IEEE PRESS SERIES ON ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

The IEEE Press Series on Elcctromagnetic Wave Theory consists of new lilIes as well as reprints and re-
visions of recognized classics that maintain long-term archival significance in ela:tromagnelic waves
and applications.

Series Edilor
Donald G. Dudley
Universit)' ojArizona

Advisory Board
Robef1 Il Collin
Case Western Re;fe/w Uniw!rsity

Akira lshimaru
Unil'ersio' of Washing/on

D. S. Jones
UnillfrsiIYQ!D,llldee

Associatt Edilors
ElECTROM ...ONnIC THEORV, ScATIEIUNC. INTEGRAL EQUATION MF.THODS
ANI) DWFIlACTION Donald R. Wilton
Ehud Heyman University of Hou£tol1
Tel-Aviv Ulliw!r$ily

DIFFEREr-'TIAL EQUATIO:-" METHOOS ANTENNAS. PROl'AGATION. AND MI(:ROWAVIOS

Andreas C. Cangellaris David R. Jackson
University ofAri:ona Unil'ersity ofHouslOn

BOOKS IN THE IEEE PRESS SERIES ON ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

Christopoulos. C. The Transmission-Une MQdeling Me/hads: TLM

Clcmmow. P. c.. The Plane WaveSpeclrnm Represemmion o[£leclromagnetic Field~'
Collin. R. B.. FieM Theoryo[Guided Waves. Second Edition
Collin. R. E.. Foundations [Qr MicrQwave ElJgilJeering
Dudley, D. G.. Mathematical FQundatiollS[or Elec/romagne/ic Thl'oJy
Elliot, R. S., Electromagnetics: lIis/Qty. TheQry. and Applicll/iQns
Felscn. L. 11.. and Marcuvit"z. N.• Radiation and Scallerillg o[Wal-'t's
Harrington. R. F.• Field ComplllariQII by MOIllI'Il/ Metho<ls
Hansen I:t at, Plalle· Wave Theory (I[Time-Domain Fields: Near-Field $calllling ApplicaliQIIS
lshimaru, A.. Wave Propag(J/ion and Scullering ill Rani/om Media
Jones. D. S., Me/hads in Electromaglletic Wm't' Propagation. Second Edition
Lindel1. l. Y., Methoos[or Elecrromagm:tic Field Analysis
Peterson el at. Computational Merhads[or Electromagnerics
Ta;, C. T.. Generalized VeclOr ami Dyadic Analysis: Applied Mathematics in Field TheOlY
TaL C. T.. Dyadic Green FIIIIClions ill Elec/romagnetic TlleD/Y. Second Edition
Van madel, J.. Singular Elec/romagnetic Fields and Sources
Volakis et al.. Fini/e Element Method[ol' Elecrromagnetic:;: Allt(!lIIlas. Micro....ave Cirellits. and $coller-
ing ApplicaliQlls
Wait, J., ElectromagnetiC Waves ill S/ra/j!ed Media
 An IEEE Press Classic Reissue

TIME-HARMONIC
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Roger F. Harrington
Professor ofElectrical Engineering (retiraJ)
Syracuse Uni''€rsity

IEEE Antennas & Propagation SocielY. Sponsor

IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society, Sponsor

+IEEE
IEEE Press

rnWILEY-
~INTERSCIENCE
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
New York • Chichester • Weinheim • Brisbane • Singapore • ToronlO
This text is printed on acid~free paper. ®
Copyright (() 2001 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this pUblication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
fann or by any means. electronic. mechanical, photocopying, recording. scanning or otherwise,
except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act. without
either the prior written permission ofthe Publisher, or authorization through payment of the
appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923, (978) 750-8400, falC (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for pennission should be
addressed to the Pennissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York,
NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@ WILEY,COM,

For ordering and customer service. call 1-800-CALL-WILEY.

Library ofCongress Cataloging in Publication Data is available.

ISBN 0-471-20806-X

Printed in the United States of America.

10987654321
 IEEE Press
445 Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331
Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331

IEEE I'ress Edilorial Board

Stamatios V. Kartalopoulos, EditfJr in Chief

M. Akay M. Eden M. S. Newman

J. B. Anderson M. E. El-Hawary M. Padgen
R. J. Baker R. F. Herrick W. D. Rcevc
J. E. Brewer R. F. Hoyt C. Zobrist
D. Kirk.

Kenneth Moore, Direc/or qf Books & In/ormation Se,.vice.~

Catherine Faduska, Seniol' Acquisirion.~ Editor

IEEE Antennas & Propagation Society, Sponsor

AP·S Liaison to IEEE Press, Robert Mailloux

IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society, Sponsor

MTI-S Liaison 10 IEEE Press. Karl Varian

Cover design: William T. Donnelly, WT Design

 FOREWORD TO THE REISSUED EDITION

The purpose of the IEEE Press Series on Electromagnetic Wave Theory is to pub-
lish books oflong-tcnn archival significance in electromagnetics. Included are new
titles as well as reprints and revisions of recognized classics. Time-Harmonic Elec·
lromagrtetic Fields. by Roger F. Harrington, is one of the most significant works in
electromagnetic theory and applications.
The book has been one oflhe principallcxls in the first graduate course on elec-
tromagnetic theory for the past fony years; many would say lhe principal text. This
classic volume contains a complete coverage of dynamic fields and is as fresh today
as it was when originally published in 1961.
Time-HamlOnic Electromagnetic Fields has proved to be popular over the past
40 years with students, professors, researchers and engineers who require a compre-
~ensive, in-depth treatment of the subject. Indeed, a colleague of mine, Dr. Kendall
F. Casey of SRI writes, as follows:
"When I begin a new research project, I clear my desk and put away all
texts and reference books. Invariably, Harrington's book is the first
book to find its way back to my desk. My copy is so worn that it is
falling apart."
Another colleague, Professor Chalmers M. Butler of Clemson University adds the
following:
"In the opinion of our faculty, there is no other book available which
serves as well as Professor Harrington's does as an introduction to ad-
vanced elcctromagnctic theory and 10 classical solution methods in
electromagnetics."
Professor Harrington has been an internationally well-known contribUlor to elee-
tromagnetics for many years. He is universally regarded as the "father" of the
Method of Moments. His book on the subject, Field Computation by Moment
Methods, was added to the series in 1993.
Professor Harrington is a Fellow of the IEEE. Prior to his retirement from active
teaching, he was a Distinguished Professor at Syracuse University. Among his many
awards and honors, he was awarded the IEEE Centennial Mcdal in 1984, the IEEE
Antennas and Propagation Society Distinguished Achievement Award in 1989, the
URSI Van der Pol Medal in 1996, the Jubilee Tesla Medal in 1998, the IEEE Elec-
tromagnctics Field Award in 2000, and an IEEE Third Millenium Medal in 2000.
It is with pleasure that I welcome this classic book into the series.

DONALD G. DUDLEY
University ofArizona
Series Edito,'
IEEE Press Series on Electromagnetic Wave Theory

vii
 PREFACE

This book W8..'l written primarily as a graduate-level text, but it should

also be useful lIS a reference book. The organization is somewhat dif-
ferent from that normally found in engineering books. The material
is arranged according to similarity of mathematical techniques instead
of according to devices (antennas, waveguides, cavities, etc.). This
organization reflects the main purpose of the book-to present mathe-
matical techniques for handling electromagnetic engineering problems.
In the sense that theorems are proved and formulas derived, the book is
theoretical. However, numerous practical examples illustrate the theory,
and in this sense the book is practical. The e.'qlerimental lISpect of the
subject is not considered explicitly.
The term time-harmonw has heen used in the title to indicate that only
sinusoidally time-varying fields are considered. To describe such fields,
the adjective a-e (alternating-current) haa heen borrowed from the corre-
sponding specialization of circuit theory. Actually, much of the theory
can easily be extended to arbitrarily time-varying fields by means of the
Fourier or Laplace transformations.
The nomenclature and symbolism used is essentially the same lI.8 that
of the author's earlier text, "Introduction to Electromagnetic Engineer-
ing," except for the following ehange. Boldface script letters denote
instantaneous vector quantities and boldface block letters denote com-
plex vectors. This is a departure from the confusing convention of
using the same symbol for the two different quantities, instantaneous
and complex. Also, the complex quantities are chosen to have rms
(roo~mean-l!quare) amplitudes, which corresponds to the usual a-c
circuit theory convention.
The many examples treated in the text are intended to be simple
treatments of practical problems. Most of the complicated formulas
are illustrated by numerical calculations or graphs. To augment the
examples, there is an extensive set or problema at the end of each chapter.
Many of these problems are of theoretical or practical significance,
and are therefore listed in the index. Answers are given for most of
the problems.
Some of the material of the text appears in book form for the first
time. References are given to the original sources when they are known.
ix
x PREFACE

However, it has not been possible to trace each concept back to its
original inventor; hence many references have probably been omitted.
For this the author offers his apologies. Credit has also been given
to persons responsible for the origina.l calculations of curves whenever
possible. A bibliography of books for supplemental reading is given at
the end of the text.
The book has been used for a course directly following an introductory
course and also for a course following an intermediate one. On the
former level, the progress was slower than on the latter, but the organi-
zation of the book seemed satisfactory in both eases. There is more
than enough material for a year's work, and the teacher will probably
want to make his own choice of topics.
The author expresses his sincere appreciation to everyone who in any
way contributed to the creation of this book. Thanks to W. R. LePage,
whose love for learning and teaching inspired the author; to V. H.
Rumsey, from whom the author learned many of his viewpoints; to
B. Gruenberg, who read the gaUeys; to colleo.gues and students, for their
many valuable comments and criticisms; and, finally, to the several
secretaries who so expertly typed the manuscript.
Roger F. H arringtqn
 CONTENTS

Foreword to the Revised Edition. vii

Preface

Chapter 1. Fundamental Concepts

1-1. Introduction. 1
1-2. Basic Equations. 1
1-3.
1-4.
Const.itutive Relationships.
The Generalized Current Concept
•7
1-5. Energy and Power . 9
1-6. Circuit Concepts 12
1-7. Complox Quantities. 13
1-8. Complex Equations. 16
1·9. Complex Conatitutive Parametera 18
1-10. Complex Power 19
1-11. A-C Characteristica of Matter 23
1_12. A DilKlU8$ion of Current . 26
1-13. A-C Behavior of Circuit Elements 29
1-14. Singularities of the Field . 32

Chapter 2. Introduction to Waves

2-1. The Wave Equation 37

2-2. Waves in Perfect Dielectrica 41
2-3. lutnusia Wave Constanta . 48
2-4. Waves in Lossy Matter 51
2-5. Reflection of Waves 54
2-6. Transmission-line Concepts 61
2-7. Waveguide Concepts 66
2-8. Resonator Concepts 74
2--9. Radiation 77
2-10. Antenna Concepts . 81
2-11. On Waves in General 85

Chapter 8. Some Theorems and Concepts

3-1. The Source Concept 95

3-2. Duality . 98
3-3. Uniquenesa . 100
3-4. Image Theory 103
3-5. The Equivalence Principle. 106
3-6. Fields in Half-space 110
xii CONTENTS
3-7. The rnduct.ion Theorem 113
3-8. Reciprocit.y 116
3-9. Groon's Functions 120
3-10. Tensor Green's Functions. 123
3-11. Integral Equation8 . 126
3-12. Construction of Solutions 129
3-13. The Radiation Field 132

Chapter •. PilUle Wave FunctioDs

....1. The Wave Functions 143

....2. Plane Waves . 1'6
4-3. The Rectangular Waveguide "8
,-4. Alternative Mode Seu. . 162
4-5. The Rect.a.ngular Cavity 166
1·6. Partially Filled Waveguide 158
....7. The Dielcctric-slab Guide . 163
4-8. Surface-guided Waves 168
....9. Modal Expansions of Fields 171
4-10. Currents in Waveguide8 177
4-t l. Apertures in Ground Planes ISO
4_12. Plane Current Sheela 186

Chapter 6. Cylindrical Wave Functions

6-1. The Wave Functions 198

6-2. The Circular Waveguide 20'
6-3. RAdial WaveguidC8. 208
6-4. The Circular Cavity 213
6-6. Other Guided Waves 216
6-6. Sources of Cylindrical Waves. 223
6-7. Two-dimensional Radiation 228
6-8. Wave Transformations. 230
6-9. Scattering by Cylinders 232
5-10. Scattering by Wedges . 238
5-11. Three-dimensional Radiation 2'2
5-12. Apertures in Cylinders. 245
5-13. Apertures in Wedges 260

Chapter 6. Spherical Wave Functions

6-1. The Wave Functions 26'

6-2. The Spherical Cavity 269

....
6-3. Orthogonality Relationships
Space as a Waveguide .
6-6. Other Radial WaveguidC8 .
273
276
279
6-6. Other Resonators 283
6-7. Bources of Spherical Waves 286
6-8. Wave Transformations. 289
6-9. Scattering by Spheres . 292
~IO. DipOle and Conducting Sphere 298
 CONTENTS xiii
~ll. Apertures in Spheres . 301
6-12. Ficlds External to Cones 303
6-13. Ma.ximum Antenna Gain 307

Chapter 7. Perturbational and Variational Techniques

7-1. Int.roduction. 317

7-2. Perturbations of Cavity Walls 317
7-3. Cavity-material Perturbations 321
7-4. Waveguide Perlurbations . 326
7--5. Stationary Formulas for Cavities. 331
7+6. The Riu Procedure. 338
7-7. The Reaction Concept. 340
7-8. Stationary Formulas for Waveguides. 345
7-9. Stationary Formulas for Impedance . 348
.. 7-10. Stationary Formulaa for Scattering 355
7-11. Scatlering by Dielectric Obstacles 362
7-12. Transmiaaion through Apertures. 365

Chapter 8. Microwave Networb

g..1. Cylindrical Waveguides 381

~2. Modal Expansions in W&Veguides 389
8-3. The Network Concept. 391
g...t. One-porl Networn. 393
8-5. Two-port Networks. 398
8-6. Obstaclea in Waveguides 402
8-7. Posts in Waveguides 406
8-8. Small Obstacles in Waveguides 411
8-9. Diaphragms in Waveguides 414
8-10. Waveguide Junctions . 420
8-11, Waveguide Feeds . 425
8-12. Excitation of Apertures 428
8-13. Modal Expansions in Cavitics. 431
8-14. Probes in Cavities . 434
8-15. Aperture Coupling to Cavities 436

Appendix A. Veetor Analysis 447

Appendix B. Complex Permittivities 451
Appendix C. Fourier Series and Integrals 456
Appendix D. Bessel Functions . 460
Appendix E. Legendre Functions 465

Bibliography . 471

lndu . 473
 CHAPTER 1

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

1-1. Introduction. The topic of this book is the theory and analysis
of electromagnetic phenomena that vary sinusoidally in time, henceforth
called a-c (alternating-current) phenomena. The fundamental concepts
which form the basis of our study are presented in this chapter. It is
assumed that the reader already has some acquaintance with electro-
magnetic field theory and with electric circuit theory. The vector analy-
sis concepts that we shall need are summarized in Appendix A.
We shall view electromagnetic phenomena from the "macroscopic"
standpoint, that is, linear dimensions are large compared to atomic dimen-
sions and charge magnitudes are large compared to atomic charges. This
allows us to neglect the granular structure of matter and charge. We
assume all matter to be stationary with respect to the observer. No
treatment of the mechanical forces associated with the electromagnetic
field is given.
The rationalized mksc system of units is used throughout. In this
system the unit of length is the meter, the unit of mass is the kilogram,
the unit of time is the second, and the unit of charge is the coulomb.
We consider these units to be fundamental units. The .units of all other
quantities depend upon this choice of fundamental units, and are called
secondary units. The mksc system of units is particularly convenient
because the electrical units are identica.l to those used in practice.
The concepts necessary for our study are but a few of the many electro~
magnetic field concepts. We shall start with the familiar Maxwell equa-
tions and specialize them, to our needs. New notation and nomenclature,
more convenient for our purposes, will be introduced. For the moSt part,
these innovations arc extensions of a.-c circuit concepts.
1-2. Basic Equations. The usual electromagnetic field equations are
expressed in terms of six quantities. These are
&, caUed the electric intensity (volts per meter)
x, called the magnetw intensity (amperes per meter)
:Il, called the electric flux density (coulombs per square meter)
$, called the magnetic flux den8ity (webers per square meter)
a, called the electric current density (amperes per square meter)
q., called the electric charge density (coulombs per cubic meter)
1
2 TnIE-B.A1WONlC ELECl'ROMAGNl7I'1C FlELDS

dl

c s"---_ _- -
Flo. 1·1. d1 and ds on an open surface. FIo. 1-2. ds on a closed eurfaoe.

