Women's Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt

Author(s): Barbara S. Lesko

Source: The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15
Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210327
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 _-|P9nentl
areEvenusualwiusual
tylhfemaligrace
finlygtomb
ureseportrayed
scenes-
andpromi
workers

Womeas
Monumental
Grand temples and tombs
and colossal statues bear
Mark on chronological chart} offer the rare
opportunity to look at a society
many reminders of Egypt's
aIlcient queens and fe-
Ancient going about its business, not just
religious and funerary rites but
male pharaohs, but even common
women left a monumental mark. Egypt agricultural, hunting and economic
pursuits as well as entertainment
This legacy consists of tomb chapels and sports. The svelte, attractively
by BarbaraS.
with extensive wall decoration, por- Lesko groomed snd fetchingly garbed
trait statues, funerary Egyptian woman
and votive stelae, and _ _ cuts a striking figure
offering tables, all _ in almost all scenes.
bearing the names and
titles of their owners _==
or dedicators (even -
those of their nearest _ g 1\X dignity. The wife
relatives). This corpus _b i,jx of the tomb owner
iS not well published _a
and is little studied, _ a
but has survived in =
R _ as her husband's
unbelievable quanti- E ! R companion and sup-
ties, often because !
Ei porter. In Old King-
these objects were s
|sMi dom scenes children
made of stone. Publi- 1sX1 and retainers are
cation and analysis of al typically rendered on
these monuments has ! | a much smaller scale.
unfortunately not _ I When viewing
kept pace with their tomb walls, it is easy
discoveries, so the information gleaned Even female workers were usuallyportrayed to fall into the trap set by the an-
with dignity and gzace, such as these female
cient artistic perspective, where
from them thus far will be subject to
farmworkers decorating the Fifth Dynasty
correction, or enhancement, as more figures that are meant to be shown
tomb of Ti at Sakkara. Drawing by Leonard
source materials become available. H. Lesko. seated side by side appear to be sit-
Although there is no firm agree- ting behind one another. Because
ment among Egyptologists on the civil the wife is most often depicted as
rights and economic levels of the dif- the survivor and mourner, she is
ferent classes in ancient Egyptian so- What Xmb Art Reveals often portrayed as supporting or
ciety-or, indeed, how to distinguish of the Average Woman otherwise clasping her husband. It
among them-we know that common Ancient tombs are found throughout was important for the Egyptian artist
women as well as women in the elite the Nile Valley, its limestone cliffs to present the entire human figure,
and royal classes were commemo- harring provided convenient and easily and this necessitated placing the
rated by physical monuments. I will cut rock that could be used as build- wife in such a way that she appears
concentrate on these monuments, ing blocks or hollowed into, depend- to be taking a position behind her
both artistic and architectural, as a ing on the preference of the age. husband when in fact, she is meant
way of illustrating the independence, Vast expanses of wall decoration to be seen as sitting or standing be-
responsible positions and self-respect dating from the later Old Kingdom side him, as in sculptured groups
enjoyed by various classes of women and subsequent Middle and New that survive from the three major
in ancient Egyptian society. Kingdom periods {see accompanying early periods.

4 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991

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 -l ze-4Flw .@
A; t

_ if_ ' X

This scene from the tomb of Nakht at Thebes,

dating to the Eighteenth Dynasty, shows
Throughout Egyptian history (Fischer 1989: 21). This gives us a
female musicians entertaining at a banquet.
women prominent in tomb scenes are Scenes such as this indicate that ancient strong indication that women wielded
most often depicted as companions Egyptian women fully mingled in society. the family's purchasing power, a
Photo by Leonard H. Lesko.
of the men being commemorated. prestigious and definitely not uni-
Their attainments, such as literacy, versal position. Also significant is
or their most prestigious public ac- evidence that in the earliest histori-
tivities are usually only subtly
Throughout Egyptian cal periods weaving workshops were
hinted at in these portraits (through filled exclusively by women, whereas
the ornaments they hold) and are
history women men did not move into this impor-
mentioned very briefly, if at all, in tant industry for several centuries.
the accompanying inscriptions. We
promillent in tomb In the Old Kingdom, titles de-
can also wonder why more detailed noting positions of responsibility
descriptions of a man's career, scenes are most and authority belonged to women of
whether in the military, the civil the elite class, who generally were
service, or the temple hierarchy, are often depicted as closely tied by blood or marriage to
not shown, whereas in Old Kingdom the royal family. Tomb inscriptions
tombs and some tombs dating to
companions of the of some women provide startling
later periods the supervising of work
on estates and workshops is empha-
men commemorated. evidence of their professional in-
volvements. One woman tells of be-
sized. It is likely that religious mo- ing an overseer of female physicians
tivation was behind the choice of Iyt-hotep, bearing the title Mistress of the House (Ghalioungui 1975). Another used
tomb scenes. Perhaps the perpetual and Chantress of Amon, is pictured in this wall the important titles of judge and
decoration from tomb number 96 at Thebes.
abundance of food and water in the Notice she is carrying an ankh and other cult
vizier, although they may have been
beyond, even the renewal of the life implements. Photo by Leonard H. Lesko. purely honorific (Fischer 1976: 74-
cycle, is being assured and not the 75). There is, however, an abundance
continuation of earthly concerns of titles for women in positions of
and identities. Thus tomb scenes are authority, such as Director of the
only of limited value in reconstruct- Dining Hall, Overseer of Funerary
ing peoples' lives, offering a partial Priests and Overseer of the Weavers'
and biased look at the Egyptian House, to name a few (Fischer 1976:
family and society. 70-71). It would seem that few re-
Nevertheless it is obvious from strictions were placed on women of
these tomb scenes that ancient ability and high social status in the
Egyptian women were respected and Old Kingdom. It is interesting to
that they fully mingled in society, note that religious positions were
playing many roles, whether in the not limited to noblewomen, for we
household, the temple cults, or the have found priestesses of major god-
economic realm. Peasant women are desses who bear humble titles such
depicted as helping with the harvest as tenant farmer.
and trapping birds; townswomen are Many administrative, honorific
shown as professional mourners, and priestly titles for women have
musicians and dancers, members of been recovered from Old Kingdom
a temple staff and party guests. Rare, monuments; fewer have been found
though extant, are scenes of a woman from the Middle Kingdom, which
commanding a boat or buying and followed the First Intermediate
selling goods in the marketplace Period, a time of social and economic

