

Sound in the ocean,

atmosphere and solid earth: o
«
theory and application |
G u a n Dinghua

Professor Guan Dinghua directs China's Institute of Acoustics and is currently

vice-president and secretary-general of the Acoustical Society of China. He is the
author of numerous technical papers on sound and acoustics. He can be reached at
the Institute of Acoustics, Academia Sínica, Beijing (China). Our polymath
author also serves as vice-president of the Chinese Society of Oceanography. 149
g Introduction
X!
60
n
g Sound can propagate over long distances in the ocean, atmosphere and solid earth,
c and it is widely used as a means of detection, communication, remote sensing and
5 even remote control. But ocean, atmosphere and earth are not homogeneous, so
that the interaction of acoustic signals with inhomogeneities alters the signals in a
complex manner.
As sound propagates through these media, it stores information on the condition
of the media in its path, and through the variation of signals received w e can
acquire knowledge about the media's characteristics.
M a n y phenomena occurring in the ocean, the atmosphere and the solid earth
are also accompanied by the radiation of sound. B y analysing such sound, w e can
determine the place and time of these phenomena and their characteristics. T h e
ocean and solid rock are opaque to radio and light waves so that, in these
components of the earth, sound is the only other phenomenon that can be har-
nessed as a substitute for the transmission of light or radio signals.

The movement of sound through layered media

Sound waves lose energy, which is converted into heat, during the propagation
process. Loss in sound absorption varies with the kind of m e d i u m involved and
increases with frequency. In the atmosphere, the loss of sound absorption
varies—in decibels per unit distance—proportional to the frequency. In sea-water,
sea-bed sediments and rocks, the absorption loss varies roughly with the square
of the frequency. T h e loss is very small in the case of low-frequency sound, which
can propagate over a long distance.
O n e of the most important factors in the propagation of sound waves
through atmosphere, ocean and solid earth is that horizontally their parameters
(such as the velocity of sound) change very slowly; vertically, sound velocity
varies with altitude (or depth) in a characteristic manner. T h e velocity
altitude—or depth—function is called the velocity profile. Thus, in some con-
ditions the atmosphere, the sea and the earth's crust can be treated as layered
media.
T h e theory of the propagation of sound through layered media has been well
developed in the last few decades.1 T h e wave function can be solved by the normal
m o d e , wave or hybrid methods. In a layered m e d i u m of variable velocity, sound
waves are always bent in the direction of the lower velocity. So if there is a m i n i m u m
in the velocity's profile, refraction causes sound waves emitted from this altitude
to return repeatedly to it without striking its boundary. T h e energy is prevented
from spreading in all directions and is constrained to remain in a layer called the
sound channel, in which propagation to tremendous distances can take place.
Various sound channels are found in the atmosphere, oceans and terrestrial crust.
A s for the atmosphere, air temperature diminishes with altitude as far as 20 k m
above sea-level, at which point temperature profile is at a m i n i m u m . Above this
level, temperature is k n o w n gradually to increase until 50 k m , at which level it
drops again until reaching a second m i n i m u m at 80 k m . Above this level, tempera-
ture again rises as a function of altitude.
A s sound velocity in air increases withrisingtemperature, the profile of sound
velocity has the same tendency as the temperature profile, forming two sound
channels with axes at the 20 and 80 k m levels (Fig. 1). (Figure 2 shows a typical
atmospheric temperature profile.)
150 In the ocean, sound velocity increases with rising temperature and pressure
 Seasonal thermocline

FIG. I. Diagram of waves within F I G . 2. Typical F I G . 3. Profile of the speed of

sound channel. profile of sound in deep-sea waters.
atmospheric
temperatures.

(itself a function of depth). Conventionally, the sea is divided into four layers:
(a) the surface or mixed layer; (b) the seasonal thermocline; (c) the main thermo-
cline, and (d) the deep isothermal layers.
T h e surface layer consists of water mixed by turbulence; it is isothermal, or of
the same temperature. T h e seasonal and main thermoclines—drops in tempera-
ture—have a strongly negative gradient, as temperature and sound speed diminish
with depth; this drop is caused by solar heating of the upper layers of the sea.
Below the main thermocline, the temperature remains constant and the speed
of sound (under the influence of increasing pressure) rises as a function of depth.
Between these two, there is a minimal value of sound velocity at a depth of about
1,000 metres in the middle latitudes. This forms a deep-sea channel, sometimes
called the sofar channel(s). A profile of the speed of sound in deep ocean waters
is shown in Figure 3.
A s an effect of increasing pressure with depth of the earth's crust, density and
sound velocity in sediments and rocks increase also. Thus, there is a surface channel
in the earth having minimal velocity at the earth's surface.

Propagation of sound in sound channels

Low-frequency sounds can propagate over long distances in sound channels. A

signal caused by the detonation of a small charge detonated in a deep-ocean sound
channel, can be detected thousands of kilometres away. T h e eruption of the
Krakatau volcano in Indonesia in 1883 generated very strong infrasound, which
propagated more than 100,000 kilometres in the atmosphere, and was detected
passing round the earth several times.
Whenever the sound beam encounters a boundary between one substance and
another, a proportion of the energy will be reflected. There is strong reflection at
the boundary between atmosphere and sea-water. Weaker reflection takes place
at the boundaries between sea-water and sediments and between different layers
of sediments.
T h e surface of the earth, sea, thermocline and sea bottom are scarcely ever
completely smooth and this roughness causes scattering. In addition, there are
m a n y inhomogeneities such as turbulence in the air and sea, air bubbles, plankton
and fish, as well as sedimentary inhomogeneities. All these inhomogeneities have
a scattering effect. 151
 There are m a n y sound sources in the atmosphere, sea and earth, such as volcanic
eruptions, earthquake microseisms, sound emissions before earthquakes, large
meteors, thunderstorms, magnetic storms, typhoons, tornados, severe storms,
clear-air turbulence, rainfall, wind-generated ocean waves, disturbances in the
ionosphere, oceanic turbulence and biological sounds. Artificial sound sources
such as nuclear and chemical explosions, motorized transport, artillery and aircraft,
and different kinds of machinery can also produce great amounts of noise.

Sound as a means of observation

There are several ways of using sound as a means of observation in the atmosphere,
ocean and solid earth.2 T h efirstway is to receive sound waves generated by
natural sources or (unknown) artificial sources and to determine their position,
time and physical characteristics. In these cases, an array of receivers is often
used. T h e difference between arrival times at various receivers is measured in
order to determine the direction and distance of the sound source. T h e character-
istics of sound sources are then determined by analysis of the signals received.
In the atmosphere, the infrasound generated by volcanic eruptions, typhoons
and nuclear explosions are received so as to determine position, time of occurrence
and intensity. For example, the infrasound waves produced b y the volcanic
eruption of M o u n t St Helens (United States) in 1980 were received at the infrasound
receiving station in Beijing (see Fig. 4). It took eight hours for the signal to
travel from M o u n t St Helens to the Chinese capital. Our infrasound receiving
equipment situated near the coast of the East China Sea had, on m a n y occasions,
detected infrasound signals generated by typhoons and tracked their paths in
this sea. Infrasound waves from the French nuclear tests in the T u a m o t u archi-
pelago (southern Pacific Ocean) in 1968 were received and analysed by our
equipment. At closer distances, the location and intensity of thunder can be
determined by acoustical systems.
Originally, the sofar system (for soundfixingand ranging) was built as a means
to facilitate rescue work at sea. B y using this technique, anyone seeking rescue
drops overboard a small depth-charge set to explode in the deep-sound channel.
T h e location of the explosion can then be determined from the differences in
transit time of the sound to different listening stations. Sofar stations received
signals of this kind from an undersea eruption near Japan in 1952, thus determining
the cause of distress of a Japanese observation vessel.3

JICMH. :>ft.CW]C
»CCBtolKS RDDRCSI : IUEB1HS
RCCflRaiNC DRTt : J4I0.S.1I.

F I G . 4. Three-dimensional 'dynamic power* spectrum of infrasound signal from the

volcanic eruption of M o u n t St Helens (Washington, United States) recorded by the
Institute of Acoustics, Academia Sínica, Beijing.
Plotting the depths and seismic sources

It is difficult to observe the structure and variability of deep-ocean currents by

ordinary techniques. S o m e American scientists have launched 'neutrally buoyant'
sofar floats, constructed so as to maintain balance at the sound channel's axis,
letting them drift with the deep currents and emit coded acoustic signals.4 Signals
from the floats are received by widely spaced sofar hydrophones. T h e float's
trajectories—and thus a deep-current m a p — m a y be obtained by calculation on
the basis of the time differences of the signals received by the hydrophones.
These unique deep-current maps provide very interesting information. Passive
sonar, using an array of hydrophones to track the movements of submarines, is of
great military importance. T h e receiver of an inverted echo-sounding system,
mounted on the sea-bed, can be used to monitor ambient noise arriving from the
sea's surface. This makes it possible to determine wind-speed and wind stress
at the surface. (Noise intensity increases about 7.2 dB/wind-speed doubled.)
Seismic waves are also a kind of sound wave: geophones or hydrophones in
deep wells can receive seismic waves from an earthquake and determine its
magnitude and the position of its epicentre. Before a temblor occurs, there are
m a n y cracking processes taking place in rocks and strata, so that observation of the
Assuring provides important information for seismic prediction. (Our o w n geo-
acoustic station has received such sound signals before earthquakes have occurred.)
If w e can deploy a relatively dense network of hydrophones and geophones
along a geological fault where a tremor is likely to occur, and m a k e observations
of the high-frequency sound generated by the cracking nearby, w e can have a
full 'view' of the underground processes at work. Acoustic emission also often
takes place before a mine catastrophe, so that monitoring of the operative processes
allows prediction of the disaster.

Ocean acoustic tomography

Another method of monitoring is to emit sound waves from one place, receive
them at a second point and acquire information concerning the m e d i u m through
which the waves passed by measuring the time of sound propagation, the fluctuation
of phases and the amplitude of the signals.
A n e w technique of monitoring, known as ocean acoustic tomography (from
the Greek word 'tomo' meaning 'section' or 'slice'; a tomogramme is a picture of a
slice),6 uses an array of transmitters and receivers placed at the edges of a
1,000-kilometre-square zone in order to monitor 'mesoscale variability', such as
mesoscale eddies, with the help of computers. Using low frequencies, this method
holds the promise of providing synoptic maps of the ocean's interior on a basin-
wide scale.
By transmitting sound at different altitudes and receiving it at fixed levels in
the atmosphere, while at the same time measuring the positions of sound sources
and receiver, temperature and wind-speeds at different altitudes can be calculated.
T h e inverted echo-sounder (already mentioned), mounted on the sea-bed and
measuring the travel time of pulses towards the ocean's surface and back again,
provides the temperature of the sea-water and monitors the paths of w a r m
currents.
Still another technique is the reflection method. B y transmitting sound waves
from one point and measuring the time, wave-form and frequency spectra of
reflected or scattered sound, w e can obtain data about the distance and specific
characteristics of a target.
3 For the observation of temperature profile and turbulence in the atmosphere,
no a sodar system is used. (The word csodar' is an acronym of 'sound detection and
g ranging'.) This system emits sound waves and receives sound scattered from
ö turbulence in the atmosphere.
2 T h e ocean's depth is measured by echo-sounders, while waves and tides are
gauged by an inverted echo-sounder. T h e inverted echo-sounder (with micro-
processor) can also be used to measure the thickness of an oil layer on the sea's
surface after an accidental spill.
T o obtain the distribution of targets in space (that is, in a given volume), two
methods of scanning are usually used. T h e echo-sounder,fishingecho-sounder,
multibeam echo-sounder and side-scanning sonar scan the space by the movement
of transducers—devices converting one kind of input signal into another form
of output signal. T h e ordinary andfishingecho-sounders transmit a sound beam
downward, giving a profile of the ocean's depth and of the distribution of fish,
both of which are detected as the ship moves forward. T h e high-resolution
echo-sounders, having narrow acoustic beams, show details of a fish shoal's
structure and even count echoes from individualfish.Resonance frequency analysis
of the returned signals, furthermore, is useful in the inference offishspecies and
size.

Reading the sea-bed's landscape

Echo-sounders can be used also to study and monitor the back-scattering properties
of sewage sludge d u m p e d into the ocean.6 T h e acoustical characteristics of the
deep-scattering layer ( D S L ) were discovered while using depth sounders. T h e D S L
seems to be, undoubtedly, biological in nature; it exhibits a diurnal rise towards
the sea's surface after sunset and then a descent to depth after sunrise. Internal
waves within the ocean mass produce up-and-down movement of the scattering
layer (which can also be picked up on echo-sounders).
A transducer array of the multibeam echo-sounder forms m a n y narrow sound-
beams dispersed in a fan shape, perpendicular to a ship's direction; this can reveal
m a n y depth profiles parallel to the direction of the ship's movement as it travels
forward. With microcomputers on board, the multibeam echo-sounder can provide
bathymétrie charts automatically.'
T h e side-scan sonar transmits a sound beam, narrow in the horizontal plane
and wide in the vertical, at right angles to the ship's movement. It receives sound
scattered by the unevenness of the sea bottom, forming a sea-bed sonograph,
which provides a detailed representation of the oceanfloor,such as its features and
landscape—wreckages of ships, sand waves and outcroppings, manganese nodules,
underwater cables and pipelines.
In recent years, side-scanning sonar techniques have been extended from use
on continental-shelf areas to the ocean depths by a long-range sonar called Gloria;
this operates at low frequency, with a range of 20 k m in the deep ocean. M a n y
remarkable features have been observed, including one narrow fault several
hundred kilometres in length and believed to be at a tectonic-plate boundary.
This probably could not have been observed, in continuity, using any other
method. 8

154
Current and future surveying of the sea a
o
"8
Another w a y to obtain a detailed picture is to use horizontal scanning (mostly u
electronic scanning) or multibeam techniques to get a picture of the distribution a
of 'scatterers' in 360-degree circles around the area being inspected. Sonar for P.
the detection of submarines, mines and shoals of fish belongs to this category.
A sonar used for detection usually measures the distribution of sound scatterers O
V
or reflectors in space. N e w l y developed, high-resolution sonar can measure the J3
distribution of sound scattering and reflecting elements on the target u n d thus
form an acoustic image with good resolution. This is similar to a television picture
and less like the usual sonar recording; it has a variety of applications in topo-
graphical surveys, océanographie measurements and other underwater research.
Looking to the future, work is continuing on acoustic imaging (including the •a

study of underwater holography), and this m a y yield interesting developments c

cd
within the next ten years or so.
X!
There are several ways to measure the sea bottom's characteristics by acoustical O.
methods. T h e sub-bottom profiling system, which transmits low-frequency sound
waves downward and receives reflections from the strata below the sea-bed,
provides marine geologists with the necessary tools to m a p geological formations a
beneath the sea-floor. For deep penetration, advanced systems use a long, multiple- u
element combination of hydrophones in streamer array towed behind a ship.
T h e signals received are 'stacked' together after initial processing, and the sound
velocity of each layer can thus be obtained. .a
T3
For very deep layers of water, a system known as seismic refraction shooting
is used. A n explosive charge is set off, near the ship. Its sound travels by various o
paths to a number of sono-radio buoys which retransmit the received sound to 1/3

the ship by radio. This technique allows penetration several thousands of metres
beneath the sea-bed and determination of the velocity of sound in different strata.
Almost the same technique can be used on land for geological application. T h e
sea-floor's reflectivity and the attenuation coefficient of sediment are also related
to average grain size; these can be measured on board by means of special equip-
ment used to analyse sonar echoes returned from the sea-floor.9
T o measure a ship's speed over the sea-bed, the so-called Doppler effect is

r JSonoTradio T b u o y s T
Explosion ^li^A " ™ <S <$ Hydrophones

Velocity V^

Velocity V2

;•;•. Velocity V 3

M a n t l e rock ::ÍÍÍ:::V:V:;:;:;Í:;'-;:V:;- Síxíií. Velocity VA

FIG. 5. Principle of seismic refraction method, showing different paths by which waves
can travel from an explosion (A) via the sea-bed (B) to sonobuoys at (C) or via
sediments and lower strata to (C). 155
 3 used. (The Doppler effect is change in the received frequencies of sound or other
M waves caused by the source's or observer's motion.) Doppler sonar is similar to
Q Doppler radar technique, and the development of the system has provided excellent
a navigational tools for large vessels and deep submersibles. T h e basis of operation
ç2 is the use of four inclined sonar beams, separately directed forward, aft, port and
starboard; velocity is determined relative to the ocean's floor by measuring the
Doppler frequency shift of the back-scattered sound.
T h e early application of Doppler sonar navigation was restricted to shallow
water. In recent years, Doppler systems have been developed successfully for
m u c h wider application. T h e n e w techniques can provide profiles of the horizontal
current field b y measuring the relative motion of contiguous scattering layers
(see Fig. 6).

F I G . 6. Profiling of currents via F I G . 7. Sounding or 'ping' paths which

Doppler-efiect acoustic beams; characterize the tracking of a surface
at 1, 2, 3 and 4 are located vessel or a submerged object,
water-mass scattering cells.

Systems for communication, command and control

Acoustic communication, telemetering, navigation and tracking systems, and

c o m m a n d and control systems are used mainly, in the oceans, for undersea surveys
and operations. W h e n a diver is attached by an air- or life-line, it is evidently most
convenient to incorporate within the line a telephone line for communication.
For scuba divers a n d submersibles, however, a radio link is m o r e appropriate.
Speech, coded signals or underwater television signals can be converted into
acoustic signals and transmitted over s o m e distance.
In recent years there has been a huge increase in the n u m b e r , accuracy and
reliability of data sensors available to the oceanographer. Previously, the usual
procedure had been to store data in the collecting sensor unit for later recovery
and processing. T h e development of acoustic telemetry n o w provides a means
of retrieval and display of such information in real time. T h e acoustic telemeter
is the alternative to an electric cable, still the more widely used method of trans-
mitting information over a distance. Acoustic telemetry is an essential tool for
fishing and fisheries research, for océanographie and other marine geophysical
156 investigations, as well as for the offshore petroleum industry.
 A s w e have suggested, it is often desirable and sometimes essential to retrieve
and display information in real time. This is the case, for instance, in the control
and monitoring of pelagic nets and other towed instruments of work and in the
measurement of the characteristics of fishing trawls. In the offshore oil industry,
acoustic telemetry and control systems can transmit quantitative information from
temperature, pressure and flow-rate sensors and indicate valve positions of the
well-heads; these can also pass c o m m a n d s to open or shut the valves.

Sound also helps to ensure safety

T h e ocean has proved to be an extremely difficult m e d i u m in which to achieve the

high data rates needed for m a n y applications. High data-rate transmission requires
either wide bandwidths or a very 'clean' channel. T h e available bandwidth is
limited, however, by the absorption of high-frequency acoustic energy, while signal
reception is distorted by 'multipath effects' (reflections) and the motion of the
source in relation to the receiver.
Further developments in acoustic telemetry have as objectives increases in
(a) range, (b) reliability and (c) information rate. T h e availability of V L S I (very-
large-scale integrated circuits) electronics and high-density power supplies has
opened m a n y n e w possibilities for acoustic telemetry systems.
Underwater acoustic c o m m a n d and control are of great importance in offshore
drilling.* O n e of the most important of deep-water drilling operations is holding
the drill ship or platform in stable position over the borehole while drilling
operations are in progress. For very deep water, the only method of control is an
acoustic position-referencing system using transponders fixed on the sea-bed.
Information o n the position of the ship relative to fixed transponders can be put
through a computer to control the engines keeping the ship locked automatically
in its position.
T h e drilling bit used in some hard sediment layers usually is unable to penetrate
without being replaced. Re-entry sonar can help the replaced bit as well as the
drill-pipe to ' h o m e in' on the borehole, so that drilling can be continued in the
same hole. For the safety of the drilling vessel's crew, an acoustically controlled
and nuclear-powered 'preventer stack' will preclude blow-outs from the borehole.
This system obviates the need for control cables and hydraulic lines stretching
between the wellhead and the drilling vessel; it can operate in about ico metres of
water. T h e acoustic link is broken w h e n a blow-out occurs, the drill-pipe is
automatically sheared off, and the borehole is closed.

Acoustics also help tofixposition

T h e acoustic method is being applied increasingly to the problem of position

fixing, particularly in the deep oceans where n o other means exist. T h e very low
frequency electromagnetic waves used by the worldwide hyperbolic system called
O m e g a penetrate a metre or so into the sea. These can be used, therefore, by
submarines operating near the surface. In the deep-water operation of manned or
u n m a n n e d submersibles and other instrument packages, there is required an
acoustic tracking system of some sort that can relate the survey or mapping
instruments to reference points o n the sea-floor (see, for example, Fig. 7). A

* A n d , by extension, in the military sphere, communication, c o m m a n d , control and

intelligence.—Ed.
 5 growing interest in the deep oceans and in the sea-bed beyond the areas of the
g> continental shelf has led to a number of studies and m u c h practical work in this
g n e wfield.M a n y methods of acoustic position-fixing are being developed.
g T h e most obvious distinction between the various techniques of position-fixing
.2 that can be used underwater separates those measuring the travel time between
source and receiver from those measuring différences. Three or more such
measurements in each case serve to fix the submersible's position. A receiving
hydrophone m a y befixedto the sea-floor, or it m a y be mounted on the mother
ship or on the submersible itself. •

Notes

1. L . M . Brekhovskikh, Waves in Layered Media, N e w Yoik, Academic Press, i960.

2. L . M . Brekhovskikh, 'The Role of Acoustics in Exploring the Ocean', Izvestiya
Atmospheric and Ocean Physics, Vol. I, N o . 10, 196; Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Acoustic Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere and Oceans, 1981.
3. G . Haines, Sound Under Water. London, David & Charles, 1974.
4. T . Rossby, A . D . Voorhis and D . W e b b , ' A Quasi Lagrangian Study of Mid-Ocean
Variability Using Long-Range Sofar Floats', J. Marine Res., Vol. 33, p. 355, 1975.
5. W . M u n k and C . Wunsch, 'Ocean Acoustic Tomography: A Scheme for Large-Scale
Monitoring', Deep-Sea Res., Vol. 26A, 1979.
6. J. R . Proni, ' O n the Use of Acoustics in Oceanic Pollution Problems', N O A A
Workshop on Ocean Acoustic Remote Sensing, 1980.
7. V . Renard and J.-P. Allenou, 'Le Sea-Beam sondeur multifaisceaux du N / O Jean
Charcot: description, évaluation et premiers résultats', Rev. Hydrographique
Internationale, Vol. 56, 1979.
8. M . Somer, M . Carson, R . Revie, J. Edge and R . Andrews, 'Gloria II, A n Improved
Long-Range Sidescan Radar', Ocean International, 1978.
9. J. S. M e n g and D . H . Guan, 'Acoustical Method for Classification of Seafloor
Sediments', Chinese J. Acoustics, Vol. I, 1982, p. 48.

