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Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics
and Subtropics

Chapter · April 2015

DOI: 10.1007/978-81-322-2089-3_32

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 Status and Management of Three
Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the
Tropics and Subtropics

A. D. N. T. Kumara, M. Chandrashekharaiah, Subhash B.

Kandakoor and A. K. Chakravarthy

Abstract
More than 900 species of pests are associated with cultivated and wild
coconut palm. This number includes both invertebrates and vertebrates.
Of these, red palm weevil, ( Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier) rhinoc-
eros beetle ( Oryctes rhinoceros L.), and coconut black-headed caterpil-
lar ( Opisina arenosella Walker) are the most important devastating insect
pests of coconut in major coconut-growing areas of the world. These three
insect pests are distributed wherever coconut palm occurs. Current status,
bioecology, and the management of the three pests are reviewed and dis-
cussed in the light of the changing scenario on coconut and other palms.

Keywords 

Black-headed caterpillar · Coconut · Red palm weevil · Rhinocerus beetle

Introduction due to multiple uses and it is one of the top ten

most useful trees in the world, providing food for
Coconut, Cocus nucifera L. (Palmaceae) is an im- millions (Duke 1983). Across the world, several
portant crop mainly in the tropical and subtropi- people are employed in coconut-based industries
cal regions of the world, and millions of people like coconut oil, dry coconut powder, tender co-
depend on this crop directly or indirectly. It is conut, coir, toiletries, etc. Coconut is grown in 93
popularly called “kalpavriksha,” “tree of life,” countries mainly in Indonesia, Philippines, India,
and Sri Lanka together accounting for 78 % of the
total world production.
A. D. N. T. Kumara ()
Crop Protection Division, Coconut Research Institute,
The coconut palm is attacked by a number
Lunuwila, 61150, Sri Lanka of insect pests all around the year (Thampan
e-mail: [email protected] 1975). Coleoptera is the most numerous among
M. Chandrashekharaiah · S. B. Kandakoor · them, and a total of 323 species are associated
A. K. Chakravarthy with coconut palm (Child 1974). Most species
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Gandhi Krishi of beetles feed on leaves, roots, or bores in plant
Vignan Kendra (GKVK), University of Agricultural
buds. ­Curculionidae, Chrysomelidae, and Scara-
­Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka 560065 India
e-mail: [email protected], baeidae mainly cause serious damage, resulting
[email protected]

A. K. Chakravarthy (ed.), New Horizons in Insect Science: Towards Sustainable Pest Management, 359
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2089-3_32, © Springer India 2015
360 A. D. N. T. Kumara et al.

in loss of fronds and damage to palms (Howard employed singly, by combinations, or as an inte-
et al. 2001). Large numbers of Lepidopterans are grated package. In this chapter, the current status
also recorded as major devastating pests of coco- and the management practices of three important
nut, mainly feeding on leaves and inflorescence. insect pests of coconut, viz., the RPW, the RB,
The coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer, is and the BHC are discussed (Fig. 1).
a serious mite pest and damages immature nuts
causing serious yield losses. The coconut beetle,
Brontispa longissima Gestro is a serious chryso- Red Palm Weevil (RPW)
melid pest of coconut in Southeast Asia. Interest-
ingly, it does not occur in India and Sri Lanka. Biosystematics
This is probably because the trade of coconut and
planting materials takes in a sea route connect- RPWs, commonly known as Asian red palm
ing the Maldives, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, weevils, are large, polyphagous insects (usually
and other East Asian countries. Red palm weevil greater than 25 mm long) belonging to Rhyn-
(RPW) is widely considered the most devastat- chophorinae, a subfamily within Curculionidae
ing insect pest of palms in South and Southeast (Coleoptera) (Borror et al. 1964). The Asian spe-
Asia and in the Middle East (Sivapragasam et al. cies include, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, Rhyn-
1990; Faleiro and Satarkar 2003). The detection chophorus vulneratus (Panzer), Rhynchophorus
of pest infestation is difficult because the grub distinctus (Wattanapongsiri) Rhynchophorus lo-
starts feeding from inside the palm and never batus (Ritsema), and Rhynchophorus bilineatus
comes outside till the adult emergence. The rhi- (Montrouzier) (Murphy and Briscoe 1999).
noceros beetle (RB) feeds on the growing por-
tion of the palm leading to ragged appearance.
The heavily attacked palm dies or gets exposed Distribution and Host Range
to damage by secondary pests (Thampan 1975).
The coconut black-headed caterpillar (BHC) is a The RPW is native to southern Asia and Mela-
defoliating pest of coconut, attacking the coconut nesia. It was first identified in the early twenti-
gardens in patches but heavily. eth century in South and Southeast Asia (Lefroy
The tall nature of coconut palm creates dif- 1906; Brand 1917). In the later part of the twen-
ficulties to adopt pest management practices tieth century, the RPW spread to Middle East
straightforwardly. A variety of cultural, biologi- Asia, North Africa, Europe, and Australia (Bux-
cal, and chemical control measures have been ton 1920; Abraham et al. 1998; Al-Ayedh 2008;
employed to manage the pests. The difficulties in Li et al. 2009; Faleiro 2006). In 1985, the RPW
the detection of the correct time to manage the was first recorded from the northern United Arab
pest, hidden habitat of the most coconut pests, Emirates in the Middle East and has become wide-
and the availability of suitable foods throughout spread in that area (Ferry and Gomez 2002). The
the year create serious pest threats to the coconut pest was reported from the Savaran region in Iran
palm worldwide (Kumara 2007). Root feeding, in 1990 (Faghih 1996) and Egypt in 1993 (Cox
trunk injection and foliar spraying of synthetic 1993). In the same year, the weevil crossed into
pesticide, application of botanical pesticides, im- Europe, at first into southern Spain (Cox 1993;
proving the palm vigor by the application of or- Barranco et al. 1995) and a decade later into Italy
ganic fertilizer, use of biological control methods (Longo and Tamburino 2005), many southern
such as predators and parasitoids, mass trapping European countries, and Turkey (Malumphy and
of pests by using sex pheromone and aggrega- Moran 2007). Recently, the RPW was detected in
tion pheromone, as well as adopting several the Dutch Antillies and California, USA (Fig. 1;
physical and mechanical practices are some of Ferry 2010; Nisson et al. 2010).
the management practices widely used to com- In the Mediterranean region, the RPW se-
bat the three coconut pests. These practices are verely damages Phoenix canariensis. Currently,
Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics and Subtropics 361