Biblical Archaeologists March 1991 5

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 Throughout Egyptian historyprominent
women in tomb scenes are most often depicted
as companions of the men being commemo-
rated. Here are Renutet, priestess of EIathor,
and her husband, Yuny. This New Kingdom
portrait dates to the Nineteenth Dynasty.
Photo courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York (15.2.1, Rogers Fund).

piece as being unmistakably from

the Old Kingdom.
A more attractive female portrait
is the Middle Kingdom statue of
Lady Sentluwy, wife of the Nomarch
Hapdjefi. Originally from Asslut and
now in the Museum of Fine Arts in
Boston, this statue is a supreme ex-
ample of lifesized Egyptian portrai-
ture carved in granite. The grace of
the female figure is enhanced by the
unknown sculptor's disperlsirlg with
the back pillar, which too often mars
Egyptian sculpture in the round. A
very full coiffure lends necessary
support for the head, resulting in a

instability. Middle Kingdom titles Numerous records show this was The pair statue was verypopular, but women
for women seldom reflect positions true of free women in generalt not were not onlyportrayed in the company of
their husbands or sons. Individual female
of authority (Ward 1989: 34-391, just those of the gentry (Allam 1985: portraits have been found from throughout
which suggests political and eco- 14-221. On a personal levelt it is the centuries. One example is this Mitr.t-
nomic changes. Instead, they reveal clear that women enjoyed freedom priestess from Giza, discovered earlier this
century by an excavation team from the
a range of jobs in the service indus- of movement and association, that University of California at Berkeley. The
tries, from scribe to hairdresser, they could marry and divorce at will, simple dress, stocky build and bold planes of
gardener to miller (Ward 1986: 8-171. that they engaged in commerce and the statue characterize it as belonging to the
Old Kingdom. Photo courtesy of the Lowie
During the prosperous empire of that they were able to exercise Museum of Anthropology, the University of
the New Kingdom, the civil service authority over others in the work- California at Berkeley (619802).
and temple hierarchies became even place or temple.
more professionalizedt yet there is Statuary of women. In addition to
evidence that women again served in wall scenes, tombs and temples con-
the cults of major as well as minor tained private statuary of both women
temples and that they filled some and men. Private monuments from
administrative positions, such as ancient Egypt tend to be diminutivet
controlling access to temple stores especially if carved out of stone.
(Lesko 1987a: 211. Numerous texts For much of its history, the pair
have survived from this period, in- statue showing a husband and wife
cluding court documents and private (sometimes a son and mother) seated
letters revealing that women had side by side was popular. A woman
their own independent legal identity was not only portrayed in the com-
on a par with men and that they pany of her husband or son, however,
could inherit or purchase property as individual portraits of women are
and dispose of it without a male co- found from throughout the centuries.
signatory or legal guardian. Indeedt One example is the Mitr.t-priestess
women were heads of households, from Giza discovered earlier this
testified in court, witnessed docu- century by an excavation team from
ments, acted as executors of their the University of California. The
family estates and assumed the obli- simple dress, stocky build and bold
gations of a citizen vis-a-vis the State. planes of the statue characterize this

6 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991

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 Art in New York, was found at Adana than statues, presumably because
in Asia Minor. they were easier to produce and cost
Egypt's empire continued to less, are stelae dedicated to preserving
expand in the New Kingdom, result- the memory of individuals. These
ing in greater cosmopolitan sophistz- stelae depict the deceased, and
cation. During this period portraits sometimes family members, seated
of womerl were created in all media at a table loaded with food and drinl<.
and sizes, with the womarSs social They are inscribed with the names
status or wealth generally reflected and titles of the owner land usually
in the size of the statue. The wife of family membersJ together with an
a high official might be commemo- invocation that was meant either
rated in a life-sized sculpture, while magically to perpetuate the offerings
women of more humble stations of "a thousand each of bread, beer,
had to be content with statuettes
measuring only a foot or two in
height. Although a woman was