158
Echo-acoustics, a fast-growing field with applications in medicine, geophysics and er,
materials testing, uses acoustic waves to Hlluminate' a medium. Detailed information
QO
on the medium's interior is derived from reflections of these waves. JJ>

&
• <a

Q
Echo-acoustics,
or exploration by sound
A . J. Berkhout

Dr Berkhout is professor of both seismics and acoustics in the principal

Netherlands institute of engineering, at Delft. His address is as follows:
Professor Dr A . J. Berkhout, Laboratory of Seismics and Acoustics, Department
of Physics, Delft University of Technology, P . O . Box 5046, Delft (Netherlands),
telephone (015) 781804. 159
 n Introduction
o
•S
•Î3 T h e three principalfieldsof application of echo-acoustics (see Fig. i) are medical
« echo-diagnostics, geophysics and non-destructive testing.
¿¿ Medical echo-diagnostics

Geophysical applications Non-destructive investigation

(seismics, sodar, bottom profiling) of materials and constructions

F I G . I. Subdivision of echo-acoustical applications.

Medical echo-diagnostics include ultrasonic imaging.* T h e geophysical appli-

cations embrace investigation of the earth's surface on land and at sea (usually
called seismics). A n d non-destructive analysis includes investigation of the surface
and the interior of materials. W e shall refer to non-destructive testing as N D T .
Although the instrumentation required for these applications is significantly
different, a unified theory has been designed recently so that good communication
between experts from the diverse areas is quite possible.
Advanced data processing and information extraction play an essential role
in modern echo-techniques; therefore, the most advanced digital technology can
be found in thisfield.This is particularly true for seismic applications. Acoustic
sensors connected with 'intelligent' digital hardware can be found increasingly
in underwater applications, such as submarine robotics.

Principles

In acoustical echo-techniques, the m e d i u m under investigation is illuminated

with acoustic waves. Information about the mechanical properties of the interior
is derived from the registration of the reflected wave-field. For most practical
problems it is necessary to illuminate the m e d i u m from different positions of
the surface, and registered wave-fields are optimally combined during processing.
T h e properties of the reflected waves are determined by two properties of the
m e d i u m . T h efirstare the propagation properties, which depend on the global
acoustic parameters of the medium such as average velocity and average absorption.
Secondly, the reflectivity properties, which depend on the local acoustic par-
ameters of the m e d i u m such as local variations in the modulus of elasticity.
In m a n y applications the global parameters of the m e d i u m are well k n o w n but
local variations are unknown, and the objective of echo-techniques is to obtain
an image of these local variations with the aid of the reflected wave-fields. T h e result
should not only localize but also characterize the m e d i u m inhomogeneities.
Influidsw e have one wave type only, the longitudinal wave. But in media where
significant shear forces can exist, transverse waves also occur. In addition, surface
waves can occur at boundaries. In medical echo-diagnostics, only longitudinal
waves play a role. In seismic echo-techniques also, transverse and surface waves
are present; but in almost all practical applications longitudinal waves are used

160 O n e of the uses of such imaging is to examine the foetus in the w o m b . — E d .

for the actual extraction of information. T h e other wave types are suppressed by a
special measurement and processing techniques. For the acoustic investigation of o
materials all wave types are used. Unlike in seismics, transverse waves can be
x¡
easily generated by using special devices (wedges) between source and material. a
o
Surface waves play an important role in the detection of surface cracks in
construction materials.
In echo-acoustic techniques one has to deal with three basic problems: (a) maxi- &
mization of the signal-to-noise ratio; (b) optimization of the resolution along the
vertical and lateral directions; and (c) information extraction and presentation.
Noise is not only determined by statistical background signals but also by
undesired wave types and multiple scattering. T h e axial resolution is given by
the pulse length of each echo; the lateral resolution is determined by the number
of different angles each inhomogeneity is illuminated with. In modern echo-
systems, pulse length and illumination properties are optimized for each point
3
in the m e d i u m during data processing (aperture synthesis). Multi-channel tech- w
niques are essential for synthetic aperture techniques. Finally, during the phase
of information extraction the acoustic results should be translated in terms of
geologic information (seismics), tissue information (medical echo-diagnostics) or
mechanical properties and defects ( N D T ) ,
Figure 2 provides a view of the applied frequencies in the different applications.
Every frequency range is a compromise between resolution and penetration: by
increasing the high-frequency content, the resolution increases but the penetration
decreases because of increased absorption.

Seismics (Sub)bottom profiling Non-destructive testing

Sodar , Medical

L
10u 10' 103 10" 10' 108

• f

F I G . 2. Approximate frequency range as used in the different echo-acoustical techniques.

T h e frequencies (Hz) range between to and ioo million.

Table I shows some important acoustic properties of different media. Sediments

are generally deposited in a layered way, tissues consist mainly of a dense distri-
bution of small inhomogeneities, and materials m a y have both structural properties.

T A B L E I . Average acoustic properties of different media

Media

Properties Sediments Tissues Construction materials

Propagation
velocity 2 500 m / s I 540 m / s 6 ooo m / s
Density 2 ooo k g / m 3 i ooo k g / m 3 7 500 k g / m 3
Acoustic
impedance 5 x io6 k g / m 2 s 1.5 x i o 6 k g / m 2 s 45 x io6 k g / m 2 s
Absorption 0.8 d B / X o.i d B A 0.01 d B / X
T y p e of response Mainly reflections Mainly diffractions Reflections and diffractions
161
 3 Plate i (opposite page) illustrates the large difference in instrumentation. Four
O
M
seismic vibrators are shown, used on land, particularly in urban areas (a); a multi-
u channel medical transducer in action is shown (b); and (c), a single-channel
tu

m transducer is used for inspection of material.

A little bit of theory

Figure 3 shows schematically h o w a sound wave S(z0), generated by one or more

sources at the surface z = z0, propagates in the subsurface, is reflected by inhom-
ogeneities at depth level zm and propagates back again to the surface, where it is
registered by one or m o r e detectors, indicated by D(z0)} at the surface z = z0.
Symbolically,
P{z0) = Z>(*0) [ S W(z0, zj R(zm) W(zm, z0)] S(z0) (O
D o w n w a r d propagation operator W(zm,z0) describes quantitatively h o w the
downward travelling source wave-field changes during propagation. Similarly,
upward propagation operator W(z0,zm) describes h o w the upward travelling
reflected wave-field changes during propagation. At each depth level zm, the
reflectivity operator R(zm) describes h o w (a small part of) the downward travelling
source wave-field is transformed into an upward travelling reflected wave-field
which is related to the inhomogeneities at depth level zm. In simulation problems,

'•l^ol ?V0)
-*Pr*>~*^ '•^-¡i- .Surface F I G . 3. Schematic representation of h o w
a sound wave S(z0) propagates in a
subsurface and back to a surface for
registration.
. Target level

F I G . 4 . Acoustic inversion of echo data,

presented in terms of a double
focusing process.

—0-0-0-0- ^o)

F I G . 5. For high, special resolution each

inhomogeneity should be illuminated
Reflected Detection Propagation and reflection Source wave-field from a wide range of surface points.
wave-field system

Pulsation source Focused response

Inhomogeneity Inhomogeneity
P L A T E I . Different instrumentation as
used in various echo-acoustical
applications: (a) seismic exploration;
(b) medical echo-diagnostics; (c) non-
destructive testing.

(a)

(b)

(c) .W^
P L A T E 2. Unipan Type 550 universal flaw detector: defectoscope
with slaveflaw-detectionunit. [Photo: T . Wachier, by courtesy of
Unipan, Warsaw.]

P L A T E 3. Trolley for ultrasonic checking of railway tracks.

[Photo: T . Wachier, by courtesy of Unipan, Warsaw.]
R(zm) is specified for each depth level zm and the propagation effects of the
m e d i u m together with the data acquisition properties are 'added' to R(zm)
according (i), yielding P(z0). In inversion problems P(z0) is measured and R(zm) is
computed by compensating for
¿ > W W{zai zm) and W(zm,z0) S(z0)

at each depth level zm. This compensation or inversion process can never be
applied fully; the best results are obtained if (see Fig. 4) sources and detectors
have omni-directional properties, and every inhomogeneity is illuminated under
a large variety of angles. Inversion can also be translated in an optimal focusing
process, the source and detector configurations at the surface being given
by (see Fig. 5):
Sm(zJ = W-\zm,z0) (2a)
¡>m(z0) = ir-\z0,zJ (2b)

Note that, for every depth level zm, a n e w source and detector configuration
should be chosen (dynamic focusing). In the practice of focusing, the inversion
operators W _ 1 contain time delays only, as in Figure 5. In addition, afixedfocus
depth-level is chosen during illumination.
In N D T applications, focusing often occurs by curved transducer surfaces or
acoustic lenses. In medical imaging, focusing is realized with the aid of delay
lines. In seismic applications, approximated inversion by focusing is not used
but full inversion is aimed for.

Limits of resolution

A s mentioned before, in practical situations full inversion of

Diz0) W(z0, zm) and W(zm, z0) S(z0)

can never be realized. This means that only a smoothed version of R(zm) can be
obtained and, therefore, details are obscured. A s a rule of thumb, the smallest
detail that can be recovered in the axial direction is given by
velocity of the m e d i u m
A# . = (3a)
min
bandwidth of the acoustic system
and the smallest detail that can be recovered in the lateral direction is given by
velocity of the m e d i u m
mm
central frequency of the acoustic system'

For instance, the limits of resolution for a medical system with a frequency
range of 2 - 3 M H z are given by
A^min = 1,500/10« = 1.5 m m
A x m l n = 1,500/(2J.io9) = 0.6 m m .

Similarly, the limits of resolution for a seismic system with a frequency range
of 10-50 H z are given by
A*min = 2,000/40 = 50 m
A
*mln = 2,000/30 = 67 m .
p Oil and gas
o
xi
"ï T h e use of seismic methods has b e c o m e indispensable in the search for oil and gas.
n
_ This applies not only to the exploration for n e w reservoirs, but also includes the
"7 evaluation of discoveries and existingfields.N o w a d a y s , appraisal and development
"^ drilling is fully guided by integrated knowledge from seismic data a n d bore-hole
information.
Because of possibilities offered b y super-computers, seismic inversion techniques
have been recently improved significantly, particularly with respect to three-
dimensional applications. Therefore w e m a y expect an appreciable a m o u n t of n e w
oil and gas discoveries in the near future, unless oil and gas prices decline so that
investments in seismic exploration are drastically reduced.

(Sub) bottom profiling

Acoustic investigation of the sea-bed for engineering purposes (off-shore tech-

nology), or for the detection of cables and pipes, is becoming increasingly popular.
Lately, the application of data processing has s h o w n that conventional profiling
techniques can b e improved significantly.
A n e w and very important application has been successfully applied in Rotterdam
harbour; detection of the properties of silt layers for the optimization of the port's
dredging p r o g r a m m e .
In the near future, advanced imaging techniques m a y be expected in combination
with underwater vehicles (Fig. 6).

(a) (b) (c)

F I G . 6. In off-shore applications, acoustic sensors are increasingly used in combination

with underwater vehicles (underwater robotics): (a) beam pattern; (b) drillstring
deployment; (c) R O V deployment.

Medical echo-diagnostics

T h e danger of X-rays to h u m a n tissues has accelerated the application of ultrasonic

echo techniques in medical diagnostics considerably. Nowadays, ultrasonic echo
techniques are very important in obstetrics and cardiology, but applications still
increase. T h e objective of a significant part of current medical acoustic research is
to distinguish, with the aid of ultrasound, between sick and healthy tissue in a very
early stage of the degeneration process. For this application, the resolution should
be of the order of one millimetre.
164 Standard acoustic echo-systems are inexpensive and can n o w be found in almost
every hospital. However, similar to X-ray imaging, computer technology is g
becoming increasingly integrated. W e can expect that the n e w generation of medical o
acoustic-imaging systems will be based on digital technology and will be signifi- >,
cantly more powerful than the existing systems. ö

CS

Non-destructive investigation of materials £

In m a n y m o d e r n installations a n d constructions, material failure of vital parts m a y "

h a v e dramatic c o n s e q u e n c e s ; for instance w e l d e d joints in pipelines a n d storage
tanks, heat exchangers in nuclear p o w e r plants, s u p p o r t b e a m s in o n s h o r e plat- -Si
forms. Regular inspection with the aid of the ultrasonic echo method becomes more 3
and more necessary within maintenance schemes. So far, techniques are still simple «
(single-channel), but a change to more sophisticated methods is gradually starting. j2
Inspection robots, continuously monitoring installations and machines, m a y be w
expected in the near future.

S o m e conclusions

Exploration w i t h s o u n d is friendly to the e n v i r o n m e n t , h a r m l e s s to h u m a n tissues

a n d economically attractive. T h i s explains t h e fast g r o w t h o f applications o f
acoustic e c h o techniques, particularly for subsurface exploration, medical diag-
nostics a n d investigation o f all k i n d of materials. Acoustic sensors, c o n n e c t e d w i t h
intelligent h a r d w a r e , will b e increasingly applied in flexible a u t o m a t i o n (robotics).

Bibliography

B E R K H O U T , A . J. Seismic Migration, Imaging of Acoustic Energy by Wave-Field

Extrapolation, Vol. 14b: Practical Aspects. A m s t e r d a m , Elsevier, 1984.
. Seismic Resolution, A Quantitative Analysis of Resolving Power of Acoustical
Echo Techniques. London/Amsterdam, Geophysical Press, 1984.
S C H M I D T , D . P.; V O G E L , J. A . ; V E R H U L S T , K . Development of ROV-operated Sonars
for Very High Resolution Imaging during Underwater Inspections. Proc. ROV
Symposium (San Diego), 1984.
V E R H U L S T , K . ; B R E E U W E R , R . Inspection of Materials by Echo-acoustic Measurements.
J. Acoustics, Vol. 24, N o . 4, 1983.
W E L L S , P. N . T . Biomedical Ultrasonics. London/New York, Academic Press, 1977.
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A specialist in thefieldpoints out the growing number of highly useful applications rn
of ultrasonic technology in diverse branches of research and development in industry, ~~-
in testing and control, and in the detection of incipientflawsand malfunction. Some JJ
applications in thefieldsof mining, metallurgy, masonry and architecture are also ¿
described. The future of the use of ultrasound throughout industry is estimated. 55
&
.*»
Q
a
S

S o m e industrial applications o
8
s
of acoustics ^
o
Ignacy Malecki §,
E

The author, who is a member of this journal's board of editorial advisers, recently
retired as director of Poland's Institute of Fundamental Technological Research.
Professor Maleëki is a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences and its scientific
adviser, a past department head at Unesco and a consultant to the Organization's
project on Current Trends in Research and Scientific and Technological Progress.
His address: ul. Asfaltowa u m . 12, 02-527 Warszawa (Poland),
telephone 49-11-43.
3 A historical outline
cs

S W h e n speaking of acoustic waves in industry, w e mean, most frequently, noise and

u* the methods and equipment for its control. But there is another side to the coin,
g, namely, the application of acoustic waves for the inspection, control and improve-
1-1
ment of industrial processes and materials. Acoustic inspection is not, however,
limited to the production process itself, because three stages are inseparable from
each other in modern industry:
Testing materials designed for machinery and other equipment that can be m a n u -
factured only by using materials having the required mechanical, electrical,
thermal and chemical properties.
Production control performed as industrial processes are underway. This is intended
to avoid deviations from prescribed technical procedure.
Operational inspection of machinery and installations during their service life. Such
inspection becomes more and more vital to the production process, enabling us
to determine whether or not the designed lifetime of a given part has been
reached. Inspection during service is particularly vital in installations with a high
degree of hazard, for example nuclear power-plants equipped with multiple
protection systems.
In each of these three stages, acoustic methods are applicable.
T h e principal testing tool is ultrasound, or acoustic waves: mechanical, elastic
vibrations within a material m e d i u m . Ultrasonic wave frequencies are higher than
those of the audible range (which reach 16 k H z , or 16,000 cycles per second).
T h e first generators of such vibrations, developed by Langevin in 1918, were
used for monitoring the depth of the sea-bed and for detecting the presence of reefs
and icebergs. T h e first ultrasonic apparatus used for detecting internal flaws in
materials and machine parts was built twenty years later, by Firestone, Mülhauser
and Sokolov. These were the beginnings of ultrasonicflaw-detectiontechnique.
Within the past two decades, the range of industrial applications of ultrasonic
methods was considerably extended in thefieldknown as compound testing of the
mechanical properties of materials. T h e use of hypersonic waves with frequencies
of io9 H z and higher, as well as the effect of acoustic emissions, became, in the 1970s,
new steps forward in ultrasonic technology.
Successful attempts were m a d e to apply acoustic waves to the improvement of the
efficiency of several technological processes. S o m e of the techniques introduced
during the 1930s are particularly worth mentioning: Schmid and Ehret's acceleration
of the electrolytic process (1937), Groves's catalysis of chemical reactions (1936),
Protopotov's ageing of wine (1938), and Dognon's and Biancani's disintegration of
micro-organisms (also 1938).

Why are ultrasonic methods so useful?

T h e reason for the exceptional usefulness of ultrasonic methods in industry lies in

the physical properties of ultrasonic waves. In contrast to light waves and X-rays,
ultrasonic waves become weakly attenuated in structural materials such as steel,
concrete and certain plastics; because of this, the ultrasonic wave csees' the interior
of a machine part, for example. T h e higher the frequency, the larger the seeing
capability of the ultrasonic wave which 'sees' more details and detects small
defects.
But attenuation increases at higher frequencies, and the range of identification is
thus reduced. Therefore the frequency offlaw-detectingequipment is selected
168 according to its intended use: ranges from 0.2 M H z to io6 M H z are commonly used
in flaw detection. Frequencies u p to the hypersonic range are employed for the
measurement of physical properties.
F r o m the acoustic point of view, a m e d i u m is characterized by two principal
parameters, velocity c and attenuation 3? of the acoustic wave. These two quantities
depend not only on the frequency but also on the mechanical properties and the
microstructure of the material. Consequently, simple measurements of c and JSP can
provide valuable information that is necessary in the monitoring of production
processes as well as the installation and inspection throughout their service life of
various machines.

Detection of internal flaws; geometrical measurement

T h e pulse method is the most extensively employed. T h e distance covered over time
period t by a short ultrasonic signal propagating at velocity c is i = ct. Thus, from
the time of a signal's return (echo), it is possible to calculate the distance either to
an internal flaw or to the opposite reflecting wall. Another method consists of
measuring the attenuation of the wave by material defects, or in calculating the
total number of half-waves between the ultrasonic 'head' and the reflecting object.
Probably more than 30 per cent of today's products in the machine-construction
industry are tested by ultrasonic methods, making flaw detectors tools in everyday
use. Plate 2 shows a typical flaw detector, or universal defectoscope—this particular
one of Polish manufacture.
M o d e r n apparatus, highly sophisticated because of specialization and extensive
automation, is capable of indicating automatically the deteriorating effect of an
internal flaw, thus determining whether or not a given product should be accepted
or discarded. Only ten years ago, the reading of an ultrasonic oscillogram was to
some extent subjective: it depended on a specialist's experience, very m u c h as was
the case with a physician examining an X-ray picture. Today, it is a microcomputer
system's job to estimate objectively the acceptability of a manufactured part or
product.
T h e intended use of a flaw detector determines the electronic circuit and the
types of transmitting and receiving heads. Scanning techniques m a k e it possible not
only to detect a flaw locally but also to display all the internal non-homogeneities
of an object under inspection.
T h e numerous applications of defect-detection in industry can be grouped as
follows.

Control of rolled or cast semi-products

T h e main problem here is detecting air cavities and layer separation (delamination).
Typical examples: automatic testing of thick or armour plates in the rolling process,
inspection of shafts for turbines and electrical generators.

In-production and service inspections, transport material

Railway tracks are subjected to in-production control and checks during their
service life, using a machine such as that s h o w n in Plate 3. Sampling inspection
is also m a d e of the axles and wheel rims of rolling stock. O n aircraft, mechanically
hazardous parts are tested ultrasonically at prescribed intervals.
¡2 Welding control
u
"cd
¡g T h e multiple reflections of ultrasonic waves can provide the image of a weld's
¡* internal structure, thus revealing non-homogeneities, slag and other defects
g resulting from the welding process. W e l d s in high-pressure pipelines and tanks are
« very precisely tested, using automatic ultrasonic equipment.

Inspection offinishedproducts

Ultrasonic heads are shaped so as to be suitable to test thefitof mating parts, as in

the case of a steel cylinder and a cooling-fin housing or tyres designed for heavy
vehicles. Metal-ceramic bonds of electronic circuits are also tested ultrasonically
for tightness.

Measuring geometric dimensions

Ultrasonic methods are used to determine the thickness of materials quickly a n d

accurately, with the possibility of measuring objects (such as the inner walls o f
large tanks) accessible from one side only. This method can be used, too, to
measure the degree of corrosion within a wall.

Acoustics in geology, mining, and masonry

Ultrasonic waves with frequencies of 50-100 k H z , propagated through rock m a s s ,

can provide data on the size and configuration of cracks in the material. If a mining
shaft is drilled in mechanically weak ground that must be solidified b y freezing,
ultrasonic testing methods have proved irreplaceable; they are the only ones
making it possible to test the freezing jacket for homogeneity—indispensable for
safety during drilling operations. (See Fig. 1.)
Ultrasonic methods are also applied in the testing of architectural m o n u m e n t s ,
where testing can be done for: (a) adherence between stonemasonry and plaster
work; (b) salt and water content in brickwork; (c) extension o ffissuresin m o n u -
mental materials; and (d) depth of impregnation by preservative materials.

Evaluation of mechanical properties

A n ultrasonic w a v e detects internal flaws, the sizes of which are commensurable

with wavelength. T h e w a v e is dispersed, o n the other h a n d , b y small i n h o m o -
geneities a n d microstructure tending to increase wave attenuation. T h e wave's
velocity, moreover, is a function of the elastic content of a given material. T h e
behaviour of constructional materials under fast varying loads depends o n dynamic
(rather than static) elastic constants, whereas static measurement of the elastic
constants of brittle materials (e.g. cast iron, ceramics) is difficult to accomplish.
A s a consequence, it is widespread practice to use ultrasonic methods in order
to measure elastic constants, not only inside industrial testing laboratories but
directly in situ. In the case of brittle materials, there is a simple relation between
their elastic constants, the propagation velocity of an ultrasonic w a v e and m e c h -
anical strength.
F r o m experiments, it follows that the velocity of an ultrasonic w a v e increases
with the increasing strength of a material such as concrete. T h i s simple relation
makes it possible to evaluate the strength of a structure such as a bridge. Porosity,
a c o m m o n imperfection in ceramic products, reduces the velocity of an ultrasonic
F I G . I. Rig for sending ultrasonic signals through freezing jacket surrounding mine
shaft—transmitting probe on the left, receiving probe o n the right.

wave; this characteristic feature is used in the quality control of high-voltage

insulators.
Attempts are being m a d e to determine the distribution of internal mechanical
stress on the basis of changes in the speed of ultrasonic waves, a n e w approach
particularly valuable because strain-gauge methods enable us to measure stress
only at a material's surface.1 T h e required accuracy in measuring velocity is high,
therefore this is a major difficulty.
T h e attenuation of acoustic waves in a given material depends o n its internal
'friction', which is in turn a function of its microstructure. This offers possible
n e w applications of ultrasonic methods. S o m e of these have already been used for
in-production control or for industrial testing procedures, and they can be grouped
as follows.