Fig. 1   Geographical distribution of the RPW, RB, and BHC

362 A. D. N. T. Kumara et al.

Table 1   Three major insect pests of coconut

Common name Scientific name Family and order Number of species Geographical Pest status
(approximately) distribution
RPW Rhynchophorus fer- Curculionidae, 05 South Asia Major
rugineus Olivier Coleoptera Southeast Asia Major
Middle East Major
North Africa Major
Australia Invasive
Europe Invasive
North America Invasive
RB Oryctes rhinoceros L Dynastidae 03 South Asia Major
Coleoptera Southeast Asia Major
Pacific Area Major
Africa Minor
Australia Invasive
BHC Opisina arenosella Lepidoptera: 01 South Asia Major
Walker Oecophoridae) Southeast Asia Invasive

the pest is reported in almost 15 % of the global sagu, Oreodoxa regia, Phoenix dactylifera (date
coconut-growing countries and in nearly 50 % of palm), Phoenix sylvestris, Sabal umbraculifera,
the date palm-growing countries (Faleiro 2006). Trachycarpus fortunei, and Washingtonia spp.
It prevails wherever palms are cultivated. The However, sugarcane and Agava americana are
geographical spread of the RPW is mainly due used for laboratory rearing although their infesta-
to human intervention, by transporting infested tion in the field is not clear (Abraham et al. 1998).
young or adult date palm trees and offshoots
from contaminated to uninfected areas (Alhu-
daib 1998; Gomez and Ferry 1999; Al-Saqer Bioecology
and Hassan 2011). Menon and Pandalai (1960)
suggested that R. ferrugineus is a serious pest of The life cycle of the RPW varies between 45 and
coconut palms in India. It damages 34 % of the 139 days depending on environmental and geo-
coconut groves in Cochin, India. In Sri Lanka, it graphical conditions and is spent inside the palm
is the most serious pest causing fatal damage to itself (Faleiro 2006; Esteban-Duran et al. 1998;
young coconut palms of 3–10 years old (Brand Murphy and Briscoe 1999). The four stages of
1917; Kirthisinghe 1960). It has been estimated life cycle (Fig. 3) vary depending on egg, larva,
that 10 % of young coconut palms in the coun- pupa, and adult. The duration of each life stage
try is lost annually due to its attack (Mahinda- and their numbers varies on host substrate and
pala 1993). Accordingly, in 2000–2005, nearly climatic factors (Table 1).The female RPW lays
200,000 young palms have been killed by the eggs, ranging from 58 to 531 in quantity, in the
RPW resulting in US$ 1,800,000 loss (Siriward- cracks, wounds, or crevices on the trunk of the
ana et al. 2010). The RPW was first reported on tree. The light-yellow eggs (2.5 mm long) are laid
coconut from Southeast Asia, and its host range close to the surface of the incision or wound. The
included 19 palm species worldwide (Malumphy grubs are white-yellow, and the larvae hatch from
and Moran 2007).The list of known hosts in- eggs in 4–6 days. They start feeding themselves
clude: Cocos nucifera (coconut palm), Phoenix by chewing the tissues of the plant and start mov-
canariensis, Areca catechu, Arenga pinnata, ing toward the interior of the palm. The chewed
Borassus flabellifer, Caryota maxima, Caryota up palm tissues and the thick brown fluid are
cumingii, Corypha gebanga, Elaeis guineensis, oozing out from the tunnels of the trunk usually
Corypha elata, Livistona decipiens, Metroxylon visualized after feeding of grubs. The grub lives
Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics and Subtropics 363

and are beyond recovery (Menon and Pandalai

1960). The damage caused by the pest is severe,
and once the weevil gets access to the palm, the
final death of the palm is more or less certain.
The first indication is the presence of holes on
the stem with chewed fibrous material, some-
times protruding out (Child 1974). The RPW is
a concealed tissue borer and all of its life stages
are found inside the palm. Damage symptoms are
indicated by the presence of tunnels in the trunk,
oozing of thick yellow to brown fluid from the
Fig. 2   Lifecycle of the RPW (Source: Prabahu and Patel palm, the appearance of chewed-up plant tissue
2009) in and around an opening in the trunk, the pres-
ence of a fermented odor from the trunk, or top-
pling of the crown (Kaaheh et al. 2001).
for 25–105 days, and it becomes a pupa in a co- Several detection methods are employed
coon made up of chewed-up tissues of the plant. to detect the infected palms for treatment. The
The developmental state of the pupa usually takes field staff surveys susceptible fields and regu-
11–45 days (Abraham et al. 1998; Faleiro 2006). larly checks the symptoms of the infested palms.
The adult RPW emerges out, or mostly the RPWs When the larvae are present in the palm, they
complete several generations inside the infested produce sounds, due to chewing of palm tissue,
palm. Therefore, the RPW infestation is detected crawling, emission, and quick oscillation (Pinhas
at such a late stage that it is not possible to save et al. 2008).The sound generated by the chewing
the infested palm. The RPW stays in the infested grub can be detected by endoscope or by placing
plant till it is hollow from inside and dead. After the ear on stem (Hamad and Faith 2004). In the
the death of the infested palm, the RPW moves to Middle East region, the infested palms produce a
the neighboring palms. The rate of multiplication typical fermented odor, detected by sniffer dogs
of the RPW is high as the female lays eggs con- (Nakash et al. 2000). However, this may be pos-
tinuously throughout the year (Fig. 2). sible if a considerable number of larvae are pres-
ent, and at this stage the palm may be moderately
to extensively damaged. Hence, the detection of
Management infestations at an early stage is important to save
the palms. Utilization of sound methodology to
Detection detect RPW-infested date palms has been attempt-
The most critical factor in the management of the ed (Soroker et al. 2004), and an electronic device
RPW is the detection of the damage at an early to detect infested coconut palms, although with
stage before severe damage to the internal tis- less reliability and efficiency, has been developed
sues of the palm. The female weevil lays eggs on in Sri Lanka (Fernando pers. comm.). Currently,
wounded tissues of the palm and the grub bores digital signal-processing techniques are also used
and begins its life in the palm, and normally to identify the RPW in the palms (Al-Manie and
never comes outside. Therefore, neither the grub Alkanhal 2005). Pinhas et al. (2008) developed a
nor the damage caused by it can be readily seen. prototype that detected larvae of the RPW in off-
Sometimes, a few small holes occur in the crown shoots of palms, which could be used in inspec-
or on the soft stem. In many cases, the drying tion of horticultural and ornamental palms traded
up of the young heart leaves or splitting of the between countries. However, this device is not
petioles near the area of attack can be observed. portable. Siriwardana et al. (2010) developed and
But most often the attack by the weevil is no- evaluated the portable RPW acoustic detector,
ticed only when palms have been fatally infested which can be used for detecting the early stage of
364 A. D. N. T. Kumara et al.

