Advanced Fluid Mechanics April

2016

MCE2121
ADVANCED FLUID MECHANICS

LECTURE NOTES
Module-III

Prepared By
Dr. Prakash Chandra Swain
Professor in Civil Engineering
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

Branch - Civil Engineering

Specialization-Water Resources Engineering
Semester – 1st Sem

Department Of Civil Engineering

VSSUT, Burla
 Advanced Fluid Mechanics April
2016

Disclaimer
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be
used as a substitute for prescribed textbooks. The information
presented here is merely a collection by Prof. P.C.Swain with
the inputs of Post Graduate students for their respective
teaching assignments as an additional tool for the teaching-
learning process. Various sources as mentioned at the
reference of the document as well as freely available materials
from internet were consulted for preparing this document.
Further, this document is not intended to be used for
commercial purpose and the authors are not accountable for
any issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this
document. The authors make no representations or warranties
with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of
this document and specifically disclaim any implied warranties
of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.
 Advanced Fluid Mechanics 2016

Course Content
Module III

Turbulence in Fluid Flow: Origin of turbulence, Statistical Analysis

of Turbulence, Reynolds Equations for Turbulent Flow obtained
from N – S Equations, Models for Turbulence, Theories of Turbulent
Shear Stresses, Velocity Distribution in Smooth and Rough Pipes,
Resistance Coefficients for Pipes, Turbulent Boundary Layer and
Boundary Layer Separation.

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Lecture 1
Turbulent Flow in Pipes
Unlike fully developed laminar flow in pipes, turbulent flow occurs more frequently in many
practical situations. However, this phenomenon is more complex to analyze. Hence, many
empirical relations are developed to understand the characteristics of common flow problems.
Before, going into these solutions and empirical relations, first few concepts and characteristics
of turbulent flows are discussed.

Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow

Consider a situation in which a water reservoir is connected to a pipe. The water is initially at
rest and is allowed to flow through pipe and the flow rate is regulated by a valve. By opening the
valve slowly, the flow velocity and hence the Reynolds number increases from zero to the
maximum steady state value. For initial time period, the Reynolds number is small enough for
laminar flow to occur. At some time, when the Reynolds number reaches 2100, intermittent spots
and random fluctuations appear indicating the flow transition to turbulent condition. This process
continues till the Reynolds number value reaches 4000 beyond which the flow becomes fully
turbulent.

This phenomena is typically shown in Fig. 1 where the axial velocity component of flow at
given location is given by . The flow characteristics such as pressure drop and heat
transfer depends strongly on the nature of fluctuations and randomness.

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Reynolds Time-Averaging Concept in Turbulent Flow

The fundamental difference between laminar and turbulent flow is the chaotic and random

behavior of flow properties the chaotic and random behavior of flow properties such as

velocity, pressure, shear stress, temperature etc. One way to handle such high Reynolds

number flow is to standardize in terms of mean/average value of flow parameters. Such a

technique is known as “Reynolds Time-Averaging Concept”. In this method, the flow parameters

are expressed in terms of two quantities; one is the time-average value and the

other is the fluctuating part with respect to average value.

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For example, referring to Fig. 2, if , then mean value of turbulent function is

defined by,

(1)

where is the averaging time period . The fluctuation part (or the time varying part) is then

defined by,
(2)

Turbulent Intensity
It is clear from Eqs. (1) and (2) that the fluctuation has zero mean value. However, the

mean square value of fluctuating is not zero and is the measure of "turbulent intensity".

It is often defined as the ratio of square root of mean square of fluctuating velocity to

the time average velocity. Mathematically, it may be written as:

(3)
where the mean square value of fluctuating velocity is,

(4)
The larger the turbulent intensity, the more will be fluctuation in parameters.
Typical values of range form 0.0001 to 0.1.

Turbulent Stresses
In order to define stresses in turbulent flows, let us write the x- momentum equation
with time averaging and fluctuation terms; i.e.

(5)

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The three correlation terms are called "turbulent

stresses" because they have same dimensions as that of laminar shear stress terms

i.e. . The turbulent stresses are unknown and must be related to

experimental flow conditions and geometry. However, experiments in pipe flows reveal that

the stress associated with in y- direction is dominant.

Hence, with reasonable accuracy, the momentum equation

is reduced to,

(6)

where

(7)
The typical trend of a turbulent-shear layer for a pipe flow is shown in Fig. 3. It is seen that

“laminar shear” is dominant near the wall whereas turbulent shear dominates in the "outer

layer". There is an intermediate region called "overlap layer" where both laminar and

turbulent shear are important.

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An alternate form of shear stress for turbulent flow is given in terms of "eddy viscosity"
which is analogous to dynamic viscosity in case of laminar flow. It may be written as;

(8)

In order to determine the Reynolds stresses in turbulent flows , several empirical

theories have been attempted. The most common one is Prandtl's concept of "mixing
length". He proposed that the turbulent process could be viewed as the random transport of

bundles of fluid particles over a certain distance from a region of one velocity to
another region of different velocity. This distance is called "mixing length". In this mixing
length, the eddy viscosity may be defined as,

(9)

Thus, turbulent shear stress becomes,

(10)

Turbulent Velocity Profile

A fully developed turbulent flow in a pipe can be divided into three regions which are
characterized by their distances from the wall: the viscous sub-layer very near to the pipe
wall, the overlap region and the outer turbulent layer throughout the center portion of the
flow. Within the viscous sub-layer the viscous shear stress is dominant compared to that of
turbulent (or Reynolds) stress i.e. fluid viscosity plays a major role compared to fluid
density. In the outer turbulent layer, Reynolds stresses (i.e. fluid density) are dominant and
there is a considerable mixing and randomness to the flow.