Determination of mono- and polycrystal microstructure

Attenuation is a function of the irregularities of crystalline lattices or of the size of

crystallites; it is significant in the electronic and precision-product industries.
>u Detection of internal cmicrocracks'
03

¿! T h e ultrasonic m e t h o d is applicable especially to brittle materials. Attenuation is

g. clearly increased by a cracked region of an object, which can then be localized. Other
a methods are unworkable for this sort of measurement.
i—i

Control of technological processes

S o m e technological processes, such as polymerization, can be continuously m o n i -

tored b y measuring changes in internal friction. This applies, notably, in the case of
metallurgical processes.

Testing the properties of organic liquids

O n the basis of measurement of the attenuation and velocity of ultrasonic waves

propagated in an organic liquid, it is possible to obtain information on the liquid's
microstructure. Such results are used in the chemical industry for controlling, for
instance, the viscosity of diesel fuel and lubricants.

Inspection of machine parts

During their service life, the most hazardous effects in the dynamically loaded parts
of machines and equipment are fatigue and fissures in materials. Cyclic loads,
resulting from rotational m o v e m e n t in aircraft, ships a n d other vehicles, affect
material microstructure—increasing internal friction a n d reducing mechanical
strength. Consequently, b y measuring the increasing attenuation of ultrasonic
waves, it is possible to determine the deteriorating effects of fatigue.

Compatibility of acoustic diagnosis

M a c h i n e malfunction is detectable by analysis of its noise-frequency spectrum. T h e

nature and causes of defects can be identified by making comparisons with the noise
spectra of a machine functioning properly. T h e m e t h o d is c o m m o n l y used in
testing road vehicles a n d ships' engines, as well as in mining and metallurgical
machinery (e.g. moulding equipment).

Acoustic emission

T h e warning clicks produced by cracking materials have been k n o w n for ages, but
it w a s only during the Second World W a r that it was discovered that the acoustic
signals emanating from micro-scale effects occurring in materials are diversified.
These are weak signals of short duration, their frequency range varying from a
fraction of a cycle per second to several megahertz. T h e y are covered, furthermore,
by other sources of sound. T o exploit this kind of acoustic signal in order to obtain
information o n the processes occurring within a given object, it has been necessary
to use sophisticated receivers and apply digital techniques. T h e s e 'material cries'
are referred to as acoustic emission, of which there are four types by source:
Macroscopic movement of layers of material, as in the case of geological strata. T h e
friction involved produces thermal and acoustic effects.
Appearance of microcracks. This occurs chiefly in brittle and semi-brittle materials,
such as ceramics and cast iron. T h e cracks occurring release stress energy stored
within small volumes, and the elastic w a v e thus produced is the source of acoustic
 effects. T h e number of acoustic emission signals per second is proportional to o
the microcracks' propagating velocity, and both quantities depend o n the stress •a
CO
applied to the material concerned. 3
O
u
Spreading of microcracks, so that the increase in their length reaches a critical value, a

that is, failure of the material. Each beginning of a microcrack is accompanied by a

an acoustic emission pulse related to the movement of dislocations within the .0
'w
material. T h e behaviour of these effects in time provides important information u
on the predicted lifetime of a given material (see Fig. 2). a
Plastic strains occur mainly in metals. Although a material can be 'silent' within the CD

range of plastic strain, it begins to produce intense acoustic-emission signals at

the 'yield point'. 3
Acoustic emission wasfirstapplied to monitoring and providing early-warning •a
a
signals concerning the imminent m o v e m e n t of geological masses, or the imminence u
of cracks in engineering projects such as dams. T h e use of acoustic emission is used E
o
intensively to produce warning alarms concerning 'crumps', which are heard 00

underground in mines.
Today, industrial applications of acoustic emission include the checking of
brittle and semi-brittle materials: (a) to obtain warning signals that a process of
microcracking has begun; (b) to estimate a material's lifetime under specified loads;
and (c) to determine the mechanical strength of a material.
Acoustic-emission monitoring is the only effective method providing early
warning and location of cracks occurring in high-pressure gas tanks and the shells
of nuclear reactors. T h e method has become increasingly competitive because
it has been found that welding flaws and residual slag produce readily detectable
acoustic emission.
T h e acoustic-emission technique is also used in the inspection of wire ropes in
cableways and mine-shaft elevators, both at the time of installation and during
service. T h e appearance of acoustic-emission signals is a precursor to the shearing
of wires in cable strands. T h e method has recently found promising application in
testing the surface layer of machine parts and in 'stress corrosion'. Research is
continuing, too, in n e w applications of acoustic emission in engineering projects
of various kinds.

Fracture
107
Stress 1

Stress 2

106
*

<
ustic emission (impulses/sec)

1
CU

J
-U
CO

F I G . 2. Behaviour of material under

stress before reaching, in time, a critical 0
0
< 10
value, k n o w n as fracture or failure;
10z 10" 10°
io6 s = 11.57 days. Time in seconds

S o m e other applications of ultrasound

Similarly as X-rays are used in medicine for both diagnostic and therapeutic
purposes, ultrasonic waves are used not only for testing but also for changing the
structure or shape of a material. S u c h active applications of ultrasound are employed
especially in the processing of liquids. A sufficiently intense acousticfielddestroys
13 the continuous structure of a liquid, thus giving rise to the abrupt formation and
•g collapse of cavitations, small bubbles of vapour or gas. T h e chemical and mechanical
if effects of cavitation are as follows: (a) reduction of oxidation of aqueous solutions;
t> (b) acceleration of chemical reactions; (c) breakage of the molecular chain of organic
fi compounds, depolymerization; (d) changes in the electrochemical processes of
1-1
electrolysis; (e) disintegration and coagulation of bacteria and viruses; (f) changes
o n the surface of solids immersed in liquids; (g) elevation of temperature of a given
m e d i u m ; (h) emulsification of liquids (oil, water) because of the action of an ultra-
sonicfield;(i) dispersion of solids in liquids; and (j) mutual penetration of the
structures of solids. Since this range of action in the ultrasonicfieldis so broad,
w e can expect that n e w and numerous industrial applications will emerge.
T h e classical work by Bergmann in the mid-1950s listed more than thirty
promising technological applications of ultrasound. Yet a large n u m b e r of these
proved unfeasible for a variety of reasons: (a) lack of sufficiently powerful gener-
ators to produce a homogeneous acousticfield;(b) comparatively high costs of
operating ultrasonic equipment; and (c) relatively poor results w h e n compared
with other methods. S o here w e indicate only well-established techniques.

Surface cleaning

T h e cavitation produced by an ultrasonicfieldmakes the interface layer between

solid and liquid less compact, thus removing some impurities. A most exact method
for cleaning surfaces, its range is extensive. It includes large machine parts such as
the structural components of rockets and space vehicles, the contact surfaces of
pieces to be welded together, housing of integrated microelectronic circuits, and so
on. Ultrasonic cleaning equipment operates at low frequencies (about 30 k H z ) .

Spot-welding of metals and plastics

A strong ultrasonicfieldcauses the atoms of two welded structures to interpenetrate

one another's structures, thus providing a very strong bond. This method is
particularly suitable in welding plastic components for which other bonding tech-
niques cannot be used.

Drilling in brittle materials

Concentrator units such as the one s h o w n in Plate 4 produce very intense local
vibrations which disintegrate material. B y employing this method, it is possible to
obtain holes of arbitrary cross-section in extremely hard materials (such as sintered
carbides) where the usual machining techniques are inapplicable.

Electrolysis

T h e catalytic and emulsifying actions of an ultrasonic field provide improved

adherence and homogeneity of the electrolytically deposited layers of metal. T h e
field also changes the distribution of electric potential within an electrolyte in such
a way that less energy is consumed during the entire process.

Chemical engineering processes

A n ultrasonicfield'semulsifying action is used in the chemical and pharmaceutical

industries to produce homogeneous and permanent mixtures and efficient extracts,
such as perfume from flowers. T h e method has been applied successfully in small-
scale production because it is rather difficult to generate powerful ultrasonic fields
in large volumes of liquids. In the textile industry, ultrasonicfieldsare utilized to
obtain a relatively uniform dyeing of fabrics.

Biotechnology

In biological applications, ultrasonicfieldswerefirstapplied to the ageing of wine.

T h e opening of bacteria cells under ultrasonic treatment enables microbiologists
to provide rapid and effective treatment of these, and ultrasounds offer n e w possi-
bilities in genetic engineering. Ultrasonic frequencies vary over a wide range, to
200 k H z .
Elsewhere, successful attempts have recently been m a d e to apply ultrasound
in atomizing petrol-air mixtures used to fuel internal-combustion engines. T h e
method allows economies of as m u c h as 20 per cent in fuel consumption and gen-
erates exhaust gases containing fewer toxic constituents.

A final remark

Great advances have been m a d e during the past decade in the generation of
ultrasonicfields,attributable in large part to n e w materials used in electro-acoustic
transducers and to digital techniques. This progress suggests further n e w appli-
cations of ultrasound in the electronic and other industries. •

Note

1. A strain gauge is a sensitive device for measuring, in machines or structures, small

deflections from which strain can be computed. There are mechanical, electrical,
optical and acoustic varieties.—Ed.

To delve more deeply

A G R E N A N T , B . A . Ultrazvukovaya Teknologiya. Moscow, Nauka, 1974.

B E R G M A N N , L . Der Ultraschall und seine Anwendung in Wissenschaft und Technik.
Stuttgart, 1957.
K R A U T K R A M E R , J.; K R A U T K R A M E R , H . Ultrasonic Materials Testing. West Berlin,
Springer Verlag, 1977.
M A L E Ö K I , I. Physical Foundations of Technical Acoustics. Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1968.
M A S O N , W . P . (ed.). Physical Acoustics, Principles and Methods. N e w York, Academic
Press. (Several volumes published between 1962 and 1983.)
S H A R P E , R . S. Research Techniques in Non-destructive Testing. London, Academic
Press, 1973.
S T E P H E N S , W . B . ; L E V E N T H A L L , H . G . (eds.). Acoustic and Vibration Progress. London,
C h a p m a n & Hall, 1974-82.
T R U E L L , R . J E L B A U M , C . Ultrasonic Methods in Solid State Physics. N e w York,
Academic Press, 1969.
See also: Acústica, J. Acoustical Soc. America, J. Acoustical Soc. Japan, Ultrasonics,
Arch. Acoustics (Warsaw), Revue d'acoustique, Akusticheskiy Zhurnal, and Revista
di acústica.
 PROPHET
OR

PROFESSOR?
T h e Life and Work of
Lewis Fry Richardson
Oliver M Ashford
(World Meteorological Organisation, retired)

T h efirstbiography of Lewis Fry Richardson, noted for his pioneering work on the use of
numerical methods for weather prediction and, as a lifelong Quaker and pacifist, for his impor-
tant role in peace research. Although during his lifetime m a n y regarded him as a crank, since
his death in 1953 his importance as a 'founding father' of both these subjects has c o m e to be
acknowledged, and he is today something of a cult figure to those working in these fields. A
m a n of m a n y interests and talents, he is also k n o w n for his varied contributions to mathematics
and its applications in the social sciences, to the design of scientific instruments and to the field
of psychology.

Throughout his life, Richardson worked on a mathematical approach to meteorology in the

firm belief, against most contemporary opinion, that it should be possible to predict weather
scientifically and consequently with greater accuracy than ever before. In later years he worked
increasingly at his peace studies, to which he devoted all his energies on retirement, going on
to produce, in one of his books, an arms race model which is probably more widely used than
any other, even today.

Oliver Ashford, a friend of Richardson for m a n y years, gives a sympathetic account of his life
and work, drawing freely o n unpublished papers and correspondence. The resulting portrait is
that of a modest, yet engaging character, whose story illustrates h o w m u c h he has contributed
to the positive progress of the twentieth century.

December 1984 xiv + 306pp 240 x 1 6 0 m m illus

hardcover ISBN 0-85274-774-8 £ 1 8 . 0 0 / $ 2 9 . 0 0
Lasers and opticalfibresoffer great promise in acoustics. Using an effectfirstnoted ^
by Alexander Graham Bell (of telephone fame), lasers have made possible the -^
production of sound through the impingement on a liquid or solid of the varying £P
pulsations of light waves. Opticalfibrescan be used as sound detectors, offering ¿
certain advantages over the traditional—piezoelectric or acoustic—kinds. %

<u
o
«o

S
<u
v>
Lasers in acoustics e
«O

Leonid M . Lyamshev
O
a
a
E

Professor Leonid Mikhaïlovich Lyamshev, doctor of physics and mathematics, is

Deputy Director of the Acoustics Institute of the Academy of Sciences of
the USSR. In 1954 he completed his postgraduate research at the Physics Institute
of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and has been a doctor of science
since 1964. Professor Lyamshev has written over 200 scientific works concerning,
in particular, diffraction and wave propagation, the physics of aerodynamic and
hydrodynamic noise and other areas of acoustics. He has frequently presented papers
to international congresses and conferences on acoustics. He chairs the joint council
of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR with responsibility for 'physical and
technical acoustics'. From 196$ to 1981 Professor Lyamshev was a member of the
International Acoustics Commission. His address: c\o USSR Commission for
Unesco, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of USSR, 9 Prospekt Kalinina, Moscow G-19
(USSR).
 It is a little over two decades since thefirstoptical laser was constructed. Lasers
are n o w extensively used in science and technology, industry, medicine and
practically every area of h u m a n activity. Research in recent years is paving the
way for their wide use in acoustics.
S In acoustics lasers offer n e w sound sources and receivers with unique properties,
2 a n e w laser-acoustic technology and coherent optical methods of processing signals
g in multichannel acoustic information systems. Researchfindingsat the junction of
'-' quantum and physical electronics,fibreand integral optics and acoustics hold out
the prospect of n e w methods of physical research and technological resources
previously unattainable by traditional means.

Acousto-optic sound sources

T h e acousto-optic effect—pressure pulsations in closed volumes of gas w h e n

irradiated by a modulated infra-redflux—wasfirstnoted by Alexander G r a h a m
Bell in 1880. 1 Since the early 1940s this effect has been extensively used for quali-
tatively and quantitatively analysing gaseous mixtures, and subsequently in the
photo-acoustic spectroscopy of matter. However, because the conversion of light
energy to sound is insufficient, it did not become practical to use the acousto-optic
effect for generating sound until lasers were developed. A . M . Prokhorov and his
assistants were thefirstto observe that shock waves formed w h e n a laser b e a m
interacted with water.2 In recent years in the Soviet Union and elsewhere, optical
sound-generation investigations have been conducted on a broad front, and a con-
siderable number of works have been published on the subject. T h u s w e m a y n o w
speak of optical—or more commonly acousto-optic—sources of sound. 3
Acousto-optic sound sources have a n u m b e r of advantages over traditional
acoustic radiators: they can be remotely controlled; there is an absence of direct
contact, in the traditional sense, with the m e d i u m into which the sound is being
emitted; it is possible to change easily the geometrical parameters of the acousto-
optic 'antenna' and the emitted frequency range: sound sources that m o v e at
practically any desired subsonic, transonic or supersonic speed can be created
without the body of the radiator being subject to any flow-around, in the traditional
sense, b y the medium; and it is possible to generate sound optically in a very broad
frequency range, from very low right through to the hypersonic.

Characteristics

T o take a closer look at the characteristics of acousto-optic sources of sound, let us

imagine a laser beam striking the surface of a liquid or solid. T h e optical radiation
will induce disturbances in the m e d i u m , which will be accompanied by the emission
of sound. T h e mechanisms of this effect differ, and depend primarily on the
volume density of the energy released in the matter and h o w it is released. Such
mechanisms include thermal expansion, électrostriction (an elastic deformation of
a dielectric induced by an electric field), surface vaporization, explosive boiling-up
and optical breakdown.
Where the m e d i u m is optically absorptive and low intensities of energy are used,
the main role is played by a thermal mechanism. In this case no change occurs in
the state of aggregation of the substance in the area of light absorption. Instead,
sound is generated by thermal expansion of the portions of the m e d i u m heated b y
optical radiation (this indeed was the essence of the acousto-optic effect discovered
by Bell). A s energy release becomes more intense, the effects of faster expansion of
the heated volume of the substance become significant, as do those of the change
P L A T E 4. Concentrator unit generating
intense local ultrasonic vibrations
capable of disintegrating material.
[Photo: T . Wachier, by courtesy of
Unipan, Warsaw.]

• «

P L A T E 5. A sound-level meter and

L e q meter (Cirrus model C R L 2.35).
[Photo: Allan Wallis.]

I I

jirrus
 WW«***1"'
c~,n<! I " * **""" '»•»I»»"» Insula»

WEAR EAR
WHEN THIS
II

P L A T E 6. Warning sign used in factories P L A T E 7. T w o sound-level meters

lights u p to indicate high levels of used to measure noise levels, the
sound. [Photo: Alan Wallis.] specifications for which are
internationally standardized. Such
specifications ensure that the same
results are obtained, regardless of who
carries out the measurements. It is
very important, for instance, that
manufacturer and purchaser obtain the
same results when measuring the
noise level produced by a noisy
machine. Left : integrating sound-level
meter; right: integrating impulse
sound-level meter. [Photo: courtesy of
Brüel & Kjaer, N a e r u m , Denmark.]
in its thermodynamic parameters under laser action. M o r e complex processes of
sound generation follow, connected with phase transition and optical breakdown. 3
O
Let us n o w imagine that the intensity of the light in the laser b e a m is period- (J

ically altered (modulated) at a sound frequency. T h e n in the surface layer of the

liquid (we shall subsequently refer to liquids for simplicity's sake, though what is
said applies equally to solids), a pulsating area is formed that emits sound: this is
the acousto-optic sound source. Its dimension m a y be small, comparable or large in
relation to the length of the sound wave: it depends on the size of the light spot on
the surface, the length of the light path in the liquid and the sound frequency.
If the area of heat release, in other words the acousto-optic source or the emitting
acousto-optic antenna, is small compared with the length of the sound wave in the
liquid, a dipolar emission of sound is observed. In Figure i(a) a unipolar source of
sound in the small wavelengths operates at the surface of the liquid, and as a
result of the influence of the surface its radiationfieldis dipolar.
If the light spot is small and the light path long in comparison to the sound-wave
length, a sort of vertical acousto-optic aerial is formed, and the sound is propagated
mainly along the surface of the liquid as in Figure i(b). Finally, where the diameter
of the light spot is large and the length of the light path in the liquid small in
comparison to the sound-wave length, a disk-shaped antenna is formed, as in
Figure i(c), and the emission of sound is directed mainly downwards, that is, in
the same direction as the laser beam in the liquid.

(a) (b)

F I G . I. Directivity characteristics of an acousto-optic source in some extreme cases.

Remote control

T h e length of a laser-generated light path in a liquid depends on its radiation

frequency (length of light wave). In water, for instance, it is about i o - 5 m in the
infra-red region (with a carbon-dioxide laser) and io m in the blue-green (copper-
vapour laser). By modifying the laser radiation frequency, focusing or defocusing
the laser beam on the surface of the liquid and altering the frequency of modulation
of the light intensity in the laser beam, remote control can be exercised over the
characteristics of the soundfieldin the liquid. A n d by displacing the laser beam on
the surface of the liquid, a mobile acousto-optic source can be obtained whose
speed m a y be subsonic, transonic or supersonic.
T h e efficiency of converting light to sound through a thermal mechanism is
extremely low and can at best be measured in tenths of i per cent. In other words,
the power of the acoustic vibrations in the liquid will be a thousand times less than
the optical power used to produce them. A vaporizing mechanism for optical sound
generation m a y consequently prove preferable.
 £¡ S o u n d through vaporization
CO

e
g, T h e sound-generation effect of vaporization of a substance b e c o m e s significant
•^ w h e n laser action, such as a laser pulse, brings its temperature close to boiling
§ point. If this happens at the end of the pulse, the acoustic signal triggered b y
3 vaporization takes the form of an additional pressure peak in the 'tail e n d ' of the
g signal produced b y thermal expansion of the m e d i u m . W i t h an increase in the
!-> intensity of the energy released, the m a x i m u m rises a n d lasts throughout the
acoustic signal. W h e n the laser action o n the surface of the liquid is intensified,
this produces a rapid boiling of the surface layer, from w h i c h a jet of vapour breaks
loose a n d meets the laser b e a m . Rushing at high speed into the air, the vapour jet
causes a n intense shock w a v e , while the recoil impulse acting u p o n the surface of the
liquid produces a compression w a v e in it.
O n completion of the laser pulse, a n d as a result of reflection of the compression
w a v e from the free surface of the liquid, a rarefaction w a v e is set u p . T h e latter
causes cavitation in the surface region of the liquid, producing clearly observable
blebs. S u c h is the picture so long as the v o l u m e density of the optical energy
imparted to the substance does not reach a critical threshold at which a n optical
b r e a k d o w n occurs in the vapours of the vaporizing matter. This happens, in par-
ticular, w h e r e there is interaction between the radiation o f a carbon-dioxide laser
at an intensity of io8 watts per square centimetre and the surface of a non-conducting
liquid, a n d also w h e r e optical radiation at an intensity o f io 6 to io7 W / c m 2 acts
u p o n the surface of a metal. T h e optical b r e a k d o w n in the vapours of the vaporizing
matter leads to the formation of plasma, w h i c h partly absorbs the optical radiation
and screens the substance, w h e r e u p o n the amplitude of the acoustic compression
w a v e ceases to m a t c h the increased intensity of the light in the laser b e a m .

Three modes of laser-induced sound generation

W e m a y thus arbitrarily distinguish three m o d e s of laser generation of s o u n d as a

result of vaporization of a substance with increased intensity of light: (a) w e a k
vaporization, where the intensity of the energy released in the matter is comparable
to the latent heat of evaporation; (b) intense vaporization (violent boiling), w h e r e
the intensity of the released energy substantially exceeds the latent heat of evap-
oration but n o optical b r e a k d o w n of vapour occurs; (c) the plasma m o d e , w h e r e the
intensity of the light is so great that a n optical b r e a k d o w n of the vaporization
products takes place and gives rise to plasma, which absorbs the laser radiation a n d
screens the surface of the substance.
This division of the m o d e s of laser s o u n d generation is of course quite arbitrary,
because the process underlying the vaporization m e c h a n i s m — t h e transition from a
condensed to a gaseous state under laser action—is generally m a r k e d b y a c o m b i -
nation of complex non-linear p h e n o m e n a . H o w e v e r , this arbitrary division enables
us in a n u m b e r of cases to construct a theory regarding the p h e n o m e n o n a n d , in
particular, to gauge the conversion efficiency of optical into acoustic energy. It
turns out to b e almost four times as great as w h e n a thermal m e c h a n i s m is used
and m a y exceed i per cent. In the plasma m o d e , efficiency drops as a result of the
screening of the substance.
T h e conversion of optical into acoustic energy has been found to b e most efficient
where there is an optical b r e a k d o w n in the liquid or substance involved. T h e general
picture of the p h e n o m e n o n is this. W h e n a particular threshold intensity in the focal
area is exceeded, micro-explosions take place a n d produce cavities filled with
180 luminescent plasma. T h e laser radiation is absorbed in the dense plasma, imparting
additional energy to the cavity. T h e cavity expands under the increased pressure,
emitting a shock wave. After completion of the laser pulse and the cessation of
energy release into the plasma cavity, the gas cools, the luminescence fades out and
a small bubble is formed which goes through a number of pulsations. Estimates
indicate that the efficiency of conversion from optical to acoustic energy with
optical breakdown m a y attain double-figure percentage points.
A fewfiguresfor illustration purposes m a y n o w be helpful to characterize the
acousto-optic sound sources operating under various modes. A neodymium-doped
glass laser, for instance, functioning on i M H z in water can be used to induce
a io Pa acousticfieldo.i m from the surface if the optical radiation output is
ioo watts. With vaporization of a metal or liquid under carbon-dioxide laser action,
for instance, sound pulse amplitudes of u p to over io" Pa can be obtained at a
distance of o.i m where the duration of the laser pulse is io- 6 s, the radius of the
optical spot on the surface i c m and the light intensity in the beam around
io8 W / c m 2 . With optical breakdown in water, for example, by a ruby laser pulse at
an output of o.i joule lasting io - 9 s, shock waves are set up at a pressure of about
4 M P a (or 40 atmospheres) admittedly over distances of no more than about 1 c m .
It will be recalled that the standard threshold for h u m a n sound perception
is 2 . 1 0 - 6 Pa or 2 . 1 0 - 1 0 atmospheres. It is clear from the above figures that
modern lasers can be used to generate tremendously high-amplitude ultrasonic
waves.