the damage efficiently and is able to detect 97 % carbamates ensured these chemicals to become
of affected palms. Recently, the image-processing the mainstay of the chemical approach to control
method was developed by Al-Saqer and Hassan RPW (Murphy and Briscoe 1999). In Sri Lanka,
(2011). 20 to 30 ml of monocrotophos trunk injection to
the affected palm at 2-monthly intervals twice
has been recommended. (Fernando 2005). In
Management Spain, a minimum of 8 preventive treatments
with chlorpyrifos, imidacloprid, phosmetand,
Because it is difficult to detect the damage by the thiamethoxam per season (from March to No-
RPW during the early stages of infestation, em- vember) are recommended to be applied as
phasis is generally focused on preventive mea- spray on the stipe, injected into the trunk, or as
sures relying on chemical applications. Control a drench, (Dembilio and Jacas 2012). Radiant
methods against RPW range from dusting of the (spinosad), Pyriproxyfen (IGRs) and Neemazal
leaf axils with insecticides after pruning, or spray- (plant extracts) were evaluated in laboratory
ing of the palm trunk, to localized direct injec- against the RPW, and acute toxicity was record-
tions of chemicals into the trunk (Faleiro 2006). ed by high percents after treatment by Radiant
All these treatments are often complemented followed by Pyriproxyfen while Neemazal did
with cultural and sanitary methods that include not exhibit acute toxicity. All tested insecticides
early destruction of the infested palm (Kurian exhibited lethal effect in the treated larvae and
and Mathen 1971) and prophylactic treatment in the resulted pupae and adults from the treat-
of cut wounds (Pillai 1987). In newly spreading ment. Radiant was consistently the most toxic
areas, preventive measures should be important insecticide to the RPW based on LC50 record-
including plant quarantine and plant certification, ed for general mortality (Hamadah and Tanani
mass trapping using ferrugineol-based food-bait- 2013).
ed traps (Hallett et al. 1993), crop and field sani- The formulation, Imidacloprid SL, was suc-
tation, preventive chemical treatments of gases, cessfully tested by Kaakeh (2005), in laboratory
filling frond axils of young palms with a mixture and semi-field assays against R. ferrugineus. Fur-
of insecticides and curative treatments of infested thermore, high efficacy insecticides and botani-
palms in the early stages of attack, eradicating cal pesticides, biological control methods like
severely infested palms. These palms should be entomopathogenic nematode, fungus and sterile
removed and destroyed by shredding (Dembilio insect techniques can be used as a package for
and Jacas 2012). For avoiding infection, differ- preventive control of RPW. However, the sys-
ent precautionary measures have been consid- temic insecticide application through root feed-
ered, including avoiding mechanical damage or ing and stem injection are the only methods suc-
wounding the palm, application of repellents for cessfully reduced the RPW population in affected
the wound of palm trunks, containment/destruc- areas in initial stage of the infection (Prabhu et al.
tion of infested plants, field sanitation methods. 2009; Khalifa et al. 2004; Abbas 2010). Efforts
to develop biological management of RPW are in
Insecticides early stages (Abdullah 2009). Preliminary field
The most common and practical measure in trials suggest that an entomopathogenic fungus,
chemical control is mainly based on the repeat- Beauveria bassiana, partially controls RPW
ed applications of large quantities of synthetic (Dembilio et al. 2010a). Combination trials of
insecticides employed in a range of preventive imidacloprid and entomopathogenic nematode
and curative procedures designed to contain the Steinernema carpocapsae Weiser and the use of
infestation. These procedures have been devel- entomopathogenic nematode were initiated in
oped and refined since the 1970s in India, when countries like India and Saudi Arabia (Dembilio
work on application of organophosphates and et al. 2010b).
Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics and Subtropics 365

Pheromone and 2-methyl − 1-pentanal. The activity of ferru-

The successful integrated pest management (IPM) gineol could be enhanced by combining it with
tactics for the management of RPW is the use of n-pentanol, which is a major constituent of coco-
pheromone traps. It can be used as pest-monitor- nut sap, while decanol elicited the lowest EAG re-
ing and large-scale mass-trapping program. The sponse (Gunawardena and Bandarage 1995a, b).
RPW male produced aggregation pheromone In 1994, the first pheromone trap evaluation
“rhynchophorol” identified as (2E)-6-methyl started to monitor the RPW in the Middle East. The
− 2-hepten − 4-ol for Rhynchophorus palmarum male-produced aggregation pheromones, chemi-
by Rochat et al. (1991). Subsequently, Hallett cally known as ferruginol (4-methyl − 5-nonanol
et al. (1993) identified and synthesized the “ferru- and 2. 4-methyl − 5-nonunion), were available in
gineol” (4-methyl − 5-nonanol) by another male- various kinds of traps. In Saudi Arabia, inverted-
produced aggregation pheromone. From that bucket and upright-bucket traps are commonly
time, the pheromone technology has been widely used. In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), fabri-
used to manage both R. palmarum in oil palm cated plastic traps are used while in India and Sri
and R. ferrugineus on coconut and date palm. Sri Lanka, bucket traps are mostly used (Faleiro 2006;
Lankan researchers, while studying the electroan- Faleiro et al. 1998). The fundamental trap design is
tennogram (EAG) response of male and female to have several windows in a container that allows
adults to 16 terpenes, reported that R. ferrugineus the RPW to enter. The outside of the container is
was sensitive to the size and the position of oxy- usually made rough by wrapping it with rough
gen function, degree of unsaturation and degree material. The RPW is lured by the pheromone and
of olefinic bonds in the molecules (Gunawardena palm stems, leaf petiole pieces, pineapple pieces;
1994). Further, workers from the same labora- fermented sugar solution or toddy are used syn-
tory reported the synthesis of ferrugineol by using ergistically to attract weevils. Insecticides or soap
Grignard reaction with butyl magnesium bromide solutions are used as bait in the traps.

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366 A. D. N. T. Kumara et al.

Fig. 3   Comparative weevil catches in red palm weevil pheromone traps using food baits (Source: Faleiro 2006)

The trap density varies from 0.5 to 10 ha (Fa- (0.025 × 0.025 m) for 1 min, packed in a plastic
leiro 2006). Normally, it at least 1 or 2 traps/ha cover (0.075 × 0.075 m), and sealed airtight in
are recommended for use. In Saudi Arabia, phero- trilaminated pouches (0.075 × 0.075 m). These
mone traps brought down the infestation by 6.6 bucket traps (2 L) wrapped in gunny cloth hav-
and 2.5 % in 1993 and 1997, respectively (Vidyas- ing four holes of 4.5–cm diameter were used for
agar et al. 2000). In Oman, the infestation was trapping the weevils and beetles. Several types of
brought down by 24 % in 1998 while obtaining food bait, such as ripened pineapple fruit pieces,
3 % in 2003 (Al-khatri 2004) and the UAE gained sugarcane stem pieces, ripe dates, toddy solution,
64 % reduction in 2 years and 71 % reduction in palm leaf petiole, palm stem pieces, etc., are used
during one year (El-Ezaby et al. 1998; Oehlschag- for weevil attraction as shown in Fig. 3 (Flairo
er 2006). While India reduced infestation from 5 % 2006). The trap consisting of 1 L water and car-
to zero within 1 year and from 2.4 to 0.2 % dur- bofuron 3G at 5 g and other chemicals as bait was
ing 1.5 years (Faleiro 2005a; Sujatha et al. 2006) used in each trap for the weevils (Fig. 4). The
and during 1997, Sri Lanka gained significant pheromone lure was tied to the inner surface of
reduction using pheromone trap at 5 trap/ha, ag- the bucket trap lid. The results of the study con-
gregation pheromone with fermented yeast sugar ducted by Falerio (2005b) were reconfirmed by
solution (Rajapakse 1998). In Sri Lanka it was Chakravarthy et al. (2014) and suggested that the
revealed that the small-scale use of pheromone pheromone compound 800–1000mg with food
did not effectively reduce the pest infestation, and baited trap is the better for RPW mass trapping
they suggest that using it as a large-scale area- (Table 4).
wide mass-trapping program is most suitable for In new areas and probable spreading zones, it
the management of pest (Fernando pers. comm.). is better to take strengthened quarantine measures
Chakravarthy et al. (2014) evaluated commer- to avoid the pest invasions. Avoiding the use of
cially available formulations at four concentra- planting materials from infected areas, properly
tions to find the effective dosage for attracting testing plant materials before transport from in-
maximum weevils. Pheromone 250, 500, 750, fected areas to uninfested areas, use of certified
and 1000 mg were impregnated in wooden blocks planting materials are essential for preventing the
Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics and Subtropics 367

