New Criticism(Close Reading)

 Interpret by using part of the text.

– Denotation – dictionary / lexical
– Connotation – implied meaning (suggestions
/associations/ - or + feelings)
– Ambiguity – Tension of conflicting meanings
(more than one meaning)
– Etymology – History of a word (origin)
– Ontological – own being / unique object
– Organic unity – all parts related / connected
– Goal – the new critics wished to “clear up”
ambiguities
 New Crit. / Formalism
– Steps –
 Title (affect story?)
 Allusions – find roots
 Symbols / tropes (figurative language) – logical
meanings?
 Structural patterns
 Tone, theme, dialogue
 Ambiguities?
 Resolve tensions
Sub categories

 Modernism / formalism
 Emphasize “poem” as an object
 T.S. Elliot – poem = emotions common to all
humankind / not the poet’s emotions (stresses the
poem – object)
 Reader must be knowledgeable / instructed in
Literary technique
 Reader – Response Criticism

 The reader must be an active participant in the creation of

meaning

 Meaning = author’s intentions but the significance changes by

readers (historical context)
 The following influence interpretation / significance: the reader’s
– Worldview
– Background
– Purpose for reading
– World knowledge
– Word knowledge
 The meaning is derived from the readers’ responses
 Phenomenology
 – emphasizes perceiver
– Active consciousness notes (makes) existence
– “If a tree falls in the forest and no one is
there to here it, does it exist?”
– Reader’s imagination adds / creates meaning
– You must be actively engaged with the book
for it to exist (if it is dormant in your locker, it
does not exist)
 Levels of interpretations

– New critics see the text as its own object – contains

meaning without reader
– Readers Response critics believe any of the following:
 Since some people have more knowledge, their
interpretations are more “valid.” (i.e., an English professor
can add more insight than a student though both may offer
important interpretations)
 Sophistication / education = not important – all
interpretations are equal since they all offer meaning and
insight
 The topics / ideas suggested add meaning (even if a student
hasn’t read the story, he can add meaning by discussing the
topic; i.e., “prejudice” he’s experienced in his own life).
 Structuralism
 (Linguistics) Science of Language ---
Form and Structure over content
 Structural codes rather than personal
interpretation
 Mimetic Theory --- Words = symbols for
objects / things
 Mythemes = recurrent themes in myths
that transcend time and cultures (i.e.,
flood or creation stories)
 Structuralism
 Morpheme = smallest meaningful unit of a
word (i.e., “s” = plural or “sub” = under
 Phoneme = smallest meaningful sound
(appx. 45 in English)
 Syntax = word arrangement (sentence)
 Semantics = connotations/implications
– purr = positive (alternative employment
program)
– snarl = negative(you’re fired)
 Structuralism
 Structure of narrative affects meaning
 Binary oppositions (light/dark – good/evil)
 Equation (how reader maps out + how
text is structure = meaning
 Grammar = rules of language
 Metalanguage = words that describe
language
 Structuralism
 Example: “Young Goodman Brown” - - - -
Readers assume darkness of forest = evil
/ light = safety - - - Structuralism
ponders “why” readers interpret this way
 Author’s intention does not make meaning
- - - Meaning = system that governs the
writer
 Scientific (objective) analysis of how
readers interpret
 Psychoanalytical Criticism
 (Applies psychology to author, and /or
characters)
 Freud – Conflict theory
 Conscious (rational) = aware / external reality /
reason
 Unconscious /subconscious (irrational) =
unaware
 Hidden desires
 Ambitions
 Fears
 Passions
 Conflict

 Id = instincts and urges (primitive)

“wants” ---Pleasure Principle
 Libido – psychic (sexual) energy
released by the id
 Superego- conscience “should do” ---
Morality Principle
 Ego- waking / rational mind “can do”
Reality Principle
 Defense Mechanisms

 Repress = push down

 Displace (transfer) = shift or misplace
feelings
 Projection = place unconscious thoughts
onto others – i.e., projects self hate onto
others
 Denial = refusal / will not admit truth or
reality – i.e., when a loved one passes away
 Regression = return to an earlier stage
of development – i.e., pout when you want
something
 Complexes

 Oedipus = unconscious attachment or desire

for mother (males)
 Electra = starts with mom but switches to
desire for father (females)
 Neurosis = abnormalities (unresolved conflicts –
id vs. ego and / or complexes – stuck in a stage)
 Dreams = repressed desires, rage, guilt, images,
and symbols (i.e., unhealthy anger towards boss
 named Mr. Appleby = dream of rotting apple –
interpretation of subconscious symbols).
 Jung
 Freud’s student but later broke away /
moved on
 Personal conscious = waking state
 Personal unconscious = stored
thoughts
 Symbols and images = mythological
(dreams)
 Collective unconscious
 cumulative knowledge of human race –beyond
personal --like a collective soul or reservoir for all
accumulated human symbols (scientists would say this
has been passed on genetically / transcendentalist
would say all life is of one living being)
 Archetypes = universal images and patterns (often
nature images)
 Mythological = universal (cultural) patterns or
images – common themes –i.e., if the protagonist
must sacrifice his life in order to save the community,
a mythological interpreter would make reference to
Western religion (Christ sacrificing himself for
humankind).
 Feminism
 (Gender Criticism) - - - Gender roles and
politics
 Want to change the degrading view of
women
 Beliefs:
 Women have been oppressed (socially
and politically)
 Opinions have been devoiced
 Writings have been devoiced
 Thought of as irrational and inferior
 Feminist terms
 Patriarchal = controlled by males
 Religion – Bible (i.e., Eve brings
sin into the world)
 Greek mythology (Pandora’s Box -
-releases evil into the world)
 Misogyny – male hatred (can be
subconscious) of women – men
conditioned this way
 Cannon (literature) – accepted major
works- needs to consider more women
 Virginia Woolf
 = key early feminist
 A Room of one’s own (1919)
 Establish own female identity *(women
had been defined by men)
Key elements (questions to address when
using this approach)

 Is the Author male or female?

 Is the narrator male or female?
 What are the female roles?
 Are there female protagonists?
 Are females stereotyped?
 What is the Author or narrator’s view towards women?
 How do the characters treat women?
 Are there exploited female images?
 Can you psychoanalyze the female characters?
 Are there any cultural or social influences on the
females?
 Marxism (Sociological)
Approach
 (Political) – Focused on (social) class conflict
(Marxism/equality/eliminate class system)
 Society shapes or consciousness
 Ultimate reality is material not spiritual (our
religions are dictated by our cultures: for example
in 313 A.D. Constantine the Great made
Christianity the main religion supplanting the
Roman gods and goddesses)
 Social and economic conditions influence how and
what we:
– believe
– value
 Marxist theory
 Upper class (bourgeoisie) consciously and
unconsciously forces its ideology (belief
system) on working class (proletariat) “Wage
Slaves” – the rich become richer and the
poor become poorer (we value, buy, wear,
etc. what the rich tell us to value, buy, wear,
etc.)
 Author’s culture and class are important and
influence writing
 Author expresses his or her ideology through
fictional world
 Key elements (questions):

– Is the fate of the character(s) linked to social

caste (status or position)?
– Are social classes at conflict?
– What are the values of each class?
– Are characters oppressed?
– How do socioeconomic factors influence the
plot, characters, etc.