Optical-fibre sound detectors

S o m e fifteen years ago fibre and integral optics, emerging from a n u m b e r of

disciplines comprising optics, electrodynamics, materials technology and semi-
conductor and quantum electronics, began its development as an independent field
of applied research. Fibre optics has o w e d its rapid development to the advent of
lasers and the exciting prospects for their application in optical communication
systems following marked progress in the development offibrelight guides with
low optical losses.
A typicalfibreguide is a dielectricfibreconsisting of a core (usually cylindrical)
and a sheath. For light to be transmitted along it, the refractive index of the core
must be greater than that of the sheath. Light travels along the guide without
escaping through the sheathing. Afinitenumber of optical wave-guide modes can
be carried in the light guide. T h e diameter of the guide core is generally 5-10 microns
for single-mode guides and from a few tens to a few hundred microns for multimode
guides. T h e relative difference in refractive indices of the materials constituting the
core and the sheath amounts as a rule to 1-2 per cent for multimode guides and a
few tenths of 1 per cent for single-mode guides. T h e basic material used for light
guides is glass, such as germanium-doped quartz glass. Total optical losses in such
a guide prove to be less than 1 d B / k m for optical radiation in the 1-1.8-micron
range of the spectrum.
T h e advent of low-loss opticalfibresspurred on the development of integrated
systems consisting of miniature optical components, foremost among which are
laser sources and photodetectors. T h e active m e d i u m for lasers in integrated
optics m a y be afilmcontaining a dye or an ion-doped semiconductor or insulator.
Miniature gas lasers are being developed in which the light guide itself serves as the
discharge tube. Short capillary lasers just a few centimetres long already exist.
Semiconductor sources of radiation on heterostructures, light guides emitting
through the surface or end face, superluminescent emitters and semiconductor
lasers have been the most widely used infibreand integrated optics. Photodetectors
D—^ in optical-fibre devices need to possess high sensitivity and low remanence. 4 These
conditions are met by, for instance, photodiodes.
I_ Progress in the production of low-absorption opticalfibreswith set parameters
^ J and in the development of laser sources and photodetectors has paved the way for
the use of light guides both in communication systems and in physics research.
Prospects are also good regarding the development of sound detectors.5
•- T h e idea underlying optical-fibre sound detectors is as follows. W h e n sound acts
upon a m e d i u m in which light is conducted, a change takes place in the length of
F I G . 2. Optical- the light path, which in turn modifies the phase of the light wave. This phase
fibre sound modification m a y be recorded with an interferometer. T h e acousticfieldgenerally
detector, has a complex effect on the light wave, modulating its amplitude, polarization,
i =laser; frequency and phase. Sound generally has m u c h the same effect, whatever the
2 = beam- m e d i u m traversed by the light. Light guides are particularly suitable for sound
splitting plate; recording, however, since the fact that optical losses are slight means that acousto-
3 = signal
optic interaction over a great length can be obtained.
wavebeam guide;
4 = reference T h e simplest optical-fibre sound detector is an interferometric device (Fig. 2)
wavebeam guide; in one arm of which is a signal light guide while the other contains a sound-
5 = photo- insulated reference-beam guide. T h e reference and signal light beams form on the
detector; 6 = air- photoelectric cathode of the photodetector an interference pattern created by the
liquid interface. action of the acousticfieldon the signal-beam guide. At the output of the photo-
detector an electrical sound-frequency signal is observed.
T h e optical-fibre sound detector shown in Figure 3 works on the basis of
amplitude modulation of the light in the light guide. T h e amplitude modulation is
generally a result of the production by acoustic oscillations of additional losses in
the fibre. Losses occurring in the curves and microcurves of the light guide play
the main role. T h e sensitive element of this kind of sound detector is provided
by a multimode opticalfibre.T h e microcurves of thefibrecaused by sonic pressure
\^<s^sJ i, give rise to m o d e interaction, resulting in a redistribution of energy a m o n g the
C¥ 3—•
curves. Part of the energy of the modes in the core of the guide is transferred to its
4
sheathing, and this results in amplitude modulation of the light wave.
F I G . 3. Optical- In a straight, single-mode fibre, ideally round in section, and in the absence of
fibre sound mechanical tension, two degenerate modes of optical radiation m a y be emitted.
detector using T h e state of polarization of the light travelling along such'afibreremains unchanged.
wavebeam guide It does change, however, under the effect of an external acousticfield,since the
microcurves.
light guide is distorted by the sound, and an exchange of energy takes place between
1 = laser;
the modes. If a photodetector sensitive to polarization is placed at the output of
2 = wavebeam
guide; 3 and
the guide, the polarization modulation produces in the detector current-variable
4 = grooved components with the modulation frequency, that is, the sound frequency. T h e
plates; 5 = photo- optical-fibre sound detector based on polarization modulation makes use of this
detector. phenomenon.

Advantages of the new detectors

Great interest is being taken in optical-fibre sound detectors because of their

advantages over traditional detectors (e.g. piezoelectric acoustic detectors): sim-
plicity, smaller mass and the possibility of utilizing a great length of acousto-optic
interaction, which permits high sensitivity and predetermined directivity. For
example optical-fibre sound detectors using phase modulation (Fig. 2) offer
exceptionally high sensitivity, outclassing in that respect the best piezoceramic
detectors. T h eflexibilityof the sensitive element—the light guide—means that
optical-fibre detectors of the most varied configurations can be used. Such detectors
I82 are practically insensitive to electromagnetic interference and are more corrosion-
resistant. Furthermore, they permit a simpler and more compact system of optical
processing of multichannel acoustic information.
Research and development findings o n optical-fibre sound detectors were first
published in 1977, since w h e n considerable progress has been m a d e . These
advantages were reported at the Eleventh International Acoustics Congress held
in Paris in July 1983. It is still too early to say whether optical-fibre detectors will
shortly be replacing traditional sound detectors. Undoubtedly, however, they
will in the future be used primarily in multichannel acoustic systems, where
information will be processed by means of optical computers and coherent optical
processors. Optical-fibre detectors, in conjunction with optical-fibre transmission
systems, integral optics and opto-electronic components, can be expected to
influence the development of acoustic systems.

Laser engineering in acoustics

Industrial technology all over the world n o w seems poised for a n e w leap forward,
in terms of quality, owing to the widespread applications of lasers, and production
efficiency will to a considerable extent depend on h o w fast laser engineering
develops. A t the same time, increased production efficiency and product quality
continue to lean heavily on ultrasonics, already to some extent a traditional branch
of engineering.
N e w prospects are opening u p for a combination of laser engineering and
ultrasonics, using lasers to generate and receive ultrasonic oscillation, particularly
for non-destructive product-quality control and in order to act on the structure
and physical properties of matter.6
For the sake of brevity, w e shall take just two examples concerning product/
quality control. O n e relates to a special n e wfields:laser-acoustic or acousto-optic
microscopy. It consists in scanning the surface of the object or specimen point by
point with a focused laser beam whose intensity is modulated by a sound frequency.
T h e specimen is placed in a closed chamber to the wall of which an acoustic
oscillator detector is attached. Depending o n the structural characteristics of the
specimen, the light-absorption coefficient changes from point to point, as a result
of which there is a change in sound-pressure amplitude in the chamber and hence
of signal amplitude at the output of the sound detector. This makes it possible to
obtain, using an electronic system, a television image of the specimen.
If the requirement is to inspect a large area of the surface of the specimen rapidly
and in high resolution, the specialist equipped with an ordinary microscope m a y
find the assignment highly arduous and error-prone. A laser scanning microscope
will help to remove this drawback. But it can detect only external defects in the
specimen—those lying literally on the surface. A n acoustic laser scanning micro-
scope makes it possible to examine the layers near the surface and check their
structure. This important quality m a y m a k e it irreplaceable for product-quality
control in micro-electronics, for example, w h e n testing the quality of integrated
systems and of components in integrated andfibreoptics.'
T h e second example concerns the possibility of acousto-optic exploration of a
heterogeneous condensed m e d i u m . 8 Its essence is that, unlike traditional acoustic
or laser exploration, optical radiation of modulated intensity is used to set u p an
acoustic signal by remote control in the m e d i u m under investigation. Travelling
in a set direction, the signal scatters in accordance with the irregularities of the
m e d i u m . T h e acoustic signal thus dispersed is recorded by remote control (in the
return direction) by optical methods using, for instance, a laser speed gauge
based o n the Doppler effect or an optical cread-out' of the surface relief, which is
> extensively used in acoustic holography. Alternatively, it m a y use a method based
X¡
on Bragg's law of ultrasonic diffraction of light in the immediate subsurface layer
B
of the m e d i u m , if it is sufficiently transparent optically. A s in the previous example
a
of acoustic laser scanning microscopy, it is possible with suitable electronic devices
•J
to scan laser beams emitting ultrasonic waves and receiving an acoustic signal,
and to obtain a television image.
a
o T o take a further possibility in acoustic laser engineering, if laser pulses of
<u
i-l enormous intensity are directed at a condensed m e d i u m , acoustic waves of finite
amplitude m a y be set u p , which in the course of their propagation turn into shock
waves. These shock waves alter the structure of the substance and m a y affect its
physical properties and strength.9

Coherent optical processing of acoustic information

T h e coherent optical processing of information constitutes an independent area

of research and application.10 W e shall do little more than just mention it here
since omission would leave an article on prospects for the application of lasers in
acoustics incomplete. T h e point is that m o d e r n acoustic systems, particularly
those concerned with product-quality control, are becoming increasingly multi-
channel, which makes it necessary to process a large volume of information.
Computers process information sequentially. Optical data-processing systems,
on the other hand, carry out processing operations in parallel, at tremendous
speed. T h e main information-processing operations are the Fourier transformation
(spectral analysis) and convolution and correlation (correlational analysis), together
with s o m e of their variants. T h e use of coherent optical systems in spectral
analysis is based on the fundamental capacity of a spherical lens forming an image
of an object irradiated by coherent light simultaneously to perform the Fourier
transformation, which takes the form of an amplitude distribution of light in the
intermediate plane between the object and image planes (see Fig. 4). This p h e n o m -
enon underlies optical spatial nitration (two-dimensional spectral analysis).

Acousto-optic cells

In order to measure the spectrum of a one-dimensional temporal signal, the signal

must first be converted into a spatial signal. For this purpose extensive use is
made of acousto-optic cells, which enable the temporal signal to be introduced
into an optical information-processing device. T h e action of the acousto-optic
cell (ultrasonic modulator) is based on the phenomenon of ultrasonic light diffrac-
tion. A n ultrasonic wave is generated by an ultrasonic converter in a transparent

Lens Lens

Entry Spatial Exit plane

plane frequency
plane

184 F I G . 4. Optical signal-processing system

sound duct, resulting in spatial-phase modulation of the light. If a spatial masking
filter or 'transparency' is placed in the plane of the spatial frequencies, the original
spectrum can befilteredor modified in amplitude and phase, or both at the same
time, and the output signal (in the image plane) is converted in accordance with
the requisite mathematical operations of convolution or correlation transformation.
Optical light modulators based, for instance, on liquid crystals can serve as such
filters. T h e optical image at the output of a coherent optical processing system
can be electronically reproduced on a television screen or information display
system.
Important features of coherent optical processing systems are not only paral-
lelism (i.e. the capacity to process large quantities of information simultaneously)
but also the fact that the system components can be highly miniaturized, that is,
fully integrated. If these systems are combined with optical-fibre sound detectors,
it is possible to construct small, highly compact, light multichannel acoustic
information systems for product-quality control.
In conclusion, it must be observed that acousto-optic sources and optical-fibre
sound detectors and laser interferometers used to record vibration and receive
sound will not fully replace traditional emitters and detectors, just as coherent
optical processing systems will not fully replace computers in electronic data-
processing methods. There can be no doubt, however, that laser applications will
greatly influence the development of physical and technical acoustics. •

Notes

i. A . G . Bell, Paper, United States National Academy of Sciences, 21 April 1881.

2. G . A . Askaryan, A . M . Prokhorov, G . F . Chanturiya and G . P . Shipulo, Zurnal
êksperimentaVnoj i teoreticeskojfiziki,Vol. 44, 1963, p. 2180.
3. L . M . Lyamshev, 'Optiko-akusticeskie istoöniki zvuka (obzor) [Acousto-optic Sound
Sources (A Survey)]', Uspehifiziceskihnauk, Vol. 135, 1981, pp. 637-9.
4. Remanence is the magnetic induction that remains in a magnetic circuit after the
removal of an applied magnetomotive force.
5. L . M . Lyamshev and Y . Y . Smirnov, 'Volokonno-optifieskie priemniki zvuka (obzor)
[Fibre-optic Sound Detectors (A Survey)]', Akusticeskij zurnal, Vol. X X I X , N o . 3,
!983J PP. 289-308.
6. L . M . Lyamshev, UVtrazvukovaja i lazernaja tehnologija [Ultrasonic and laser
technology], Report to the Plenary Session of the All-Union Conference 'Osnovnye
napravlenija razvitija ul'trazvukovoj tehniki i tehnologii na period 1981-1990 gg'
[Basic Trends in the Development of Ultrasonic Technology and Engineering
in the Period 1981-90]. Suzdal, 1982.
7. A . N . Morozov and V . Y . Raevsky, 'Fotoakustiöeskaja mikroskopija (obzor).
[Photoacoustic Microscopy (A Survey)]', Zarubeinaja ¿lektron tehnika, N o . 2,
1982, pp. 46-71; B . P . Novikov and M . A . Novikov, 'Optiko-akustiieskaja
spektroskopija êlementov volokonnoj i integral'noj optiki [Acousto-optic
Spectroscopy of Elements of Fibre and Integrated Optics]', Letters to the ¿urnal
tehniceskojfiziki,Vol. 8, N o . 6, 1982, p p . 372-7.
8. L . M . Lyamshev, Optiko-akusticeskoe zondirovanie neodnorodnoj kondensirovannoj
sredy [Acousto-optic Sounding of a Condensed Heterogeneous M e d i u m ] . Reports of the
U S S R Academy of Sciences, 1979.
9. L . I. Ivanov, N . A . Litvinova and V . A . Yanushkevich, 'Glubina obrazovanija
udarnoj volny pri vozdejstvii lazernogo izluöenija na poverhnost' monokristalliceskogo
molibdena [Depth of the Formation of the Shock W a v e Caused by Laser Action
on the Surface of Monocrystalline Molybdenum]*, Kvantovaja êlektronika, Vol. 4 ,
N o . 1, 1977, pp. 204-8; V . A . Yanushkevich, 'Zakonomernost' obrazovanija
 „j toöecnyh defektov v udarnoj volne maloj amplitudy [Laws Governing the Formation
<n of Punctual Defects in a Low-amplitude Shock W a v e ] ' , F H O M , N o . 2 , 1979, pp. 47-51.
g 10. See, for instance, U . E . K o k , 'Optiôeskaja vycislitel'naja tehnika. Obrazec peremen
¿J [Optical Computer Technology. T h e Pattern of Change]', TIIÊS, Vol. 65, N o . 1,
^ !977> PP- 8-13; D . U . G u d m e n , Vozmoznosti kogerentnyh optiieskih sistem
obrabotki informacii [The Potentialities of Coherent Optical Data-processing
•g Systems]', TIIÊS, Vol. 65, N o . 1, 1977, pp. 37-48; T . M . Terpin, Spektral' nyj'
u analiz signalov optiöeskimi metodami [Spectral Analysis of Signals by Optical
Methods]', TIIÊR, N o . 1, 1981, pp. 92-108; U . T . Rods, cAkustooptiöeskaja
obrabotka signalov. Svertka i korreljacija [Acousto-optic Signal-processing.
Convolution and Correlation]', TIIÊR, N o . 1, 1981, pp. 74-92.

T w o international meetings
on remote-sensing information

Interested readers may wish to consult the results

of two international conferences this year
concerning data obtained by remote sensing of the
environment and its resources.
Thefirstof these meetings is Integration of
Remote Sensed Data in Geographic Information
Systems for Processing of Global Resource
Information, held in Washington, D.C.,
29-31 May 1985.
The second is the International Conference on
Advanced Technology for Monitoring and
Processing Global Environmental Information,
held in London at the University of London,
9-13 September 1985.
For information concerning conference
proceedings ($60 in preprint, $75 after the
meetings), consult Ms Nancy Schiffman,
SES Inc., P.O. Box 2697, Springfield, VA 22152,
United States of America,
telephone +331-703-644-9472.
In recent times noise has been added to other forms of pollution of the environment, ro
and it can be just as dangerous to people's health as the other nuisances. Some ~~-
progress has been made in the search for peace and quiet, but much remains yet to £?
be done—as anyone can attest who lives in a big city. Here, a South Asian
o
specialist explains. /5
6
CS

Noise pollution:
a neglected threat ^
O
Akhtar Mahmud Faruqui §,
E

The author is principal public relations officer of Pakistan's Atomic Energy

Commission, where he is the editor of T h e Nucleus (a quarterly research journal)
and other publications. Holder of a bachelor of science and a Master's degree in
journalism from Karachi University, our contributor has also written popular
science articles for a variety of newspapers and magazines, and spent several years
as a technical writer in private industry. Mr Faruqui's address is: 46-FI6,
P.E.C.H. Society, Karachi 2904 (Pakistan).
'3 It would be difficult to select one night out of three hundred and sixty-five, during which
3 the entire population of N e w Y o r k are permitted to rest in peace. . . . Surely a city kept in
r? a fever of excitement through the day ought to be permitted to rest in tranquillity at night.1
TS
3
J T h e editorial writer in the New York Times w a s not the first to b e piqued b y
¡3 excessive noise o n a s o m b r e a u t u m n night in 1859, nor was h e the last! Undeniably,
u noise has been a scourge for centuries. Julius Caesar found noise so disconcerting
¡a that h e issued a proclamation forbidding chariot-driving at night. Arthur S c h o -
< penhauer wrote disdainfully of the 'disgraceful . . . truly infernal' cracking o f
whips in G e r m a n streets in 1851. A contemporary account o f mid-nineteenth-
century B i r m i n g h a m deplored the ear-rending, ' h a m m e r i n g s o n the anvil' a n d the
jarring 'clangs of engines, flame rustles, water hisses, steam roars'. 2
T o d a y , u n k n o w n millions are being subjected to the rattle a n d clamour o f
needless noise. In the United States alone, 2 0 million A m e r i c a n s suffer hearing
losses f r o m this cause—more than all other disabilities c o m b i n e d . 3 Noise levels in
the world's urban centres have reached a n alarming point w h e r e 'noise intensity
and chronicity are a hazard to public health'. 4 D r V e r n O . K n u d s e n , a founder of
the Acoustical Society of A m e r i c a a n d a former Chancellor of the University of
California, echoed the profound danger in n o ambiguous terms: 'Noise, like
s m o g , is a slow agent of death.' 6 His remarks have a rational basis. Noise is there-
fore n o longer a dormant threat. M o u n t i n g clinical evidence suggests that coronary
diseases, hypertension, physiological disorders, a n d emotional stresses often stem
from over-exposure to it.

What is noise?

T h e Encyclopaedia Britannica defines noise as ' u n w a n t e d sound', the Encyclopaedia

Americana defines it as a stress that injures m a n and other animals, a n d Sir A l a n
Wilson's C o m m i t t e e on Noise calls it 'a sound w h i c h is undesired b y the recipient'.6
M o r e recently, noise has been identified as 'a f o r m of environmental pollution n o
less dangerous a n d degrading than the poisons w e d u m p into our air and water' 7
and as 'an important type of urban pollution capable of causing annoyance a n d
hearing loss, a n d perhaps even adverse physiological a n d psychological effects'.8
T h e threat that looms over millions of u r b a n communities a r o u n d the world
in the f o r m of unabating noise-assaults can b e judged better in the light of the
W o r l d Health Organization's definition of health as 'a state of complete physical,
mental a n d social well-being a n d not merely a n absence of disease a n d infirmity'.8
A n enviable condition, and perhaps one hard to obtain today. Distracting intrusions
of noise in our lives cannot b e dismissed as trifling annoyances. T h e y tell o n our
physical, mental and social frame of m i n d . Jangling domestic appliances, clattering
high-pressure heating a n d cooling systems, screeching subways, screaming cars
and honking horns take their toll a n d as a result m a n y suffer sleepless nights,
distracted thoughts, mental aberrations, physiological impairments, psychological
imbalances, a n d lack of sociability.