Fig. 4   Monthly RPW mass trapping using pheromone and the pheromone release rate (Source: Faleiro 2006)

Table 2   Host range of three major pests of coconut

Pest Important host plants and region
Asia Middle East Europe Africa America
RPW Coconut, date palm, oil Date palm, Date palm and Coconut and Coconut, ornamental palms,
palm, ornamental palms coconut ornamental date palm and date palm
palms
RB Coconut, oil palm and date Date palm, – Coconut and Coconut
palm Coconut ornamental
palm
BHC Coconut, other palms – – – –

pest introduction. The most successful way of

controlling and managing the RPW is the use of Rhinoceros Beetle
the IPM program. It includes monitoring and tak-
ing care of the palm in susceptible age regularly; Biosystematics
trapping adult RPWs using pheromone trap bait-
ed with synthetic pheromone and with synergists Oryctes rhinoceros L, Scarabaeidae (Coleoptera),
such as yeast-fermented sugar solution, ripened Dynastidinae. O. monoceros, O. agamemnon,
pineapple pieces, sugarcane stem pieces, or coco- O. elegans are other related species of the RB.
nut petiole pieces; treating cuts and infections in Synonyms of RB are Oryctes stentor Castel-
palms; detecting the RPW at early stage; treating nau, (1840) and Scarabaeus rhinoceros Lin-
the plant in early stages with systemic insecticide naeus. Several common names are used for the
if infected with RPW; eradicating and properly RB around the world: Asiatic RB, bebete coco
disposing infested palm or its parts; proper cut- (French-Reunion (La Réunion)), black beetle,
ting of fronds incorporated with proper agricul- coconut black beetle, coconut palm RB, coco-
tural practices and training and educating farmers nut RB (English), date palm beetle, dung beetle,
and Agriculture Department officers. escarabajo rinoceronte Asiático (Spanish), fruit
368 A. D. N. T. Kumara et al.

Table 3   Development time and number of instars for the RPW. (Source: Dembilio and Jacas 2012)
Authors Feeding substrate Development time (days) Instars
Egg Larvae Pupae Adult
Shahina et al. 2009 Honey in cotton 4–5 – – – 4
Shahina et al. 2009 Sugarcane lumps 4–5 50–80 20–30 74–115 9
Shahina et al. 2009 Apple slices 4–5 – – – 4
Abe et al. 2009 Apple slices – – – – 12
Salama et al. 2009 Banana slices 5 90 16–20 111–115 5
Salama et al. 2009 Sugarcane lumps 5 128 25–29 158–162 5
Salama et al. 2009 Squash fruit 5 83 20–24 108–112 5
Salama et al. 2009 Apple slices 5 103 16–18 124–126 5
Salama et al. 2009 Palm crown lumps 5 69 16–19 90–93 5
Kaakeh 2005 Sugarcane lumps 3–4 82 19 108 –
Kaakeh 2005 Palm heart lumps 3–4 86 21 124 –
Kaakeh 2005 Palm leaf base 3–4 84 18 119 –
Kaakeh 2005 Artificial diet 3–4 70–102 16–23 93–131 –
Martín-Molina 2004 Sugarcane lumps 3–4 88 25 116 11–17
Martín-Molina 2004 Artificial diet 3–4 93 30 128 7–12
Martín-Molina 2004 Palm lumps – – – – 8–15
Salama et al. 2002 Banana slices – – 13–22 – –
Jaya et al. 2000 Sugarcane lumps – 81 – 89 7
Esteban-Duran et al. 1998 Sugarcane lumps – 76–102 19–45 139 –
Avand Faghih 1996 Palm lumps 1–6 41–78 – – –
Kranz et al. 1982 NS 2–3 60 14–21 76–84 –
Kalshoven 1981 Sago palm pith – – – 105–210 –
Butani 1975 Sugarcan lumps 2–4 24–61 18–34 44–100 –
Rahalkar et al. 1972 Sugarcane lumps 3–4 32–51 15–28 50–82 –
Nirula 1956 Coconut slices 2–5 36–67 12–21 54–120 3
Viado and Bigornia 1949 Coconut slices 3 35–38 11–19 49–70 9
Lepesme 1947 NS 3 60 15 90–180 –
Dammerman 1929 NS 3 60–120 14 74–134 –
Leefmans 1920 Palm lumps – 60 13–15 73–75 –
Ghosh 1912, 1923 Palm lumps 3–4 25–61 18–33 48–82 –
NS not specified

Table 4  Numbers of rhinoceros beetle and RPW trapped at four pheromone concentrations. (Source: Chakravarthy et
al. 2014)
Treatments (mg) Mean no. of beetle and weevil/trap
RB RPW
c
250 33.00 (5.78) 78.00 (8.85)c
500 42.00 (6.51)b 264.00 (16.26)b
750 98.00 (9.91)a 695.80 (26.38)a
1000 108.00 (10.41)a 789.00 (28.10)a
CD 0.34 0.27
± SEm 0.11 0.09
Mean of 10 traps/concentration, values with the same letter as superscript are nonsignificant at 5 % (P <0.05)
Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics and Subtropics 369