We shall call a quantity well-behaved wherever it is a continuous function

and has continuous derivatives. Wherever the above quantities are weU-
behaved, they obey the Maxwell equations
il<ll
VX&=--
at v·m - 0
(I-I)
a:n
vx:re--+.!l v .» """ q~
at
These equations include the inIormation contained in the equation of
conJ.inuity
aq. (1-2)
--a/
which expresses the conservation of charge. Note that we have used
boldface script letters for the various vector quantities, since we wish to
reserve the usual boldface roman letters for complex quantities, intro-
duced in Sec. 1-7.
Corresponding to each of Eqs. (1-1) are the integral forms of Maxwell's
equations

1!>CIl ds ~ 0
o

1!>:n ds
o
= ffl q.d,
(1-3)

These are actually more general than Eqs. (1-1) because it is no longer
required that the various Quantities be well·beh80ved. In the equations
of the first column, we employ the usual convention tha.t ell encircles ds
according 1.0 the right-hand rule of Fig. 1-1. In the equations of the
last column, we use the convention that ds points outward from a closed
surface, as shown in Fig. 1-2. The circle on eo line integral denotes a
closed con1.ourj the circle on a 5urface integral denotes a closed 5urface.
The integrallorm 01 Eq. (1-2) is

(1-4)
 PUNDA.J£EN'1'AL CONCEPTS 3
where the samc convention applies. This is the statement of conserva-
tion of charge as it applies to a region.
We sh&11 use the name field quantity to describe the quantities dis-
cussed above. Associated with each field quantity there is a circuit
quantity, or integral quantity. These circuit quantities are

" called tbe oolIa{}, (volts)

i, called the electric current (amperes)
q, called the electric charge (coulombs)
!/t, called the magnetic flux (webers)
"", called the electric flux (coulombs)
u, called the magnetomotive force (amperes)

... The explicit relationships of the field quantities to the circuit quantities
can be summarized as follows:

v= f E·d1 +~ffCB.ds
i-II g·ds +' - If D·ds (J-,S)

q - Ilf q.dr u=fx.cn

AU the circuit quantities are algebraic quantities and require reference
conditions when designating them. Our convention for a ffline-integral"
quantity, such as voltage, is positive reference at the start of the path of
integration. This is illustrated by Fig. 1-3. Our convention for a
usurfaec-intcgrnl" quantity, such 88 current, is positive reference in the
direction of ds. This is shown in Fig. 1-4. Charge is IIr "net-amount"
quantity, being the amount of positive charge minus the amount of nega·
tive charge.
We shall call Eqs. (1-1) to (1-4) jU,ld equations, since all qunntities
appearing in them are field quantities. Corresponding equations written
in tcrJ1l8 of circuit quantities we shall describe as ciTcuit equation&. Equa-

+ 4l
\

~_---r,
• A,,, I '\ J_
I .-";.---""" ...
I
I
\ ,,

Fla. 1-3.
voltap-.
•
\

Reference convent.ion for FIG.

en~n~.
1-4. Reference convention for
4 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

tiona (1-3) are commonly written in mixed field and circuit form as
,kt.d1 _ _ d>/-
'Y dt
(1-6)
d>/-'
f :JC·d1--+i
dt

Similarly, the equation of continuity in mixed field and circuit form is

4.1J.ds = _ dq (1-7)
'Jr dt

Finally. the various equations can be written entirely in terms of circuit

quantities. For this, we shall use the notation that :z denotes summation
over a closed contour for a line-integral quantity, and summation over a
closed surface for a surface-integral quantity. In this notation, the cir-
cuit forms of Eqs. (1-6) are

1>--~~
1> = ddt' +i
(1-8)

and the circuit form of Eq. (1-7) is

(1-9)

Note that the first of Eqs. (1~8) is a generalized form of Kirchhoff's volt-
age law, and Eq. (1-9) is a generalized form of Kirchhoff's current law.
It is apparent from the preceding summary that many mathematical
forms can be used to present a single physical concept. An understand-
ing of the concepts is an invaluable aid to remembering the equations.
While an extensive exposition of these concepts properly belongs in an
introductory textbook, let us here summarize them. Consider the sets
01 Eqs. (1-1), (1-3), (1-6), and (1-8). The first equation in each sct i.
essentially Faraday's law of induction. It states that a changing mag-
netic flux induces a voltage in a path surrounding it. The second equa-
tion in each set is essentially Ampere's circuital law, extended to the
time-varying case. It is a partial definition of magnetic intensity and
magnetomotive force. The third equation of each set states that mag-
netic flux haa no "flux source," that is, lines of <B can have no beginning
or end. The fourth equation in each set is Ga'U88' law and states that
lines of ~ begin and end on electric charge. It is essentially a partial
definition of electric flux. Finally, Eqs. (1-2), (1-4), (1-7), and (1-9) are
all forms of the law of conservation of charge. They state that charge
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 5
can be neither created nor destroyed, merely transported. Lines of cur-
rent must begin and end at points of increasing or decreasing charge
density.
1~3. Constitutive Relationships. In addition to the equations of
Sec. 1-2 we need equations specifying the characteristics of the medium
in which the field exists. We shall consider the domain of E and ac as
the electromagnetic field and express :D, (Bl and n in terms of & and :re.
Equations of the general form
:D ~ :D(8,3<:)
III ~ 1Il(8,3C) (1-10)
11 - 11(8,3<:)
are called constitutive relationships. Explicit forms for these can be found
by experimentation or deduced from atomic considerations.
The term free space will be used to denote vacuum or any other medium
having essentially the same characteristics as vacuum (such as air). The
constitutive relationships assume the particularly simple for.m.s

in free space (1-11)

where fO is the capacitivity or permiUivity of vacuum, and 110 is the induc-

tivity or permeability of vacuum. It is a mathematical conaequence of
the field equations that (foJ10)-~ is the velocity of propagation of an
electromagnetic disturbance in free space. Light is electromagnetic in
nature, and this velocity is called the velocity of light c. Measurements
have established that
I
c = . ,-- = 2.99790 X 10' ~ 3 X 10' meters per second (1-12)
v foJlo

The choice of either fO or Jlo determines a system of electromagnetic units

according to our equatioDs. By international agreement, the value of Jlo
has been chosen as
lJo = 4r X 10-7 henry per meter (1-13)
for the mksc system of units. It then follows from Eq. (1-12) that

fO ell 8.854 X la-It ~ 3~ X lO-g farad per meter (1-14)

for the mksc system of units.

Under certain conditions, the constitutive relationships become simple
proportionalities for many materials. We say that such matter is linear
6 TIME-HARMONIC ELJ:crROMAGNJ::TIC PfELDS

in the simple sense, and call it limple m.oUer for short. Thus

:1)=,& }
(B =- Jl~ in simple matter (1-15;
lJ = uE
where, as in the free-space case, f is called the capacitivity of the medium
and p is called the inductivity of the medium. The parameter u is called
the conducliuity of the medium. We originally made the qualifying state-
ment that Eqs. (1-15) hold "under certain conditions." They may not
hold if & or 3C are very large, or if time derivatives of & or:Ie are very large.
Matter is often classified according to its values of tT, E, and p. Mate-
rials having large values of 11 are called conduaora and those baving small
values of u are called insul4toT3 or dUlulria. For analyses, it is often
convenient to approximate good conductors by perfect conductors, charac-
terized by u = 00 I and to approximate good. dielectrics by perfed dielec-
trica, characterized by rT = O. The capacitivity f of any material is never
less than that of vacuum to. The ratio t, = tlto is called the dielutric
constant or relative capacitivity. The dielectric constant of a good con-
ductor is hard to measure but appears to be unity. For most linear
matter, the inductivity p. is approximately that of free space lAo. There
is a class of materials, called diamagnetic, for which IA is slightly less than
P.o (of t.be order of 0.01 per cent). There is a clagg of materials, called
paramagmtic, for which Jl is slightly greater than 110 (again of the order of
0.01 per cent). A third class of materials, caUedferromagmtic, has values
of Jl much larger than p.o, but t.hese materials arc often nonlinear. For
our purposes, we shan call all materials except the ferromagnetic ones
nonmagnetic and tnkc II - Po for them. The ratio p., = p/po is called the
rekUive inductivity or rel4tive permeability and is, of course, essentially
unity for nonmagnetic matter.
Quite often the restriction on the time rate of change of the field,
made on the validity of Eqs, (1-15), can be overcome by extending tbe
definition of linearity. We say that matter is linear in the general sense,
and call it linear matter, when the constitutive relationships are the
following lincar differential equations:

in linear matter (1-16)

Even more complicated formulas for the constitutive relationships may

 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 7
be necessary in some cases, but Eqs. (1-16) are the most general that we
shall consider. Note that Eqs. (1-16) reduce to Eqs. (1-15) when the time
derivatives of & and 3C become sufficiently small.
The physical significance of the extended definition of linearity is 88
follows. The atomic particles of mat.ter have mass as well as charge,
SO when the field changes rapidly t.he particles cannot U follow" the field.
For example suppose an electron has been accelerated by the field, and
j

then t.he direction of g changes. There will be a time lag before the
electron can change direction because of its momentum. Such a picture
j

holds for 9 if the electron is a free electron. It holds for:D if the electron
is a bound electron. A similar picture holds for (B except that the mag-
netic moment of the electron is the contributing quantity. We shall not
attempt to give significance to each term of Eqs. (1-16). It will be shown
in Sec. 1-9 that all terms of Eqs. (1~16) contribute to an "admittivitylJ
and an II impedivity >l of a material in the time-harmonic case.
1-4. The Generalized Current Concept. It was Maxwell who first
noted that AmpAre's law for statics, V X X ... :1, was incomplete for
time-varying fields. He amended the law to include an elutr* di.3plaa-
ment currem O'D/at in addition to the conduction current. He visualized
this displacement current in free space as a motion of bound charge in
an Uether/' an ideal weightless Buid permeating all space. We have
since discarded the concept of an et.her for it bas proved undetectable
j

and even somewhat illogical in view of the theory of relativity. In

dielectrics, part of the term aD/at is a motion of the bound particles
and is thus a current in the true sense of the word. However. it is con-
venient to consider the entire O'D/at term as a current. In view of the
symmetry of Maxwell's equations, it also is convenient to consider the
term (}(B/at as a magnetic di8ploament current. Finally, to represent
sources, we amend the field equations to include impre88ed currents, elec-
tric and magnetic. These are the currents we view as the cause of t.he
field. We shall see in the next section that the impressed currents repre-
sent energy sources.
The symbols .g and ml will be used to denote electric and ma.gnetic
currents in genera.l with superscripts indicating the type of current. As
j

discussed above we define total currents

j

.!l' - a:D
at + .!l' + .!l;
(1-17)
ol<II
m<' - -+m<;
at
where the superscripts t, c, and i denote total, conduction, and impressed
currents. The symbols i and k will be used to denote net electric and
magnetic currents and the same superscripts will indicate the type.
j
8 TIJlE.-H.A1WONIC ELEcrB.OKAONETlC nELDS

Thus, the circuit (orm corresponding to Eqs. (l-17) is

i,=d¥- +i.+i'
dl
(1-18)
k'=#+k'
dl
The i and k &re, of course, related to the a and ml by
i-II a-ds k - II mHs (1-19)

where these apply to any of the various types of current.

In terms of the generalized current concept, the basic equations of
electromagnetism become, in the differential (orm,
v X & = _:nt' VX:JC=.g' (1-20)
and in the integral form,

PS-dl- - II ""'-ds p:re-dl ~ II a'-ds (1-21)

Also, the mixed fietd~ircuit form is

PS-dl~-k' (1-22)

and the circuit form is

(1-23)
Note that these look simpler than tbe equations of Sec. 1-2. Actually,
we have merely included many concepts in the functions:nt' and a'j so
tome of the information contained in the original Maxwell equations bas
become hidden. However, our study comprises only a small portion of
the general theory of electromagnetism, and the forms of Eqs. (1-20) to
(1-23) are well suited to our purposes.
Note that we have omitted the H divergence equations" of Maxwell
from our above sets of equations. We have done so to emphasize that
this information is included in the above sets. For example, taking the
divergence of each of Eqs. (1-20), we obtain
V-OIl'-O V-lJ'-O (1-24)
for V· V X a "'" 0 is an identity. Similarly, Eqs. (1-21) applied to
closed surfaces became

1P OIl' - ds - 0 (1-25)

Thus, the totol currents are solenoidal. Lines of total current have no
beginning or end but must be continuous.
 FUNDAliEl\I"TAL CONCEPT8 9
As an illustration oC the general-
ized -turrent concept, consider the
circuils 01 Figs. l-5 and 1-6. In
Fig. 1-5, the Ucurrent source" I)'
l
~urce l_1P_ _j~
produces a conduction current I)c
through the resistor and a displace-
ment current a' - iYD/dl through
the capa.citor. In Fig. 1-6, the
Hvoltage source" mz;C produces an
Fro. 1--5. Type.a of electrio current.
electric current in the wire which in
turn causes the magnetic displace-
ment current 9n" "'" iJ(B/iJt in the ma.gnetic core. In these pictures we
have used the convention that a single-headed arrow represents an elec-
tric current, a double-headed arrow represents a magnetic current.
,.. large

Source <; p.5ll'

-
i

SlI'

FlO. 1-.6. Types of magnetic current.

It is not possible at this time to give the reader a complete picture oC

the usefulness of impressed currents. Figures 1-5 and 1-.6 anticipate one
application, namely, that of representing sources. More generally, the
impressed currents are those currents we view as sources. In a sense,
the impressed currents are those currents in terms of which the field is
expressed. In one problem, a conduction
current might be considered as the source,
or impressed, current. In another prof>..
lem, a polarization or magnetization current
might be considered as the source current.
Our understanding of the concept will grow
as we learn to use it.
1-6. Energy and Power. Consider a re-
gion oC electromagnetic field, as suggested
Flo. 1-7. A region contai..oiDg hy Fig. 1-7. The field oheys the Maxwell
..=ea. equations, which in generalized current
10 TIKE-!lARMONIC J:,LECTROKAGNETlC FIELDS

notation are Eqs. (1-20). As an extension of circuit concepts, it e&n

be shown that a product t· tJ is a power density. This suggests a scalar
multiplication of the second of Eqs. (1-20) by s. Also, in view of the
vector identity
v . (E X :Ie) = :Ie . V X E - E . V X :Ie
a Bcalar multiplication of the first of Eqs. (1-20) by ac is suggested. The
difference of the l'C8ulting two equations is
v· (E X :Ie) + E·.g' + :Ie. "'" - 0 (1-26)
If this equation is integrated throughout a region, and the divergence
theorem applied to the first term, there results

(1-27)

We shall interpret these as equations for the conun:ation of eneTfl1I, Eq.