Egyptians believed
that when their
depictions were put
in tombs it would
perpetuate them
into eternal life.

usually paired with a male relative,

there are several statues in which a
woman is paired with a female rela-
tive (usually a mother and daughter),
and there are individual portrait
sculptures as well. Typically in this
This Middle Kingdom portrait of Lady more voluptuous age the artist took
Sennuwy of Assiut, wife of the Nomarch great care to delineate the curls
Hapdjefis is a supreme example of life-sized
of the wigs and the texture of the
Egyptian portraiture carved in granite. Note
that the unknown sculptor used a full coiffure dresses. Some of the most enchant-
instead of the usual back pillar to support ing individual portraits of women
the head, resulting in a graceful, more lifelike
are done in wood and come from the
portrayal. Photo courtesy of the Museum of
Fine Arts) Boston (14. 720). Ramesside age. The lines of their
slim and always youthful bodies are
more lifelike portrayal. Still, one shown through diaphanous linen
wishes for more autobiographical robes with folds and pleats that are
information from these monuments. especially easy to portray in this
Mysteriously, this statue was found softer medium. Idealistic portrayals As Egypt's empire continued to expand during
the New Kingdom, a greater cosmopolitan
far from her home in the Dongola were very common apparently be-
sophistication resulted. Typically in this
region of the Upper Nile, part of a cause the Egyptians believed that more voluptuous age sculptors took great care
barbaric burial. Determining how, when such depictions were placed in to delineate the curls of women's wigs and
the texture of their dresses, as exemplified by
when and why it got there is prob- tombs they would perpetuate them
this wooden statuette of Lady Teye dating to
lematic. Similarly, a much smaller into eternal life. After all, who would the Eighteenth Dynasty. Photo courtesy of
statue of an Egyptian female nurse, not lilne to remain young forever? the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
(41.2.10, Rogers Pund).
now in the Metropolitan Museum of Private stelae. Even more common

BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991 7

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 oxen, and fowl" or at Iconographic changes
least-provide a text for l l in scenes depicted on
passersby to recite and | I stelae have been studied,
thus ensure sustenance | ! and it is interesting to
to the deceased land | | note that as the Twelfth
family). l | Dynasty progressed the
The majority of ste- l mother seems increasing-
lae depict husbands and | ly to displace the wife in
wives, but some women l
. . . ..

prommence m taml. .y
had stelae exclusively of l! scenes on stelae owned
their own or shared l by men. Even when the
them with female rela- l father is depicted, he is
tives. Stelae donated by l never portrayed as promi-
daughters to commemo- nently as the mother
rate their mothers have | (Pfluger 1947: 128-29).
been found. In any case, | The importance of the
the names of the women | mother in the Egyptian
are often accompanied family is reflected in the
by their titles, whether | literature of all periods
secular or religious. | as well as in the fact that
Many female members X Egyptian men, even those
of the Old Kingdom elite of the highest social class
bore the title of King's and in highest ranlQs of
Acquaintance, also the civil service or the
known from monuments || military, often placed
of men. Later, the most | only their mothers'
common title, regardless 1] names on their monu-
of social status, was 11 ments and other docu-
Mistress of the House. A ments. Family groups
woman who could claim predominate on stelae
a clerical title was sure i from all periods. As with
to mention it on her stelae depicting only men,
tomb, statue, or stela. the number of stelae
Such monuments tell of designed exclusively for
the roles women played in ancient Even more common than statues are stelae women seems to be small. Scenes on
Egyptian society, which, when dedicated to preserving the memory of indi-
funerary stelae usually show a male
viduals. These stelae depict the deceased,
compared with dates of the source and sometimes family members, sitting at a figure, probably a son, performing
materials, changed over time. For table loaded with food and drink. They are rites before his parents, but occa-
instance, more women held high- inscribed with the names and titles of the
sionally a female figure officiates.
owner together with an invocation designed
ranking priestess positions in the to ensure sustenance to the deceased and Female votive stelae, on which only
Old Kingdom than in the centuries family. The ma jority of stelae depict husbandsthe women dedicator is depicted
immediately following it (Galvin and wives, but some women had stelae of
worshiping her favorite deities, have
their own or shared them with female rela-
1989: 26) been found in numerous town and
tives. This painted limestone stela from the
Up until the Twelfth Dynasty Middle Kingdom is dedicated to two women, cemetery contexts, such as at Deir
(Middle Kingdom), stelae were made InyotefanAh and Meswet-NetretteXh, by four
el-Medineh and Abydos.
other women, presumably of modest means.
for funerary purposes only, but Photo courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum Nineteenth-century archae-
about half the pieces dating to the of ArtJ New York (36.3.270). ologist Auguste Mariette found 23
Middle Kingdom seem to have been Late Period stelae of women bearing
dedicated during a persoWs life as tables dedicated by women were the religious title chantress together
votives for gods. Similarly, small found together at Lisht. They were in one part of the great national
stone offering tables bearing the apparently dedicated by women of shrine and necropolis of Abydos,
names and titles of the dedicators modest means, with titles ranging which was sacred to Osiris, a god of
were a favorite form of commemora- from hall keeper to housemaid and, the dead (Mariette 1880: numbers
tion as well as an expression of a possibly, cleaning lady (Ward 1989: 1173-94). Of the 23 stelae, only five
personts piety. A group of 14 offering 33-34). included a husband's figure and name,