Effects of noise

T h e effects of noise o n m a n can manifest themselves in t w o ways: as auditory a n d

as non-auditory s y m p t o m s .
Auditory effects
B y destroying or damaging the microscopic hair cells that transmit sound from
the ear to the brain, noise can either precipitate deafness or cause slow-but-sure
hearing loss. Excessive noise, like the blast of a cannon, can destroy the hair cells
by the thousand and cause immediate deafness. At the battle of Trafalgar, gun-
powder explosions rendered m a n y a crewman deaf. Constant exposure to noise
of lesser intensity can lead to a steady deterioration of the hair cells and occasion
gradual hearing losses. British coppersmiths in 1700 'had their ears so injured by
the perpetual din . . . that workers of this class became hard of hearing'.10 In the
United States, noise-induced hearing loss is the most c o m m o n industrial disease
today.11 Not long ago, the Surgeon General accepted that between 6 and 16 million
Americans were going deaf from occupational noise.12 A 1968 study by the Federal
Council for Science and Technology Committee on Environmental Quality also
quoted similar figures and served a note of warning: there m a y be 4.5 million
workers w h o could claim hearing-loss awards. 13 S o m e trade unions contend that
noise can be a direct cause of hypertension and ought to come under the Workers'
Compensation Rulings.14 Over-exposure to noise in foundries and metal-casting
industries has been particularly noticeable and rated, numerically, as the greatest
of the health hazards identified.15
In residential dwellings too, the din and clamour of everyday life have been
steadily increasing, and in the more industrialized countries like the United
States they have already reached prodigious levels. M o r e than 70 million Americans,
according to the Environmental Protection Agency ( E P A ) , n o w live in unwholesome
neighbourhoods with noise levels high enough to interfere with communication
and cause unspeakable vexation.16 Substantial loss of hearing has been recently all
too evident in such neighbourhoods. Even the acoustic trauma of rock music is
labelled 'insidious' as it can produce neural hearing loss. D r Frederick L . D e y
m a d e interesting reflections on the subject. In a study conducted for the National
Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness, he reported that two hours'
exposure to no-decibel rock would cause 'an usually severe temporary audi-
ometric threshold shift in about 16 per cent of young m e n exposed', i.e. three out
of twenty rock addicts would suffer hearing loss.17 In the United Kingdom, a
Leeds Polytechnic report suggested that up to a million teenagers in the mid-1970s
had suffered some degree of hearing damage because of loud music. T h e report
prompted the City Council to restrict noise levels to 95 decibels in 400 places
licensed for music. 18
In explicit contrast to this disturbing scenario, communities living in a benign
noise-free environment suffer m u c h less hearing loss or physiological disorders.
T h e M a b a a n tribe in the quiet southern Sudan (Africa) and the Lapps in serene
northern Finland live in placid and peaceful conditions and are found to hear a
great deal better than people in the industrialized world. Even in their seventies,
the Mabaans' hearing is remarkably acute, and enviably comparable to that of
their teenage youngsters! L o w conversational tones are distinctly audible to them
at distances as great as 100 metres. This was also true for the Lapps. D r Samuel
Rosen, a researcher and Clinical Professor of Otology at M o u n t Sinai School of
Medicine, N e w York, w h o reported these interesting findings brought h o m e
convincingly the harmful effects of noise on health.19

Non-auditory effects
Cardiovascular effects. Noise produces peripheral vasoconstriction, that is, a con-
striction of the small blood vessels in the limbs, resulting in reduced blood volume
'3, and blood flow in parts of the body accompanied b y an increase in blood flow
g to the head. 20
fe Noise also induces changes in blood pressure, heart rate, cardiac output and
"§ pulse volume. A study conducted in the Federal Republic of G e r m a n y furnishing
J enlightening insights into the subject showed that workers in noisy environments
5 were more prone to cardiovascular diseases than their counterparts in noise-free
u areas. William M e e c h a m , a California University engineer, recently showed that
,2 the death rate from heart attacks and strokes in L o s Angeles w a s i8 per cent
<j higher in a 'test area' exposed to the noise of 650 incoming aircraft daily compared
to a demographically matched segment in a quieter zone. 21 John M . Handley, a
N e w York authority o n industrial acoustics, strongly feels that the higher incidences
of heart disease and mental illness in the United States are attributable to the
effects of noise pollution. In studies on animals, the most marked manifestation
of noise have been in the form of an increase in cholesterol in the blood and an
increase in the atheromatous deposits in arteries. Noise effects, it has been d e m o n -
strated, do not necessarily dissipate w h e n the noise subsides. At the University
of M i a m i School of Medicine, t w o rhesus monkeys, exposed continuously to
noise for nine months, exhibited sustained elevations in blood pressure that did
not return to baseline values after the noise had subsided.22 Another experiment
at Northern Illinois University revealed that exposure to noise at levels not
u n c o m m o n in our environment not only reduces hearing sensitivity but also
affects the neural coding process in the brain. These observations m a y help to
explain w h y hearing loss resulting from noise or other causes often causes percep-
tual problems, even w h e n sounds can be readily heard. 23

Effects on the central nervous system. Noise creates both psychological and neuro-
logical effects on the central nervous system. T h e best-known study on the psycho-
pathological effects of noise exposure, conducted at London's Heathrow Airport,
revealed a higher incidence of mental illness a m o n g those w h o lived in noisy
neighbourhoods compared with those w h o resided in relatively quieter zones.
Mild neurotic depressive reactions and neurotic symptoms were also observable
a m o n g residents of the noisier neighbourhood.
A French study suggests that noise is the cause of 70 per cent of neuroses in
the Paris area. It also identifies noise as the cause of three premeditated murders. 2 4

Effects on the special senses. Noise affects vision and balance. Erasmus Darwin
reported in the eighteenth century that certain patients with a vestibular disorder
could b e c o m e dizzy from the sound of waterfalls. Today, it has been established
that m a n becomes dizzy on exposure to high-intensity sound, and his eye m o v e -
ments (nystagmus) can b e observed and recorded while his ability to select relevant
from irrelevant visual information can be impaired.26

Effects on the reproductive system. Noise causes a reduction of the blood flow to the
placenta, responsible for the nourishment of the fœtus. Various abnormalities
and impaired bone formation in the foetuses of animals have been attributed to
noise-induced alteration in the hormone balance in the mother.

Psychological and social effects. Noise conditions our m o o d s , attitudes and incli-
nations. It manifestly influences our sociability and sensitivity to the needs of
others. At the University of Hampshire, m o r e passers-by helped an apparently
injured person on a quiet street than on a noisy one. Social psychologist Charles
190 Korte and his colleagues studied 2,567 cases in the Netherlands and reported that
people living in quiet areas were more favourably inclined to lend a helping hand
than were those living in noisy areas with heavy traffic. Industrial surveys have
also revealed that workers habitually exposed to loud noise display marked nervous -a
complaints, nausea, headaches, instability, argumentativeness, m o o d changes and u
anxiety. G e r m a n physician Gerd Jansen reported the preponderance of social Üí
c
conflicts, both at h o m e and in the plant, a m o n g workers in the noisiest parts of
a steel factory.
Noise-induced psychological distress a m o n g children has also been reported. .2
It is appreciably more intense than the distress experienced by adults. David ^
Krantz, Gary Evans, D a n Stokols and Sheldon Cohen recently studied the mental §,
aptitude of schoolchildren living under the air corridor of Los Angeles Inter- «
national Airport. Compared with other city youngsters, these children seemed to >§
lose concentration more often and appeared more inclined to give u p a difl&cult
task in discouragement.26

Technology and pollution

Although noise has been an irritant since early times, noise pollution is a rami-
fication of the industrial age, a product of urban society. Its incidence is marked
in places where the proliferation of technology has transformed the landscape,
where the h u m of machines and the clatter of steel have drowned out the buzzing
of bees and the twittering of birds, where the rural idyll has given way to a bustling
labyrinth of foul chimneys and high-rise apartments. In the age of Romanticism,
such distasteful scenarios jarred the sensibilities of m a n y : William Blake's eloquent
hostility to 'dark satanic mills' is well k n o w n . So are T h o m a s Hardy's later laments
over vanishing pastoral life, which brought to an end the age of entrancing inno-
cents like Tess and Jude. Dickens abhorred the interminable flow of smoke from
factory chimneys and the despicable philosophy of utilitarianism which enslaved
m a n to machines, and vividly portrayed his revulsion to the epoch in Hard
Times.
Every morning just at five,
Gotta get up, dead or alive.
It's hard times in the mill, m y love,
Hard times in the mill.
Every morning just at six,
Don't that old bell make you sick?
It's hard times in the mill, m y love,
Hard times in the mill. . . . "

T h e n , as n o w , the search for silence and peace was a pursuit vainly dreamed of,
and one as elusive as the quest for the Holy Grail.
But it sounds more than paradoxical that while technology has acted as a catalyst
to introduce bountiful improvements in man's life, it has become synonymous
with pollution, a nuisance of the industrial age. Take, for example, the United
States; its enviable prosperity is largely due to its unrivalled technological supremacy
since the early 1950s, but while the population of the United States constitutes
only 6 per cent of the world total, it contributes m u c h more than 50 per cent of
the world's pollution!

Sources of noise

A n impressive array of appliances—vacuum cleaners, food-blenders, mixers,

electric knives, dishwashers, lawnmowers, and m a n y more—embellish our homes. I9i
'3 T h e y m a k e life easier, but they also batter our ears with the loud whines a n d
g irritating roars they produce as they help perform our daily chores. A d d e d to this
£ constant torture is the harsh distracting noise that large air-conditioners constantly
"g spew out.
Jj M o d e r n houses are patterned o n a 'functional' architectural design. In contrast
43 to older c o m m o d i o u s h o m e s with their massive construction, large rooms, high
u ceilings, heavy doors, and sound-absorbent furnishings, m o d e r n houses look
£ insubstantial. Their thin walls, hollow-core doors, poor workmanship and absence
% of acoustic standards give t h e m the appearance of cardboard doll's houses. E v e n
the sounds of flushing toilets a n d family intimacies are scarcely contained, so that
m o d e r n dwellings are rightly disparaged as cnoise slums'.
Construction is an essential part of urban life, an index of c o m m u n i t y develop-
m e n t . Big cities h u m with the operations of familiar heavy earth-moving equipment,
chippers, pneumatic riveters, jack-hammers a n d numerous mechanical monsters.
Together they m a k e a significant contribution to background noise.
M o t o r cars, trucks and motor cycles assail our ears and play o n our nerves.
T h e screech of brakes causes m a n y a heartflutter,while worn-out silencers harass
the driver as m u c h as the hapless passer-by. Mass-produced for thefirsttime b y
H e n r y Ford about 1908, the motor car has dramatically accelerated the pace of
transport to the obvious advantage of m a n . T h e American wage-earner could
easily afford a car as early as the 1920s, and the average European thirty years
later. Today, the automobile industry is one of the largest single producers in
rich countries a n d is making heavy inroads in the developing states. Traffic noise
heads the list of those that disturb people, whether at h o m e or at w o r k , indoors or
outdoors, and whether in an urban or rural setting.28
T h e aircraft is another potent source of noise, like that of the automobile of
recent origin. O n l y after the Second World W a r did civil aviation b e c a m e c o m -
mercially important.

Aircraft noises have been troublesome in the vicinity of airports for m a n y years and their
existence represents a real cost to society that has not been fairly assessed against the air
transportation industry just as n u m e r o u s other pollution costs have not been assessed
against polluters.29

Although acoustical advances in engine design, modified flight procedures, and

design improvements have been m a d e , the problem of aircraft noise lingers o n
as m o r e and m o r e time-conscious people take to air travel and the n u m b e r of
aircrafts multiplies.
M o r e recently, a n e w type of noise has been assaulting the h u m a n ear—the
sonic b o o m produced by planes travelling faster than the speed of sound. Sonic
b o o m s have shattered glass, twisted metal w i n d o w frames, and caused land-slides.
T h e communication revolution has exerted an enlivening influence o n our
lives, yet it has also been an indirect instrument of noise pollution. Beginning
with the cinema, followed by wireless and television, and m o r e recently the
transistor radio a n d cassette recorder, the revolution has exposed millions to
appreciable noise levels—even in lodgings of the obscurest sort. In m a n y Third
W o r l d states transistor radios and cassette recorders are within easy reach of the
population and have b e c o m e an essential possession. T h e y blare out music a n d
noise at appreciable levels and produce effects similar to those produced b y rock
music o n listeners.
Ineffective legislation

Noise levels have grown prolifically in the past few decades. In 1955, Americans
T)
resolved to roll back the tide of noise pollution. Their efforts were in vain. This £
alarming trend was amply confirmed by an exhaustive study 'Noise—Sound
M
Without Value' conducted by a ten-agency committee. Its most pertinent finding
was that: 'Increasing severity of the noise problem in our environment has reached «
a level of national importance and public concern.'30 g
Similar disturbing developments were witnessed in other industrialized countries. 3
'Life in Britain is noisy and getting noisier... T h e sound of traffic hardly troubled "o
&.
Londoners in 1948. N o w it is at the top of their list of annoyances.'31
As the spectre of noise pollution loomed large, many countries framed codes to 'B
restrict noise levels in industrial, commercial and residential areas. T h e United
K i n g d o m introduced its first anti-noise legislation—the Noise Abatement
Act—in i960. At about that time, the Soviet Union launched 'a struggle against
noise'. T h e Federal Republic of G e r m a n y set u p no fewer than eight categories
of noise limits. A s a special incentive, the government even offered concessions
and easy credit to noise-conscious manufacturers w h o were willing to muffle
machinery acquired before the imposition of the limits. In France, a peasant
was promptly fined $50 for a noisy cowbell. Elsewhere, in m a n y South American
and Asian countries, numerous government-appointed commissions and task forces
framed their first anti-noise legislation. T h e United States remained in the
vanguard of the crusade against noise pollution.
T h e legislation framed by different countries had m u c h in c o m m o n , and the
limits denned as safe in one country were accepted as such in another with little
reservation. T h e permissible limits for an employee's exposure to noise levels
under the American Occupational Safety and Health Act ( O S H A ) of 1970 are
more or less the same as those laid d o w n by legislation in other countries. T h e
O S H A specifies that the eight-hour daily exposure must not be greater than
90 d B A but if the exposure is for shorter periods, the levels m a y be higher. In
other words the Act requires administrative or engineering controls to be applied
whenever noise exposure exceeds 90 d B A for eight hours a day, 95 d B A for four
hours a day, or 100 d B A for two hours a day. Table 1 shows the duration at each
of a series of sound levels.32
Safe levels for residential dwellings recommended by the Committee on the
Problem of Noise33 in the United K i n g d o m were also reasonably in accord with
similar estimates m a d e in other countries.34 T h e British Committee specified that

T A B L E I. Noise exposure permissible under the Occupational Safety and

Health Act ( O S H A )

Duration per Sound level

day (hours) (dBA slow)

8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 IOO
I.5 102
I 105
o.s no
0.25 or less 115
193
p T A B L E 2 . Noise levels inside dwellings
3
[L, Noise levels (dBA)
TJ which should not be exceeded
3 for more than 10 per cent of the time
J3
,2 Situation Day Night

ä Country areas 40 30
5 Suburban areas 45 35
Busy urban areas 50 1 35
1. M a n y countries feel that noise levels in the busy u r b a n areas should not exceed 4 5 d B A .

the noise levels shown in Table 2 should not be exceeded for more than 10 per cent
of the time, and recommended separate values for day and night.
Noise-conscious countries also strive to ensure that traffic noise measures do
not exceed 85-90 d B A .
A better idea of the noise levels considered safe or hazardous can be had if w e
k n o w what the decibel (dB), the unit of sound, signifies. T h e faintest noise
detectable by the h u m a n ear is rated at one decibel. A dropped pin produces six
or so decibels and normal conversation speech measured directly in front of the
mouth approximates 60 decibels.
Sounds of 80 d B are an annoyance to the h u m a n ear, while those exceeding 90
to 95 d B pose a potential health hazard, though in some industrial studies constant
exposure to noise of even 80 d B has resulted in loss of hearing. A blast measuring
160 d B can cause total deafness.
M a n y household appliances and implements of modern life measure well over
the level at which annoyance is produced (80 d B ) . Kitchen blenders measure
93 d B , pneumatic hammers and air compressors 95 d B , lawn-mowers over 95 d B ,
loud outboard motors 102 d B , textile looms 106 d B andrivetingguns n o d B .
Jet aircraft at take-off produce a blast measuring 150 d B . Rocket engines used for
spacecraft produce a roar of n o d B at a distance of 16 k m .
T o make matters worse, a general air of laxity marks the attitude of authorities
responsible for limiting noise levels. California law limits vehicle noise on freeways
to 88 d B A but it is so loosly enforced that a Los Angeles police official confessed
he did not k n o w the law existed.36 N e w York also has a problem, which is 'com-
pounded by the fact that the city has no direct authority to act against noisy vehicle
engines (which are the state's responsibility), or noisy aircraft (the Federal Aviation
Administration's), or even the N e w York subway system (the Transit Authority's)'.36
Legal and environmental experts have been eloquently vocal over the hopeless
inadequacy of laws and legislation to limit noise levels. They contend that though
anti-noise laws have been becoming more numerous, they have not been very
effective in dealing with what is becoming one of the biggest pollution problems.

Some progress

It is encouraging that noise-abatement programmes enjoy a pivotal position

in m a n y pollution control schemes. In the Federal Republic of Germany, leading
political parties consistently champion noise-abatement programmes in their
electioneering. In the United K i n g d o m , the Trades Union Congress is pressing
that noise should be tackled at the source—as prevention in better than cure.
Efforts have been m a d e to manufacture quieter appliances, equipment and even
cars. A quiet lawnmower recently developed in the United States costs only $15
more than a noisy one. A prototype of a quiet truck has been built in the United
K i n g d o m but the Department of Transport has delayed legislation for quieter
trucks until 1990. 37 Airlines and manufacturers also continue to invest millions of
dollars to promote the noise-abatement technology of high-bypass-ratio engines
that power most n e w commercial jets.
Encouraging as these signs are, noise-control remains an arduous task, an
expensive proposition. Cutting noise levels b y half m e a n s reducing them b y three
decibels, and reduction of one decibel implies an addition of 1 per cent to the
cost of machinery. T h u s reducing noise at the source, seeking its prevention rather
than cure, is not as simple as is naively advocated. A s for muffling aircraft noises,
the industry claims that the 'technology bank' is all but exhausted and further
noise reduction would cut fuel efficiency drastically38. T h e inference is not hard
to draw.
N o n e the less, it is reassuring that m a n is beginning to realize the threat of
noise pollution, and is taking corrective measures. T o grasp the immensity of the
threat is one w a y to respond to it individually and collectively. N o one perhaps
could have emphasized this point better than Pope Pius XII. In his appeal from
the Vatican in 1956, he observed:

Let avoidable noise be avoided. Silence is beneficial not only to sanity, nervous equilibrium,
and intellectual labour, but also helps man live a life that reaches to the depths and to the
heights. . . . It is in silence that God's mysterious voice is best heard. •

Notes

1. Editorial, New York Times, 13 September 1859, p. 4.

2. ^Pollution Control', Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., 1975,
PP- 749-56.
3. W . Mason and G . Folkerts, Environmental Problems—Principles: Readings and
Comments, p. 234, Dubuque, Iowa, W . C . Brown C o . , 1973.
4. S. Rosen, 'Noise Control', Encyclopaedia Americana, pp. 400-2, N e w York,
Grolier Inc., 1983.
5. N . Rockefeller, Our Environment Can Be Saved, N e w York, Doubleday, 1970.
6. J. Willott and Shao-Ming L u , 'Noise-induced Hearing Loss Can Alter Neural
Coding and Increase Excitability in the Central Nervous System', Science, N o . 216,
1982, pp. 1331-2.
7. J. Mecklin, 'It's Time to Turn D o w n All That Noise', Fortune, Vol. 91, N o . 10,
1969, pp. 130-3, 188, 190, 195.
8. L . Hodges, Environmental Pollution, pp. 112-24, N e w York, Holt, Rinehart &
Winston Inc., 1973.
9. W . Burns, Noise and Man, London, John Murray Ltd., 2nd edition, 1973.
10. D . White, 'Britain Gets Noisier', Psychology Today, Vol. 15, N o . 10, 1981, pp. 45-6.
11. R . Liebich and P. Ostergaard, 'Industrial Noise Pollution—Part 1: T h e Nature
and Extent of the Problem', Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 103, N o . 7, 1981, pp. 34-46.
12. Rockefeller, op. cit.
13. Hodges, op. cit.
14. Liebich and Ostergaard, op. cit.
15. R . Potter, C . Jokel and J. Potter, 'Control of Noise Exposure in Foundry and Metal
Casting Industries', Sound and Vibration, Vol. 17, N o . 5, 1983, pp. 14-18.
16. S. Cohen, 'Sound Effects on Behaviour', Psychology Today, Vol. 15, N o . 10, 1981,
PP- 38-9> 4i-2 3 44> 48.
17. Rockefeller, op. cit.
18. White, op. cit.
'3 19- Rockefeller, op. cit.
3 20. S. Rosen, 'Noise Hearing and Cardiovascular Function', Physiological Effects of
r? Noise, N e w York, Plenum Press, 1970.
•& 21. J. Raloff, 'Airport Noise Linked with Heart Disease', Science News, N o . 123,
I 1983, p. 294.
•Jg 22. E . Peterson, J. Augenstein, D . Tanis and D . Augenstein, 'Noise Raises Blood
¡$ Pressure without Impairing Auditory Sensitivity', Science, N o . 211, 1981, pp. 1450-2.
¡3 23. Willott and L u , op. cit.
S 2 4 . Mecklin, op. cit.
< 25. M . Khurshed Husain, 'Noise Pollution', Proceedings of Symposium on Traffic
Hazards and Noise Pollution, pp. 2 0 - 1 , Karachi (Pakistan), Association of Scientists
and Scientific Professions, 1982.
26. Cohen, op. cit.
27. F r o m a song popular among textile workers circa 1890.
28. 'Noise Pollution', Encyclopaedia of Environmental Science, 2nd ed., pp. 482-9,
New York, McGraw Hill, 1980.
29. Hodges, op. cit.
30. Mecklin, op. cit.
31. White, op. cit.
32. 'Noise Pollution', o p . cit.
33. Burns, op. cit.
34. 'Noise Pollution', op. cit.
35. Mecklin, op. cit.
36. Ibid.
37. White, op. cit.
38. R . Peters, 'Quieter Jets N o w a Flight of Fancy', Engineers Austral., Vol. 55, N o . 3,
1983, pp. 19-20.

SCIENTIA
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How much hearing sensitivity do we lose as a result of our exposure to everyday
noises and noise in our workplace? How is our ability to understand speech affected
by this loss? And what criteria should we use to limit exposure to environmental and
workplace noise? A scientist discusses such questions in the light of modern research.

Noise and hearing damage:

how much is too much?
Karl D . Kryter

The author, who specializes in physiological and psychological acoustics and in

audition, is staff scientist in a major research institution in California, as well as
former president of the Acoustical Society of America and the Society of
Engineering Psychologists. Dr Kryter is the author of T h e Effects of Noise on
M a n (1970), 2nd edition (1985). He can be reached at the Bioengineering
Research Center, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025 (United States of
America).
u Introduction

¡2 With the advent of power-driven machinery, tools, and transport vehicles, noise-
Q induced hearing loss has b e c o m e a significant and pervasive ailment. Although
•C not generally recognized, noise d a m a g e to hearing occurs to s o m e degree in nearly
M every person in m o d e r n societies. D a m a g e to hearing from noise, or intense sound
in general, is an insidious p h e n o m e n o n in that it usually occurs without physical
pain and in small incremental degrees over years of exposure. It is a serious disease
w h e n it reaches modest to severe levels because it prevents adequate c o m m u n i -
cation b y m e a n s of speech a n d other auditory signals important to w o r k perform-
ance and social behaviour. T h e adverse impacts of being hard-of-hearing o n the
quality of life and o n mental health are well k n o w n .
Scientific research conducted over the past forty years or so has provided data
and procedures for describing quantitative relations between exposure to sounds
and noises, d a m a g e effects o n the receptor cells in the ear (as reflected in measures
of the threshold of hearing sensitivity), and speech communication. A t the present
time medical and political-legal decisions regarding the assessment and control
of noise in w o r k and living environments can be based o n reasonably firm, scientific
information pertaining to d a m a g e to hearing from exposure to noise.

'Normal' hearing and everyday noise

T h e ability of the ear to receive sound is usually measured as the m i n i m u m sound-

pressure level of a pure-tone that is audible in the quiet.1 For an individual ear,
this sound-pressure level, relative to the level required for the average ear in a n
otologically normal, 20-year-old population, is termed hearing level ( H L ) in
decibels (dB). A permanent shift upwards in H L from the normal, or from a
secondary n o r m , if caused b y exposure to noise is labelled a noise-induced

Age (years) Age (years) Age (years)

—— — Rosen et al. and Bergman

1 Robinson and Sutton
U S P H S , Rowland

F I G . 1. Smoothed curves showing H L at various test-frequencies, as a function of age.