(1-26) being the differential form and Eq. (1-27) being the integral form.
The generally accepted interpretation of Eqs. (1-26) and (1-27) is as
follows. The Poynting vector
s=&XX (1-28)
is postulated to be a density-of-powcr flux. The point relationship
P, = v . S = V . (E X :Ie) (1-29)
is then a volume density of power leaving the point, and the integral

cP, = 1PSods = 1/>& X :JCods (1-30)

is the total power leaving the region bounded by the surface of inte-
gration, The other terms of Eq. (1-26) can then be interpreted as the
rate of increase in energy density at a point. Similarly, the other terms
of Eq. (1-27) can be interpreted n.s the fate of increase in energy within
the region. Further identification of this energy can be made in particu-
lar cases.
For media linear in the simple sense, as defined by Eqs. (1-15), the
last two terms of Eq. (1-26) become

E· .g' - .'at!. (!2 .E') + .&' + E 'Il'

(1-31)
3C • ml' = !at (.!.2 I-lXt ) + :JC • mti
where a' and mt' represent possible source currents. The terms
w, - Ji't6 1 W.. - J.i'1J3C1 (1-32)
 FUND.ulENTAL CONCEPTS 11
are identified as the electric a.nd magnetic energy densities of static fields,
and this interpretation is retained for dynamic fields. The term
(1-33)
is identified as the density of power converted to heat energy, called
diuipaled power. Fin&1ly, tbe density of power supplied by the source
currents is defined as
(1-34)

The reference direction for /SOurce power is opposite to that for dissipated
power, as evidenced by the minus sign of Eq. (1-34). In terms of the
above-defined quantities) we can rewrite Eq. (1-26) as

p. - P, + p, + ata (w. + w.) (1-35)

A word statement of this equation is: At any point, the density of power
. supplied by the sources must equal that leaving the point plus that dissi-
pated plus the rate of increase in stored electric and magnetic energy
densities.
A more common statement of the conservation of energy is that which
refers to an entire region. Corresponding to the densities of Eqs. (1-32),
we define the net electric and magnetic energies within a region as

(1-36)

Corresponding to Eq. (1-33), we define the net power converted to heat

energy as
ll', = JJJ.&' d, (1-37)

Finally, corresponding to Eq. (1-34), we define the net power supplied

by sources within the region llS

(1-38)

In terms of these definitions, Eq. (1-27) can be written as

ll'. = ll', + ll', + citd (W. + w.) (1-39)

Thus, the power supplied by the sources within 8 region must equal that
leaving the region plus that dissipated within the region plus the rate of
incrcuse in electric and magnetic energies stored within the region.
If we proceed to the general definition of linearity, Eqs. (l-16), the
sepa.ration of power into a reversible energy change (stor!"ge) and ao
12 TIHE-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

irreversible energy change (dissipation) is no longer easy. Contributions

to energy storage and to energy dissipation may originate from both
conduction and displacement currents. However, Eqs. (1-35) and (1-39)
still apply to media linear in the general sense. We merely cannot
identify the various terms. In See. 1·10 we shall see that for a-e fields
the division of energy into stored and dissipated components again
assumes a simple form.
1-6. Circuit Concepts. The usual equations of circuit theory are
specializations of the field equations. Our knowledge of circuit concepts
can therefore be of help to us in understanding field concepts. In this
section we shall quickly review this relationship of circuits to fields.
Kirchhoff's current law for circuits is an application of the equa.tion of
conservation of charge to surfaces enclosing wire junctions. To demon-
strate, consider the parallel RLC circuit of Fig. 1-8. Let the letter 0
denote the junction, and the letters a, b, c, d denote the upper terminals
of the elements. We apply Eq. (1-7) to a surface enclosing the junction,
as represented by the dotted line in Fig. 1-8. The result is

. +.~<>lI +'ho +.I."" +,+dq

~OG ~J dt = 0

where the i... are the currents in the wires, i l is the leakage current cross-
ing the surface outside of the wires, and q is the charge on the junction.
The term dqjdt can be thought of 88 the current through the stray capaci~
tance between the top and bottom junctions. In most circuit applica-
tions both if and dq/dt are negligible, and the above equation reduces to
i ... +i<>ll+ioc+i",,=O
This is the usual expression of the Kirchhoff current law for the circuit of
Fig. 1-8.
Kirchhoff's voltage law for circuits is an application of the first Max.
well equation to closed contours following the connecting wires of the
circuit and closing across the terminals of the elements. To demonstrate,
consider the series RLC circuit of Fig. 1-9. Let the letters a to h. denote

-- .
-------
,
- -" S

a)
,
-- --- FIo. 1.-8. A parallel RLC
circuit.
R L c
 FUND~TAL CONCEPTS 13

b
---- c
a d
I I
FlO. 1-9. A Bel'ies RLC I I L
circuit. I I
I I
h •
B
----
c
f

the t.erminnls of the elements as shown. We apply the first of Eqs. (1-6)
to the contour abcdefgha, following the dotted lines between terminals.
TJ;Us gives
dy,
~+~+v~+~+v~+~,+~+~+~-O

where the v._ are tbe voltage drops along the contour and !/I is the mag-
netic flux enclosed. The voltages v.., v.... v~, and Vfl are due to tbe resist-
ance of tbe wire. The term dl/I/dl is tbe voltage of the stray inductance
of the loop. When the wire resistance and the stray inductance can be
neglected. the above equation reduces to

This is the usual form of Kirchhoff's voltage law for the circuit of Fig. 1-9.
In addition to I{irchhoff's laws. circuit theory uses a number of
l'elcment laws." Ohm's law for resistors. v - Ri, is a specialization of
the constitutive relationship .11 -= u6. The law for capacitors, q - Cv.
expresses the same concept as ~ - t6. We have from the equation
of continuity i .. dq/dt. so the capa.citor lnw ellD also be written as
i .,. C dv/dt. The law for inductors, '" - Li. expresses the same con-
cept as m - ",3<:. From the first Maxwell equation we have v - d"'/dt.
80 the inductor law can also be written 8B v - L dijd,t. Finally. the vari-
ous energy relationships for circuit theory can be considered as special-
izations of those for field theory. Detailed expositions of the various
specializations mentioned above can be found in elementary textbooks.
Table 1-1 summarizes the various correspondences between field concepts
and circuit concepts.
1·7. Complex Quantities. When the fields are a-e, that is. when the
time variation is harmonie, the mathematical analysis can be simplified
14 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

TABLil 1-1. CoRRESPONDENCES BETWEEN CmcUlT CoNCIlPT8 AND FuLO CoNC.E1'1'8

Circuit concepts Field concepts

Voltage II Eleetric intensity 8

Current i Electric current. deMity a

or magnetic intensity Ie

Magnet.ic Bux "" Magnetic ftux density i13

Cb&rgc q Charge density q.

or electric Awe density n

Kirchhoff's voltage lAw (generalized) Maxwell-Faraday equiltion

L·--
•
4
dt VX&---
ilGl
at

Kirchhoff's current law (generalized) Equation of continuity

Lt·-- dq
dl
v·$Jc.--
a,
aq.

Element laws (linear) Coo!5Litutive relationships (linear in the simple

1 ..noe)
Resistors i - - D Conductors.9< - crE
R

.,
Capacitors q - Gil
d.
i-C-
dl
Dielectrics :D-<I;
O< jJ"-e-

Magnetic properties
.s
a'
~:JC
Inductors '" - Li (B -
di ax
0< v-L-
dt
0< ~"-JJ.-
at

Power flow PI - vi Power Bow B - & X :JC

Power dissipation in resistors Power d.issipo.Lion

\Pol _ til. _ _
1 pt Pol - & '.g' - erst
R

Energy in capacitors Electric energy

'W. - liqo - He., w.-~:D·6 - ~«:I
<

Energy in induetore "Magnetic energy

'W. - li.. - liLi' w.. - ~~m':fC - ~1o'3C1
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPl"8 15
by using complex quantities. The basis for this is Euler's identity
ei· %E cosa+jsina
where j = v'=1. This gives us a relationship between real sinusoid&1
functions and the complex exponential function.
Any a-e quantity can be represented by a complex quantity. A scalar
quantity is interpreted according to l
v = v'21V1 co, (wt + a) - v'2 Re (Vel~) (1-40)
where" is called the instantaneoulJ quantity and V "'"' lYle""
is called the
complex quantity. The notation Re ( ) stands for lithe real part of/'
that is, the part not associated with j. Other names for V are "phaaor
quantity" and flvector quantity," the laat name causing confusion with
space vectors. In our notation v represents a voltage, hence V is a complex
lJol14ge. Equation (1-40) with IJ replaced by i and V replaced by I would
define a complex current, and so on. Note that the complex quantity is
not a fUDction of time but it may be a function of position. Note also
that the magnitude of the complex quantity is the effective (root-mean-
square) value of the instantaneous quantity. We have chosen it so
because (1) a.-c quantities are usually specified or measured in effective
values in practice, and (2) equations for complex power and energy retain
the same proportionality factors as do their instantaneous counterparts.
For example, in circuit theory the instantaneous power is p - vi, and
complex power is P = V I·. A factor of ~ appears in the equation for
complex power if peak. values of v and i are used for IVI and IJI.
Complex notation can readily be extended to vectors having sinusoidal
time variation. A complex E is defined as related to fln instantaneoui t
according to
s ~ v'2 Re (Ee'·') (1-41)
This means that the spatial components of E are related to the spatial
components of t by Eq. (1-40). For example, the z components of E
and t arc related by
S. = v'2 Re (E.d·') - v'2 IE.I co, (wi + a.)
where E", = IE",lei"'.. Similar equations relate the y and: components of
E and t. The phase of each component may be different from the phases
of the other two components, that is, a"" a., and a", are not necessarily
equal. In our notation & is an electric intensity, hence E is called the com--
pia eled.rU; intetuity. Equation (1-41) with E replaced by H and 8 by X
I The convent.ion " _ ~ 1m (Vel.') can &lao be used, where 1m ( ) atancla fOT
"the imaginary part. or." The factar v"2 can be omitted if it is deeircd that IVI be Lb.
peak value of II.
16 'I'IJrOioItAJUlONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC nELDS

defines a comple:e magnetic intenrily H, representing the instantaneous

magnetic intensity X, and 80 aD. Note tha.t the magnitude of a com-
ponent of the complex vector is the effective value of the corresponding
component of the instantaneous vector. This choice corresponds to that
taken for complex scalars and has essentially the same advantages.
A real v~tor, sucb as S or :re, can be thought of as a triplet of real
scalar (unctions, ne.mely, the %, Y, and t components. At any instant of
time, the vector has a definite magnitude and direction at every point in
space and can be represented in three dimensions by arrows. A complex
vector, such as E or H, is a group of six real scalar functions, namely,
the real and imaginary parts of the X, 1/t and z components. It cannot be
represented by arrows in three-dimensional space except in special cases.
One such s~ia1 case is that for which 0::", = a. - a., 80 that the vector
has a real direction in space. In this case the instantaneous vector always
points in the same direction (or opposite direction), at a point in spa.ee,
changing only in amplitude. We could define a ucomplex magnitude"
and a "complex direction" for lJ, complex vector as extensions of the
corresponding definitions for real vectors, but these would ha.ve little use.
Throughout this book we shall use the following notation. Instan-
taneous quantities are denoted by script letters or lower-e&se letters.
Complex quantities which represent the instantaneous quantities are
denoted by the corresponding capital letter. Vectors are denoted by
boldface type.
1-8. Complex Equations. The symbol He ~ ) can be considered as a
mathematical operator which selects the real part of a complex quantity.
A set of rules for manipulating the operator Re ~ ) can be formulated
from the properties of complex functions. The following are the rules
we shall need. Let a capital letter denote a complex quantity and a
lower~ase letter denote a real quantity. Then

Re (A) + Re (B) - Re (A + B)
Re (oA) = 0 Re (A)
:x Re (A) - Re(~~) (1-42)

f Re (A) dz - Re (f Adz)

The proof of these is left to the reader.

In addit-ion to the above equations we shall need the following lemma.
If A and B are complex quanlitiu, and He (AeJ- ' ) - Re (Bei"'l) for aU I,
then A = B. We can readily show this by first taking t = 0, obtaining
Re (A) ~ Re (B), and then taking wt - T/2, obtaining 1m (A) = 1m (B).
Thus, A - B, for the above two equalities are the definition of this.
To illustrate the derivation of an equation for complex quantities from
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 17
one for instantaneous quantities, consider

Expressing v and £ in terms of their complex counterparts, we have

V2 Re (v"·') - f V2 Re (E';·') . dl
By steps justifiable by Eqs. (1-42), this reduces to

Cancella.tion of the "\I'2's and application of the above lemma then gives

Note tha.t this is of the same form as the original instantaneous equation.
We have illustrated the procedure with a scalar equation, but the same
steps apply to the components of a vector equation.
From our rules for manipulation of the Re ( ) operator, it should be
apparent that any equation linearly relating instantaneous quantities
and not involving time differentiation takes the same fonn for complex
quantities. Thus, the complex circuit quantities V, I, U, and K are
related to the complex field quantities E, H, J, and M according to

V-fE.dl U=fH'dl (1-43)

I-ffJ·d' K=ffM'd'
There is no time differentiation explicit in the field equations written in
generalized current notation. The complex forms of these must therefore
also be the same as the instantaneous forms. For example, the complex
form of Eqs. (1-20) is
v X H ... JI (1-44)
Even though these complex equations look the Bame as the corresponding
instantaneous equations, we should always keep in mind the difference in
meaning.
As an illustration of the procedure when the instantaneous equation
exhibits a time differentiation, consider the equation
alB
VX£=-aT

Again we express the instantaneous quantities in terms of the complex

18 TUlE-1lARJ40NIC ELECTROMAGNETlC FIELDS

quantities, and obtain

The time variation is explicit, Bnd the differentiation can be performed.

By steps justifiable by Eqs. (1-42), the above equation becomes
y'2 Re (V X Eel") = - y'2 Re (jwBeI"')
By the foregoing lemma, this reduces to
V X E - -jwB
It should now be apparent that each time derivative in a linear instan-
taneous equation is replaced by ajc.J multiplier in the corresponding com-
plex equation. For example, the Maxwell equations in complex (orm
corresponding to Eqs. (1-1) are
V X E - -jwB v·B - 0
(1-45)
vXH~iwD+J v· D - Q.
The other forms of these can be obtained in a similar fashion.
1-9. Complex Constitutive Parameters. The constitutive relation-
ships for matter linear in the general sense can be specialized to the a-e
case by the procedure of the preceding section. To illustrate, consider
the first of Eqs. (1-16), which is

+ ...)&
t
:O_(f+fl'!+f,a
at at'
The complex (orm of this equation is readily found as
D = (f +;Wft - Wlf: + .. ')E
The quantity (t + jWEl - Wlft + ...) is just 8compler. (unction of w,
which we shall denote by i(w). Thus, the complex equation
D - .(w)E
which looks like the form for simple media, is actually valid for media
linear in the general sense.
The other two of Eqs. (1-16) simplify in a similar manner; so we have
the a-c comlitulivt relatiomhip!
D - '(w)E
B ~ p(w)H (1-46)
J' - '(w)E
for linear media. We call l the complex permiUiuily of the medium, P
the compkx permeability of the medium, and 4 the complex tXlnductivity
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 19
of the medium. Remember that these parameters are not necessarily
the d-e parameters, but
I:(w), A(w), 8'(w) _.
--+ E, lA, CT

The d-e parameters may apply over a wide range of frequencies for some
materials but never over all frequencies (vacuum excepted).
In terms of tbe generalized current concept, the induced currents
(caused by the field) are
+
J - (8 jw.)E - g(w)E (1-47)
M - jwpJI - f(w)H
The parameter ti(w) bas the dimensions of admittance per length and will
be called the admiUivity of the medium. The parameter ~(w) has the
dimensions of impedance per length and will be called the impedivity
of the medium. Note that fj is a combination of the 8' and ~ parameters.
A measurement of fj is relatively simple, but it is difficult to separate 4
from i. The distinction is primarily philosophical. If the current is due
to free charge, we include its effect in a. If the current is due to bound
charge, we include its effect in i. Thus, when talking of conductors, the
usual convention is to let fj = 6' + jWf.o. When discussing dielectrics,
it is common to let '0 = jWf.
To represent sources, impressed currents are added to the induced
currents of Eqs. (1-47). Thus, the general form of the a-e field equations
IS
- V X E ~ + M'
f(w)H
(1-48)
V X H ~ g(w)E + J'

The z(w) and 'O(w) specify the characteristics of the media. The J' and
Mi represent the sources. Equations (1-48) are therefore two equations
for determining the complex field E, H. Solutions to these equations are
the principal topic of this book.
1-10. Complex Power. In Sec. 1-5 we considered expressions for
instantaneous power and energy in terms of the instantaneous field
vectors. We shall show now that similar expressions in terms of the
complex field vectors represent time-average power and energy in a.-c
fields. For this, we shall need the concept of complex conjugate quan-
tities, denoted by·, and defined as follows. If A - a' + jalf = IAlei",
the conjugate of A is A· "'" a' - jalf = jAlcJ... It follows from this
that AA' ~ IAI',
Let us first consider any two a-c quantities a. a.nd CB, which may be
scalars or components of vectors. These are in general of the form
a - 01A I cos (wt + a) - 0 Re (A,"')
(II - 01BI cos (wI + P) - 0 Re (Be i.,)
20 TlMJ)o-IIABJ,[ONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC nELDS

where A - IAIe'- and B ~ IBI.... The product of two such quantities is

Cl<ll -01AI cos (",t + a) 01BI cos (..t + P)
- IAllBllcos (a - P) + cos (2",t + a + P») (1-49)
We shall denote the time average of a quantity by a ba.r over that quan-
tity. The time average of the above expression i.e
Cl<ll - IAIIBI cos (a - P)
We also note that
AB' - IAIIBI(.os (a - P) + i sin ~a - p»)
80 it is evident that
Cl<ll = Re (AB') (1-50)
This identity forms the basis of definitions of complex power.
The instantaneous Poynting vector [Eq. (l-28)} can be expanded in
rectangular coordinates as
S = u.(8,:JC. - B.Xy) + uvCB.:JC. - B.:JC.) + u.(&.3C, - BI/:JC.)
This is a sum of terms, each of which is the form of Eq. (1-49). It there-
fore foUows that
s= & X "" = Re (E X H')
In view of this we define a complex Poynting veet4r
S = E X U· (1-51)
whose real part is the time average of the instantaneous Poynting vector,
or
S-Re(S) (I-52)

We shall interpret the imaginary part of Slater.