The character of flow within these two regions is entirely different. Considerable efforts have
been made to determine the actual velocity profiles in pipe flows. Some of them are
discussed here.

In viscous sub-layer, the velocity profile is written as,

(11)
where is the distance measured from the wall, is the kinematics viscosity of
the flow, is the time-averaged x -component of velocity and is called “friction velocity
defined by,

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(12)
The "friction velocity" is not the actual fluid velocity rather it has same dimension as that of
velocity. The Eq. (11) sometimes called as the ‘law of wall”. For smooth wall, Eq. (11) is

valid very near to the wall for which .

In case of "overlap layer" the following expression commonly known as "Logarithmic
Overlap Law" has been proposed;

(13)

The most often used correlation is the "empirical power law velocity profile" defined by,

(14)

where is the centerline velocity and holds good for many practical flow problems

Moody Chart

The fundamental difference between laminar and turbulent flow is that the shear stress for
laminar flow depends on the viscosity of the fluid whereas in case of turbulent flow, it is the
function of density of the fluid. In general, the pressure drop , for steady, incompressible
turbulent flow in a horizontal round pipe of diameter can be written in the functional form
as,
(15)

where is the average velocity, is the length of the pipe and is a measure of the
roughness of the pipe wall. Similar expression can also be written for the case of laminar
flow in which the term will be absent because the pressure drop in laminar flow is found
to be independent of pipe roughness i.e.
(16)

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By dimensional analysis treatment, we can found that

(17)

The only difference between two expressions in Eq. (17) is that the term , which is
known as the "relative roughness". In commercially available pipes, the roughness is not

uniform; so it is correlated with pipe diameter and the contribution forms a significant
value in friction factor calculation. From tests with commercial pipes, Moody gave the values
for average pipe roughness listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Average values of roughness for commercial pipes (Table 8.1; Ref. 1)

Now Eq. (17) can be simplified with reasonable assumption that the pressure drop is
proportional to pipe length. It can be done only when,

(18)
It can be rewritten as,

(19)

where is known as "friction factor" and is defined by,

(20)
Now, recalling the energy equation for a steady incompressible flow,

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(21)

where is the head loss between two sections. With assumption of horizontal

constant diameter pipe with fully developed flow,

(22)
From Eqs. (19) and (22), we can determine head loss as,

(23)
This is known as Darcy-Weisbach equation and is valid for fully developed, steady,
incompressible horizontal pipe flow. If the flow is laminar, the friction factor will be

independent on and simply,

(24)

The functional dependence of friction factor on the Reynolds number and relative
roughness is rather complex. It is found from exhaustive set of experiments and is usually
presented in the form of curve-fitting formula/data. The most common graphical
representation of friction factor dependence on surface roughness and Reynolds number is
shown in "Moody Chart" (Fig. 4). This chart is valid universally for all steady, fully
developed, incompressible flows.

The following inferences may be made from Moody chart (Fig. 4).

 For laminar flows ( ), and is independent of surface roughness

 At very high Reynolds number , the flow becomes completely turbulent
(wholly turbulent flow) and is independent of Reynolds number. In this case, the
laminar sub-layer is so thin that the surface roughness completely dominates the
character of flow near the wall. The pressure drop responsible for turbulent shear
stress is inertia dominated rather than viscous dominated as found in case of laminar
viscous sub-layer. Hence, the friction factor is given by,
 The friction factor at moderate Reynolds number is indeed
dependent on both Reynolds number and relative roughness.
 Even for smooth pipes , the friction factor is not zero i.e. there is always head
loss, no matter how smooth the pipe surface is. There is always some microscopic

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surface roughness that produces no-slip behavior on the molecular

level. Such pipes are called "hydraulically smooth".

Fig (4) Moody’s Chart

It must be noted that Moody chart covers extremely wide range of flow parameters i.e.
diameter of the pipes , fluid density , viscosity and velocities in non-

laminar regions of the flow that almost accommodates all applications of

pipe flows. In the non-laminar regions of fluid flow, Moody chart can be represented by the
empirical equation i.e.

(25)

This equation is called "Colebrook formula" and is valid with 10% accuracy with the
graphical data.

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Source:A.K Jain

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Source:A.K Jain

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References:

1. Wand D.J., and Harleman D.R. (91964) “Fluid Dynamics”, Addison Wesley.
2. Schlichting, H.: (1976) “Boundary Layer theory”, International Text –
Butterworth
3. Lamb, H. (1945) “Hydrodynamics”, International Text – Butterworth
4. Lamb, H.R. (1945) “Hydrodynamics”, Rover Publications
5. Rouse, H. (1957), “Advanced Fluid Mechanics”, John Wiley & Sons, N
York
6. White, F.M. (1980) “Viscous Fluid Flow”, McGraw Hill Pub. Co, N York
7. Yalin, M.S.(1971), “Theory of Hydraulic Models”, McMillan Co., 1971.
8. Mohanty A.K. (1994), “Fluid Mechanics”, Prentice Hall of India, N Delhi

Prof P.C.Swain