Parameter is percentile (tenth,fiftieth,ninetieth) of population distribution of H L .
Rosen et al.'s data are those of a society free of noise and disease. Robinson and
Sutton's data are for screened groups from industrialized societies exposed to intense
noise and having otological disease. Rowland's data are for general, unscreened groups
from industrialized society, i.e. those not screened for otological anomalies or exposure
198 to noise. 3-8
permanent threshold shift ( N I P T S ) . The noise dosage is typically measured as the ,c
o
noise (sound) energy present in an eight-hour work day, or its equivalent, s u m m e d g
over the years of exposure.
T h e spectral content of the noise is frequency-weighted (A-weighting) to reflect
the generally greater sensitivity to damage of the ear from mid-to-high sound
Ä
frequencies than to lower frequencies. T h e units of sound-pressure level are ^
expressed as A-weighted sound-pressure levels (L A in d B or d B A ) , the equivalent Ë
one-second average energy for eight hours (typical work day) as L A eq 8 h , and |
the equivalent one-second average energy for the 24-hour day, as L A eq 24 h .
T h e assessment of hearing loss is typically based on the average of the H L s g>
measured at 500, 1,000 and 2,000 H z (or, more recently, at 1,000, 2,000 and |
3,000 H z ) . H L at 4,000 H z , a somewhat more sensitive measure of hearing sensi- "O
tivity, is also sometimes used for this purpose. Figure 1 shows functions represen- .g
ting data from a large, unscreened random sample of general population in the
United States;2 the average of eleven studies of H L for industrial society popu- •a
lations screened for otological disease (primarily of the middle ear) and exposure §
to intense noise or gunfire;3'4 and a sample of a population (the Mabaan, living in .«j
eastern Chad) free of otological and cardiovascular disease and exposure to any ¡^
appreciable noise at the workplace or living environment.8'6
Figure 2 (based on Figure 1) attempts to identify the approximate magnitude
of the impact upon hearing sensitivity by ageing (presbycusis), the sounds and
noises of everyday life (or sociocusis) and disease (nosocusis).6 In the context of
Figure 2 , the role of nosocusis is limited as follows. First, sensori-neural hearing
loss following exposure to noise is set aside for special quantification (or N I P T S
attributable to work-day and sociocusis noise). Secondly, hearing loss resulting
from diseases of the middle ear is not included by virtue of screening-out during
studies involving persons having such ailments. T h e nosocusis effects identified
in Figure 2 are presumably the result of general systemic disorders, perhaps
primarily cardiovascular in nature.6
A s employed here, nosocusis could be called excess or additional presbycusis
in the industrialized societies (as shown in Fig. 3). It appears that L A eq 24 h is,
typically, probably about 70 d B A for females (housewives) and 75 d B A for males.7
Because of the lesser impact on hearing by intermittent—presumably the temporal
nature of 'everyday'—sounds, it is not possible to convert exactly such exposure
level of everyday sounds (obtained by dosimeter) to exposure levels in L A e q 8 h .
It is estimated, however, in terms of afirstapproximation, the L A eq 24 h noise
dosages in Figure 3 are equivalent to an L A e q 8 h steady-state noise plus 5 d B .
Such an exposure to noise (equivalent to L A e q 8 h/50 years work-place noise,
70 d B for females and 75 d B for males) could be expected, as will be shown later,
to cause in a lifetime a shift in threshold at 4,000 H z of about 5 d B for w o m e n and
9 d B for m e n .

Hearing loss induced by industrial noise

H L shifts as a function of L A eq 8 h of industrial steady-state, or equivalent,

noise are fairly well established.8"11
Figure 4 shows the hearing levels ( H L ) for: (a) otologically screened (oto-
screened) workers exposed to industrial noise relative to the H L of populations
screened for otological disease and exposure to noise, and (b) similarly screened
workers relative to the H L of the general, unscreened population of the United
States. T h e differences between the reference and noise-exposed populations
represent, of course, N I P T S . The fact that the amounts of N I P T S to be expected
 ©
Males, presbycusis, Females, presbycusis,
sociocusis and sociocusis and
nosocusis, nosocusis,
industrial society industrial society
30 -

20 30 40 20 30 50 60 70
Age (years!

© ®
Males or females, Sociocusis plus
pure-presbycusis nosocusis males
(based o n data from
noise a n d disease free
®-©
society) industrial society

30 40 60 70
Age (years)

© ©
Sociocusis plus Sociocusis* 4,000 H z
nosocusis females

©-©
industrial society

Females

20 30 40 50 60 70 30 60 70
Age' (years)

* N l P T S (sociocusis) age 70 years predicted

for D L S O d B A for males and 75 d B A for
® females of 'everyday'noises.

Nosocusis 4 , 0 0 0 H z

F I G . 2. Magnitude (in d B ) of typical

Females presbycusis, sociocusis, and nosocusis in
industrialized societies, and of pure-
presbycusis in a noise- and disease-free
society. Curves are for the fiftieth
percentiles of the respective populations.6
20 30
 p

s
o

«
E

a
60 70 80 90
Daily noise exposure L.eq 24 h dBA .22
A
O
FIG. 3. Distributions of people in a Japanese city (Sendai) experiencing different
levels of twenty-four-hour day exposures to everyday noise and sound as measured
by body-worn sound dosimeters.'

from different levels of noise exposure are roughly similar for the two analyses,
based on different types of studies conducted in different countries, would indicate
that the findings with respect to N I P T S are valid.
Figure 4 reveals that, for afifty-yearcareer of eight-hour work days, the steady-
state (or D L equivalent) level at which N I P T S begins to be measurable is around
70 d B A for a hearing threshold of 4,000 H z and about 83 d B A for average thresholds
at 500, 1,000 and 2,000 H z . Equally important for purposes of assessing the
damaging effects of noise is that the N I P T S for a given level of noise exposure
occurs for the entire population—although it is slightly greater for the higher
percentiles (representing less sensitive ears). T h e damage (or N I P T S ) done to
persons with good hearing by exposure to noise would not be as noticeable to
them, in everyday auditory behaviour, as would be the same amount of N I P T S
resulting from the same exposure to noise in persons with poorer hearing (or
higher H L ) .
Attention is invited to the designation of noise exposure in Figure 4 called D L ,
for damage level. T h e equivalent damage level of different noise levels, expressed
in d B A , and durations of exposure can be calculated by means of the following
formula.14
D L = L A — 2 0 log10(r-r)—10 log 10 (5o/Y),

where L A is A-weighted sound-pressure level in d B A , t is the duration in seconds

of an L A during a typical day, T is nominally 28,800 s (8 h).
With different noise levels,
DL = SDL A 1 _ n ,
where S is summation on a sound energy basis and 1—n are different noise levels,
± 2.5 d B .
A somewhat similar form of noise dosage was developed earlier by Burns and
Robinson. 8-10 These authors designated noise dosage as C E A ' , meaning A-weighted
energy. D L differs from E A primarily in its treatment of interrupted and different
levels of noise exposure within an eight-hour day. 11 201
 ou
4,000 Hz S - , 4.000 Hz / / /
90 - Males ' S^s~ Maies ' / / -

80 -
/ / / / -
/U Age 70 years,
/ / / / /'
/ / / Age 70 years, general / / / /
oto-screened population / / / / American population / / / /
60 -
\ ' / / / \ ' / / / '
bO
/ / / / / / / /
40
/ / / / Noise / / / / Noise
/ / / / 8 h/day / / / / 8 h/day
30 -
/ / y C / 50 years DL / A Y / 50 years DL
20 - V x y C T — 70dBA (70) - '/A^T/T- 70 dBA (70) ' "
/ / / /^~~~ 80dBA (80) / / / / ~ 80 dBA (80)
10 ' / / / ^~~~— 90 dBA (90) - ' / / /~~~ 90 dBA (90) -
"
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 7 0 . 80 90

^ 100
c
l 90
a.

80

70

60

50
80 dBA (80)
40 90 dBA (90)
95 dBA (95)
30

20
Males and
females
10
average 0.5,1,2 kHz

0-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
HL HL

F I G . 4. Percentiles of population as a function of H L for, graphs on left, otologically

screened populations, and, graphs on right, unscreened population. Parameter is D L . 1 1

Measuring the impairment of hearing

Practically speaking, hearing impairment is more related to loss
in the ability to engage in communication by speech than it is
to shifts in 'pure-tone' thresholds of hearing.12 Figure 5 shows
some general relationships between pure-tone H L , speech
intelligibility and estimated percent of impairment in the case
of everyday speech communication. These measures of hearing loss
and impairment can be further interpreted in terms of their impact on
social behaviour. 13-20
202
#100
#1UU| - o •?
o
1,000 words at weak
ï L conversational level
(50 dB) ¡nquiet-AI I
f-, Sentences at normal
conversational level
(55dB) ¡nquiet-AI
o
o
o
60 - 3

O
40 XI
«i

CS
20 -

9
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 6 5 7 0
Average of hearing levels at 500,1,000 and 2,000 Hz

S
5 10 15 20 25 30 3 5 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 7 5 8 0
Average of hearing levels at 1,000,2,000 and 3,000 Hz

F I G . 5. Relations between H L (average at 500, 1,000 and 2,000 H z and 1,000, 2,000
and 3,000 H z ) and speech intelligibility calculated according to the articulation
index (AI), and estimated percentage impairment for the understanding of everyday
speech. Speech level measured infieldI metre from speaker.11

How much is too much?

T h e functions shown in Figures 2, 4 and 6 provide quantitative information as to

h o w m u c h noise will cause h o w m u c h damage to hearing in terms of pure-tone
threshold shifts. In Figure 6, there is estimated the percentage of impairment to
speech communication. These graphs indicate the following:
Everyday sounds and noises in industrialized societies cause, during a typical
lifetime, a shift in the threshold of hearing at 4,000 H z : 5 d B in w o m e n and
10 d B in m e n . Such shifts of 5-10 d B at 4,000 H z are about what should be
expected from exposure to steady-state industrial noise at a level of about
75-80 d B A , eight hours daily forfiftyyears.
T h e hearing sensitivity at 4,000 H z of people living in industrial societies also
appears to be reduced over a lifetime by about 5 d B in the typical female and
15-20 d B in the typical male because of disease (nosocusis).
T h e hearing sensitivity at 4,000 H z of typical m e n and w o m e n appears also to
be reduced over a lifetime by about 14 d B because of the ageing process (pure-
presbycusis).
People from industrialized societies working aboutfiftyyears, eight hours each day
in an environment of industrial noise—at a level of 70 d B A (L A eq 8 h/50 years,
70 dB) will incur a threshold shift at 4,000 H z of 2-5 d B beyond that attributable
to typical sociocusis, nosocusis and presbycusis.
At a level of about 83 d B A (L A eq 8 h/50 years, 83 dB) in terms of work-place
noise, there will be an increase offifteenpercentage points in the number
of persons in exposed populations whose average H L — a t 500, 1,000 and
2,000 Hz—will exceed 25 d B and have an impairment greater than 20 per cent
in the intelligibility of speech communication.
tu s loo

-screen
ft

8
ü O
o 80
Ö
*u I 70
a 3

u, o 60

2 50

8
» 40

30

20

10

•g 100
í¿
¡S 90
(0
c
•g 80
R)
3

& 70
O.
c
o] 60

g 50

•5 40
Û.

1 30

ë 20
CL

10

• HLav. 0.5,1.2kHz-HLav. 1,2.3 k H z - 10 dB

100 105 110
DL(L.eq.8h/50yearsl

F I G . 6. This shows, as a function of noise exposure in D L ( L A equivalent steady-state

noise, 8 h day/50 years): (a) approximate per cent, left ordinate, of population screened for
otological disease, and, right ordinate, general population unscreened for otological
malady or sociocusis; (b) approximate percentage-point increase (whether in screened or
unscreened populations) in number of people having a given or greater H L and a given
or greater impairment to understanding conversational-level speech in the quiet.
Parameters are H L and percentage of impairment for understanding of speech.11

In the last analysis, choosing a criterion or criteria for what is to be considered as

'tolerable' d a m a g e to hearing involves judgements o f both social and medical
value. Such judgements must take into account financial and h u m a n costs and
the social problems involved in noise control and compensation for d a m a g e to
hearing caused b y noise. •

Notes

Standard Reference Zero for the Calibration of Pure-Tone Audiometers, Geneva,

International Organization for Standardization, 1975 (Publication ISO-389,
Acoustics).
M . Rowland, Basic Data on Hearing Levels of Adults 25-74 Years, United States,
1971-7;, Washington, D . C . , Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1980
204 (Public Health Service Series, n , N o . 215).
 3. D . W . Robinson and G . J. Sutton, A Comparative Analysis of Data on the Relation ¿3
of Pure-Tone Audiometrie Thresholds to Age, Teddington, National Physical 3
Laboratory, 1978 (Publication A C 84). °
4. M . S . Shipton, Tables Relating Pure-Tone Audiometrie Threshold to Age, Teddington, o
National Physical Laboratory, 1979 (Publication A C 94). .2
5. S . Rosen et al., ^Presbycusis Study of a Relatively Noise-Free Population in the Sudan', .g
Trans. Amer. Otol. Soc., Vol. 50, 1962, p . 131. 9
6. K . D . Kryter, 'Presbycusis, Sociocusis and Nosocusis', J. acoust. Soc. A m . , Vol. 73, fe
!983» P- 1897; A d d e n d u m and Erratum, o p . cit., Vol. 74, 1983, p . 1907. o
7. T . N i m u r a and S . K o n o , Personal Noise Exposure and Estimation of Population
Distribution by L e q (24)', Proc. 10th International Congr. Acoust., Vol. C 2 - 7 , g>
July 1980. Ë
8. W . Burns and D . W . Robinson, Hearing and Noise in Industry, L o n d o n , "ö
bo
H e r Majesty's Stationery Office, 1970. a
9. D . W . Robinson, The Relationships between Hearing Loss and Noise Exposure, a
Teddington, National Physical Laboratory, 1968 (Publication A C 32). M
10. D . W . Robinson and M . S . Shipton, Tables for the Estimation of Noise-Induced "§
CJ
Hearing Loss, Teddington, National Physical Laboratory, 1973 (Publications A C 6 1 ,
2nd ed.).
n . K . D . Kryter, Noise: Physiological, Psychological and Social Effects,
N e w Y o r k / L o n d o n , Academic Press, 1984.
12. D . Harris, 'Pure-Tone Acuity and the Intelligibility of Everyday Speech', J. Amer.
Acoust. Soc, Vol. 37, 1965, p . 824.
13. R . L . Kell, J. C . G . Pearson, W . I. Acton a n d W . Taylor, in D . W . Robinson (ed.),
Occupational Hearing Loss, L o n d o n , Academic Press, 1971.
14. K . D . Kryter, C . Williams and D . M . G r e e n , 'Auditory Acuity and the Perception
of Speech', J. acoust. Soc. Amer., Vol. 3 4 , 1962, p . 1217.
15. K . D . Kryter, 'Hearing Impairment for Speech', Arch. Otolaryngol., Vol. 77,
1963, P . 598.
16. K . D . Kryter, 'Impairment to Hearing from Exposure to Noise', J. Amer. Acoust.
Soc, Vol. 53, 1973, p. 1213.
17. J. J. Kusniarz, 'Hearing Loss and Speech Intelligibility in Noise', Proc. Int. Congr.
on Noise as a Public Health Problem, Dubrovnik, 1973.
18. E . Nett, L . G . Doorfler and J. Matthews, The Relationship between Audiological
Measures and Actual Social-Psychological-Vocational Disability, Washington, D . C . ,
Office of Vocational Rehabilitation, and Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, n.d.
(Project SP-167).
19. W . H . Noble, Assessment of Impaired Hearing, A Critique and a New Method,
N e w York, Academic Press, 1978.
20. A . H . Suter, The Ability of Mildly Hearing-Impaired Individuals to Discriminate Speech
in Noise, Washington, D . C . , Environmental Protection Agency, 1978 (Publication
E P A 550/9-78-100).
 Science,
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~ HuniairVÍílues
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Music, traditionally a pleasing 'signal' in our immediate environment, can be
brutalizing to the ear, harmful to the organism, and a social nuisance of annoying
dimensions. Here a specialist in the measurement of noise pollution outlines some of
the physiological and psychological dimensions of too much noise, and what the
individual and the community can do to shield themselves from excessive leisure
sounds.

The loudness
of some leisure activities
Alan D . Wallis

Dudley Wallis (as he prefers to be called), a graduate of Brunei University, has

been a bandsman in the British Royal Air Force and a cross-country motorcyclist.
Serving as noise consultant to the British National Jazz Federation and the
American Motorcyclist Association, he has also found the time to write extensively
on most aspects of 'leisure noise'. The author is currently chief design engineer at
Cirrus Research Ltd, 1-2 York Place, Scarborough YO11 2NP (United
Kingdom), telephone (44) 723-371441.
Introduction

T h e one thing that categorizes loud leisure noise is that it is totally voluntary.
People w h o take part in such events as rock festivals, motor sports or rifle shooting
do it as a pleasing thing in itself. T h e noise produced is to them, if not the main
reason for the activity, at least a very desirable part of it.
It is generally agreed that excessive noise is harmful. At high levels, say over
85 d B A (see p. 212), hearing damage can occur. At lower levels, sleep is impaired,
concentration lost, and the recipient of unwanted noise generally feels ill-tempered.
Traditionally, noise has been defined as unwanted sound; but here w e have the
same energy source being 'wanted sound' for those taking part in the activity
and most definitely 'unwanted sound' for everyone else.

The ear

For m a n y years the ear has been considered as 'just a microphone', sending
messages to the brain, which then analyzes the sound into its frequency components
and makes sense of the received signal. T h u s if hearing loss occurred, all that
should be necessary to restore hearing would be some form of amplification before
the ear. This solution, the standard hearing aid, can restore the loss of sensitivity
in people with a moderate hearing loss. Over the past two decades aids have
become more and more sophisticated, with built-in correction for frequency
response, changing dynamic range and directional characteristics to help separate
one source from another. All this complexity, however, does not help the most
c o m m o n problem: the ability to hear a particular sound amid m a n y others. Par-
ticular examples of this would be hearing a conversation at a reception or listening
to one language when another one is spoken simultaneously.
Indeed, w h e n people begin going deaf the most c o m m o n complaint is not that
the sound volume is low. Remarks like, 'Speak clearly, then I can hear you' or
'Turn the radio d o w n while you talk to m e ' , are indicative of a loss of resolution
or discrimination between complex sounds. This would suggest that the ear
perhaps is m o r e complex than a simple microphone—as had been thought for
m a n y years.
Research has been proceeding on the hearing mechanism, and a new model of
the system within the ear has been proposed.1 T o understand this new model, it is
necessary to look very briefly at the ear's mechanism.
Sound passes into the ear and moves the eardrum. In the eardrum, vibrations are
passed on by tiny bones—the middle-ear ossicles—to thefluid-filledchambers of
the cochlea. This consists of two chambers in a snail-shell-shaped organ on which
sits the organ of hearing. This organ consists of about 15,000 hair cells, which
convert the vibrations to electrical impulses to send to the brain. It is these
hair cells, using a form of positive feedback, which produce thefilteraction
described.
In the n e w model, the cochlea is seen as the input to a whole series of very
narrow-bandfilters.Thesefiltersgo from the lowest notes w e can hear, around
20 H z (20 cycles per second) u p to 20,000 H z . Naturally, as in any other filter,
the gradients or slopes arefiniteand thus very loud signals at a slightly different
frequency will be passed as well as the 'centre frequency'. T h e sharpness or
steepness of the slopes of these filters is several hundred dB/octave, which is at
least as good as the best practical electronicfiltersavailable to engineers. T h u s ,
each filter is excited only by its o w n particular frequency, unless a very powerful
adjacent signal is present that will also partially excite it.
Levels of perception and hearing loss ,S
A mechanical analogy to thesefilters,though not a very good one, would be a 3
a
wind instrument like the flute. W h e n theflautistblows across the instrument's
hole, the turbulence generates 'white noise' that contains all the frequencies. T h e 3
players' fingers select one particular frequency, however, by making the tube ^
resonate to produce the sound. In a sense, the earfilterscan be seen as a very large «
number offiltersin parallel, each waiting to be stimulated by its o w n particular o
frequency. T h e n u m b e r offiltersis very large, and the positions of these filters "g
in the cochlea have been mapped and experimentally identified.2 g
W h e n hearing begins to deteriorate, the first assumption would be that the £
'gain' of thesefiltersis reduced. That is to say, for a given external stimulation g
the signal to the brain is reduced. There is clear evidence, however, that this is ~Z
not the whole case. W h a t happens is that the sharpness of eachfilteris reduced f-,
and the band of frequencies which can activate it is increased. At the same time,
the sensitivity drops. But the ear functions on a logarithmic basis and, moreover,
hearing—like sight—is to some extent self-compensating for level of perception.
T h u s the final result of hearing loss attributable to excessive noise is that each
filter widens progressively and overlaps its neighbours more and more, while at
first having very little (if any) reduction in level of perception.
There are very clear signs that this is the first stage of hearing loss due
to excessive noise. Indeed, it m a y be m a n y years before a person's audiogram, that
is his ability to hear faint pure tones, is affected; but, for m u c h of this time,
complaint m a y be m a d e of 'blurred' sound.
Recent work strongly suggests that pure-tone audiometry alone m a y not be as
useful as atfirstthought for identifying future hearing loss resulting from present
and past damage. A n e w technique using an external electronic ' c o m b ' filter,
computer-controlled,3 m a y well point the w a y to a method of identifying those
people w h o will eventually suffer hearing loss—particularly those subjecting
themselves to leisure noise.

Fun, harm and their rationalization

W h e r e noise is a consequence of an industrial process, most governments have
created laws or codes of practice to limit the exposure to noise of employed people.
In general, few countries have yet passed a law with real'teeth'; even fewer countries
actually enforce the laws or codes that they have. This, while a matter of regret, is
not relevant to this article because the exposed worker has the right, in the end, to
take civil action for damages against his employer or else remove himself from the
noise by either changing his job or wearing hearing protection. In leisure noise,
there is no redress: it is the exposed persons themselves w h o are causing the
damage. In principle, this is a form of self-injury. Perhaps it is a very subtle form
but, nevertheless, simply by taking part in these loud leisure activities the partici-
pant is slowly but surely increasing the risk of hearing damage in later years.
W h a t then is the current situation? Most often it is youth that is at risk. All of the
loud activities (motorcycle racing, rock concerts, personal stereos and discothèques)
are all activities mainly for those under thirty. Rifle-shooting is not so youth-
oriented, but still a major proportion of its enthusiasts are of young age.
Responsibility and maturity are a natural state of the old rather than the young,
and appeals to c o m m o n sense from the old are likely to be dismissed. This is
particularly so w h e n the old try to stop or limit some youthful activity, and protests
of 'killjoy!' as well as accusations of wanting to remove the fun from life are the
natural replies of the young. 209
 There is, then, afinebalance to be drawn between (a) stopping the young from
taking part in activities which are harmful and (b) the unwarranted restriction on
their personal liberty. This balance occurs in m a n y dangerous activities, such as
mountain-climbing or hang-gliding. In these, however, the risk is immediate and it
is the risk of death. Noise—at the leisure level—never killed anyone, and thus w e
are seeking to prevent a loss of hearing perhaps twenty years in the future. This is
difficult to explain to a young 18-year-old w h o simply wants to listen to music,
particularly when his audiogram m a y show no sign of change.