We can obtain an equation in which S appears by operating on the
complex field equations in a manner similar to that used in the instanta-
neous case. Starting from Eqs. (1-44), we 8calarly multiply the first by
H· and the conjugate of the second by E. The difference of the resulting
two equations is
E . V X H· - H· . V X E "'" E • JI. + H· . M'
The left-hand term is - V . (E X H·) by a mathematical identity; so
we have
v . (E X H') + E . r"
+ H' . M' - 0 (1-53)
The integral form of this is obtained by integrating throughout 8. region
 FUNDAKENTAL CONC&P1'8 21
and applying the divergence theorem. This results in

1ft E X H' . ds + fff (E· J" + H' . M') dT - 0 (I-54)

Comp...e these with Eqs. (1-26) and (1-27). We shan can Eqs. (I-53)
and (1-54) expressions for the conurvation of complex. pqwer, the former
applying at a point and the latter applying to an entire region.
The various terms of the above equations are interpreted as foUo\\1J.
As suggested by Eqs. (1-29) and (1-52). we define a compla volume cWuity
of power kaui1U} a point as
iiI - V . S = V • (E X H') (1-55)
The real part of this is a time-average volume density of power leaving a
point, or
Re (fJJ) - PI (1-56)
where PI is defined by Eq. (1-29). Similarly. we define the complex
po'IOeT kauing a region as

PI = 1ft S· ds - 1ft E X H'· ds (1-57)

It is evident from Eqs. (1-30) and (1-52) that the real part of this is the
time-average power flow, or
(I-58)
Note that these relntionsrnps are quite different Crom those used to inter.
pret most complex: quantities IEqs. (1-40) and (1-41)). This is because
5. P. and 19 are not sinusoidal quantities but are Cormed of products of
sinusoidal quantities.
To interpret the other terms of Eq. (1-53), let us first specialize to the
ease oC a source-Cree field in media linear in the simple sense. We then
have
J' = OE - (. + j",,)E
Mf ... .fH = jWIIH
so E . J" = .IEI' - j""IEI'
H- . M' - jWIIIHI'
where lEi' means E . E- and IHI' means H . H*. In terms of the instan-
taneous energy and power definit.ions of Eqs. (1-32) and (1-33). we have

'fJ, - .IEI' }
~'IEI'
w, - in simple media (1-59)
~"IHI'
w. -
We can now write Eq. (1-53) as
V •S + P' + j2",(w. - Ill,) - 0 (1-60)
22 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Thus, the imaginary part of 'PI as defined by Eq. (I-55) is 2w times the
difference between the time-average electric and magnetic energy den-
sities. The integral relationships corresponding to Eqs. (1-59) arc

in simple media (1-61)

where C9d, 'W., and '9... arc defined by Eqs. (1-36) and (1-37). The
specialization of Eq. (1-54) to source-free simple media is therefore

1ft S· ds + <1', + j2w('W. - 'W.) - 0 (1-62)

corresponding to the point relntionsbip of Eq. (1-60). Note that this

interpretation of complex power is precisely that chosen in circuit theory.
IC sources arc prescnt, a. complex power density supplied by tM sources
ca.n be defined as
ft. - -(E· J" + H'· M') (1-63)
The real part of this is the time-average power density supplied by the
sources, or
He (ft.) - P. (1-64)
where p. is defined by Eq. (1-34). We can write Eq. (1-53) in general as
P. - PI + P' + j2w(w. - w.) (1-65)
where all terms have been identified for simple media.. Similarly, the
total complex power 8upplied by sources within a region can be defined as

P. - - !!! (E . J" + H' . M') dr (1-66)

where, from Eq. (1-38), it is evident that

He (P.) = <1'. (1-67)
Then the form of Eq. (1-65) applicable to an entire region is
P. - PI + <1', + j2w('W. - '11'.) (1-68)
The real part of this represents a time-average power balance. The
imaginary part is related to time-average energies, and, in conformity with
circuit theory nomenclature, is called reactive power.
Note that we have never defined <Pd, OW.., or '\\'. for media linear in the
general sense. We can, however, continue to use Eq. (1-68) for the
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 23
general case of linear media by extending our definitions. This is done
as follows. The time-average power dissipntion is defined in general as

fJ', = Re [ffl (tilEI' + flHI') dT] (1-69)

which reduces to the first of Eqs. (1-61) in simple media. The first
term of the integrand represents both conduction and dielect·ric losses, and
tbe second term represents magnetic losses. The time-avernge electric
and magnetic energies are defined in general as

(1-70)

which reduce to the last two of Eqs. (1-61) in simple media. The first of
Eqs. (1-70) includes kinetic energy stored by free charges as well as the
usual field and polarization energies. More discussion of this concept
-is given in the next section.
1-11. A-C Characteristics of Matter. In souree-free regions, the com-
plex field equatiolU5 read
- V X E - l(w)H V X H - ti(w)E
In free space, ! and y assume their simplest forms, being
O(w) = jWfo
lew) = jWJAO
1 in free space (1-71)

These hold for all frequencies and all ficld intensities. In metals, the
conductivity remains very close to the d-c value for all radio frequencies,
that is, up to the infrared frequency spectrum. The permittivity of
metals is hard to measure but appeara to be approximately that of
vacuum. Thus,

~~:~ : jw~ jWfO } in nonmagnetic metals (1-72)

In ferromagnetic metals, JAo would be replaced by fl. We shall consider

this case later_
In good dielectrics, it is common practice to neglect" and express 9
entirely in terms of l. Thus,
ti(w) - jw.
lew) = jWJAo
I in nonmagnetic dielectrics (1-73)

Let us now consider l(w) in more detai1. l We can express l in both ree-
l A. Von Hipple, "Dielectric MaterWa and ApplicatioWl," John Wiley & BoWl,
!I:le_, New York, 1954.
24 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

tangular and polar form as

~(w) = l - jt" = llie-il (1-74)
where I, I', and /; are real quantities. We call l the a-c capacitiuity,
l' the dielectric loss /Mtor, and 0 the dielectric loss angle. In Sec. 1-13 we
shall see that they are related to the capacitance, resistance, and loss
angle, respectively, of an ideal circuit capacitor. In terms of power and
energy, we have from Eqs. (1-69) and (1-70) that

W. Iff <'IEI'd,
~~
~,~ IfI w<"IEI'd,
(1-75)

Thus, I contributes to stored energy (acts like t in simple matter), and

wt" contributes to power dissipation (acts like u in simple matter).
Measured values of ~(w) are usually expressed in terms of I and tan 0, or
in terms of t' and (". We shall use the latter representation.
A <I perfect dielectric" would be one for which I' = O. The only
perfect dielectric is vacuum. A U good dielectric II is defined to be one
for which l remains almost constant at all radio frequencies and for
which ,," is very small. Examples of good dielectrics are polystyrene,
paraffin, and Teflon. Figure 1-10 shows E' and ,/' versus frequency for
polystyrene to illustrate the characteristics of a good dielectric. There
is also a group of Illossy dielectrics," characterized by a varying land
a large l' in the radio-frequency range. Examples of lossy dielectrics
are Plexiglas, porcelain, and Bakelite. Figure 1-11 shows ,,' and E"
versus frequency for Plexiglas to illustrate the characteristics of a lossy
dielectric. There is no group of dielcctrics which havc unusually high
dielectric constants. The titanate and ferrite ceramics fall into this

3
"/f<J

~ 0.0012 ~
/
0.0008 1
1/
0.0004

o o 10
'''/eo
;.0:- - -
102 103 104 10S!Q6 107 lQ8 10' 10 10
Frequency, cycles per sec
FIG. 1-10. ;(1.,1) "'" f' - if" verllus frequency for polystyrene at 25"C,
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 25

0.20 4
\
\
K
0.15 3
..
,,/

~ 0.10 f- 2 \

("/'0
,
0.05 1

" -. --
o o
10 102 103 104 105 106 107 loa 109 10 10
Frequency, cycles per sec
FlO. I-II. :C...) - e' - je" versus frequency for PlcxiglM at 25°0.

class (the latter also being ferromagnetic). Such dielectrics are usually
lossy. A qualitative explanation of the behavior of i can be made in
terms of atomic concepts, but we shall view i as simply a measured
parameter. A table of i for some common dieleckics is given in
Appendix B.
In ferromagnetic matter, when it can be considered linear, both con-
duction and dielectric losses may be significant. In addition to these,
magnetic losses become important. Thus,

~-u+jw'l
f. = jwp. in ferromagnetic matter (1-76)

The parameter p.(w) can be treated in a manner analogous to the treat-

ment of lew). Thus, we express jJ. in both rectangular and polar form as
pew) ~ "' - j"" - Iple-;·· (1-77)
where /Jo', ~", and 6.. are real quantities. We call p' the a-c inductivity,
p" the magnetic loS8 factoT, and 6... the magnetic loss angle. In Sec. 1-13
we shall see that they are related to the inductance, resistance, and loss
angle, respectively, of an ideal circuit inductor. In terms of power and
energy, we have from Eqs. (1-69) and {1-70) that

\1>. ~ Hff "'!HI' dr

<P, - fff W""IHI' dr

(1-78)
26 TUrn-HARM:ONIC ELECTRO)(AON"ETIC FIELDS

28
l,-,
24

flO
/,-'/1'0 /
;-
• 16
~
c
•
f 12 I
:- I
• 8
-"I" I \
4
'< k
o ...{, lQ2 lQJ 10" la' lQ6 10, }()8 1()9 10
,
0

Freqllency, cycles per sec

FIG. 1.12. ;'(w) - ",' - hi' vel'8Wl frequency for Fcrramte A at ZS-C.

where the above lJ'" is only the time-average magnetic power loss, to
which must be added the conduction and dielectric losscs for the total
power ~ipation. Thus,~' contributes to stored energy and Jl" to
power dissipation. Measured values of p(<4) are usually expressed in
terms of p.' and tan ~., or in terms of 1£' and p.". We shall use the latter
representation.
Ferromagnetic metals are extremely lossy materials (primarily due to
u), and also quite nonlinear with respect to fl. They are seldom inten-
tionally used at radio frequencies. However, the ferromagnetic ceramics
CaD be profitably used at radio frequencies to obtain high values of p.'.
They are lossy in the magnetic sense, in that they also have appreciable
1J". Figure 1-12 shows /J' and /J" versus frequency for Ferramic A, to
illustrate the characteristics of ferrite ceramics. These materials become
even more usefu1 when magnet.ized by n d-c magnet.ic field, in which case
f! assumes t.he form of an asymmetrical tensor. Magnetized ferrites can
be used to build II nonreciprocal" devices, such as U isolators" and
<l circulators. "1

1-12. A Discussion of Current. The concept of current has broadened

considerably since its inception. Originally, the term current meant the
flow of free charges in conductors. This concept was extended to include
displacement current, which was visualized as the displacement of bound
charge in matter and in an "ether." The existence of an ether has been
disproved. but ilie concept of displacement current has been retained,
t C. L. Hogan, The Ferromagnetic Effect. at. Microwave Frequencies, Bell Sf/Item
Tteh. J. t vol. 31, no. 1, January, 1952.
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 27
even though it is not entirely a. motion of charge. A further genera.liza-
tion was made to include magnetic displacement current as a. .. dual"
concept of the electric displacement current. Finally, impressed cur-
rents, both electric and magnetic, have been introduced to represent
sources. Because of the breadth of the concept of current, many dif-
ferent phenomena are included, and the nomenclature used is somewhat
lengthy. We shall summarize the notation and concepts in complex
form in this section.
Consider the complex electric current density. Internal to conductors,
the current is, for all practical purposes, due entirely to the motion oC
free electrons. Such current is called the conduction current and is
expressed mathematically by J = aE. (We shall consider u = a, a. real
quantity, Cor this discussion. This is usually true at radio frequencies.)
Even in dielectrics there is some conduction current, but it is usually
small. In Cree space there is no motion of charges at aU, and we have
only a free-space di8placement current, given by J = jWEoE. In ma.tter,
in addition to the conduction current and the free-space displacement
current, we have a. current due to the motion oC bound charges. This
is called the polarization current and is expressed mathematically by
J = jw(~ - EO)E. Because the term J = jw~E is of the same mathe-
matical form as the free-space displacement current, it is called the
displacement current. For our purposes, still a.nother division of the
electric current is convenient. This involves viewing the current in
terms of a. component in phase with E, called the di8sipative current,
J = (a + w~If)E, and a. component out of phase with E, called the
reactive current, J = jwe'E. This is essentia.lly a generalization of the
circuit concept of current, where the dissipative current produces the
power loss and the reactive current gives rise to the stored energy. All
the currents mentioned are classificd as indueed currents, that is, are
caused by tbe field. Impre88ed currents arc used to represent sources or
known quantities. In this sense, they are independent oC the field and
are said to cause the field. The total electric eurrent is the sum of the
induced currents plus the impressed currents. The nomenclature used
for electric currents is summarized in the first column of Ta.ble 1-2.
Both the nomenclature and the concepts of complex magnetic currents
Qre similar to those for electric currents. The one essential difference
in the two concepts is the nonexistence of magnetic II charges II in nature.
Thus, there is no free magnetic charge and no magnetic conduction cur-
rent. In absence oC matter, we have a. magnetic free-space diaplacement
current, M = jWlloH, a.nalogous to the electric case. When matter is
present, we have magnetic effects due to the motion of the atomic
particles, giving rise to an induced magnetic current in addition to the
free-space displacement current. We call this the magnetic polarization
28 TnlE-IlARMONIC ELECTROllAONETIC nILD6