8 BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991

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whereas 18 belonged to women alone. in the royal Eastern Cemetery. For
Most of these were chantresses of instance, Queen Mersyankh III, who
Osiris, but three served Isis and two died before her husband King Khafre
served Amon. This group of stelae and her mother Queen Hetepheres II,
suggests that women could exercise was laid to rest in a large mastaba
freedom of choice when it came to with above-ground chapels inside
their funerary monuments; it also and outside the superstructure as
furthers the possibility that wives well as an elaborate subterranean set
The best preserved evidence for the status of
depicted in limited roles in what of rooms hewn in the rock and beau-
noble women in the initial stages of pharaonic
appears to have been their husbands' Egypt survives from the Fourth Dynasty tifully decorated with wall reliefs
tomb chapel art may not always have necropolis at Giza. Above: The queens' and sculpture hewn from the living
pyramids at the pyramid of Menkaure, pic-
been buried with their husbands. rock (Dunham and Simpson 19741.
tured here, show that women shared the
They could have maintained their pharaoh's royal pyramid style tomb. Photo by
own religious funerary monuments Leonard H. Lesko. Below: Later in the Fourth
Dynasty other royal women had their flat-
at cemeteries and holy shrines of topped (mastaba) tombs intermixed with
their choosing. Because funerary those of their brothers in the royal Eastern
and other religious monuments con- Cemetery. Queen MersyanAh III, who died
before her husband King Khafre and her
tain little biographical information mother Queen Hetepheres II, was laid to rest
-and do not focus on the concerns of in a large mastaba with above-ground chapels
everyday life, it is fortunate that inside and outside the superstructure as well
as an elaborate, beautifully decorated sub-
Egyptian texts in the form of personal terranean set of rooms hewn in the rock.
letters and administrative documents Hetepheres and MersyanAh are portrayed in
abound. From these documents a this pair statue. Photo courtesy of the
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (30.1456).
much clearer picture of the lives led
by ordinary Egyptians can be recon-
This impressive tomb built by Queen Khent-
structed (compare James 1962, 1984; kawes lies between the causeways of the sec-
Cerny 1973; Bierbrier 1982; Romer ond and third pyramids at Giza. Living at the
1984; Lesko 1987a, 1987b). end of the Fourth Dynasty, KhentRawes is
believed to have been the dynastic link to the
Fifth Dynasty because her most significant
Monuments of Egyptian Queens title translates as Mother of Two Kings of
Tombs belonging exclusively to Upper and Lower Egypt. One of the sons
must have been King Neferirkare, who built
women have survived from the be- on the south side of his pyramid tomb at Abu
ginning of Egyptian history. Some Sir a smaller pyramid tomb for Khentkawes.
queens of the early dynasties were Photo by Leonard H. Lesko.

commemorated with tombs as large

as those of kings, testimony to their Between the causeways of the
all-important heiress position and to second and third pyramids at Giza
their religious significance as daugh- lies an impressive tomb built by
ters and wives of god-kings. However, Queen Khentkawes. Living at the
the best preserved evidence for the end of the Fourth Dynasty, she is
status of noble women in the initial believed to have been the dynastic
stages of pharaonic Egypt survives link to the Fifth Dynasty because
from the Fourth Dynasty (Old King- her most significant title translates
dom) necropolis at Giza. The wives as Mother of Two Kings of Upper
and mother of Khufu (Cheops), builder and Lower Egypt. One of the sons
of the Great Pyramid, shared with must have been King Neferirkare,
him the royal pyramid style tomb, who built his pyramid tomb at near-
its magical qualities and the royal by Abu Sir; there he provided, on the
funerary religious literature lEdwards south side, a smaller pyramid tomb
1986: 189-96, 296-302), a privilege for Khentkawes, thus restoring to
not granted even to the male heir her the benefits of such a tomb style.
apparent. Later in the dynasty other Her original large tomb may not
royal women had their large, flat- have seemed so inferior to the queen
topped (mastaba) tombs inter- mother, however, because King
mingled with those of their brothers Shepseskhaf, who ruled at the end of

Biblical Archaeologisto March 1991 9

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 become well-known from another
portrait that recently traveled the
world as part of the Rarnesses the
Great exhibition.
If the wife and family of Rames-
ses II are lilliputians next to his four
colossi at Abu Simbel's greater
temple, so too is the supreme god
Re, depicted on his perch above the
entrance door. The fact that the
king's family were often depicted at
the level of the legs of his colossal
figure should not blind us to the im-
portance of the great royal wife in
Egyptian history. The queen was often
of purer royal blood than her hus-
band, whose claim to the throne she
This colossal figure of Queen Nefertari,
flanked by those of her husband} Ramesses legitimized. In religious terms, the
the Great, are cut into the facade of Nefertari's queen was the embodiment of the
temple at Abu Simbel, located several hundred
goddesses Hathor (wife of Re) and
yards to the north of the main temple Larger-
than-life statues of queens appeared in the Duality of rulership seems to be expressed by
Old Kingdom and continued into the Middle this powerful Fourth Dynasty portrait group
Kingdom} but it was during the New Kingdom of King Menkaure and Queen Khamerernebty,
that the most dazzling array of monuments as the figures are of equal size and stance.
commemoratinggreat women was produced. Photo by Leonard H. Lesko, courtesy of the
Photo by Leonard H. Lesko. Museum of Fine ArtsJ Boston.