stalk borer, Indischer Nashornkäfer (Dutch), 1952; New Ireland, 1952; Pak Island and Manus
Indischer Nashornkäfer (German), klappertor Island (New Guinea), 1960; Tongatapu (Tonga),
(Dutch), kumbang badak (Indonesia), kumbang 1961; and the Tokelau Islands, 1963. The beetle
tanduk (Indonesia), oryctes du cocotier (French), was found at Suva on Viti Levu (main island of
Palmen-Nashornkäfer (German), RB, rhinoceros the Fiji group) early in 1953, and it has spread
du cocotier (French), scarab du cocotier (French) to at least 42 islands of the group, including all
(Chandrika Mohan 2005). the important copra-producing ones, despite an
intensive quarantine program to prevent this.
An infestation of the beetle was reported from
Distribution and Host Range Guam in September 2007. In the Indian Ocean
the island of Diego Garcia was infested during
The RB is one of the most damaging insects to the First World War, possibly by beetles carried
coconut palm and African oil palm in South and on troop ships (Orian 1959). Specimens were
Southeast Asia and the western Pacific Islands. collected in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in 1940.
The adult RBs feed on the growing point of the In 1962 it was found in Mauritius (Vinson 1963)
palm producing eventually ragged appearance and in 1978 in La Réunion (Chandrika Mohan
of mature palm leaves. A severely attacked palm 2005).
will die or be damaged by secondary-attack pests O. rhinoceros attacks the developing fronds
(Thampan 1975). The RB is distributed through- of coconut, oil palm, and other palms in tropical
out Asia and the western Pacific. Thought to be Asia, and a number of Pacific Islands. Other spe-
native to the southern Asiatic region, the RB was cies of RB such as O. monoceros L. African are
introduced throughout the Pacific primarily as a associated with African palm species including
result of the increased sea traffic during World coconut and other palms in the African region.
War II. Floating logs containing larvae in tun- Damaged fronds show typical triangular cuts. The
nels might spread the pest to new areas (Bed- beetle kills the palms (particularly seedlings and
ford 1980; Howard et al. 2001; Gressitt 1957). newly planted ones) when the growing point is de-
Bedford (1980) reviewed the historical account stroyed during feeding on coconut, oil palm, betel
of this species, “In Burma the pest first appeared nut, sago palm, and dates. They can also feed on
in the extreme south of the peninsula. It prob- Pandanus and other fleshy plants (Vargo 2000).
ably entered from Malaysia about 1895 and The larvae do not damage crops but instead
worked its way north throughout the coconut grow in dead, decaying trunks and organic mat-
growing areas of lower Burma over the follow- ter. The RB breeds in dead standing coconut
ing 15 years”. It was accidentally introduced to a palms killed by pest/disease/lightning and de-
number of coconut growing areas of the Pacific caying organic materials like compost and saw-
and Indian Oceans. It is believed to have been dust heaps. (Bedford 1980). Decaying Pandanus
introduced in rubber seedling potted plants from trunk in Palau (Gressitt 1957) and heaps of de-
Sri Lanka to the Pacific island of Upolu, West- caying cocoa pod shells in New Ireland (Bedford
ern Samoa in 1909; from there it spread to the 1976a) are also reported as breeding sites. In India
neighbouring island of Savail and to Tutuila in (Nirula et al. 1956) and Mauritius, heaps of cattle
American Samoa. In 1921 the beetle was record- dung were the most important breeding sites;
ed in Keppel Island in the Kingdom of Tonga, in Burma, dead coconut stems, heaps of rotting
but it was successfully eradicated in a campaign paddy straw, and farm yard manure were most
from 1922 to 1930. Wallis Island, about 320 km important (Ghosh 1923). In Sri Lanka, coconut
west of Samoa, became infested in 1931. RB in- logs and places near rafter mills (coconut saw-
troduced Palau Islands in about 1942 (Gressitt dust), coir dust pits, and organic heaps were the
1957), New Britain in 1942, and West Irian. Fur- most important breeding sites (Suwandharathne
ther establishments occurred in Vavau (Tonga), and Kumara 2007). Floating logs containing lar-
370 A. D. N. T. Kumara et al.

$GXOW

(JJV

3XSD

/DUYD

Fig. 5   Life cycle of the RB

vae in tunnels might spread the pest to new areas longevity about 4–6 months (Fig. 5) (Suwanda-
(Bedford 1980). rathne, pers. comm.).
The adult beetle bores into the soft tissue of
the bud by cutting and chewing the tender un-
Bioecology opened leaves and inflorescences. In the process,
the leaves and inflorescences are severely dam-
Female beetles lay eggs in rotting vegetation, es- aged. The affected leaves, on the emergence,
pecially in the trunks of rotting palms. The lar- will give a characteristic fan-like appearance
vae bore and damage in the tunnel constructed where the leaflets are cut off in the same place
by feces and silk among the spikes of flowers. on both sides of the leaf stalk. When the attack
The life cycle lasts from 4 to 9 months allowing is on the unopened spathe, the inflorescence gets
more than one generation/year (Chen 1988). The destroyed. Sometimes the beetles have also been
beetle breeds in dead standing coconut palms that found boring into the soft tissues of the tender
were killed by pest, disease, lightning, decay- nuts. Though death is not common in the grown-
ing organic materials like compost and sawdust up trees, the beetle may cause death of the young
heaps. Floating logs containing larvae in tun- palms by boring into the growing point and de-
nels might spread the pest to new areas (Bedford stroying it, and repeated attacks may cause death
1980; Howard et al. 2001 cited Gressitt 1957). (Thampan 1975). In oil palm, the RB bores into
The female lays around 70–140 eggs on the or- the base of the cluster of spears, causing wedge-
ganic substrate; after hatching between 11 and shaped cuts in the unfolded fronds. In younger
20 days the emerged larvae remain and feed on palms, the effect of damage can be much more
the organic matter around 80–130 days. Pupa- severe (Wood 1968). Attack by adults may re-
tion takes place in the breeding site, and organic duce yield and kill seedlings. They may provide
matter cocoon made around the pupae and adult entry points for lethal secondary attacks by RPW
emergence occur after 14–30 days. The life cycle or pathogens (Bedford 1980).
is completed within nearly 9 months and adult
Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics and Subtropics 371

Management larvae after 14 days (Ramle et al. 1999, 2006).

The infective ability of a strain may become re-
Mechanical and cultural tools duced by culturing on media but restored consid-
The management of the RB includes destroying erably following the infection of a host (Fargues
breeding sites and collection and destruction of et al. 1983). M. anisopliae infection is most fre-
bio-stages of the beetle from the manure heaps or quent when rainfall and humidity are high; the
pits. When applying organic manure to the palms, spores should be applied to breeding sites or can
it should be covered with thick (> 0.15 m) soil be practiced preparing artificial breeding sites
layer or applied as a thin layer (< 0.1 m). Other and applying fungus as a biopesticide. The fun-
possibilities are: regular examination of seed- gus can be mass-produced on the broken maize
lings and removing the beetle physically using a seed grains and methods of mass-producing and
metal hook; application of repellents like neem on-farm production techniques have been devel-
seed cake or powder 150 g with sand (1:2), or oped and reported from Asian Pacific countries.
Carbofuran 3G 40 g with sand (1:1), Naphthalene Fresh spores or dry spores with mycelium or as a
balls (10.5 g) covered with fine sand at 45-day in- powder formulations were used and incorporated
tervals, pongamia seed cake with sand (1:2) and into the breeding ground (Dangar et al. 1991;
filled with Sevidol 8G (25 g with 200 g fine sand) Ramle et al. 2007; Subaharan 2004; Tey 1995).
thrice in April, September, and December into Use of Oryctes rhinoceros Nudivirus (OrNV)
the bases of the three innermost leaf petiole gaps is a key factor to control in areas where the pest
between stem and leaf petiole; spraying 0.01 % is nonendemic. Virus inoculum mixed with sugar
Carbaryl (50WP) in breeding sites; application solution and it inoculated by pouring to the mouth
of used engine oil at the basal area of leaf peti- of adult beetle or allowing adult beetle to swim
oles (CPCRI 2012; Jayanth et al. 2009; Fernando the solution for infection. Infected beetles were
pers com). Phorate (10 %) granules is reported to released to field for spreading the virus among the
give protection for up to 60 days when applied population. The virus virulence of different geo-
at 5 g/palm. Application of naphthalene balls in graphical genomic isolates is different, and their
the leaf axil at the base of spindle leaf at 12 g/ efficacy varied from place to place (Crawford
palm provides good protection against the pest in et al. 1986). Hence, the dosages of virions admin-
Malaysia and India. This treatment gives 45–60 istered varied. With this caveat in mind, an isolate
days protection to the palm. Application of oil from Leyte Island, Philippines caused more larval
cakes of neem (  Azadirachta indica A. Juss., mortality than did isolates from other locations in
Meliaceae) or marotti ( Hydnocarpus wightiana the country or from Samoa (Zelazny 1979). On
Bl., Bixaceae) in powder form at 250 g mixed the Malay Peninsula, the isolate Ma07, extracted
with equal volume of sand, thrice a year to the from adult midguts from the west coast, caused
base of the spindle leaf of the coconut palm is higher mortality in larvae and adults and was
an effective prophylactic method against the RB deemed more virulent than the widespread iso-
(Chandrika Mohan 2005). late PV505 from the Philippines; the isolate from
Sabah caused the lowest mortality (Ramle et al.
Biological Control 2005). In some areas like the Andaman Islands
Under biological control, mainly two biological (Jacob 1996), the Minicoy Island (Mohan and Pil-
agents were used: entomopathogenic fungus and lai 1993), the Maldive Islands (Zelazny et al. 1992;
the Oryctes virus. For the management of im- Zelazny et al. 1990), and Oman (Kinawy 2004),
mature stages entomopathogenic fungi, Metarhi- after introducing OrNV, the RB damage subse-
zium anisopliae, were used. They were of two quently cut down significantly. The OrNV is ef-
types: long or short spored, with the long-spored fectively used in Malaysia, India, the Philippines,
( M. anisopliae var. major) varieties isolated from and Samoa to reduce the damage (Babjan et al.
Oryctes spp. being more virulent (Ramle et al. 19951996; Ramle et al. 2005; Zelazny and Alfiler
1999). Malaysian isolates killed all third instar 1991; Marschall and JIoane 1982).
372 A. D. N. T. Kumara et al.