TAJlLIl 1-2. CI.Aaa1J'ICATlOS OJ' ELunuc AND MAGNZTlC CtmuN'T11

Complex electric Complex magnetic

Type
cunent density current. densit.y

Conduction .E

Free-epace dillplacement. jWttE ;..,p.~

Po1Ariul.tion i..,(l - ft)E j..,(p - pt)H

Displacement. ;..<E ;w;iH

Disaipative (.. + """)E ",p"B

Reactive ;wi1J. ;.-.,.'H

Induced gE - (., + ;..,a}E JIB - j..,jiH
- (0' + W.!' + j .....)E - (...p" + ;101,.')8
Impressed J' M'

Total J' - ~E + Ji M' _ fa + MI

CUrTent. expressed by M = jw(p. - JoI.)H. The term M = jwpH is called

the magnetic dilplacem.enl current. being the sum of the (ree-spaec dis-
placement current. and the polarization current. We find it convenient
to divide the magnetic current into a component in phase with H, called
the magnetic di38ipative current, M - wp."H, and a component out of
phase with HI called the magnetic reactive current, M jWIA'H. The :IIC

dissipative magnetic current contributes to the power loss, nnd the

reactive magnetic current contributes to the stored energy. All the
aforementioned magnetic currents arc indtu:ed currents, that is, caused by
the field. In nonmagnetic matter, the induced magnetic current is
simply the free-space displacement current, M - j"'l-loH, a. reactive cur-
rent. To represent sources or known quantities, we use impTC88ed cur-
rents. The nomenclature for magnetic currents is summarized in the
second column of Table 1-2.
A convenient classification of matter from the elcctric current stand-
point can be made in terInB of a quality factor Q. This is defined as
magnitude of reactive current density
Q - magnitude of dlSSipative current density
(1-79)
~'
- :.-:+i":~="
In nonmagnetic matter, this involvcs a ratio of stored electric energy to
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 29
power dissipated. In terms oC the energy and power densities , Eq. (1-79)
can be written n.s
_ ""lEI'
Q - (a + ",")[E]'
_ peak density oC electric energy
- Waverage density oC power dissipated
= 211' peak density of electr\c energy
(1-80)
density oC energy dissipated in onc cycle
Thus, the concept of Q in nonmagnetic matter can be considered as an
extension of the concept of Q for capacitors in circuit theory. A good
dielectric is a high-Q material, while conductors have an extremely
low Q.
When magnetic matter is considered, there is an additional power
dissipation due to magnetic hysteresis loss. The interpretation given to
Eq. (1-80) must be modified, since it includes only the power loss due to
el~ctric effects. In this case, the Q defined above would be called the
electric Q, and an analogous magnetic quality factor Q~ could be defined.
Since we deal principally with nonmagnetic materials, we shall not expand
this concept further.
1-13. A-C Behavior of Circuit Elements. The complex notation used
for a-c fields is the extension of the complex notation used for a-<l circuits.
The complex field equations bear a relationship to the complex circuit
equations which is similar to that for the time-varying case, given in
Sec. 1-6. Circuit elements (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) are
merely configurations of matter and thus have characteristics which
depend upon the properties of matter. Insight into the interpretation of
the impedivity and a.dmittivity functions of field theory can be gained by
considering their relationship to the more familiar characteristics of
impedance and admittance of circuit elements.
The basic elements of circuit theory arc small I two-terminal structures
whose fields are largely confined internal to the clements. According to
the concepts of Sec. 1-10, the complex power supplied to a circuit element
is
p ~ il'. + j2w(W. - W.) (1-81)
In terms of circuit concepts, the power supplied to an clement also can
be written as
p - I/I'Z - IVI'Y' (1-82)
where Z and Yare the impedance and admittance of the element. In
general, an element is calJed an impedor. When P is primarily real, the
I The smallness of an element depends upon the frequency, or wavelength, aa we

shtJl aee in Chap. 2.

30 TUlE--H.ARM.ONIC ELECI'ROllAONETlC FIELDS

~I +i
+
V
t1,
G
t1, I,
I
I
1

• ,
I
I

I,' V
<OJ <bJ <oj
Flo. }·13. A capacitor according to circuit concepts. (a) Physical capacitor; (b)
equivalent, circuit; (c) complex diagram.

element is called a resistor, and when P is primarily imaginary, the

element is called a reactor. A reactor is called an inductor or capacitor
according as 1m (Z) is positive or negative, respectively. It should be
noted that p. and hence Z, is a function of frequency. Thus, the designa~
tion of an element as a resistor, inductor, or capacitor is. to somo degree.
dependent upon frequency. We usually classify elements according to
their low-frequency behavior.
For an explicit discussion, consider the parallel-plate capacitor of Fig.
1~13a. The low-frequency equivalent circuit of tbis element is shown in
Fig. 1·13b, where the conductance G accounts for energy dissipation (Lnd
the capacitance C accounts for energy storage. The relationship or
complex terminal current I to complex terminal voltage V is
I = I. + I, = YV = (G + jwC)V (1-83)
Figure 1-13c shows the complex diagram representing this equation. The
complex power to the element is l
P = IVI'(G - jwC)
For a H good" capacitor (wC» G) the current leads the voltage by almost
90°. and the power is principally reactive. For a "poor" capacitor
(0)> wC) the current and voltage are almost in phase, and the power is
principally dissipative. The element in this case could be classified
as a resistor. The angle between Ie and I is called the loss angle 8, as
shown in Fig. 1-13c.
Let US idealize the problem to a capacitor with perfectly conducting
plates. Furthermore. we shall approximate the field by
V I
E=(f J=A
1 We are using t.he convention P - VI-. Some authors define P .. IV-, in which
case the lign of react.ive power is opposite to that. which we get.
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 31
where A is the area. of the plates and d is their separation. The &-0
constitutive relationship for the field between the capacitor plates is
J - fiE ~ (. + wi' + i",,')E
where we have taken 4 = u. Substituting for E and J from the preceding
equations, we have

I = ~~ V = (u + we" + j~') ~ V

A eompnrison of this with Eqs. (1-83) shows that

A A A
Y - fI d G - (. + wi') d C - l d

Thus, for our idealized circuit element, the admittance is proportional to

the admittivity of the matter between the plates. The equivalency of
l<field power," Eq. (1-81), to ueircuit power," Eq. (1-82), also can be
demonstrated. For our idealized element

P- III fI'IEI' d, = fI'IEI'Ad ~ IVI'Y'

We can use this result to define the admittance of a cube and then view
admittivity 9 as the admittance of a unit cube.
The magnetic properties of matter are similarly related to the circuit
behavior of an inductor. To demonstrate this, consider the toroidal
inductor of Fig. 1-14.a. The low-frequency equivalent circuit of this
element is shown in Fig. l-Ub, where the resistance R accounts for energy
dissipation and the inductance L accounts for energy storage. The
relationship of c!omplex terminal voltage V to complex terminal current
I is
v = V, + V, = ZI = (R + jwL)I (1-84)
The complex diagram representing this, equation is shown in Fig. 1-14c.

+J
V, - - - - -
v

v /{ L
V, 1
(a) (b)
FIc. 1-14. An inductor aeeording to circuit concepti. (0) Toroidal inductor; (6)
equivalent circuit; (c) complex diagram..
 32 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROM~GNETIC FIELDS

The complex power to the element is

p ~ JII'(R + jwL)
For a good inductor (wL» R) the current lngs the voltage by almost
90°, and the power is principally reactive. For a poor inductor (R»
wL) the current and voltage are almost in phase, and the power is princi~
~pally dissipative. The element in this case could be classified as a
resrstor. The angle between VI and V is called the magnetic loss angle
(I..., as shown on Fig. 1-14c.
We now idealize the problem to an inductor of perfectly conducting
wire and approximate the field by

where N is the number of turns, l is the average circumference, and A is

the cross-sectional area. The magnetic constitutive relationship for the
field in tbe core is
M = !H = (wp." + jwp.')11
A substitution for 11 and M from the preceding equations gives

N2A I
I, - •;l -1- ;0
(WIJ" +.JWIJ ') -1-
N'A I

Comparing this with Eq. (l-84), we see that

Z _ I N'A R = WIJ"N2 A
N2A
L=IJI
1 1 1
Thus, for the idealized inductor, the impedance is proportional to the
impedivity of the matter. From Eq. (l-82), the power supplied to the
inductor is

p - III IIHl'dT -IIH!'AI- III'Z

which is consistent with Eq. (1-82). Using this result to define the
impedance of a cube, we can think of impedivity as the impedance of a
unit cube.
This development serves to illustrate the close correspondences between
a,..c circuit concepts and a-c field concepts. A summary of the various
concepts is given in Table 1-3.
1-14. Singularities of the Field. A field is said to be singular at a
point for which the function or its derivatives are discontinuous. Most
of our discussion so far has been about wcll·bchaved fields, but we have
meant to include by implication certain types of aUowable singularities.
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT8 33
TABLE 1-3. COIUtESPONDENCES BETWEEN A-C CIRCUIT CONCEPTS
AND A-C Y.'U:I.D CONCEM1I

A~C circuit conccpts A-C field concepts

Complcx voltage V Complex electric intensity E

CompleK magnctic currcnt density M

Complex current 1 Complex electric current density J

Complex magnetic intensity H

Complex power flow VI- Density of complex powcr now E x a-

Impedance Z(",,) Impedivity i(",,)

Admittance Y("") Admittivity D(...)

Resistors: Conductors (IT » ",f_):

1
Admittance, y{",) -Ii Admittivity, 9{",,) ... tT
1
Current, 1 - Ii V Current density, J- tTE

Powcr dissipation R1 VV· DeJUlity of power dissipation, oE . E-

Capacitors: Dielectrics (",&" »tT):

1 .
Admittancc, y{",) --+,,,,C
R
Admittivity, 9(...) ... "'f" + j",l
Current, I - (~ + j""C) V Current density, J ... ("'f" + j",e')E
Stored energy ~CVV- Density of stored energy, H.'E· E·
Power di!l8ipation ~ VV· Density of power dissipll.tion, "'f"E . E·

InductOIll: Magnetic propertics:

Impedance, Z(",) - R + j",l~ lmpedivity, !I(",) - "'jJ." + jwjJ.'
Voltage, V - (R + jwL)l Magnetic currcnt, M - (wp." + jWjJ.')H
Stored energy, HL1P Density of stored energy, H,,'H' H-
Power dissipation, Rl1· DeJUlity of power dissipation, wjJ."H . a-

These can occur at material boundaries (discontinuous ~ and '0) and at

singular source distributions, such as sheets and filaments of currents.
A13 evidenced by Eqs. (1-44), the total electric and magnetic currents
are vortices of Hand -E, respectively. Suppose we have a surfa.ce dis-
tribution of currents J_ and M., as represented by Fig. 1-15. By applying

(1-1l5)
34 TllIE-lLUUolONIC ELEcrROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Region (1) n

M. s FlO. 1_15. Surface currenU.

J.
Region (2)

to rectangular paths enclosing a portion of the surface currents, we obtain 1

(l-86)
where n is the unit vector normal to the surface and pointing into region
(1). The superscripts (1) and (2) denote the side of S on which E or H
is evaluated. Equations (1-86) arc essentially the field equations at
sheets of currents. They express at current sheets the same concept as
Eqs. (1-44) express at volume distributions of currents. If J. and M. are
impressed currents, Eqs. (1-86) arc tbe Uboundary conditions" to be
satisfied at the source.
Equations (1-8(;) apply regardless of whether or not 8. discontinuity
in media exists on S. Whenever J. and M. are zero, Eqs. (1-86) state that
the tangential components of E and H are continuous across the surface.
If z and fJ are finite in both regions 1 and 2, no induced surface current
can result. Thus, tangential compomnts of E and Hare e<>nlinuom aero"
any material boundary, perfect conductors excepted. If onQ side of S is a
perfect electric conductor, say region 2, a surface conduction current J.
can exist even though E is zero, since y "'" a is infinite. In this CllSC,
Eq•. (1-86) reduce 10

n X H =
nXE-O
J'I at a perfect conductor (1-87)

where n points into the region of field. Thus, the "boundary condition"
at a perfect electric conductor is vanishing tangential components of E.
The perfut magnetic e<>nductor is defined to be So mat.crial for which the
tangential components of Hare ?-cro at its surface. This is, however,
purely a mathematical concept. The necessary" magnetic conduction
current" on its surface has no physical significance.
Finally, at a filament of current, the field must be singular such that
Eqs. (1-85) yield the current enclosed, no matl-er how small the contour.
For example, at a filament of electric current I, the boundary condition
for H is
"'H.d! ,1 (l-88)
'fa radiul of 0-0

A similar limit of the second of Eqs. (1-85) must be satisfied at a filament

of magnetic current.
I R. F. Harrington, "Introduction to Electromagnetic EnginC<!ring," McGraw-

Bill Book Company, Inc., p. 74, 1958.

 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 35
It is often convenient for mathematical and discussional purposes to
consider the various singular Quantities aa limits of nonsingular quantities.
For example, we can think of an abrupt material boundary aa the limit
of a continuous, but rapid, change in '0 and!. Similarly, a sheet of
current can be thought of as a volume distribution of current having a
large magnitude and confmed to a thin shell. By such expediencies we
can avoid much tedium in the exposition of the theory.

PROBLEMS

1-1. Using Stokes' theorem and the divergence theorem, show that Eqs. (1-1) are
equivalent to Eqs. (1-3).
1-11. The conduction current in conductors is affected by the magnetic field 1\8 well
as by the electric field (Hall effect). Using an atomic model, justify that
1I ... tr8 + tr'kE. X (B

where h is the Hall constant. For copper (h _ -5.5 X 10- 11 ), determine the (B {or
which the second term of the above equation is 1 per cent of the first term.
1-3. Given g .. u..yl sin wt and :lC .. u"x cos wl, determine n' and ::mI. Determine
i' and k' through the disk z - 0, x' + y' ... I.
1-4. For the field of Frob. 1-3, determine the Poynting vector. Show that Eq.
(1-26) is satis6ed for this field.
1-6, Starting from Ma.xwell's equations, derive the circuit law for capacitors,
i - C dvld4, and the circuit law for inductors, 1/ - L dildt.
1-6. Determine the instantaneous quantities corresponding to (a) 1 - 10 + j5,
(b) E - useS + j3) + u,(2 + j3), (c) H - (u. + u,)elt.+.l.
1-7. Prove Eqs. (1-42).
1-8. Given H - u. sin y in a 9Ource-free region of Plexigla.e, determine E And g at
a. frequency of (a) 1 megacycle, (b) 100 megacycles.
1-9. Show that Q. - 0 (complex charge density vanishes) in a source-free region
of homogeneous matter, linear in the general sense.
1-10. Show that the instantaneous Poynting vector is given by
5 - Re (8 +E X Hel"-I)
Why is 5 not related to S by Eq. (1-41)7
1-11. Consider the unit cube shown in Fig. 1-16 which has sl1 sides except the
face z - 0 covered by perfect conductors. If B• .. 100 sin (ry) and 11. - e/r'l sin (ry)

11"'--<'

1 y
X
FlO. 1-16. Unit cube for Prob. 1-11.
35 TlKE-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
over the open face aDd no sources exist. within tbe cube, determine (4) tbe time-
average power d.issipated within the cube, (b) the difference betwccn the time-average
electric and magnetic energies witbin the cube.
1-12. Suppose a filament of z-diroctcd electric current Ii - 10 is impressed along
the 2: axis from z os 0 to z = 1. U B - u,(l + ,1.determine the complex power and
the time-average power supplied by this source.
1-13. Suppose we have a 10--megacycle field B - u..5, H - u,2, at tome point. in a
material having ~ - 10-\ a- (8 - jlO-I).o, and j;J. - (14 - ;)110' at tbe operating
frequency. Determine each type of current (except impressed) listed in Table 1-2.
I-a. A small capa.eitor has a d-e capacitance of 300 micromicrofaradll when air-
filled. When it is oil-lilled, it is found to have an impedance of (500 - 11 X 10' at
0lJ - 10'. Determine fl. t', and ~"of tho oil, neglecting conductor IOIllle8.
I-Ifi. For a prnctical toroidal induetor of the type shown in Fig. 1.I4a, show that
the power IOflll in the wire will usually be much larger than that in a core of 10w·loSli
ferromagnetic materiaL
1-16. Assume that ~ - I' - jl" is an 8nalytie function of '" and !Ihow that