the Fourth Dynasty, had also elected lDuell 1938). Such were the biases of
to have this same style of tomb, male researchers in the 1930s.
which loolred lilre a giant sarcophagus The monuments of ancient Egyp-
mounted on a high podium. How- tian queens or great royal wives las
ever, the practice of providing a pyra- they were called) are too numerous
mid tomb for queens continued into to recount here. Many are familiar
the Sixth Dynasty and the Twelfth to everyone, however, such as the
Dynasty, after which time royal painted portrait bust of Queen Nefer-
pyramids were abandoned in favor of titi, wife of the controversial pharaoh
more hidden, rock-hewn sepulchres. Alrhenaten, or the colossal figure of
During the Old Kingdom, prin- Nefertari, wife of Ramesses the Great,
cesses and wives of powerful men sculpted into the facade of the smaller
were often provided with stelae and temple of Abu Simbel. Larger-than-
statuary for their tombs from the life statues of queens appeared in the
royal workshops. In time their Old Kingdom and continued into
mastaba tomb chapels, like those of the Middle Kingdom, but it was dur-
their husbands, became more and ing the Eighteenth and Nineteenth
more elaborate. Whole suites of Dynasties that the most dazzling
rooms invaded the mass of the array of monuments commemorat-
mastaba, their walls covered entire- ing great women was produced. The
ly with depictions of the owners, colossal pair statue of Amenhotep III
their retinues, and activities on their and his common-born wife Queen
estates. It is unfortunate that the Tiy dominates the main court of the
publlcation of one of the most sig- Cairo Museum, and a colossus 131
nificant tombs of the Sixth Dynasty, feet tall) of the daughter of Ramesses
that of Prince Mereruka, neglected the the Great once stood beside his colos-
rooms devoted to his wife, Princess sus that still stands at a temple in
Watetkhet-Hor, and concentrated on Akhmim. The attractive features of
only the husband's part of the tomb this princess, Meryetamun, have

10 BiblicalArchaeologistJ March 1991

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Mut (wife of Amon); in earlier ages the Eighteenth Dynasty. Her mag- for her father. Inscriptions in the
she was closely associated with the nificent mortuary temple at Deir el- temple purport to quote Thutmose I
goddess Neit. The famous pair stat- Bahri is the greatest monument to as pronouncing his daughter his heir
ue in the Museum of Fine Arts in a woman surviving from antiquity. and asking the chief men of the realm
Boston depicting King Menkauref Numerous statues of her have been to support her (Naville 1898: plates
builder of the third Giza pyramid, uncovered by excavations, most of LXI-LXII). Not content with this pa-
and his queenf Khamerernebtyf is which are on display at the Metro- ternal political supportf Hatshepsut
the epitome of equality in size and politan Museum of Art in New York. also clarified her divine right to rule
strength. The two figures share the They include leonine sphinxes and by recording the miracle of her birth
traditional masculine stance of left towering Osiride statuesZ all bearing on the walls of the second terrace,
foot forward. The queens features are the queenfs delicately feminine face. north endf with vast and detailed
repeated on statues of the goddess Some sculptures show Hatshepsut scenes-of her divine conception and
Hathor found nearby in this temple. in garb traditionally worn by male birth (Naville 1896: plates XLVII-
Some daughters of the godJ as pharaohs; others show her in a dress. XLIX; LIII-LIV). Also illustrated are
full-blooded royal princesses were New Kingdom pharaohs were apt how Amonf king of the gods} desig-
calledf not only legitimized a half- to provide chapels for their predeces- nated HatshepsutJs mother to be his
brother or an unrelated candidateJs sors within their own mortuary bride; how she conceived Hatshepsut;
claim to rulef they actually took the templesZ but Hatshepsut, instead how all the great ancestral goddesses
reins of government. The best known of dedicating a chapel for her late aided her birth and suckled her; andJ
example of this was Hatshepsut in husband, turned it over to services laterf how the great god arranged and
presided over her coronation. To
celebrate 15 years on the thronef
Hatshepsut held a jubilee and erected
obelisks sheathed in gold alloy; they
were taller than her fatherfs and
loomed above the roof line of the
Rarnak temple.

Above: The terraced mortuary temple of

Queen Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri on the
west bank at Luxor is the greatest monument
to a woman survivingfrom antiquity. Left:
There are numerous statues of this Eigh-
teenth Dynasty queenJ who reigned d7uring an
age of prosperity, sophistication and relative
peace. This sphinx emphasizes Hatshepsutts
kingly role by presenting her as a lion, an age-
old motif regarded as the prerogative of kings.
Photo courtesy of the Metropolitan M7useum
of 24rtJ New York (31.3. 94).