Pheromone Plastic bucket trap; parabolic trap; single- or

In the Philippines, the O. Rhinoceros phero- double-vane traps (Oehlschlager 2007); and
mone, ethylcrysanthemumate, was first tested PVC tube trap. The latter is a tube, 16 cm in
and trapped in 7–25 % of the adult population diameter and 2 m in height with two-side open-
during 3 years (Ragoussis 2007). The male ings or windows in the upper part and an open
producing aggregation pheromone compound top, which stands in a bucket and simulates an
4-methyloctanoate identified from Indonesia upright coconut trunk. It catches more beetles
and it was reported that it is 10 times more than the bucket trap and others. Adding empty
effective than ethylcrysanthemumate (Wood oil palm fruit stalk material or coir dust cow
1968). Subsequently, ethyl 4-methyloctanoate dung mixture enhances the catch (Morin et al.
pheromone produced a commercial synthesis 2001). In India, different doses of 4-methy-
(Munoz et al. 2009; Ragoussis et al 2007) and loctanoate were field evaluated and found sig-
is spreading rapidly. Trapping with this phero- nificantly higher beetle catches from 750 and
mone as a management component is now ap- 1000mg doses at the rate of 1 trap/ha (Table 4)
plied in Malaysia and Indonesia (Norman and (Chakravarthy et al. 2014). A nanomatrix and
Basri 2004; Oehlschlager 2007) and is used as polymer composite was developed to load the
a tool in ecological studies. Several trap designs RB pheromone, ethyl 4-methyloctanoate. The
of differing costs and effectiveness are used: pheromone loaded to the nanomatrix showed
pheromone emitted from a sachet dispenser has extended duration of release when subjected to
been tested (Desmier de Chenon et al. 2001); thermal gravity analysis.

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Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics and Subtropics 373

In field trapping experiments, (4 S)-ethyl 4-meth-

yloctanoate and the racemic mixture were equally
attractive and ten times more effective in attract-
ing beetles than ethyl chrysanthemumate. Ethyl
4-methylheptanoate was as attractive as ethyl
chrysanthemumate and more attractive than the
4-methyloctanoic acid, but further studies are re-
quired before it can be classified as an aggrega-
tion pheromone (Chakravarthy et al. 2014). Com-
pared to ethyl 4-methyloctanoate alone, combina-
tions of the three male-produced compounds did Fig. 6   Reproductive status of RB females in pheromone
not increase attraction, whereas addition of fresh- traps (Source: Jayanth et al. 2009)
ly rotting oil palm fruit bunches to pheromone-
baited traps significantly enhanced attraction.
With increasing dose, captures of O. rhinoceros ha. The septa can be suspended in the upper lid of
increased, but doses of 6, 9, and 18 mg/day were the bucket, taking care to avoid direct sunlight as
competitive with 30 mg/day lures. Newly de- it would be affecting the performance of the lure.
signed vane traps were more effective in captur- The bucket should contain holes and rough cor-
ing beetles than were barrier or pitfall traps. The rugations on the lateral sides just below the upper
results of this study indicated that there is poten- lid so that the beetles that are attracted alight on
tial for using ethyl 4-methyloctanoate in opera- this rough surface before entering the holes.
tional programs to suppress O. rhinoceros in oil Field evaluation of traps revealed that nano-
palm plantations (Hallett et al. 1995). matrix-loaded pheromone (240 mg) trapped
The total number of RB caught in phero- 18.0 beetles/trap/month, followed by the com-
mone traps varied with concentrations. Nearly mercial lure (containing 800 mg pheromone),
98 and 108 beetles were caught in pheromone which trapped 12 beetles/trap/month. Studies on
traps baited with pheromone lure with 750 and the longevity of pheromone lures indicated that
1000 mg, respectively, and were found signifi- the commercial lure was exhausted in 3 months
cantly superior to other treatments. Records of whereas in the nanomatrix, it remained active up
250 and 500 mg proved inferior with only 33 and to 8 months (CPCRI 2012). Jayanth et al. (2009)
42 beetles, respectively, in the pheromone traps evaluated the reproductive status of RB females
(Chakravarthy et al. 2014). The peak activity of captured in aggregation pheromone traps and re-
beetles was found during the 29th to 53rd week vealed that the majority of females captured were
after the installation of the traps, i.e., from July virgin or gravid females (Fig. 6). Hence, the mass
to March. The beetles caught in the traps ranged trapping of RB is particularly more effective due
from 0.0 to 4.5 beetles/trap/week recorded from to attract female beetles that had not started re-
the 29th to the 53rd week after the installation of productive activity.
the traps in India. Beetles caught in the trap var- The control of the RB is difficult once they in-
ied from 0.25 to 1.75 beetles/trap/week recorded vade the new area; therefore, it is better to imple-
from the 29th to the 53rd week after trap installa- ment quarantine measures in those countries that
tion. Rhinolure is an aggregation pheromone ef- are found in the probable spreading zones. If new
fective in mass trapping both males and females infections are noticed, immediate control mea-
of the coconut RB (Chakravarthy et al. 2014). sures should be taken to stop the spreading of the
The active compound serving as an attractant, pest. Once they spread, integrated management
ethyl 4-methyloctanoate is supplied as a bubble measures, such as mechanical and biological
formulation in sachets, and the chemical is sus- use of pheromone and chemical control tactics,
pended in lure. The trap should be installed at should be taken to manage the pest.
about 0.8 m from the ground and is effective at 1/
374 A. D. N. T. Kumara et al.