I(w) -., + - f·
2 101'(10) dw
rOw'",'
__ ~ ( . 10[1(10) - fll dw
r}o w' w'
(Equations of this type are valid for any analytic function regular in the lower b&1f
plane.)
1-17. Derive Eqs. (1-86).
 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCfION TO WAVES

2-1. The Wave Equation. A field that is a function of both time and
space coordinates can be called a wave. We shall, however, be 11 bit
more restrictive in our definition and use the term wave to denote a solu-
tion to a particular type of equation, called a wave equation. Electro-
magnetic fields obey wave equations, so the terms wave and field are
synonymous for time-varying electromagnetism. In this chapter we
shall consider a number of simple wave solutions to introduce and iIIus-
tra.te various a-c electromagnetic phenomena.
For the present, let us consider fields in regions which are source-free
Ui = Mi = 0), linear (£ and 1) independent of lEI and 181), homogeneous
(z and 1) independent of position), and isotropic (z and y are scalar).
The complex field equations are then
v X E - -£H (2-1)
V X H - gE
The curl of the first equation is
V X V X E = -zV X H
which, upon substitution for V X H from the second equation, becomes
V X V X E - -£gE .
The frequently encountered parameter
k ~ 'Ii -£0 (2-2)
is called the wave number of the medium. In terms of k, the preceding
equation becomes
v X V X E - k'E = 0 (2-3)
which we shall call the complex vector wave equation. If we return to
Eqs. (2-1), take the curl of the second equation, and substitute from the
first equation, we obtain
VXVXH-k'H=O (2-4)
Thus, H is a solution to the same complex wave equation as is E.
37
38 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROllLAGNETIC FIELDS

The wave equation is often written in another (orm by defining an

operation
V'A ~ '1('1 . A) - V X V X A
In rectangular components, this reduces to
vIA _ u"V 2A., + u,IVIA, + u.VIA.
where u." U II , and u. arc the rectangular-coordinate unit vectors and VI
is the Laplacian operator. It is implicit in the wave equations that
v·H - 0 (2-5)

shown by taking the divergence of Eqs. (2-3) and (2-4). Using Eqs. (2-5)
and the operation defined above, we can write Eqs. (2-3) and (2-4) as
V'E+ k'E=0 (2-6)
V~H+k2H=O

These we shall also call vector wave equations. They arc not, however,
so general as the previous forms, for they do not imply Eqs. (2-5). In
other words, Eqs. (2-6) and Eqs. (2-5) arc equivalent to Eqs. (2-3) and
(2-4). Thus, the rectangular components of E and H satisfy the complex
8calar wave equation or Helmholtz equation I

v'" + k'" - 0
We can construct electromagnetic fields by choosing solutions to Eq. (2-7)
(2-7)

for E:r:, Ell, and E. or H:r:, H II , and H., such that Eqs. (2-5) are also satisfied.
To illustrate the wave behavior of electromagnetic fields, let us con-
struct a simple solution. Take the medium to be n perfect dielectric,
in which case fJ "'" jWf:, .! "'" jwSl, and
k - ",.y;;; (2-8)
Also, take E to have only an x component independent of x and y. The
first of Eqs. (2-6) then reduces to

d'E.
dz 2
+ k'E •
~0

which is the onc-dimcnsional Helmholtz equation. Solutions to this are

linear combinations of eih and e-i *'. In particular, let us consider a
solution
(2-9)
This satisfies V . E = 0 and is therefore a possible electromagnetic field.
I We shall usc the symbol'" to denote "wave functiODs," that i9, solutions to

Eq. (2-7). Do not confuse these ",,'s with magnetic flux.

 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 39
The associated magnetic field is found according to
iWIAH = - V X E = u.ikE~

which, using Eq. (2-8), can be written as

E~ = ~Hr (2-10)

Ratios of components of E to components of H have thc dimensions of

impedance and arc cRUed wave impedames. The wave impedance associ-
ated with our present solution,

is called tbe intrinsic impedance of the medium. In vacuum,

Jlo =
V;;
[;;""" 120.. "'" 377 ohms (2-12)

We shall see later that the intrinsic impedance of a medium enters into
wave transmission and reflection problems in the same manner as the
characteristic impedance of transmission lines.
To interpret this solution, let Eo be real and determine Sand 3C accord-
ing to Eq. (1-41). The instantaneous fields are found as
E. - V2 E. cos (wt - kz)
(2-13)
:JC. - V2 E. cos (wt - kz)
"
This is called a plam wave because the phase (kz) of Sand :JC is constant
over a set of planes (defined by z = constant) called equiphaae aurfaces.
It is called a uniform plane wave because the amplitudes (Eo and EO/JI) of
Sand 3C are constant over the equiphase planes. S and X are said to be
in phaae because they have the same phase at any point. At some specific
timc, B and X are sinusoidal functions of z. The vector picture of Fig. 2-1
illustrates sand 3C along the z axis at t = O. The direction of an arrow
represents the direction of a vector, and the length of an arrow represents
the magnitude of a vector. If we take a slightly later instant of time,
the picture of Fig. 2-1 will be shifted in the +z direction. We say
that the wave is traveling in the +z direction and call it a. traveling tDaQe.
Thc term polarization is used to specify the beha.vior of & lines. In this
wa.ve, the & lines are always parallel to the :r: axis, and the wave is said to
be limorly polarized in the :r: direction.
The velocity at which an equiphase surface travels is called the phau
40 TUIE-IlARldONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FiELDS

velocity of the wave. An cquiphase plane z. = zp is defined by

wt - kzl' = constant
that is, the argument of the cosine functions of Eq. (2-13) is constant.
As t increases, the value of z.p must also increase to maintain this con-
stancy, and tbe plane z = z,. will move in the +z direction. This is illus-
trated by Fig. 2-2, which is a plot of 8 for several instants of time. To
obtain t.he phase velocity dz ../dt, differentiate the above equation. This
gives
w-k-.!'-O
dz
d'
The phase velocity of this wave is called the intrinsic phase veWdty lip of
the dielectric and is, according to the above equation,

.-------
•
dz,.
dt
w
k
1
v;;. (2-14)

In vacuum, this is the velocity of light: 3 X 10' meters per second.

The wavelength of a wave is defined as the distance in which the phase
increases by 2'11'" at any instant. This distance is shown on Fig. 2-2. The
wavelength of the particular wave of Eqs. (2-13) is called the intrinsic
wavelength ~ of the medium. It is given by k~ "'" Zr, or

X = 2r .,. 2TV. = v. (2-15)

k w f
where f is the frequency in cycles per second. The wavelength is often
used as a. measure of whether a. distance is long or short. The range of
wavelengths encountered in electromagnetic engineering is large. For
exa.mple, the free-space wavelength of a 6(k:ycle wave is 5000 kilometers,
whereas the free-space wavelength of a lOoo-megacycle wave is only 30
centimeters. Thus, a. distance of 1 kilometer is very short at 60 cycles,

x
Direction of travel ~

z
y
Fro. 2.1. A linearly polarized uniform plane traveling wave.
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 41

Glt = 0
"'t = ",/4
"'t",. w/2
z,

1 - - - - - >----1
FIG. 2-2. & at several instants of time in alincarly polarized uniform planc traveling
wave.

but very long at 1000 megacycles. The usual cireuit theory is based on
the assumption that distances arc much shorter than a wavelength.
2.2. Waves in Perfect Dielectrics. In this section we shall consider
the properties of uniform plane waves in perfeet dielectrics, of which
free space ia the most common example. We have already given a special
case of the uniform plane wave in the preceding section. To summarize.
E
E z = Eoe- /h H w = -;; e-iJ:.

where k = w.y'; = 2'11" = ~

" v, (2-16)
~=~
It is an :v-polarized, +z traveling wave. Because of the symmetry of the
rectangular ~coordina.te system, other uniform plane-wave solutions can
be obtained by rotations of the coordinate axes, corresponding to cyclic
interchanges of coordinate variables. We wish to restrict consideration
to +z and -z traveling waves; so we shall consider only the transforma-
tions (x,y.z) to (-Y,x,z), to (x, -Yo -z), and to (y,x, -z). This procedure,
together with our original solution, gives us the four waves

H w+ = A e-ih
• -B e- jh
H~+ = - -
•e
-0
H-= __ lh
(2-17)
E.- Ce ih
=
• •
H,,- = D e/h

•
42 TUlE-IL\RlIONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD8

where the preVlously used Eo has been replaced by A, B J C, or D. The

superscript + denotes So +t traveling wave, and the superscript. - denotes
a -z traveling wave. The most general uniform plan~ wave is a super-
position of Eqs. (2-17).
We have already interpreted the first wave of Eqs. (2-17) in Sec. 2-1.
This also constitutes an interpretation of the other three waves if the
appropriate interchanges of coordinates are made. We have not yet
mentioned power and energy considerations, so let us do 80 now. Given
the traveling wave

we evaluate the various energy and power quantities as

w• .., ; e' "'" fE,' cos' (loll - kz)

w. = ~ X' = fE o' cos' (wt - kz)

(2-18)
2
S = & X ~ = u. - E,' cos' (loll - kz)
E,'•
g = E X H* -u.-
•
Thus, the electric and magnetic energy densities are equal, hall of the
energy of t.he wave being electric and hall magnetic. We can define eo
:JeWcity of propageui<Jn of energy v. as
power flow densit.y S
(2-19)
v. -= energy density ... w. + w..

For the uniform plane traveling wave from Eqs. (2-18) a.nd (2-19) we find
j

v.--
V;;;
1

which is also the phase velocity [Eq. (2-14)]. These two velocities are
not necessarily equal for other types of electromagnetic wa.ves. In gen·
eral, the phase velocity may be greater or less than the velocity of light,
but the velocity of propagation of energy is never greater than the velocity
of light.
Another property of waves can be illustrated by the uanding ~
.E. ~
E IIl == Eosin kz H " =J-COS"'" (2-20)
•
obtained by combining the first and third waves of Eqs. (2-17) with
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 43
A = - C <E jE o/2. The corresponding instantaneous fields are
_M -Eo
&", = v2Eosinkzcoswt 3C~ =- V2-coskzsinwt
•
Note that the phase is now independent of 1" there being no tra.veling
motion i hence the name standing walle. A picture of E and 3C at some
instant of time is sho'm in Fig. 2-3. The field oscillates in amplitude,
with & reaching its peak value when 3C is zero, and vice versa. In other
words, & and 3C are 900 out of phase. The planes of zero & and 3C are
fixed in spa<:e, the zeros of & being displaced a quarter-wavelength from
the zeros of X. Successive zeros of 8 or of 3C are separated by a half·
wavclength, as shown on Fig. 2-3. The wave is still a plane wave, for
equipbase surfaces arc planes. It is still a uniform wave, for its amplitude
is constant over equiphase surfaces. It is still linearly polarized, for E
always points in the same direction (or opposite direction when 8 is
negative).
The energy and power quantities associated with this wave are

w. = i &2 ",. fE o2 sin 2 kz cos' wt

w... = ~ X' = fE o2 cos 2 kz sin 2 wl

(2-21)
E2
S = & X:JC = -u. 2~ sin2kzsin2wt

S = E X H$ = -UIU sin2kz
'E'
2.
The time-average Poynting vector S = Re (5) is zero, showing no power
flow on the average. The electric energy density is a maximum when
the magnetic energy density is zero, and vice versa. A picture of energy

FlO. 2-3. A linearly polarized uniform plane standing wave.

44 TUllE-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

A+C

A-C

Z
FlO. 2-4. Standing-wave pattern of two oppositely traveling waves of unequal ampli-
tudes.

oscillating between the electric and magnetic forms can be used for this
wave. Note that we have planes of zero electric intensity at kz. = nr,
n an integer. Thus, perfect electric conductors can be placed over one
or more of these planes. If an electric conductor covers the plane z "'" 0,
Eqs. (2-20) represent the solution to the problem of reflection of a uniform
plane wave normally incident on this conductor. If two electric con-
ductors cover the planes kz = th'F and kz = ntr, Eqs. (2-20) represent
the solution of a onc-dimcnsional "resonator."
A more general x-polarized field is one consisting of waves traveling
in opposite directions with unequal amplitudes. This is a superposition
of the first and third of Eqs. (2-17), or
E,. = Ae-ih + CeJ'h (2-22)
H II = ! (Ae-ib - Ceil.)
•
If A = 0 or C 0, we have a pure traveling wave, and if IAI = ICI, we
:Ell

have a pure standing wave. For A ¢ C, let us take A and C reaP and
express the field in terms of an amplitude and phase. This gives
A-C
-un b )
E., = VAS + CS + 2AC cos 2kz e_jtan-l ( -A+C (2-23)
The rms amplitude of E is
vAt + C2 + 2AC cos 2kz
which is called the 8tanding-wave pattern of the field, This is illustrated
by Fig. 2-4. The voltage output of a small probe (receiving antenna)
connected to a detector would essentially follow this standing-wave pat-
I This is actually no restriction on the generality of our interpretation, for it corre-

sponde to a judicious choice of 2 and t origins.

 INTRODUcrtON TO WAVES 45
tern. For a pure traveling wave, the standing-wave pattern is a const..'l.nt,
and for a pure standing wave, it is of the form Icos kzj, that is, a "recti-
fied" sine wave. The ratio of the maximum of the standing-wave pat-
tern to tbe minimum is called the standing-wave ratio (SWR). From
Fig. 2-4, it is evident that
SWR~A+C (2-24)
A C
because the two traveling-wave components lEqs. (2-22)] add in phase at
some points and add 1800 out of pbase at other points. The distance
between successive minima is >./2. The standing-wave ratio of a pure
traveling wave is unity, that of a pure standing wave is infinite. Plane
traveling waves reflected by dielectric or imperfectly conducting bounda-
ries will result in partial standing waves, with SWR's between one and
infinity.
Let us now consider a. traveling wave in which both E~ and Ell exist.
This is a superposition of the first and second of Eqs. (2-17), that is,
E = (u.A + u,8)....'.. (2-25)
H = (-u~B + uIIA) !e- jh

"
If B = 0, the wave is linearly polarized in the x direction. If A = 0,
the wave is linearly polarized in the y direction. If A and B are both
real (or complex with equal phases), we again have a linearly polarized
wave, with the axis of polarization inclined at an angle tan- 1 (B/ A) with
respect to the x axis. This is illustrated by Fig. 2-5a. Ii A and Bare
complex with different phase angles, t will no longer point in a single
spatil11 direction. Letting A = IAj&"' and B =- IBleitl , we have the instan-

y y
e vibrates In
e rotates in
this direction
this direction

,,
I X
t.lt = 5'11'/4

I
/'
_
- ~
"- t.lt = 0
..,t = '11', X
/
"- /'
t = TT/4
.,t "" 3"/4 ..,t"" '11'/2

FlO. 2-5. Polaritation of a uniform plane traveling wave. (a) Linear polarization;
(b) elliptical polarization.
46 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETlC FIELDS

taneous electric intensity given by

&. - v'2IA[ cos (wt - kz + a)

&" = v'2 [EI cos (wt - kz + b)
A vector picture of S Cor various instants of time changes in both ampli-
tude and direction, going through this variation once each cycle. For
example, let IAI = 21BI, a = 0, and b = 1r/2. A plot of & for various
values of t in the plane z = 0 is shown in Fig. 2-5b. The tip of the arrow
in the vector picture traces out an ellipse, and the field is said to be
elliptically polarized. Depending upon .Ii and B, this ellipse caD be of
arbitrary orientation in the xy plane and of arbitrary axial ratio. Linear
polarization can be considered as the special C!\8e of elliptic polarization
for which the axial ratio is infinite.
If the axial ratio is unity, the tip of the arrow traces out a circle, and
the field is said to be circularly polarized. The polariza.tion is said to be
right-handed if 8 rotates in the direction of the fingers of the right hand
when the thumb points in the direction of propagation. The polarization
is said to be left-handed if 8 rotates in the opposite direction. The special-
ization of Eq. (2-25) to right-handed circular polarization is obtained by
setting A = jB = Eo, giving