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 Ael fth Dynasty 19 1 1786
Hatshepsut reigned in an age of successorl Thutmose IZ when he set Wall paintixlgs in many private
prosperityZ sophistication and rela- up a colossal statue of the old quee.n tombs memorialize the great queen.
tive peaceZ which she claimed to in the court he built at Karnak. It Major monuments of another
have kept herself by joining her was Thut mo s e's daughterZ Hat shep - Eighteenth Dynasty queen came un-
troops across EgyptZs southern boun- sutS who later succeeded to the expectedly to light when a University
dary ill displays of military force. Godls Wife position. of Toronto excavation team led by
Hatshepsut was followed on the Donald B. Redford set out to recover
throne by her nephewZ the highly
capable ruler Thutmose IIII who has
During the last temples that the heretic king Amen-
hotep IV (Akhexlaten) built at Karnak
been called the Napoleon of Egypt
for his empire building (although he
10 dynasties and dedicated to his new god, the
solar discJ Aten. Such structures
was really repeating exploits of
HatshepsutZs father). Thlltmose III is
private statuary were known to exist because of the
thousands of looseZ small stone
believed to have been responsible for
the eventual destruction of Hatshep-
markedly decreased. blocks (ta1atat) that had lain un-
assembled for many years, like mis-
sutZs monumexlts. If so, we must sus- placed pieces of a jigsaw pussleZ in
pect that the memory of this strong After her deathJ Ahmose- the shadows of the Karnak temple.
female pharaoh lingered in the Nefertari was deifiedZ and her name When Canadian and Egyptian archae-
minds of her people and was viewed was evoked in prayers alongside ologists began to study the blocks
as a threat by her male successors. those of the Theban holy triad. Her and uncover moxe from the interior
Hatshepsut came from a long line cult was popular in Egypt for many of the second and tenth pylons (where
of dynamic women. Among these centuriesZ particularly among the the blocks had been reused after
was Queen Ahmose-Nefertaril wife Akhenaten/s temples had been torn
of AhmoseZ founder of the Eighteenth down) the excavators were astonished
Ancient Egyptian Chronology
Dynasty. Ahmose-Nefextari was to find that the predominant royal
3100-30 B.C.E.
given considerable authority ixl the First Dynasty 3100-2890 figure in the cult of the god was
cult of the King of the Gods whexl Second Dynasty 2890-2686 Queen Nefertiti.
she was made GodJs Wife of AmonZ The largest of the two Aten
Old Ktngdom
a position that held a chief role as a Third Dynasty 26862613 temples at Karnak (the Gem Pa Aten)
priestess in the national cult center Pourth Dynasty 2613-2494 had many rows of piexs decorated
and was provided with goods and Fifth Dynasty 2494-2345
with large scenes of Nefertiti and her
Sixth DyIlasty 2345-2181
property legally documexlted and eldest daughter, MeretatenZ sacrific-
published for all to see on a monu- 1st Intermediate Period 2181-2050 ing to the sun disk at the high altar.
mental stela set up in the temple of Axlother temple, the Maxlsion of the
Middle Kingdom
Amon at Karnak (Robins 1983: 70- Eleventh Dynasty 2134-1991 Benben Stone (the age-old sacred
73). There is no question that totem of the sun godit was awholly
Ahmose-Nefertari functioned active- given over to the use of the queenZ'
2nd Intermediate Period 1786-1567
ly as a priestess in the Amon cult (Redford 1984: 138). Its pyloned gate-
and that she wielded considerable New Kingdom ways also had large scenes showing
economic power and controlled build- Eighteenth Dynasty 1567-1320
the queen and her eldest daughters
Nineteenth Dynasty 1320-1200
ing projects at several cult sites Twentieth Dynasty 1200-1085 as celebrants in the cult. The queen
throughout the country. Even beyond appears twice as often as her husband
thist her royal titles included the ex- 3rd Intexmediate Period 1085-747
in the talatat scenes and sometimes
ceptional Female Chieftain of Upper Late Period in other pharaonic roles, such as in
and Lower Egypt, which malnes it Rushite (Twenty-fifih} Dynasty 747-664 the guise of a warrior brandishing a
Saite (Twenty-sisth} Dynasty 664-52S
lilrely that after her husband died scimitarZ ready to smite a captive
Persian Conquest 525
she ruled as regent for her sont AlexanderJs Conquest 332 (Redford 1984: 78).
Amenhotep I. New Kingdom queens Egyptologists have yet to resolve
Ptolemaic Rule 305-30
generally had to be content with the question of why Nefertiti is so
having their funerary cult place much more prominent than Akhena-
within the mortuary temple of their tomb workers of the pharaohs who ten in scenes at Thebes. Was she as-
husbandst but Amerlhotep erected a thought of her and her son as their signed to the sacred city as a repre-
mortuary temple for her. Ahmose- special patrons because under them sentative of the king ruling from the
Nefertari outlived Amenhotep and the workersZ village in the great old capltal of Memphis in the north?
was honored as well by his picked Theban necropolis was founded. Such a role later fell to the daughters