Nuisance from external noise

M a n y people are touched by the external effects of'loud leisure'. By this is meant
the people w h o live near a rifle range, the residents w h o have a rock concert imposed
on them, or the family living near a noisy discothèque. In none of these cases is
hearing damage the problem; the difficulty is simply noise nuisance. A s such, it is
intrusive in a way that is not followed by any other pollutant of the environment; it
follows us into our houses, into the bedroom. It is impossible to escape from noise.
If the noise pollution were an airport or a construction site, at least some practical
objective is being attained. In the case of leisure noise, however, the sufferer can see
only that someone is enjoying himself at the other's expense. This causes resent-
ment, and the problem then appears larger than it really is.
S o m e people are noise-sensitive. That is to say, they have a low tolerance to noise
nuisance in the same w a y that some people have a low tolerance to certain smells or
a low 'flashpoint' to violence. S o m e people will always complain about noise,
however low the level; therefore, nothing but total removal of the offending sound
will ever satisfy them. T h e majority of the population will tolerate some external
noise, provided that this does not stop their o w n activity (for example, sleeping).
Also, if a rock-concert promoter is going to make a noise in a particular area,
warning the population will reduce annoyance as well as the number of complaints.
This works on two levels.
First, the individual feels involved, which militates against complaining.
Secondly, a simple explanation of what the noise will consist of seems to raise the
threshold of annoyance in m a n y people. Function promoters believe that all they
need do to be on the side of the angels is to reduce noise complaints. But this is
only part of the story. T h e other important factor is to desensitize as m u c h as
possible the noise threshold of their neighbours. Pre-warning and good c o m m u n i -
cation often achieve this. While this can be dismissed as a public-relations exercise,
it is in reality m u c h more.
Noise at a low level does not directly cause physical harm. T h e physical problems
of lack of sleep, irritability, inability to concentrate are all mental in origin. T h u s , if
people can be desensitized by even a tiny amount, some real good has been done
and their well-being has been improved. At the simplest level, an example of this
would be children playing: if they are your children, their noise is less likely to be
obtrusive than if they are not.

'Good' noise, 'bad' noise

All these loud-leisure activities have m a n y things in c o m m o n , apart from the fact
that they are loud and voluntary. While this article is not a treatise on noise control
or a social comment on leisure organizations, some criticism of the organizers of
pleasure events is inevitable and a vital part of the story.
One of the c o m m o n features of loud-leisure organizers is their inability to
perceive that their activity is antisocial or (at best) unreasonable. M a n y bodies
involved are either charities or amateur in the sense that they are not promoting
an event purely forfinancialgain. This seems to lead to a certain myopia on the
subject of noise. Perfectly rational, reasonable, indeed praiseworthy, people—who
for years have taken part in or organized a particular activity—become totally
unreasonable w h e n noise is involved. This is not to say that they are setting out to
be unreasonable: they are simply manifesting a protective instinct in favour of their
particular pastime.
This was aptly illustrated w h e n the secretary of a gun club in a small town was
approached in a bid to stop the noise nuisance of his outdoor clay-pigeon range.
Despite a reasonable approach by the residents w h o were suffering noise until
dusk twice a week and appeals m a d e from the local council, the range's secretary and
his committee became uncooperative and unreasonable. T h e y refused even to
discuss limiting the hours of shooting. At the same time, the same club secretary
was a signatory to a petition to close a stock-car racing track near his h o m e on the
grounds of excessive noise. W h e n this anomaly was pointed out, the secretary jus-
tified his stance on the grounds that shooting was a 'good' sport and stock-car
racing was not. A n y unbiased third party would be forgiven for condemning this
attitude as dishonest. T h e truth is that even w h e n a court had pointed out the
inconsistency of this stance, the secretary was still unable to see that he was in any
way unreasonable.

Local versus higher authority

This attitude, even in m u c h milder c o m m o n forms, leads to the conclusion that,

where leisure noise is concerned, leaving control to the goodwill and c o m m o n
sense of its originators is indeed a broken reed. External regulations in the form of
codes of practice, laws or other sanctions are the m i n i m u m required to force the
noise generators to be what the rest of the population would call 'reasonable'.
Another c o m m o n feature is that if national or international regulatory bodies of
leisure activities can be persuaded to limit noise on both health and environmental
grounds, they m a y have more success with local events than local public opinion
or pressure.
A n example would be that, in order to hold a particular event, a permit must be
obtained from a national authority. If this authorization reflects fair, clear and strict
rules on noise production and the event cannot take place without an observer
from the national body, w e shall then be a long way along the road to easing the
problem.
A third c o m m o n feature of loud leisure is the inclination of the organizers and
participants to interpret any request for noise control (however well presented) as
an attack on their activity. This is a particularly difficult reaction to counter,
especially if the organizers are a political or ethnic minority. A n y discussions about
external noise levels, even on a technical basis, tends to change into a defence of the
organization causing the noise. This defence is called into play even w h e n both
parties are members of the same minority group and, while nonsense, it is difficult
to counter with rational argument. O n e result is that public bodies tend to give
more latitude to minority groups w h e n noise is involved. This fact is then used as a
precedent by other groups. T h e result is that the noise levels rise higher, and
everyone suffers—participants and neighbours alike.
Noise as science

Noise is measured in decibels (dB). This is a logarithmic scale used to compress

the 100,000,000 to i range of sound pressures into a manageable scale of o to 140 d B .
T h e decibel used for noise damage and pollution is based on the ' A ' scale (thus:
d B A ) , a very rough but internationally agreed approximation to the h u m a n ear
performance (see page 208).
T h e problem with the decibel is that, being a measure of pressure, it varies
continually. For example, in an office the background level m a y be 40 d B A . A s
soon as someone speaks, however, this will rise to perhaps 75 d B A . A n y value in
between m a y be recorded instantaneously. Because of this, acousticians agree that
some form of statistical measure is required, one that will describe the noise over a
period of time. For instance, w e could measure the maximal and minimal levels
occurring, w e could measure the median level, the level occurring the most often, or
the average level. In fact, there are as many ways of measuring statistical noise as the
layman would think possible.
In practical terms, two statistical methods are predominant. These are L N
and L e a , and both have their place. L N is, in fact, a series of indices and is defined
as the level exceeded for N per cent of the time. Thus, L 1 0 , the most widely used,
is the level, in d B A , exceeded for 10 per cent of the time.
L 1 0 , L 6 0 and L , 0 are m u c h used for planning control, particularly for relating
noise in a particular zone to the type of activity permitted there. Unfortunately, none
of these indices can be measured directly; all need a large series of measurements
from which the L N can be computed. T h e concept of L N is difficult for a layman to
grasp. Therefore, in anyfightwith officialdom, the layman is at a disadvantage.
L e ( 1 , technically the 'equivalent continuous sound-level', is the integral of the
sound-level over time or, to put it in practical terms, the average level.

Measuring noise levels

Plate 6 shows a typical instrument used to measure L e q and, as is clear, it is no

différent from a normal sound-level meter. In fact, the unit shown is a sound-level
meter with averaging facilities. L e q has several advantages. First, it can be measured
with a single instrument. Secondly, it is easily understood as an average. Thirdly,
it is fairly well established and in use internationally. Finally, it has a good math-
ematical basis, being related to true sound energy.
L e q has its disadvantages. Being an average, it gives no indication of the highest
and lowest levels. Thus it is often used in conjunction with a maximal instantaneous
limit. For example, a planning restriction on a speedway track m a y allow an L e q
of 60 d B A at a certain point, but subject to a maximal level—which could be
defined as Lj —of 75 d B A .
In leisure activities these definitions are important, indeed vital to any under-
standing of the problem. It is, for example, not practical for a local authority to set
a limit of 90 d B A on an activity. If this were done, any sound, however brief, could
exceed this level and be a violation.
At a rock festival if someone inadvertently turned on the audio system with the
faders or volume control at the wrong end, the level over the second or so until the
system settled could be very high. T h e duration, however, would be extremely
short. A similar argument would apply to an athletic event where a public address
system was in use. O n e shot from the starting pistol could well exceed the level set
by the local authority. Thus, to discuss intelligently and control noise, L N and L e q
must be the parameters involved.
 Having looked at the similarity between different types of leisure noise, the <u
differences must come under similar scrutiny. For this, each must be looked at in '£
turn, and the obvious place to most people would be motorcycle noise. jj
u

M o t o r c y c l e sport •§
«j
O f all the leisure-noise pollutants complained of in the press, motorcycle 'scram- g
bling' is the most often accused. But this is a great misconception in thefieldof o
noise pollution. By far the largest source of motorcycle noise comes from youths ~°
riding in the street. For some reason, not unconnected with his ' m a c h o ' image, a 8
young m a n equates noise with self-importance. Usually these motorcyclists have no -g
connection with motor sport but, because of ill-informed journalism, motor sport ,2
is blamed. £
Motorcycle sport, be it circuit racing, 'motor-cross' (cross-country racing), *""
trials, 'enduro' or speedway races, are all controlled by a national body that licenses
participants. Most of these national bodies are affiliated to the Fédération Interna-
tionale Motocycliste (FIM) in Geneva. T h e F I M sets standards for international
competitions and thus, by example, for national competitions. O f all the motorcycle
sports, trials and enduro are the most visible in that they m a y use public roads.
Enduro equates fairly well to automobile rallying, while trials have no speed c o m -
ponent whatever. In both cases, all entrants have to comply with local traffic regu-
lations, including those on noise. Thus, control should be a simple matter for the
police.
Circuit racing, by definition, takes place on prepared tracks and is usually
subject to planning regulations. Motor-cross, called scrambling in the United
Kingdom, and the similar sports of grass-track and sand racing take place on
natural terrain normally used for other purposes: meadows, moorlands or beaches.
Typically—because this m a y happen only once a year, in most countries—plan-
ning is not involved. Thus the only constraints are the F I M and the national
body. M a n y national bodies realize that noise complaints will be harmful. [In fact,
the American Motorcyclist Association ( A M A ) have a bumper sticker that
proclaims, ' M o r e sound, less ground'.] Yet, in some countries, fact does not
follow theory.

Riders' and spectators' reactions

T h e only w a y to control noise is to limit the sound output of the motorcycle.
T h e F I M suggests a method and national bodies have their local regulations,
the A M A being one of the world leaders in this respect. T h e problem arises as
to what to do when the star rider arrives with a motorcycle well over the noise
limit. In some countries he simply would not be able to ride. In others the organ-
izers, not having the courage to refuse the star, acquiesce and let him ride. Thus,
the noise level remains high and ground is lost.
For the spectators, it is said that noise is part of the performance they have
come to watch. This is pernicious nonsense. If motorcycles were totally silent,
some excitement would be removed; but current sound levels, even after more
than ten years of noise control, still leave spectators with ringing ears. Furthermore,
the non-expert spectator simply cannot hear the public address system over the
noise of the race and therefore, unable to understand what is happening, does not
return; thus noise directly harms the sport by limiting spectators.
For the riders, and to some extent the officials, the levels of din are really
harmful. At the starting line of even a small local race, the level as the riders
depart is of the order of 115 d B A , well above ear-damage levels. T h e riders,
despite their helmets, are subject to levels well over 90 d B A for long periods,
causing real harm as well as contributing to fatigue. There is no problem in
reducing noise levels, and the small penalty of added weight carried by the motor-
cycle would be the same for everyone. All that is required is will-power.

Gun clubs

T h e same two problems exist for gun clubs: noise-causing environmental pollution
externally, and hearing damage to the participants. For practical purposes sporting
guns cannot be silenced, and thus the participants must resort to ear 'defenders'.
Most gun clubs n o w advise (or even insist) that shooters wear ear-muffs. T h e
outside noise-level, however, is difficult to control. Most of the noise from a gun
travels in a cone in the direction of the bullet or shot discharged. T h e difference
between front and back, however, is not very great, so that while small reductions
of noise-level can be achieved by shooting away from possible trouble spots,
reflections from solid objects can cause sound to reverberate. T h e only form of
noise control, however, is to limit the time of shooting or to m o v e thefiringrange.
Unfortunately, gun clubs are often not very co-operative in this respect; so
legal means may have to be employed to force a reasonable attitude towards other
parties. Also, pressure lobbies (for exemple, the National Rifle Association in the
United States) sometimes give the appearance offightingfor their 'rights', even
w h e n they are clearly noise polluters. T h e y seem to forget that twenty people
shooting can cause discomfort to a population of several hundreds.

Rock concerts

With rock concerts, the ratio of polluter to polluted is more nearly even. A large
concert m a y have 50,000 people in its audience, while the local 'footprint' of noise
m a y reach about 20,000 persons at worst. Also, as the object is to generate
controlled noise—the music—it is reasonably simple to design a sound system
that will keep the music within the festival grounds. This is done by mounting
the speaker systems high in the air, 'angling' them d o w n towards the audience.
In really bad situations, the speakers are distributed among several smaller arrays.
This procedure also improves the sound's quality and allows the site's sound level
to be slightly reduced because of the improved clarity.
T h e sound-level in the audience is usually about 100 d B A , well above what is
considered dangerous. Attempts have been made to reduce this level, but each
time the audience demanded a higher gain. Clearly the audience and the per-
formers are damaging their hearing; most of them are aware of this, yet simply
will not give up. O n e fact which m a y be in their favour is that the high level of a
loudspeaker does not have the same (high) transient noises that can occur in
industry. S o m e believe that this is therefore not so damaging as industrial noise;
but no one is sure.
While the audience and performers want to be exposed, what of the staff?
Under most laws they could well be entitled to compensation for loss of hearing.
T o check this, audiograms were made at the twenty-third annual Reading Rock
Festival, using as m a n y long-serving staff as possible. T o everyone's surprise,
their hearing was little worse than that of a random sample of the population.
A further test of the stage crew, w h o are exposed to rock music every week, gave
very similar results. Their hearing was not m u c h worse than a random sample of
the population.
 This does not m e a n that hearing is not damaged by rock music at the level JS
indicated. T h e most probable effect is damage to the ear'sfilteringability, and ]g
raised thresholds will not show until twenty years of exposure have passed. F e w ^
people have yet been subjected to so long an exposure. «
A side-effect of rock music is temporary threshold shift, which is a temporary S
deafness resulting from noise. This, combined with a ringing of the ears, was ~
generally reported by sound crew after a few hours' exposure at the levels indicated. Ë
Fortunately, most festivals are commercial and their promoters need to maintain <"
a reputation. So m a n y promoters go to extreme lengths to have a clear sound °
system causing as little pollution as possible. T h e few 'free' or 'amateur' festivals £
usually do not fare as well in this respect, however, and thus cause some pollution. *ö
T o give some idea of the scale of a rock festival's sound, the power employed, .2
which can be up to 40,000 watts, is about 10,000 times the typical output of a JS
domestic hi-fi system. '"

Personal stereos

Everyone has seen young people wearing personal stereo cassette players, walking
around as if in a dream. In fact, by the end of 1983 over 25 million of these units
had been produced. Their use has caused concern worldwide.
O n e small town in the United States (Woodbridge, N e w Jersey) has banned
the wearing of these sets to those operating a vehicle; users can be fined u p to $50.
But are they really so harmful? T h e level at the ear is usually between 90 and
100 d B A , even though m a n y sets can generate as m u c h as 105 d B A . T h e y cause
no external noise pollution and thus directly concern only the wearer. S o m e
manufacturers arefittinga warning light to come on at 90 d B which m a y limit
excessive noise—but this will probably have as little effect as the health warning
printed on cigarette packets.
T h e main danger comes from inattention by the wearer. It is argued very
logically that while driving he m a y not hear other vehicles or if on foot m a y not
hear traffic. This m a y be so, but the question becomes one of personal freedom as
opposed to the greater public good. Only politicians can solve this problem: it is
not in the realm of acoustics. Certainly the noise level at the ear is no more than in a
disco, and no one has seriously proposed banning discothèques.

Discothèques

With levels of over 95 d B A , the average disco is not normally suitable for the
middle-aged. For some reason, noise is equated with enjoyment. While this is
clearly so for the young (as evidenced by the way they prefer loud discos), it is
not the case for the older age group. In general, patrons over 35 tend to prefer a
m u c h lower level of music; thus hearing-damage problems are confined mainly
to the young.
Staff working at discos, because these places m a y be open nightly, are m u c h
more at risk than staff at, say, a rock concert. T h u s a wise employer will try to
rotate staff to quieter parts of a building in order to minimize the risk of ear damage.
M a n y employers take advantage of the facts that staff are young and do not
stay long in one job. So the problem is transferred to someone else. While levels
of 95-100 d B A are typical, an L e a of over 120 d B A has been recorded for short
periods in one London disco. There is no justification for such a high level, even
if the patrons will tolerate or even demand it.
Discothèques also cause a great deal of external noise pollution. For good 215
commercial reasons, they are usually situated near houses or apartments and thus
any escaping noise can readily cause pollution. T h e onus must rest on the local
authority to insist on clear noise regulations being formulated, ideally based
on L e a . A n d these must be rigidly enforced. T o meet such restrictions, the escaping
noise can be limited by (a) reasonable noise insulation and (b) control of the
sound at its source.

Summing up
T h e ideal source control is an automatic noise switch which will,first,light u p
w h e n the danger level is near, to warn a band or disc jockey. T h e n , if the warning
is ignored, the switch will turn off the amplifiers. Such devices, based loosely on
our o w n industrial warning sign (Plate 7) are in use all over the world for such
purposes. N o t only do they keep the sound d o w n outside a club or disco, they
also limit the maximal level inside the club, thus protecting the hearing of everyone.
O n e interesting fact concerning their increasing use is that, while bands do not
like them (on the grounds that they limit artistic endeavour), restaurant clubs
report increased business. A s one owner said, 'There is no use taking a lady
to a dinner and dance if you cannot talk to her over the loud music' H e m a y
have a point. •

Notes

1. E . F . Evans, Pathophysiology of the Peripheral Hearing Mechanism, p. 63, London,

Academic Press, 1977.
2. A . G . Gibb and F . W . Smith (eds.), 'Recent Advances in Cochlear Physiology',
Otolaryngology (Vol. I), p. 105, London, Butterworth, 1982.
3. P. M . Marins et al., C A Comb-Filtered Noise Generator for Use in Auditory
Neurophysiological and Psychophysical Experiments', IEEE Transactions on
Biomedical Engineering, Vol. B M E - 2 9 , January 1979.
4. A . D . Wallis and R . Marks, ' W h y Reading Rock Is Not an Environmental
Disaster', Environmental Health, April 1983.
Regulation and control of sound and noise (unwanted sound) require a concerted &
approach by specialists and administrators representing many different cultural ~~-
settings and political systems. Here a world-level expert in noise control explains £?
how, since the end of the Second World War, research and international ¿
co-operation in acoustical problems have been gradually established—though much ¡2¡
more work remains to be done in the future. ¿|
o

Sä

International co-operation
in acoustics
Fritz Ingerslev
I
.§

Professor Fritz Ingerslev, who holds a doctorate in technical science, is at the

Laboratoriet for Akustik, Danmarks Tekniske Hejskole, 2800 Lyngby (Denmark).
He began his technical career as a research assistant in the same institute in 1936.
He holds honours and has won prizes for his work in various acousticalfields.He
is chairman of Technical Committee 43, 'Acoustics' and Subcommittee 1, 'Noise'
of the International Organization for Standardization, and President of The
International Institute of Noise Control Engineering. 217
Introduction

International co-operation between research scientists dealing with acoustics has

two purposes: (a) to promote such research by the specialists concerned and (b) to
notify all those interested as to h o w the results of research can benefit society as
a whole. Such co-operation has proved to be of the utmost value so far, the number
of countries involved is growing rapidly; but s o m e countries are still represented
by too modest a number of scientists and engineers. O n e of the purposes of the
present article is to stimulate those countries still only moderately involved to play
a greater role in acoustical research in the future.

Acoustics and noise

Acoustics, the branch of physics dealing with sound and sound waves, also
includes study of the perception of sound by the ear. It is a broad area of research
treating physical, physiological and psychological acoustics; speech and musical
acoustics; shocks and vibrations; electro-acoustics; room and architectural acous-
tics; noise emission and immission; effects of noise; town planning; and finally,
measurement of noise.
T h e industrial revolution brought about by the mechanization of industry,
the introduction of more and m o r e office machines and domestic appliances of
m a n y kinds, and the enormous expansion in surface and air traffic during the last
twenty-five years have meant that noise exposure has increased drastically since
the Second World W a r . Noise is thus a problem that millions of individuals the
world over experience in the forms of annoyance, impaired hearing, intrusion of
privacy or sleeplessness.
Noise is thus an insidious poison: repeated exposure to it, day after day over
m a n y years, m a y indeed be a threat to our health. It is of the greatest importance,
therefore, that w e provide an environment free from noise jeopardizing public
health and welfare. Authorities in m a n y countries have declared, as a consequence,
that action is required to protect their citizens against the adverse effects of noise.
In other words, noise pollution should not be accepted as an unavoidable result of
technological progress.
Increasing public concern for the environment during the 1960s led to wide-
spread activity relating to noise, the net effect of which is that w e n o w have a
good understanding of noise problems. T h e knowledge collected through extensive
research and development makes it possible to solve m a n y noise problems satis-
factorily. A primary task n o w is to disseminate this knowledge, though of course
further research will be carried out. T h e international exchange of knowledge is
an extremely important way to spread information about procedures for the
abatement of noise—thus improving our living conditions. Here w e shall discuss,
as the circumstances permit, international co-operation related to noise problems.

Purposes of international co-operation

There are several reasons for the establishment of international co-operation in

research and use of its results for the benefit of society. There is little doubt of
the great value of being informed, through international meetings, about the
latest advances in acoustical research. Meeting colleagues and discussing subjects
of c o m m o n interest, exchanging knowledge and experience help to promote the
research efforts of individual investigators.
Engineers occupied with noise control are interested in the procedures developed
in other countries. O n e country alone cannot solve all the problems, so pooling .y
knowledge and experience is critical. Carrying out noise-control programmes is g
such an enormous task that it is absolutely necessary to take advantage of principles 8
and methods developed everywhere. G
A n effective method of noise control is the establishment of maximally per-
missible noise-emission levels for noise sources of various kinds—aircraft, motor .2
vehicles, noisy machines. It will be of great importance if such levels can be 2
agreed to internationally, especially in the case of mobile sources (aircraft, g-
automotive vehicles) used for travel between countries. Both noise-control ¿
engineers and administrators occupied in governmental departments should _
participate in such negotiations, their goal being to determine appropriate, g
maximally permissible noise-emission levels. '£
Efficient international co-operation in science and engineering implies proper |
harmonization of vocabulary. Co-operation in acoustics, furthermore, implies a
proper harmonizing of physical quantities and units (standards). Last but not
least, there is a critical need also to harmonize the methods of measurement used
in acoustics.
During the last ten to fifteen years, international trade has suffered as a
consequence of poor harmonization in the areas indicated. It happens that the
maximally permissible noise-emission levels for a given type of machine differ
from country to country, so it is obvious that varying values m a y imply consider-
able problems for manufacturers. It has even been suggested that thefixingof
national maximally permissible levels has been used, in some cases, in order
to protect national products. Objectively, there is n o justification for such
measures.
Harmonization of acoustical measurement methods began about twenty-five
years ago, after it had been realized that different methods occurred frequently.
Important results have been obtained so far.