E - (u. - ju,)E,.-J'·
(2-26)
H = (u", - julI)j Eo e-iA.
"
A vector picture of the type of Fig. 2-1 for this wave would show 8 and:JC
in the form of two corkscrews, with 8 perpendicular to :JC at each point.
As time increases, this picture would rotate giving a corkscrew type of
motion in the z direction. Tho various energy and power quantities
associated with this wave are

to.. :or ~ ac' "'" fE o'

(2-27)
2
S "'" t X :JC = u. - Eo'
"2 Eo'
S = E X H· = UJ -

"
Thus, there is no change in energy and power densities with time or
space. Circular polarization gives a steady power flow J analogous to
circuit-tbeory power transmission in a two-phase system.
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 47
As a final example, consider the circularly polarized standing-wave field
specified by
E = (U,. + julI)Eo sin kz (2-28)
H = (U,. + JUII) Eo, cos kz
This is the superposition of Eqs. (2-17) for which A = -0 = jEo/2,
D = -B = E o/2. The corresponding instantaneous fields are
t = (U., cos wt - u ll sin wt) v'2 Eo sin kz
:JC = (u" cos wt - ,
u ll sin wt) V2 Eo cos kz

Note that t and :re are always paraUel to each other. A vector picture
of t and :Ie at t = 0 is shown in Fig. 2-6. As time progresses, this picture
rotates about the z axis, the amplitudes of t and :re being independent of
time. It is only the direction of t and :JC which changes with time. The
amplitudes of t and :re are, however, a function of z, giving a standing-
wave pattern in the z direction. The energy and power densities associ-
ated with this wave are

w. = ; &' = f.E o' sin' kz

w.. = ; X' = tEo' cos' kz

(2-29)
S=tX3C=O

,
5 = -u l l Eo'sin 2kz

It is interesting to note that the instantaneous energy and power densities

are independent of time. This field can represent resonance between two
perfectly conducting planes situated where E is zero. It thus seems that
the picture of energy oscillating between the electric and magnetic Corms

FIo. 2-6. A circularly polarized uniform plane standing wave.

48 TIME-HARMONICELECTUOMAGNETIC FIELDS

is not generally valid (or resonance. However, the circularly polarized

standing wave is the sum of two linearly polarized waves which can exist
independently of each other. We actually have two coincident reso-
nances (called a degenerate case), and the picture of energy oscillating
between electric and magnetic forms applies to each linearly polarized
resonance.
2-3. Intrinsic Wave Constants. When the wave aspects of electro-
magnetism arc emphasized, the wave Dumber k and the intrinsic imped-
ance 7Jt given by
k = y-zg (2-30)

play an important role. The second equation is a generalization of Eq.

(2-11). obtained in the same manner as Eq. (2-11) when i and g are not
specialized to the case of a perfect dielectric. We can solve Eqs. (2-30)
for z and y, obtaining
(2-31 )

A knowledge of k and" is equivalent to a knowledge of ! and y, and

hence specifies the characteristics of the medium.
The wave number is, in general, complex, and may be written as
k=k'-jk" (2-32)
where k' is the intrinsic phase constant and kIf is the intrinsic attenuation
constant. We have already seen that when k = k', it enters into the
phase function of the wave. We shall see in the next section that kIf
causes an exponential attenuation of the wave amplitude. The behavior
of k can be illustrated by a complex diagram rehting k to ! and y.
This is shown in Fig. 2-7. In the
1m expressIons
fJ = u + wE" + jwE'
Z = wJJ." + jwJJ.'
0',f", and JJ." are always positive in
source-free media, for they account
for energy dissipation. The param-
Re eters E' andJJ.' are usually positive but
may be negative for certain types of
atomic resonance. Thus, z and f)
usually lie in the first quadrant of the
complex plane, as shown in Fig. 2-7.
FIo. 2-7. Complex diagram relating k to The product -zQ then usually lies
I and 1). in the bottom hall of the complex
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 49
1m

FIG. 2--8. Ccmp1ex diagram relating" x

to' and g.

1/9

plane. The principal square root, k "'" V -£0, lies in the fourth quad-
rant, showing that k' and k" arc usually positive. Even when l or p.' is
negative, k" is positivej it is only k' that could conceivably be negative.
In losslcss media, g = jWf, I = jr.Jp., and k is real.
The intrinsic wave impedance can be considered in an analogous
manner. Expressing" in rectangular componenUl, we have
(2-33)
where at is the intrinsic wave resistance and X is the intrinsic wave react-
ance. For a wave in a perfect dielectric, " is purely resistive and is there~
fore the ratio of the amplitude of & to X. We shall see in Sec. 24. that
X introduces a phase difference between & and x. The complex diagram
relating" to 9 and I in general is shown in Fig. 2-8. In source-free
regions, v, I', and p." are always positive, and land p.' are usually posi-
tive. Thws t usually lies in the first quadrant and l/g in the fourth
quadrant. The ratio I/g therefore usually lies in the right half plane
and " in the sector ±45° with respect to the positive real axis. When
" or p.' is negative, " may lie anywhere in the right half plane, but at is
never negative. In lossless media, the wave impedance is real.
There are several special cases of particular interest to us. First, con-
sider the case of no magnetic losses. From the first of Eqs. (2-31), we
bAve
I ik· jk·,
• - jk - jkk' ~ - I!IlDI
the last equality following from Eqs. (2-30). Now for: = jwp. """ jl~l,
we have

no mBgnetic losses (2-34)

50 TIlLE-HARMONIC ELEC!'ROAUGNETIC FlELDS

TaLE 2.1. WAVE NUlI8ER (t - l' - ;1.:") AND INTRlN81C

bPEO.t.NCI: (If - +
tJl j!r. - I.lej~

k' k" til

'"
General "" v' -.f -1m v::t9
""-R lm~
k' k"
No magnetic IOI!lell Im~ n. ....r;;;;;g - -
Ifl Ifl

Perfect dielect.ric ... V;; 0

J 0

Good dielectric ... v;I --"~

2 -, ~ "~('
2t'

Good conducLOr
~ if .R'" .R'"
Separation into real and imaginary parts is shown explicitly in row 2 of
Table 2-1. A similar simplification can be made for the ease of DO elec-
tric losses. (See Pooh. 2-13.) Three special cases of materials with no
magnetic losses arc (1) perfect dielectrics, (2) good dielectrics, and (3)
good conductors. The perfect dielectric case is that for which

k=w~ f/=~
This is summarized in row 3 of Table 2-1. A good dielectric is chane-
terized by! = jWj.I, fJ = we" + jwl, with f.'» l'. In this case, we have

k-w~""(l-jj)~wv;;;'(l-j;:.)
k' r; ( .•" )
" - IUl ~ 'J7 I + ) 2<'
which is summarized in row 4 of Table 2-1. Finally, a good conductor is
characterized by ~ = jWJ,l, Y = f1 + jWf, with ~ »Wf.. In this C8.SC, we have
k = V jwp(u + jWf.) "'" V jW,uT
k· WJ.'
"-IUl~ •
The last row of Ta.ble 2-1 shows these parameters separated into real and
imaginary parts.
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 51
2-4. Waves in Lossy Matter. The only difference between the wave
equation, Eq. (2-7), for lossy media and loss-free media is that k is com-
plex in lossy media and real in loss-free media. Thus, Eq. (2-9) is still a
solution in lossy media. In terms of the real and imaginary parts of k,
it is

Also, H is still given by Eq. (2-10), except that "l is now complex. Thus,
the H associated with the E of Eq. (2-35) is

H w = Eo ell. = Eo e-He-l".cjl'. (2-36)

• 1.1
where "l = II'JIeir. The instantaneous fields corresponding to Eqs. (2-35)
and (2-36) are
&.. = V2 EoC k
". cos (wt - k'z)
(2-37)
J<;, = v2 ~ e- k
". cos (wt - k'z - n
Thus, in lossy matter, a traveling wave is attenuated in the direction of
travel according to c k "', and X is no longer in phase with S. A sketch
of & and 3C versus z at some instant of time would be similar to Fig. 2-1
except that the amplitudes of & and JC would decrease exponentially with
z, and 3C would not be in phase with & (:Je usually lags e). A sketch of
&:0 versus z for several instants of time is shown in Fig. 2-9 for a case of
fairly large attenuation. A sketch of :Jew. versus z would be similar in form.

c.
Direction of travel ~

-
--
_ ~ Envelope - e- II".

- --
z

- --
---
(lit = ../2
<>It = "'/4
"'t - a
FIG. 2-9. & at sevClal instanUJ of time in a linearly polarized uniform plane traveling
wave in dissipative matter.
52 TJME-HAR~[QNtC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

The wave of Eq. (2-37) is still uniform, still plane, and still linearly
polarized. So that our definitions of phase velocity and wavelength will
be unchanged for lossy media, we should replace k and k' in the loss-free
formulas, or
A=2'1'=~ (2-38)
k' f
Then v. is still the velocity of a. plane of constant phase, and X is still
the distance in whicb the phase increases by 2,...
Two cases of particular interest are (1) good dielectrics (low·1055), and
(2) good conductors (high-loss). For the first case, we have (see Table
2-1)

in good dielectrics (til « i) (2-39)

Thus, the attenuation is very small, and e and JC arc nearly in phase.
The wave is almost the same as in a loss-free dielectric. For example, in
polystyrene (see Fig. 1-10), a lo-megacycle wave is attenuated only 0.5
per cent per kilometer, and thc phase difference between Sand 3C is
only 0.003 0 • The intrinsic impedance of a dielectric is usually less than
that of free space, since usually l > fll and jj = jja. The intrinsic phase
velocity and wavelength in a dielectric arc also less than those of free
space.
In the high·loss case (see Table 2-1), we have

k'=~
k" = ~w;o.
in good conductors (<1 » Wf) (2-40)
fo;j,
1,1 ~ "1/.
T
!~4

Thus, the attenuation is very large, and 3C lags e by 45°. The intrinsic
impedance of a good conductor is extremely small at radio frequencies,
having a magnitude of 1.16 X 1O-~ ohm for copper at 10 megacycles.
The wavelength is also very small compared to the free-space wavelength.
For example, at 10 megacycles the free·spacc wavelength is 30 meters,
while in copper the wavelength is only 0.131 millimeter. The attenuation
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 53
in a good conductor is very rapid. For the above-mentioned lO-mego.-
cycle wave in copper the attenuation is 99.81 per cent in 0.131 milli-
meter of travel. Thus, waves do not penetrate metals very deeply. A
metal ncts as a shield against electromagnetic waves.
A wave starting at the surface of a. good conductor and propagating
inward is very quickly damped to insignificant values. The field is
localized in a thin surface layer, this phenomenon being known as skin
effect. The distance in which a wave is attenuated to lie (36.8 per cent)
of its initial value is called the skin depth or depth oj penetration 3. This
is defined by k"3 = I, or
! _ ~ 2 _,!" _ ~. (2-41)
WP.d k' 2r
where A.. is the wavelength in the metal. The skin depth is very small for
good conductors at radio frequencies, for A... is very small. For example,
the depth of penetration into copper at 10 megacycles is only 0.021
millimeter. The density of power flow into the conductor, which must
also be that dissipated within the conductor, is given by
S == E X H* = u,lllo!217..
where H 0 is the amplitude of H at the surface. The time-average power
dissipation per unit area of surface cross section is the real part of the
above power flow, or
watts per square meter (2-42)
where <R ",. Re ('1...) is the intrinsic resistance of the metal. <R is also
called the surjace resistance and 11... the surface impedance of the metal.
Eq. (2-42) is strictly true only when the wave propagates normally into
the conductor. In the next section we shall see that this is usually so.
In most problems Eq. (2-42) can be used to calculate power losses in
conducting boundaries. (An important exception to this occurs at sharp
points and corners extending outward from conductors.)
More general waves can be constructed by superposition of waves of
the above type with various polarizations and directions of propagation.
For waves uniform in the xy plane, the four basic waves, corresponding
to Eqs. (2-17). are
H + ",. A e-1"'e-jlt-'
, "
l{~+ -B e-'''~e-f''~
=

H- "C
= - e!""eJ1"
(2-43)

, "
H.,- = D e1"'ei1-'
"
54 Tl'-fE-HARMONIC ELECTROl'llAGNETIC FIELDS

The preceding discussion of this section applies to each of these waves if

the appropriate interchange of coordinates is made.
A superposition of waves traveling in opposite directions, for example
E,. ... Ae-k"le-it'. + CeJ<"'ei1h
H II = ! (Ae-.t"'e-i1" - Cef"'gil") (2-44)
•
gives us standing-wave phenomena. However, it is no longer possible
to have two "equal" waves traveling in opposite directions. One wave
is attenuated in the +z direction, the other in the -z direction; hence
they can be equal only at one plane. Suppose that the wave componenta
are equal at z = 0, that is, A = C ,in Eq. (2-44). There will then be
standing waves in the vicinity of z = 0, which will die out in both the +z
and -z directions. This is illustrated by Fig. 2-10 for a material having
fairly large losses. Far in the +z direc~ion ~he +z traveling wave has
died out, leaving only the -z traveling wave. Similarly, far in the -z
direction we have only the +z traveling wave. The standing-wave ratio
is now a function of z, being large in the vicinity of z = 0 and approaching
unity as Iz] becomes large. For very small amounts of dissipation, say
in a good dielectric, the attenuation of the wave is small, and standing-
wave patterns are almost the same as for the dissipationless case.
Other superpositions of Eqs. (2-43) can be formed to give elliptically
and circularly polarized waves. In a picture of a circularly polarized
wave traveling in dissipative media, the If corkscrews" for E and :JC would
be attenuated in the direction of propagation. Also, & would be some-
what out of phase with:re. A circularly polarized standing wave would
be a localized phenomenon in dissipative media, just as a linearly polarized
sta.nding wave is localized.
2-6. Reflection of Waves. We saw in Sec. 1-14 that the tangential
components of E and H must be continuous across a material boundary.

--
--- ---
-__ e-""a-
---- Z
Flo. 2·10. Standing.wave pattern or two oppositely traveling waves in dissipative
matter.
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 55
A ratio of a component of E to a com-
Region (I) Region (2)
ponent of H is called the wave imped-
ance in the direction defined by the
cross-product rule applied to the two
components. Thus, continuity of tan- Incident
gential E and H requires that wave Reflected
Transmitted
..
impedance. normal to a material bO'Und- •
ary must be continuoua.
The simplest reflection problem ill
that of a uniform plane wave nor-
mally incident upon a plane boundary FIG. 2-11. Reflection at a plane di-
between two media. Thill is illustrated electric inte.rfa.ce, norma.l incidenoe.
by Fig. 2-11. In region I the field will
be the sum of an incident wave plus a reflected wave. The ratio of the
reflected electric intensity to the incident electric intensity at the interface
ill defined to be the reflection coefficient r. Hence, for region 1
E a (1) c:z Eo{Cik,. + reiA:,.)
H (I) = E,
II
_ (e-J-kl.l - reik,l)
~1

In region 2 there will be a transmitted wave. The ratio of the trans-

mitted electric intensity to the incident electric intensity at the interface
is defined to be the transmission coefficient T. Hence, for region 2
E.(t.) = EoTe- jlt••
H (2) Eo Te-fl"
•
:lO:iI

~.