12 BiblicalArchaeologistJ March 1991

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of the monarchs of the Third Inter- name change and even greater politi-
mediate Period. Akhenaterl's prede- cal power for Nefertiti in the guise of
cessor, Amenhotep III, seemsto have King Smenkhkare (Sampson 1985:
favored Thebes as his residence, and 83-99), but recent research on the
he may have had a closer relation- royal mummy found in tomb 55 in
ship with Nefertiti than is usually the Valley of the Kings (Harris 1989)
thought, possibly as the surrogate seems to confirm that another young
father of her children. If medical royal man, very likely a brother of
experts are correct and Akhenaten Tutankhamun, preceded Tut on the
suffered from Froehliclis syndrome throne of the pharaohs. Possibly
(a malfunction of the pituitary that Nefertiti had become ill or blind by
causes, among other conditions, middle age-blindness is a distinct
sterilityl, he could not have fathered possibility for anyone who stares
Nefertiti's six daughters (Harris and directly into the sunfs rays, especially
Hussien 1988: 126; Aldred 1988: on numerous occasions-but, in any
231-321. Her father-in-law, however, case, her days of glory seem to have
had already sired several daughters been in her youth
and would have been the only rea- During the last 10 dynasties pri-
sonable answer to the young couple's vate statuary noticeably decreased,
desire for heirs. Scenes depicting perhaps as a result of economic un-
Amenhotep III as a corpulent old certainties, but numerous monu-
man were found at the site of Tell ments of various types-statues,
el-Amarna, where Akhenaten and tombs, temple shrines and monu-
mental inscriptions-belong to
women of rank in Egypt's postempire
dynasties, the Third Intermediate
Period and the Late Period. Pharaohs
of the Twenty-first to Twenty-third
Dynasties ruled from the north but
felt the need to have a family repre-
sentative based in the south, a posi-
tion which, after the New Kingdom,
became politically independent
under the high priests of Amon.
During this period pharaohs turned
to their daughters and not their sons
to represent their interests in the
Above right: Nefertiti was the wife of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten), the controversial figh- south. Thus a royal princess was cus-
teenth Dynasty pharaoh who worshiped the solar disc, Aten, above all other gods. In this
tomarily married to a Theban high
scene from one Aten temple at Karnak (now destroyed), Nefertiti and her daughter are shown
offering sacrifices at the altar of Aten, whose rays shine down upon them. Courtesy of Donald priest and became a chief concubine
B. Redford. Above: On some talatat scenes frorn Karnak, Nefertiti is shown in pharaonic roles, of Amon-Re. The daughter of such a
as in this image of her boat that includes a kiosk (top block, far lefi) in which she is portrayed
union would assume the old sacer-
as a warrior ready to strike an enerny. Photo courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
(63.260, 64.521). dotal title of God's Wife of Amon. As
previously discussed, numerous ben-
Nefertiti did not reside until year sis being more obviously physically fit efices accompanied this title. Decrees
of Akhenaterl's reign. It is possible, than her husband, may simply have in the name of the R;ing of the Gods
as Cyril Aldred has suggested, that arrogated to herself political and were carved on the walls of Karnak's
these and other scenes indicate religious power. Once Amenhotep III seventh and tenth pylons, confirming
Amenhotep III was still alive at the died, however, Nefertiti seems to the proprietary rights of these royal
time (Aldred 1988: 176-821. Thus he have gradually lost out to her eldest women and extending deification to
could have fathered Nefertiti's chil- daughter, whose presence in inscrip- them posthumously. With estates
dren as well as been a strong baclrer tions began to increase and who and officials to serve them, the God's
of her leadership role to the dis- apparently became her father's new Wives lived like monarchs and car-
advantage of his sickly and deformed favorite (Redford 1984: 187-88). ried out the official religious func-
son. It is also possible that Nefertiti, Some scholars have argued for a tions hitherto reserved for the king.

Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991 13

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Indeed, later pharaohs installed their pontiff maintained her presence as reign of Amenirdis, a northern Egyp-
daughters in this important post. the chief sacerdotal authority in tian leader whose power base was
Impoverishment and insecurity Thebes. Indeed, most scholars who the city-of Sais in the Nile Delta
marked the postempire period, and have written about this phenomenon came to the fore with Assyrian help
the Twenty-second Dynasty was believe that the God's Wife was a and founded the Twenty-sixth Dy-
marked by near civil war between veritable sovereign of the Theban nasty. This ruler, Psamtik, had his
Upper and Lower Egypt, leaving the area and areas to the south. Certainly young daughter, Nitocris, adopted
door open to invasion from the south. the royal women who functioned in into the College of Divine Adoratrices
A Kushite (Nubian) invasion in the this office dominated the official art at Thebes, although she had to wait
Twenty-fifth Dynasty brought peace of the period. her turn during the reigns of Shepe-
Shepenupet I, daughter of the nupet II and her adopted daughter
last native ruler, was forced to adopt (and actual niece) Amenirdis EI. A
Amenirdis I, the daughter of the huge granite stela set up at Karnak's
Kushite ruler Kashta, an ardent fol- west end documents Psamtik's formal
lower of Amon. Amenirdis I ruled entrance into Thebes and the endow-
joirltly with Shepenupet I for at least ment to be given to Nitocris after
13 years. As the God's Wife, Amenir- the death of those holding the title
dis I left many monuments, includ- of God's Wife (Caminos 1964: 74 76).
ing some finely sculptured portraits Nitocris lived for 70 years beyond
of herself. One portrait, now in the the date of her adoption into the
Joslyn Art Museum in Omaha, Ne- priestly hierarchy. She adopted her
braska, is not the most flattering of own great niece, Ankhes Neferibres
Amenirdis (although it plays down
her foreign featuresl and harlnens
back to much older artistic tradi-
tions. More innovative and alive is
the faience statuette in Cairo of the
same God's Wife shown in the lap of
the god Amon; they are in a close em-
brace, with their arms flung around
each other. No product of Egyptian
artists has ever better displayed such
passion between lovers.
In addition to monumental in-
Amenirdis I, daughter of the Kushite ruler scriptions and individual portraits,
Kashta, ruled jointly with Shepenupet I,
royal women bearing the title of In addition to monumental inscriptions and
daughter of the last native ruler, for at least
13 years during the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. God's Wife left funerary monuments individualportraits, royal women bearing
As the God's Wife, Amenirdis left many and tombs. Along the southeastern the title of God's Wife left funerary monu-
monuments, including some finely sculp- ments and tombs. Along the southeastern
corner of the great outer wall of the corner of the great outer wall of the mortuary
tured portraits, such as this piece now in the
Joslyn Art Museum in Omaha, Nebraska mortuary temple of Ramesses III at temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu is a
(1953. 80). The style of the wig harkens back Medinet Habu, located on the south- series of elegant funeral chapelsJ pictured
to Middle Kingdom and even Old Kingdom here. Among the best preserved is the sand-
ern end of the west bank at Luxor, is stone chapel of Amenirdis I. Photo courtesy
coiffures7 but the crown is more suggestive
of the New Kingdom. Photo courtesy of the a series of elegant funeral chapels of The Oriental Institute of The University of
Joslyn Art Museum. (Hoelscher 1954: 17-29). Among the Chicago.

best preserved is the sandstone chapel

only at the cost of many lives, and of Amenirdis I with its fine, raised who became the last God's Wife but
this peace was once again broken by relief decoration and figures drawn lost her power in 525 B.C.E. as a result
attacks from the east. Not only did in "classic proportions and purity of of the Persian conquest of Egypt.
mighty Assyria invade Egypt twice, line" (Aldred 1980: 222). Amenirdis's Space does not allow for a review
but Assyrian troops extended their inscriptions, like those of others of the many monuments dating to
rampage as far up the river as Thebes, who held the title of God's Wife, de- the Ptolemaic Period and its famous
where they desecrated the great scribe her as Mistress of Upper and queens (most notedly Arsinoe II and
temples and stripped them of much Lower Egypt, and at death she was Cleopatra VII). Suffice it to say that
treasure. Through it all, in unbroken deified. although Egypt's last independent
succession by adoption, the female Less than a century after the rulers were foreign born they found

14 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991

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 would use (Pomeroy 1984: 119 20).
much to emulate from earlier Egyp-
in Ancient Egypt. Giza: Prism Series: Oriental Institute Publica-
tian culture, the political importance
Publications. tion 66. Chicago: University of
of the royal women as well as the Bierbrier, M. Chicago Press.
grand temples. These rulers also r- 1982 Tomb Builders of the Pharaohs. James, T. G. H.
spected the age-old legal traditions London: The British Museum. 1962 The HeXanakhte Papers and Other
Caminos, R. Early Middle Kingdom Documents.
of independence and greater rights
1964 The Nitocris Adoption Stela. Iournal New York: Metropolitan Museum of
for women by allowing two law codes of Egyptian Archaeology 50: 71-101. Art.
to coexist so that women-Egyptian Cerny, J. 1984 Pharaoh's People. London: The
or Hellene-would not have to suffer 1973 A Community of WorAmen at Bodley Head.
the constraints of Greek laws but Thebes in the Ramesside Period. Lesko, B. S.
Cairo: Institut Francais d'Archeologie 1987a The Remariable Women of Ancient
would have a choice as to which they
Orientale. Egypt, second edition. Providence,
Duell, P. RI: B.C. Scribe Publications.
During the classical age, well- 1938 The Mastaba of Mereruka, two vol- 1987b Women of Egypt and the Ancient
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Dunham, D., and Simpson, W. K. thal, C. Koonz and S. Stuard. Boston:
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As the Egyptians have a climate Edwards, I. E. S. 1880 Catalogue General des monuments
peculiar to themselves . . . so 1986 The Pyramids of Egypt, new edition. d'Abydos decouverts pendants les
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have they made all their customs
Fischer, H. G. Llmprimerie nationale.
and laws of a kind contrary for
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the most part to those of all other Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1896 The Temple of Deir el Bahri, Part II.
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buy and sell, the men abide at Heracleopolitan Period. Pp. 5-24 in 1898 The Temple of Deir el Bahri, Part III.
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in weaving all others push the
edited by B. S. Lesko. Atlanta: 1947 The Private Funerary Stelae of the
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Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991 15

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