Coconut Black-Headed Caterpillar Eggs are generally deposited in the vicinity of

feeding larvae, and it has been suggested that
Biosystematics this results in the slow spread of outbreaks to
peripheral, uninfested trees (Perera 1987). The
The black-headed caterpillar (BHC) was first de- larvae usually have five instars and feed on the
scribed by Walker and was placed under the fami- undersurface of coconut leaves, at first gregari-
ly Cryptophasidae (Lepidoptera). Meyrick (1905) ously, then singly, consuming the lower epi-
described the same as Nephantis serinopa under dermis and mesophyll but leaving the upper
the family Xyloryctidae. In 1981, Baker com- epidermis intact. The upper surface of the leaf
pared the holotype of O. arenosella by Walker has a characteristic scorched appearance where
and N. serinopa by Meyrick and found that both caterpillars have fed. The larvae construct a gal-
are conspecific. Hence, the name Opisina areno- lery of silk and frass, into which they retreat if
sella is being used again with N. serinopa as a disturbed. Pupation takes place within the larval
synonym. gallery. Adults are frequently found during the
day resting on the undersurface of the leaves of
palms damaged by the larvae. The moth flies at
Distribution and Host Range night, but little is known of its dispersal abili-
ties. The egg stage lasts on average 3 days and
The BHC is considered a serious defoliating the five larval instars last six, seven, seven,
pest on coconut. Its natural range extends from five, and ten days, respectively (Perera, 1987).
India to Sri Lanka (Perera 1987), Burma (Ghosh Although there are normally five instars, up to
1923), Bangladesh (Alam 1962), and, recently eight have been recorded in the laboratory when
reported, Thailand (Bao-qian et al. 2013). Dam- the larvae are stressed (the supernumerary in-
age to coconut in India was first recorded from stars would be indistinguishable from the fifth
Andhra Pradesh in 1909 (Rao et al. 1948), and instar in the field). The pupal stage lasts for an
this pest menace is frequently noticed in South average of 8 days, and the total length of the pre-
India. The distribution within the region showed adult life cycle is thus approximately 46 days.
patchy or spot distribution and recorded frequent Adult longevity is 7–9 days, during which the
outbreaks (Perera 1987; Sundararaju 1985; female lays about 152 eggs (Perera 1987). In Sri
Nadarajan and Channabasavanna 1980). Lanka, (Perera et al. 1988) BHCs have shown to
Coconut Palmyra and some ornamental palms follow partially discrete generation cycles dur-
were recorded in Sri Lanka and India as hosts, ing outbreaks. Ramkumar et al. (2006) studied
i.e., Palmyra ( Borassus), Corypha, Hyphaene, the population cycles of the BHC and found that
Phoenix, and Roystonia (Rao et al. 1948; Nirula there are discrete generation cycles. Further,
et al. 1951b). Butani (1975) recorded it as a they suggested that the possible reason for the
minor pest of date palm. Manjunath (1985) re- discrete generation may be protandry.
corded that larvae feed on banana leaves during The BHC is an important and the most destruc-
an outbreak in India. However, from laboratory tive pest in many commercial and subsistence
studies it was concluded that fan palm ( Livisto- coconut-cultivating areas, because moderate- to
nia chinensis), wild date palm ( Phoenix sylves- high-density populations of the BHC do indeed
tris), and date palm ( P. dactylifera) are suitable cause considerable yield loss. The pest infestation
host plants, but banana is not. is mainly confined to the lower fronds, and in se-
vere infestation, several hundreds to thousands of
larvae can be observed on a palm. The caterpillar
Bioecology feeds on chlorophyll by scraping lower epidermis
of leaflets and constructs galleries of silk and frass.
Females of O. arenosella lay their eggs in small The infested fronds give burnt-up appearance and
groups on the undersurface of coconut leaflets. the affected palms often take several years to
Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics and Subtropics 375

Table 5   Summary of classical biological control of the BHC. (Source: Cock and Perera 1987)
Parasitoid Release country Recommendation
Antrocehalus pandens Walker Sri Lanka No field recoveries, not suitable for field releases
Bessa remota Aldrich Sri Lanka, India No field recoveries, not suitable for field releases, fields
are unable to reach the larval galleries
Bracon brevicornis Wesmeal Sri Lanka, India Field recoveries occur, suitable for releases
Elamus nephantidis Rohwer Sri Lanka No field recoveries
Eriborus trocanteratus Morley India Recoveries occur after adding the parasitoid complex
Stomatomyia bessiana Baranoff India Colony did not persist
Tetrastichus Israeli Mani and Kurian Sri Lanka No recoveries
Trichogamma brasiliensis Ashmead Sri Lanka No recoveries
Trichogamma minutum Riley Sri Lanka, India Not recoveries

recover completely. Further, BHC attack results in Another method is use of botanicals and biopes-
heavy yield loss (> 50 %), and the infested palms ticides against O. arenosella and are come from
can regain the normal yield potential during the different forms. Biopesticides have proven to be
fourth year following the pest attack, provided the as effective as chemical pesticides in many cases.
pest infestation is brought under control (Chan- The control of the BHC has been accomplished
drika Mohan et al. 2010). with the use of both garlic- and neem-based
biopesticides in India.A commercial formulation
of soluneem was evaluated and recommended to
Management use as application through root feeding. These
treatments act as poison to the species and are ad-
Cultural and Chemical Control ministered as O. arenosella consume the leaves.
The early stage of the pest, artificial defoliation In studies, reduction of all stages of larvae as well
such as cutting and destruction of lower fronds as pupae were observed and drastically reduced
can delay the infestation (Perera 1989). Original- the damage incurred by the palms. Application
ly, management of the species was accomplished of organic farming practices also resulted in the
by removing the infested fronds of the coconut reduction of pest infestation in applied gardens.
palms or using light traps in order to physically Chakravarthy et al. (2012) evaluated the combina-
remove the infestation from the palm. However, tion of organic manure and biopesticide applica-
frond removal reduces the palm’s yield drastical- tion with synthetic pesticides and they found that
ly, and does not guarantee to resolve the infesta- less number of infested palms and low defoliation
tion (Cork and Hall 1998). Chemical insecticides in organic manure biopesticide applied fields.
are of course used in the control. Trunk injection
of Monocrotophos of tall palms at 3–6 g of active Biological Control
ingredient per palm was translocated and accu- Naturally, a large number of predatory animals
mulated in the leaves in quantities sufficient to like birds, spiders, anthocoridae, reduvidae, and
kill the BHC, and experimental palms indicated carabidae are recorded (Cock and Perera 1987).
that the insecticidal effect persists for about 6 A large number of parasitoids associated with
months (Kanagarathnam and Pinto 1985); there- the BHC were recorded, and they caused the
fore, it is suggested that this treatment would be suppression of the population. BHC-associat-
adequate to control a succession of larvae hatch- ed parasitoids include Braconidae, Eulopidae,
ing out of eggs over a period of time. However, al- Chalisidae, Bethylidae, Ichneumonidae, Elasmi-
ternative methods to chemicals have been sought dae, Tachinidae, Phoridae, Stenomidae, and
out in order to reduce the chemical residues on Eupelmidae(Cock and Perera 1987). The classi-
the produced fruit, as well as maintain the health cal biological control method was tested both in
of predatory animals and beneficial parasitoids. India and Sri Lanka; however, it was not success-
ful in both countries (Table 5).
376 A. D. N. T. Kumara et al.