International organizations in the acoustical domain

International co-operation, therefore, has grown rapidly in the province of acoustics

since the Second World W a r . It comprises the three areas of research, noise-
control engineering and standardization. A number of international bodies as
well as some regional organizations have been established. Here w e can list but
a few of the international bodies and of the five following w e shall discuss only
three in detail.

International Commission on Acoustics (ICA)

I C A is a special commission of the International Union of Pure and Applied
Physics ( I U P A P ) , a commission established in 1951 by the International Council
of Scientific Unions (itself a large body closely associated with Unesco). T h e
purpose of I C A is to advance the science of acoustics throughout the world.

International Institute of Noise Control Engineering (I-INCE)

I - I N C E is a non-profit organization created in 1974, with the following objectives:
(a) the organization of international conferences; (b) the international exchange of
news items and other information; (c) promoting international co-operation in
research on noise-control and the application of engineering techniques for such
control; and (d) developing interdisciplinary contacts between noise-control
engineering and other relatedfieldsof work. 219
ISO Technical Committee 43, 'Acoustics' (ISOjTC 43)

T h e scope of this technical committee, established by the International Organ-

ization for Standardization (ISO) in 1953, 1S 'standardization in thefieldof
acoustics, including methods of measuring acoustical phenomena, their generation,
transmission and reception, and all aspects of their effects on m a n and his
environments'.

IEC Technical Committee 29, 'Electro-acoustics'

T h e scope of this committee, established by the International Electrotechnical

Commission (IEC), is 'to prepare international standards in thefieldof electro-
acoustics and vibrations within the frequency range of infra, audio and ultra
sound'. T h e I E C itself was created in 1906.

International Commission on Biological Effects of Noise

This commission, the I C B E N , organizes everyfifthyear an international congress

on 'Noise as a Public Health Problem' where papers are presented on the extensive
and complex biological correlations between m a n and noise.
(Below w e shall give further particulars about I C A , I - I N C E , and I S O / T C 43.)

International Commission on Acoustics

Until thefirstdecades of the century, acoustics was a branch of physics. In the

firstfiftyyears of the century, increasing interest in pure and applied acoustics
resulted in the establishment of acoustics as an independent discipline. In 1951,
the International Commission o n Acoustics ( I C A ) was founded to ensure
co-operation in acoustic research throughout the world.
ICA's most important activity is sponsoring its congresses on acoustics every
third year, acting as international meeting places with broad attendance. Beginning
in 1953, these congresses have been held in Delft, Boston, Stuttgart, Copenhagen,
Liège, Tokyo, Budapest, L o n d o n , Madrid, Sydney and Paris. T h e 1986 congress
will be held in Toronto, from 2 4 July to 1 August. T h e number of participants
has ranged between 750 and 1,600, and the n u m b e r of papers presented between 250
and 850, representing nearly every branch of the field of acoustics, including
speech communication, physiological and psychological acoustics, noise, shock
and vibration, architectural acoustics, bio-acoustics, ultrasonics, underwater sound,
physical and musical acoustics, aero-acoustics, and acoustical measurements.
Participants have come from as m a n y as forty countries.
T h e congresses are excellent opportunities for scientists and researchers engaged
in acoustical work to present their latest results. A proper understanding of the
theory of physics dealing with acoustics and the effects of sound on h u m a n beings
is an absolute condition for satisfactory solution of practical problems in acoustics.
T h e participants in these congresses are not only scientists; there are also
engineers well educated in physics and mathematics.

International Institute of Noise Control Engineering

T h e great interest in noise control evoked during the past two decades, mainly
through the d e m a n d for favourable conditions for the average citizen, has resulted
in a pronounced need for the extension of available international co-operation.
It was realized that an organization capable of undertaking international leadership
in applying noise-control technology needed to be established. T h e National
Institute of Noise Control Engineering in the United States encouraged the
formation of the International Institute of Noise Control Engineering, created
in October 1974. T h e Institute has three categories of membership: (a) m e m b e r
societies (acoustical societies and commissions); (b) associate members (non-profit
educational and research institutions); and (c) sustaining members (other organiz-
ations, private firms and individuals contributing afixedannual fee).
T h e acoustical societies of the following countries are members of the Institute:
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, D e n m a r k , the Federal Republic of
Germany, Finland, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Netherlands, Norway,
South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, the United K i n g d o m and the United States.
T h e acoustical commissions of Hungary, Poland and Romania are also members.
T w o countries (Japan, the United States) are also represented by their national
institutes of noise-control engineering.
So far, thirteen Inter-Noise Conferences have been held annually, beginning
in 1972. T h e conferences were held in Washington (three times), Copenhagen,
Sendai, Zurich, San Francisco (twice), W a r s a w , M i a m i , Amsterdam, Edinburgh
and Honolulu. Inter-Noise 85 will be held in M u n i c h , on 18-20 September 1985.
T h e number of participants in these conferences has varied between 400 and 800,
coming from as many as thirty-five countries and contributing as m a n y as
350 papers. Typical categories of topics are: (a) machinery noise, noise emitted
by motor vehicles, railbound vehicles and aircraft; (b) source identification and
diagnostics; (c) noise-control barriers, enclosures, mufflers; (d) community noise
control; (e) shipboard noise control; (f) noise control in buildings; (g) noise
standards and noise regulations; (h) noise measurement and analysis.
Participants at Inter-Noise Conferences are acousticians, engineers occupied
with noise control in industrial and other organizations, and administrators from
government departments concerned with noise legislation and regulation. Pro-
ceedings are published for each conference, and these are available from the
organizers (the m e m b e r society of the host country).

ISO Technical Committee 43

As mentioned earlier, this technical committee belongs to the International Organ-

ization for Standardization (ISO), whose founders and m e m b e r bodies are the
various national standards organizations. ISO's objective is cto promote the devel-
opment of standards in the world with a view to facilitating international exchange
of goods and services and to developing mutual co-operation in the sphere of
intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activity'.
Technical Committee 43 (Acoustics) is commissioned to handle this task through
two subcommittees dealing with noise and building acoustics, respectively. T h e
scope of thefirstis 'standardization in thefieldof noise in all aspects, including
methods of measurement of noise produced b y diverse sources in diverse environ-
ments, and the assessment of the effects of sound on m a n ' . T h e second sub-
committee is charged with 'standardization in the field of building acoustics,
including architectural acoustics, acoustical properties of building materials and
construction, and sound propagation in buildings'.
T C 43 works as follows. A working group draws u p a draft proposal which is
sent to the national m e m b e r bodies of T C 43 for comments. Once the draft
proposal has been approved at a plenary assembly, it is sent to ISO's central
secretariat for circulation to all national m e m b e r bodies of T C 43 as a draft inter-
national standard. If the draft is approved, it is published as a new (or revised)
I S O standard. In thefieldof acoustics, I S O has published forty-nine such stan-
dards and another twenty-five are in preparation. A n additional twenty-seven
draft proposals are being discussed by working groups.
I S O sets up standards in acoustics in six categories:
i. Basic standards on the description and the measurement of environmental and
occupational noise, as well as evaluation of its effects on h u m a n beings.
2. Basic standards describing methods for the measurement of noise emitted by
machines and equipment.
3. Specific 'noise test codes' for various types of machines and equipment.
4. Standards for measurement of noise emitted by road and rail vehicles, vessels,
aircraft and other means of transport.
5. Standards on the measurement of sound insulation and sound absorption.
6. Various other noise standards.
It is important to note that it is a well-established principle of this Technical
Committee to deal only with purely technical problems related to methods of
measurement and assessment of the effects of noise on h u m a n beings. Maximally
permissible values are fixed by national or regional authorities. T h e maximally
permissible values for noise exposure are usually not uniformly established
throughout the world; these will vary from country to country, depending on
economic and political considerations. In other words, the maximal values are not
fixed by researchers or engineers; they are determined by statesmen and - w o m e n
and their civil servants.
It is to be hoped that, in the future, the maximally permissible values of noise-
emission levels will be harmonized. This applies to products such as machinery,
vehicles for public and private transport, and construction equipment. It is m u c h
easier for manufacturers of such material to meet one set of levels instead of m a n y
varying sets of levels established by individual countries or by groups of nations.
Readers interested in the activities of the I S O m a y consult the annual ISO Cata-
logue or the ISO Technical Programme (also annual). International acoustical
standards published until 1980 can be found in ISO Standards Handbook 4:
Acoustics, Vibration and Shock. All these publications, as well as the ISO standards
themselves, are available from national standards organizations.

A word in conclusion

Experience has shown that international co-operation in acoustics has done m u c h

to promote research and apply the results of research and development to the
improvement of the environment. It is hoped that this co-operation will be further
intensified and ameliorated for the benefit of the whole of society. •
Appendix

Some useful addresses in the world of acoustical control

International Commission on Acoustics (ICA)

President: Secretary: Secretariat:

Professor D r H . Myncke Professor D r K . H . Kuttruff 12th International Congress on
Laboratorium voor Akoestiek Institut für Technische Akustik Acoustics
en Warmtegeleiding Technische Hochschule Box 123, Station Q
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven 5100 Aachen Toronto M 4 T 2L7
Celestijnenlaan 200D Federal Republic of Germany Canada
3030 Heverlee, Belgium

International Institute of Noise Control Engineering

President: Secretary: Secretariat:

Professor D r Fritz Ingerslev Professor D r H . M y n c k e Inter-Noise 85
Laboratoriet for Akustik Laboratorium voor Akoestiek VDI-Kommission
Danmarks Tekniske Hejskole en Warmtegeleiding Lärmminderung
2800 Lyngby Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Postfach 1139
Denmark Celestijnenlaan 2 0 0 D 4000 Düsseldorf 1
3030 Heverlee, Belgium Federal Republic of Germany

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) T C 43 (Acoustics):

I S O Central Secretariat
Case Postale 56
1211 Genève 20, Switzerland

Chairman, ISOITC 43 Secretariat, ISOITC 43

and ISOITC 43ISC1: andISOITC 43ISC1:
Professor D r Fritz Ingerslev Danish Standards Association
Laboratoriet for Akustik Postbox 77
Danmarks Tekniske Hejskole 2900 Hellerup
2800 Lyngby, Denmark Denmark

Chairman, ISO/TC 43ISC2: Secretariat, ISO/TC 43ISC2:

Herr H . Schulze D I N Normenausschuss
Institut für Baustoffe, Materialprüfung
Massivbau und Brandschutz Postfach 1107
der T U Braunschweig D-iooo West Berlin 30
Beethovenstrasse 52
3200 Braunschweig
Federal Republic of Germany

International Commission on Biological Effects of Noise ( I C B E N )

Chairman: Secretary:
Dr Henning von Gierke D r Jan van den Eijk
Aerospace Medical Research T N O Research Institute for
Lab. A F A M R L / B B Environmental Hygiene
Wright-Patterson A F B , Postbus 214
O H 45433 2600 A E Delft
United States of America Netherlands
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)3 Technical Committee 29
(Electroacoustics)

Central Office:
1-3 rue Varembé
1211 Genève 20, Switzerland

Chairman: Secretariat, IECjTC 29:

D r Bertil Johansson Nederlands Electrotechnish
Teknisk Audiologi Comité
Karolinska Institutet Postbus 5059
Tekniska Högskolan 2600 G B Delft
100 44 Stockholm 44, Sweden Netherlands
Readers' forum CO

oo
m

An invitation to readers à

Reasoned letters which c o m m e n t , pro or con, on any of the articles printed &
in impact or which present the writer's view on any subject discussed in §
impact are welcomed. T h e y should be addressed to the Editor, impact of science "2
on society, 7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris (France). *
u
K

A reader in the United States has submitted the following comments on our issue
O
No. 136, dealing with the chemistry of natural substances. Our correspondent is •
Dr L . H. Hattery, professor emeritus of government and public administration at g
the American University, Washington, D . C . His address: Box 88, Mt Airy, "~
M D 21771 (United States of America).

I doubt that m a n y would guess which article in your issue N o . 136 was most
exciting to m e . It was the report by the three Bulgarian scientists, Marekov,
Bankova and Popov, on the medicinal properties of beeswax (propolis).
M y father (1891-1947) inherited the family responsibility of preparing the
beeswax mixture for the dual uses of grafting scions—young plant shoots—and,
more importantly, application to skin infections or the prevention of infections.
I still have some of the last batch m y father prepared, but have not used it for
two reasons: the ready availability of germicides and antibiotics in pharmacies, and
the scoffing of m y children at the idea that this ugly and fantastic preparation
could be beneficial. ( W h e n I told m y son of this product's scientific properties, he
asked if scientists indicate under what phase of the m o o n propolis should be
applied!). This generational ridicule led m e to doubt the m a n y instances in m y
childhood w h e n I saw the remarkable effects of the concoction when applied to
lesions. Your article has removed m y doubt.
I have distributed the Bulgarian scientific report widely across the generational
gap, and a m searching a m o n g m y father's papers to find the recipe for 'grafting
wax' as used in healing. Should I find it, I shall send a copy to Marekov, Bankova
and Popov at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
Lowell H . HATTERY
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M A D A G A S C A R : Commission Nationale de la République S I E R R A L E O N E : Fourah Bay College, Njala University
Démocratique de Madagascar pour l'Unesco, Boîte pos- and Sierra Leone Diocesan Bookshops, F R E E T O W N .
tale 331, ANTANANARIVO. S I N G A P O R E : Federal Publications (S) Pte. Ltd., Times
MALAWI: Malawi Book Service, Head Office, P . O . Jurong, 2 Jurong Port Road, S I N G A P O R E 2261.
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MALAYSIA: Federal Publications Sdn. Bbd., Lot 8238 Ja- MOGADISCIO.
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Co-operative Bookshop, K U A L A L U M P U R 22-11. Ediciones Liber, apartado 17, Magdalena 8, O N D A R R O A
M A L I : Librairie populaire du Mali, B.P. 28, BAMAKO. (Vizcaya); Donaire, Ronda de Outeiro 20, apartado de
M A L T A : Sapienzas, 26 Republic Street, V A L L E T T A . correos 341, L A C O R U N A ; Librería Al-Andalus, Roldana 1
M A U R I T A N I A : G R A . LI. C O . M A , 1, rue du Souk X , y 3, SEVILLA 4; Librería Castells, Ronda Universidad 13,
Avenue Kennedy, N O U A K C H O T T . B A R C E L O N A 7.
M A U R I T I U S : Nalanda C o . , Ltd., 30 Bourbon Street, SRI L A N K A : Lake House Bookshop, Sir Chittampalam
PORT-LOUIS. Gardiner Mawata, P . O . Box 244, C O L O M B O 2.
M E X I C O : S A B S A , Insurgentes Sur n.° 1032-401, M E X I C O S U D A N : Al Bashir Bookshop, P . O . Box 1118, K H A R T O U M .
12, D . F . ; Librería El Correo de la Unesco, Actipan 66, S U R I N A M E : Suriname National Commission for Unesco,
Colonia del Valle. M E X I C O 12, D . F . P . O . Box 2943, P A R A M A R I B O .
M O N A C O : British Library, 30, boulevard des Moulins, S W E D E N : Publications: A / B C . E . Fritzes Kung. H o v -
MONTE-CARLO. bokhandel, Regeringsgatan 12, Box 16356, S-103 27
M O R O C C O : Librairie 'Aux belles images', 282, avenue S T O C K H O L M . For 'The Courier*: Svenska FN-Förbundet,
M o h a m m e d - V , R A B A T , C . C . P . 68-74. For 'The Courier' Skolgrind 2, Box 150 50, S-104 65 S T O C K H O L M (Postgiro
(for teachers): Commission nationale marocaine pour 18 46 92). Subscriptions: Wennergren-Williams A B ,
l'Éducation, la Science et la Culture, 19, rue O q b a , Box 30004, S-104 25, S T O C K H O L M .
B . P . 420, A G D A L - R A B A T ( C . C . P . 324-45); Librairie des S W I T Z E R L A N D : Europa Verlag, Rämistrasse 5, 8024
écoles, 12, avenue Hassan-II, C A S A B L A N C A ; Société chéri- Z Ü R I C H ; Librairies Payot (Genève, Lausanne, Bâle, Berne,
fienne de distribution et de presse, S O C H E P R E S S , angle Vevey, Montreux, Neuchâtel, Zurich).
rues de Dînant et Saint-Saens, B . P . 683, C A S A B L A N C A 05. S Y R I A N A R A B R E P U B L I C : Librairie Sayegh, Immeuble
M O Z A M B I Q U E : Instituto Nacional do Livro e do Disco Diab, rue du Parlement, B . P . 704, D A M A S .
( I N L D ) , Avenida 24 de Julho, 1921-r/c e 1.° andar, T H A I L A N D : Suksapan Panit, Mansion 9, Rajdamnern
MAPUTO. Avenue, B A N G K O K ; Nibondh & C o . Ltd., 40-42 Charoen
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N E T H E R L A N D S : Publications: Keesing Bocken B . V . , Suksit Siam Company, 1715 R a m a IV Road, B A N G K O K .
Joan Muyskenweg 22, Postbus 1118,1000 BC A M S T E R D A M . T O G O : Librairie Évangélique, B . P . 378, L O M É ; Librairie
Periodicals: D & N-Faxon B . V . , Postbus 197, 1000 A D du Bon Pasteur, B . P . 1164, L O M É ; Librairie Universitaire,
AMSTERDAM. B.P. 3481, LOMÉ.
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N E W C A L E D O N I A : Reprex S A R L , B.P. 1572, N O U M É A . St. Clair, P O R T O F S P A I N .
N E W Z E A L A N D : Government Printing Office Bookshops: T U N I S I A : Société tunisienne de diffusion, 5, avenue de
Retail Bookshop—25 Rutland Street; Mail orders—85 Carthage, T U N I S .
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Street; Mail orders—P.O. Box 857, H A M I L T O N . Retail Posta Kutusu 219, Beyoglu, I S T A N B U L .
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(Head Office); Mail orders—Private Bag, W E L L I N G T O N . U R U G U A Y : Edilyr Uruguya, S . A . , Maldonado 1092,
Retail—159 Hereford Street; Mail orders—Private Bag, MONTEVIDEO.
CHRISTCHURCH. Retail-Princes Street; Mail orders U S S R : Mezhdunarodnaja Kniga, M O S K V A G-200.
—P.O. Box 1104, DUNEDIN. U N I T E D K I N G D O M : H M S O Publications Centre, P . O .
N I C A R A G U A : Librería Cultural Nicaragüense, calle 15 de Box 276, L O N D O N S W 8 5 D T ; Government Bookshops:
Septiembre y avenida Bolivar, apartado n.° 807, M A N A G U A ; London, Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Edinburgh, M a n -
Librería de la Universidad Centroamericana, Apartado 69, chester; Third World Publications, 151 Stratford Road,
MANAGUA B I R M I N G H A M B I I i R D . For scientific maps only: McCarta
NIGER: Librairie Mauclert, B.P. 868, NIAMEY. Ltd, 122 King's Cross Road, L O N D O N W C I X 9 D S .
NIGERIA: The University Bookshop of Ife; The Univer- U N I T E D R E P U B L I C O F C A M E R O O N : Le Secrétaire
sity Bookshop of Ibadan, P . O . Box 286; T h e University général de la Commission nationale de la République-
Bookshop of Nsukka; The University Bookshop of Lagos; Unie du Cameroun pour l'Unesco, B . P . röoo, Y A O U N D E ;
The A h m a d u Bello University Bookshop of Zaria. Librairie des Éditions Clé, B.P. 1501, Y A O U N D E ; Librairie
N O R W A Y : Publications: Johan Grundt T a n u m , Karl, St Paul, B . P . 763, Y A O U N D E ; Librairie aux Messageries,
Johans Gate 41/43, O S L O I, Universitets Bokhandelen, Avenue de la Liberté, B.P. 5921, D O U A L A ; Librairie aux
Universitetssentret, P . O . B . 307, Blindem, O S L O 3. frères réunis, B . P . 5346, D O U A L A . Centre de diffusion du
For 'The Courier*: A / S Narvesens Litteraturjeneste, livre camerounais, B . P . 338, D O U A L A .
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P A K I S T A N : Mirza Book Agency, 65 Shahrah Quaid- Bookshop, P . O . Box 9030, D A R ES S A L A A M .
i-Azam, P . O . Box 729 L A H O R E 3; Unesco Publications U N I T E D S T A T E S O F A M E R I C A : U N I P U B , 205 East
Centre, Regional Office for Book Development in Asia 42nd Street, N E W Y O R K , N Y 10017. Orders for books and
and the Pacific ( R O B D A P ) , 39 Delhi Housing Society, periodicals: U N I P U B , P . O . Box 1222, A N N A R B O R ,
P . O . Box 8950, K A R A C H I 29. M I 48106.
P A N A M A : Distribuidora Cultura Internacional, Apar- U P P E R V O L T A : Librairie Attie, B . P . 64, O U A G A D O U G O U ;
tado 7571, Zona 5, P A N A M A . Librairie Catholique 'Jeunesse d'Afrique', O U A G A D O U G O U .
P A R A G U A Y : Agencia de Diarios y Revistas, Sra. Nelly de U R U G U A Y : Editorial Losada Uruguay, S . A . Maldona-
Garda Astillero, Pte. Franco 580, A S U N C I Ó N . do 1092, M O N T E V I D E O .
P E R U : Librería Studium, Plaza Francia 1164, Apar- V E N E Z U E L A : Librería del Este, Av. Francisco de Miran-
tado 2139, L I M A . da, 52, Edificio Galipán, Apartado 60337, C A R A C A S ;
P H I L I P P I N E S : National Book Store Inc., 701 Rizal D I L A E C . A . (Distribuidora Latinoamericana de Edi-
Avenue, M A N I L A . ciones C . A . ) , Calle San Antonio entre A v . Lincoln y
P O L A N D : O R P A N - I m p o r t , Palac Kultury, 00-901 W A R - Av. Casanova, Edificio Hotel Royal—Local 2, Apar-
S Z A W A ; Ars Polona-Ruch, Krakowskie Przedroiescie N o . 7, tado 50.304, Sabana Grande, C A R A C A S .
00-068 W A R S Z A W A . Y U G O S L A V I A : Jugoslovenska Knjiga, Trg Republike 5/8,
P O R T U G A L : Dias & Andrade Ltda, Livraria Portugal, P . O . Box 36, 11-001 B E O G R A D ; Drzavna Zalozba Slove-
rua do Carmo 70, LISBOA. nije, Titova C 25, P . O . B . , 50-1, 60-000 L J U B L J A N A .
P U E R T O R I C O : Librería Alma Mater, Cabrera 867, Rio Z A I R E : Librairie du C I D E P , B . P . 2307, K I N S H A S A ; C o m -
Piedras, P U E R T O R I C O 00925. mission nationale zaïroise pour l'Unesco, Commissariat
R O M A N I A : A R T E X I M , Export/Import, Piata Scienteii d'État chargé de l'Éducation nationale, B . P . 32, K I N S H A S A .
n° 1, P . O . Box 33-16, 70005 BuCHARESi. Z A M B I A : National Educational Distribution C o . of
S A U D I A R A B I A : Dar Al-Watan for Publishing and Zambia Ltd., P . O . Box 2664, L U S A K A .
Information, Olaya Main Street, Ibrahim Bin Sulaym Z I M B A B W E : Textbook Sale« ( P V T ) Ltd., 67 Union
Building, P . O . Box 3310, R I Y A D H . Avenue, H A R A R E .

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