The augmentative releases of parasitiods, Work conducted in the 1980s by the Natural
Trichogramma minimum Riley, Goniozus ne- Resource Institute using insects from Sri Lanka
phantidis Muesebeck and Bracon brevicornis demonstrated the presence of four electro-physi-
Wesmeal, are all known parasitoids of the spe- ologically active compounds in extracts from fe-
cies, and work by parasitizing larvae at different male moths (Cork and Hall, 1998). The putative
instars (Venkatesan et al. 2009). G. nephantidis pheromone components were identified and field
and B. brevicornis both parasitoid wasps, parasit- tested in Sri Lanka but high catches in unbaited
ize third to seventh instar larvae, leading to the traps hampered the field work (Cork and Hall
eventual shriveling and death of the organism. 1998).
Wasps have been observed parasitizing up to Srinivasa and Muralimohan (2009) expressed
57 % of the resident larvae, which would reduce the scope for utilizing sex pheromones for the
the population of the BHC significantly. While management of O. arenosella. The behavioral
G. nephantidis proves to be the dominant parasit- attributes like that the adults emerge restricted
izing species over B. brevicornis due to more de- to 10–15 days over 30 successive days in a gen-
veloped parental care in B. brevicornis and there- eration, that populations are protandrous, and
fore reduced number of parasitization, they both the reproductive biology of O. arenosella shows
act as effective species in controlling the coconut less probability of trapping an unmated male in
BHC (Venkatesan et al. 2009). mass trapping. Further, they suggested that the
sex pheromones can directly contribute toward
Use of Pheromone downsizing populations of O. arenosella if they
The presence of female sex pheromone in the are used for disrupting natural mating.
BHC has been revealed from studies in Sri Lanka Female-produced sex pheromone (Z, Z,Z)
and India (Murthy et al. 1995). Studies were 3,6,9-Tricosatriene released by the female was
conducted to ascertain the attraction of virgin identified, artificially synthesized, and field-
females of the BHC to conspecific males. One- tested in India (Bhanu et al. 2009). Bhanu et al.
to two-day-old virgin females were individu- (2011) made an attempt of GC-MS analyses of
ally confined in net cages and fixed to the sticky volatiles collected from virgin females. O. are-
traps. The traps were placed horizontally in the nosella confirmed the structure of the O. areno-
canopy of the infested palms for two consecu- sella pheromone as (Z, Z,Z)-3,6,9-tricosatriene
tive nights. The results indicated that the number (Z3Z6Z9–23Hy). Further, field trials indicated
of male moths trapped in baited traps was sig- that using wing traps PVC vial dispensers with
nificantly higher than in unbaited traps. Hence, 100 μg, the pheromone loading was significantly
the results revealed the attractiveness of virgin superior in attracting the male moths. The trap
females to conspecific males of O. arenosella catches of the BHC male moths in ten phero-
due female sex pheromone released from caged mone traps were able to indicate moth emergence
virgin females (Fernando and Chandrasir 1997). peaks.
Status and Management of Three Major Insect Pests of Coconut in the Tropics and Subtropics 377

Chandrashekharaiah et al. (2012) demonstrated (122.66 moths/trap/generation), and funnel trap

the calling behavior of the female BHC, the male (5.40 moths/trap/generation). The comparison of
response toward sex pheromone, and the behav- the trap with and without pheromone lure indi-
ioral responses of male and female O. arenosella cated that the trap with lure proved more effec-
to female pheromone. Studies on exploitation tive (77.66 moths/trap/generation) than the trap
of pheromone traps as a surveillance and moni- without lure (23.87 moths/trap/generation).
toring tool in IPM of O. arenosella were also Chandrashekharaiah et al. (2013c) demon-
conducted. Nearly 50 % of population reduction strated the robustness of mass trapping technol-
was found in mass trapping of male BHC moths. ogy using sex pheromone traps. The study was
Chandrashekharaiah (2013a) confirmed the dis- conducted in 14.2 ha with 1700 infested coconut
tinct moth emergence periods of BHC males trees. Nearly 661 (I and II generation, respective-
using pheromone traps and nearly five genera- ly) and 836 (III generation) cross vane traps baited
tions of BHC/year. The duration of moth emer- with lure were installed in the study area uniform-
gence and nonemergence periods of moth varied ly. Nearly 73,739, 52,392, and 7953 moths were
from 34 to 45 days and 44 to 56 days, respec- trapped in I, II, and III generation, respectively,
tively. The maximum number of days of moth with the larval (2.97 ± 0.63 (Mean ± SD) larvae/
emergence and nonemergence was recorded dur- leaflet before mass trapping) reduction of 34.27
ing March, April, and May. From these studies, (1.93 ± 0.64 larvae/leaflet), 88.76 (0.12 ± 0.37 lar-
it is inferred that an average moth emergence pe- vae/leaflet) and 93.97 % (0.09 ± 0.03 larvae per
riod lasted for 41.50 days (SD = ± 3.93) followed leaf) in II, III, and IV generations, respectively;
by 48.16 (SD = ± 4.35) days of nonemergence whereas in the control plot (2.5 ha), the larval
period. The pheromone traps placement should population was increased continuously up to III
not be universal or the same for all the places. generation (1.83 ± 0.22 to 5.27 ± 2.12 larvae/leaf-
But initially, traps should be installed based only let in I and III generation, respectively) and re-
on the visual observation on stage of the pest; in duced in the subsequent generations. Reduction
subsequent generations, the traps can be placed in larval numbers was achieved in treated plot
70–80 days after initial set up. due to continuous trapping of male moths using
Chandrashekharaiah et al. (2013b) demon- pheromone traps.
strated that the optimum dosage pheromone per Chandrashekharaiah (2013a) showed that the
lure was 0.1 mg. Studies on the standardization integration of larval parasitoids with pheromone
of lure type revealed that the commercial plastic traps have a cumulative effect on BHC popula-
vial type (65.75 moths/trap/generation) was more tion. Further, larval parasitoids can effectively in-
effective than vial with cap, black septa, and red tegrate with pheromone traps without having any
septa (31.50, 56.25, 41.50, and 26.25 moths/trap/ adverse effects. From the above studies, it is con-
generation). The pheromone release rate profile firmed that pheromone traps are more effective
of field-installed dispensers quantified at differ- in suppressing BHC population than the release
ent day intervals using gas chromatography with of parasitoids and other methods. Further, they
flame ionization detectors. The results suggested are eco-friendly, without causing any environ-
that, initially, i.e., up to 10 days, the release rate mental hazards and safe to nontarget organisms.
was maximum (60 and 75 % pheromone released The pheromone traps and lures immediately after
within 10 and 20 days, respectively) and later, it mass trapping can be easily collected and buried
was further reduced as the days advanced. The in the soil or it can be recycled for further use.
studies on trap-type standardization indicated This technology can also be easily combined
that the commercial cross vane trap (153.40 with other management practices without any ad-
moths/trap/generation) was more effective than verse effect. With these results, the pheromone
a wing vane trap (29.66 moths/trap/generation), traps can be recommended for the management
wing vane trap with open side (64.60 moths/ of BHC either alone or in combination with the
trap/generation), wing vane trap with large size release of larval parasitoid, G. nephantidis.
378 A. D. N. T. Kumara et al.

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