For continuity of wave impedance at the interface, we have

E.(I) I I + r
Z.
I_-0 = H (1)
1/ .-0 = ~1 I _ r = ~.

where '/1 and ~. are the intrinsic wave impedances of media I and 2.
Solving for the reflection coefficient, we have
r = ~. - '/1 (2-45)
'/, + ~1
From the continuity of E. at z = 0, we have the transmission coefficient
given by
T ~ I +r ~ 2'/. (2-46)
~. + '/1
If region 1 is a perfect dielectric, the standing-wave ratio is
E~ _ 1 + Irl (2-47)
SWR = E~. - 1 - lrl
56 TDm-HARMONIC ELECTROHAGN·ETIC FlELDS

y'

z ,, z
,
Fro. 2-12. A plane wave propagating at an angle ~ with respect to the %-0% plane.

because t.he incident and reflected waves add in phase at some points and
add 1800 out of phase at other points. The density of power transmitted
across the interface is

lio- - Re E X H'· u.1._0 - s..,(l - Irl') (2-48)

where Si.. - E.I/'lJl is the incident power density. The difference

between the incident and transmit.ted power must be that reflected, or
(2-49)

We have used an x-polarized wave for the analysis, but the results are
valid for arbitrary polarization, since the :z: axis may be in any direction
tangential to the boundary. Those of us familiar with transmission-line
theory should note the complete analogy between tho above plane-wave
problem and the transmission-line problem.
Another reflection problem of considerable interest is tha.t of 8. plane
wa.ve incident at an angle upon a plane dielectric boundary. Before
considering this problem, let us express the uniform plane wave in coordi-
nates rotated with respect to the direction of propagation. Let Fig. 2-12
represent a. pla.ne wave propaga.ting at an angle E with respect to the xz
plane. An equiphase plane z' in terms of the unprimed coordinates is
z' "'" zcosE+ysin;
and the unit vector in the v' direction in terms of the unprimed coordinate
unit vectors is
Uy' -. u.. cos ~ - u.sin ~
 U1TRODUCTION TO WAVES 57
The expression for a uniform plane wave with E parallel to the z "'" 0
plane jg the 6rst of Eqs. (2-17) with all coordinates primed. Substituting
from the above two equations, we have
E• .... Eoe-itbol..f+'_ fl
H = (u.,cos ~ - u.sin~) ~Orfl(r"f+-_fl (2-50)

The wave impedance in the z direction for this wave is

Z. "" E. _ _._
(2-51)
HI/ cos t
In a similar manncr, from the second of Eqs. (2-17), the exprcssion for a
uniform plane wave with H parallel to the z = 0 plane is found to be
E - (u"cos t - u.sin E)Eoe-1t (l1oJ.- H .-o
H. = _ Eo e-it(l1ol.t1(+._o (2-.52)
•
The wave impedance in the z direction for this wave is
E.
Z.=--:a::17C08t (2-53)
H.
Thus, the z-direet.ed wave impedance for E parallel to the z - 0 plane
is always greater than the intrinsic impedance, and for H pnrallel to the
z = 0 plane it is always less than the intrinsic impedance of the medium..
Now suppose that a uniform plane wave is incident at an angle t ... 8;
upon a dielectric interface at z - 0, as shown in Fig. 2-13. Part of the
wave win be reflccted at an angle E...... - 8r , and part transmitted at an
angle E - 8,. Each of these partial fields will be of the form of Eqs. (2-50)
if E is parallel to the interface or of the form of Eqs. (2-52) if H is parallel
to the interface. (Arbitrary polarization is a superposition of these two

RegIon (1) RegIon (2)

FlO. 2-13. Reflection at

a plane dielectdc inter-
face, arbitrary angle of
incidence. z
58 T1ME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

cases.) For continuity of tangential E and H over the entire interface,

the y variation of all three partial fields must be the same. This is so if
k l sin 8, = k 1 sin Or = k! sin 6,
From the first equality, we have
(2-54)
that is, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. From the
second equality, we have

sin
- -8,= -k= -V,=
sin 8;
l
k, VI
.j§'"'
-
~2~!
(2-55)

where v is the phase velocity. Equation (2-55) is known as Snell's law

of refraction. The direction of propagation of the transmitted wave is
thus different from that of the incident wave unless IiWt = fWt. In
practically all low-loss dielectrics, 1J.l = Ilt = /le. If medium 2 is free
space and medium 1 is a nonmagnetic dielectric, the right-hand side of
Eq. (2-55) becomes VEl/EO = V;;, which is called the index of refraction
of the dielectric.
The magnitudes of the reflected and transmitted fields depend upon the
polariza.tion. For E parallel to the interface, we have in region 1
E~(I) = A(g-il,._., + rei l ,._ ••)

H~(I) = ~ cos 8;(e-ll,.-.; - reil,.-.,)

",
wbereA includes the y dependence. Thus, thez-directed wave impedance
in region 1 at the interface is
Z~(t) = EP) = --!!- 1 + r
H~(I) cos 8,1 - r
This must be equal to the z-directed wave impedance in region 2 at the
interface, which is Eq. (2-51) with t .... 8,. Thus,
r = 711 sec 8, - 111 sec U; (2-56)
112 sec U, + 111 sec 8;
Note that this is of the same form as the corresponding equation for
normal incidence, Eq. (2-45). The intrinsic impedances are merely
replaced by the z-direct.ed wave impedances o{ single traveling waves.
It should be apparent {rom the form of the equations that, for R parallel
to the interface, the reflection coefficient is given by
r ... 112 cos Ul - '11 cos 8; (2-57)
fit cos 0, + 'Ill cos 0;
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 59
In both cases we have standing waves in the z direction, the standing-waye
ratio being given by Eq. (2-47).
Two cases of special interest are (1) that of total transmission and (2)
that of total reflection. The flf'S(. case occurs when r = O. For E
parallel to the interface, we see from Eq: (2-56) that r = 0 when

Substituting for 9, froro Eq. (2-55) and for the '1'5 from Eq. (2-11) we
obtain

(2-58)

as the angle at which no reflection occurs. This does not always have a
real solution for (Ji. In fact,
sin (Jj _ co
...,-,..
For nonmagnetic dielectrics (PI = PS = po) there is no angle of total
transmission when E is parallel to the boundary_For the case of H
parallel to the boundary, we find from Eq. (2-57) that r """ 0 when

f.JEI - Ill/P.I
sin 8; = (2-59)
Es/Et - EdEs

Again this does not always have a real solution for arbitrary po and E.
But in the nonmagnetic case

(2-60)

There is usually an angle of total transmission when H is parallel to the

boundary. The angle specified by Eq. (2-60) is called the polarizing angle
or Brewster angle. If an arbitrarily polarized wave is incident upon a
nonmagnetic boundary at this angle, the reflected wa.ve will be polarized
with E parallel to the boundary.
The ease of total reflection occurs when Irl = 1. We are considering
lossless media; so the 'l'S are real. It is apparent from Eqs. (2-56) and
(2-57) that Irl ~ 1 for real values of 8, and 81• However, whon flJ.l1 >
EtJ.lS, Eq. (2-55) says that sin 8, can be greater than unity. What does
this mean? Our initial assumption was that the transmitted wave was
a uniform plane wave. But Eqs. (2-50) specify a solut.ion to Maxwell's
equations relYlrdless of the value of sin E. It can be real or complex.
All that is changed is our interpretation of the field. To illustrate, sup-
60 Tl1ofE-HARliONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

pose sin e> 1 in Eqs. (2-50) and let

ksin!~~
(2-61)
keos! = kv'l sin'!:= ±ja
If we choose the minus sign for a, Eqs. (2-50) become

(2-62)

which is a field exponentially attenuated in the z direction. Note the

90° phase difference between E~ and Hili so the wave impedance in the z
direction is imaginary. and there is no power flow in the z direction. A
similar interpretation applies to Eqs. (2-52) when sin t > 1. Returning
now to our reflection problem, from Eq. (2-55) it is evident that sin 0,
is greater than unity when sin 8. > Yf.I}J!!fl}Jl' Thus, the point of tran-
sition from real values of 81 (wave impedance real in region 2) to imaginary
values of 8, (wa.ve impedance imaginary in region 2) is

.
smB. = ..§;""
-
EIJ.l.l
(2-63)

The angle specified by Eq. (2-63) is called the critical angle. A wave
incident upon the boundary at an angle equal to or greater than the
critical angle will be totally reflected. Note that there is a real critical
angle only if EJJ.ll > EU'! or, in the nonmagnetic case, if EI > ft. Thus,
total reflection occurs only if the wave passes from a "dense" material
into a C1less dense" material. The reflection coefficient, Eq. (2~56) or
Eq. (2-57), becomes of the form
R-jX
r = R +jX
when total reflection occurs. It is evident in this case that IrJ is unity.
Remember that the field in region 2 is not zero when total reflection
occurs. It is an exponentially decaying field, called a react1've field or an
evanescent field. Optical prisms make use of the phenomenon of total
reflection.
All the theory of this section can be applied to dissipative media if the
,,'s and 8's are allowed to be complex. Of particular interest is the case
of So plane wave incident upon a good conductor at an angle 8;. When
region 1 is a nonmagnetic dielectric and region 2 is a nonmagnetic con-
ductor, Eq. (2-55) becomes
 lNTROD'OCI'ION TO WAVES 61
l+dI
...4-

l}+v i}'+V+d~ -~--

===j:======ll===",n ~
r-- dz ---i'1 r-- dz -I
Co) (b)
FtG. 2-14. A lnmrro..ion line accordi.ng to circuit concepts. (a) Phyaicalline; (6)
equivalent circuit.

This is an extremely small quantity for good conductors. For most prac-
tical purposes, the wave can be considered to propagate normally into the
conductor regardless of the angle of incidence.
2-6. Transmission-line Concepts. Let us review the circuit concept
of a transmission line and then show its relationship to the field concept.
Let Fig. 2-14a represent a. two-eonductor transmission line. For each
incremental length of line dz there is a series voltage drop dV and a shunt
current dI. The circuit theory postulate is that the voltage drop is
proportional to the line current I. Thus,
dV--IZdz
where Z is a series impeda-n.ce per unit length. It is also postulated t.hat
the shunt. current is proportional to the line voltage V. Thus,
dl ~ -VYd,
where Y is a shunt admiUance per unit length. Dividing by dz, we have
thc a-c transm.i8sion-line equation8
dV dl
-VY (2-64)
-d, - -IZ dz~

Implicit in this development are the assumptions that (1) no mutual

impedance exists between incremental sections of line and (2) the shunt
current dI flows in planes transverse to z. The transmission line is said
to be uniform if Z and Y are independent of z.
Taking the derivative of the first of Eqs. (2-64) and substituting from
the second, we obtain
d'V d'l
- - ZYl- 0 (:HIS)
dz' - ZYV - 0 dz'
which are one-dimcnsion:ll Helmholtz equations. The general solution
62 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETrc FIELDS

TABLE 2-2. COMPARISON OF TRANSMISSION-LINE WAVES

TO UNIFOIW PLANE WAVES
..
Transmission line Uniform plane wave

d'V
-d,' - .,,'V - 0 d'E" + k'E" _ 0
d,'

d'/ d'H I +k'H 0

- - -rtf - 0 __ _

d,' a.' II

T-VZY ik - y'ij
V _ V.+,,-r· + Vo-e'" E. _ 8.+,,-/10 + E.-"iio

1 - I t +,,""" + 1.-e"· H. _ H.+e-/~' + H.-"i l•

V,+ Vj)- ~ " _ Eo+ __ 8.- _ ~

Z. - 11+ - - [0- - y H.+ 8 0- fJ

p - VP S, - E.U:

is a sum of a +z traveling wave and a -z traveling wave, with propaga-

tion constant
(2-66)
Choosing the +z traveling wave
V+ =- Voe--r' /+ = I atr'"
we have from Eqs. (2...64) that
V+ Z 'Y
1+ = -:y = y

Substituting for 'Y from Eq. (2.-66), we have

z, -
V+
]+ -
rz
V1' (2-67)

which is called the characteri8tic impedance of the transmission line. The

imaginary parts of Z and Yare usually positive, and it is common practice
to write
Z=R+iwL Y -G+jwC (2-68)
The equivalent circuit of the transmission line is then as shown in Fig.
2-14b. The reader haa probably already noted the complete analogy
between the linearly polarized plane wave and the transmission line.
This analogy is summarized by Table 2-2.
In the circuit theory development, we assumed no mutual coupling
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 63
between adjacent elements of the transmission line. From the field
theory point of view, this is equivalent to assuming that rio E. or H.
exists. Such a wave is called transverse electromagnetic, abbreviated
TEM. This is not the only wave possible on a transmission line, for
Maxwell's equations show that infinitely many wave types can exist.
Each possible wave is called a. mode, and a TEM wave is called a tram-
mission-line mode. AU other waves, which must have an E. or an H.
or both, are called higher-oroer mode8. The higher-order modes are
usually important only in the vicinity of the feed point, or in the vicinity
of a discontinuity on the line. In this section we shall restrict considera-
tion to transmission-line, or TEM, modes.
For the TEM mode to exist exactly, the conductors must be perfect,
or else an E. is required to support the z-directed current. Let us there-
fore specialize the problem to that of perfect conductors immersed in a
homogeneous medium. We assume E. = H. = 0 and z dependence of
the form e-r.. Expansion of tbe field equations, Eqs. (2-1), then gives
'YE" = -JH. 'YH, -= flE~
'YE. = JH1/ 'YH. = -fJEI/
aE" _ aE~ = 0 aH" _ all. = 0
ax ay ax ay
It follows from these equations that
'Y = jk (2-69)
The propagation constant of any TEA! wave is the intrimic propagation
constant of the medium. The proportionality of components of E to
those of Ii: expressed by the above equations can be written concisely as
1
E=.HXu. H--u.XE (2-70)
•
Thus, the z-directed wave impedance of any TEM wave is the intrinsic
wave impedance of the medium. Finally, manipulation of the original six
equations shows that each component of E and H satisfies the two-
dimensional Laplace equation. We can summarize this by defining a
transverse Laplacian operator
at a'
V,I = ax' + ay1 (2-71)

and writing V,'E = 0

The boundary conditions for the problem are

E, =
H. = 0
0) at the conductors (2-72)

Thus, the boundary-value problem for E is the same as the electrostatic

64 TrnE-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

problem having the same conducting boundaries. The

boundary-value problem for H is the same as the mag-
netostatic problem having "a.nticonducting" (no H ..)
boundaries. It is for thiS reMon that II static" capaci-
tances and inductances caD beAused for transmission
lines even though the field is time-harmonic.
To show the relationship of the statio L's and C's to
the Za of the transmission line, consider a cross section
of the line as represented by Fig. 2-15. In the trans-
Flo. 2.-15. Cross
mission-line problem, the line voltage and current are
sedion of a. trans- related to the fields by
mission Iino.
V ~ /.c, E·dl 1- /.0, H·d! (2-73)

where C1 and Ct are as shown on Fig. 2-15. From the second of these and
the second of Eqs. (2-70) we have

I - ~ ( u. X E· d! _! ( E. dl
'1 le, 'I le.
But in the corresponding electrostatic problem the capacitance is

c _ .'L _.!. ( E. dl
V V}c.
Thus, the characteristic impeda.nce of the transmission line is related to
the electrostatic capacitance per unit length by
V •
Zo =- T = 7/ C (2-74)

Similarly, from the first of Eqs. (2-73) and (2-70) we ha.ve

V~'/.c. Hxu"dl~,/. c, H.dl

In the corresponding magnetostatic problem we have

L=!._!!. ( H.dl
I 1 }e,
Therefore, the characteristic impedance of the line IS related to the
magnetostatic inductance per unit length by
V L
Z, - T - , ;; (2-75)

Note also that Land Care rela.ted to each other through Eqs. (2-74) and
(2-75). The electrostatic and magnetostatic problems h:-ve E and H
everywhere orthogonal to each other and are called conjugate problems.
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 65
TAllLE 2-3. CRARACf£R16TJC bIP£DANCE8 OJ' Bolla CoUKON TRAl\I6Jo11SSl0N LINES

Line Geometry Characteristic impedanco

~'o wire 0 ~ Z. __• 101_

2D D »d
t--D-+l • d

Coaxw
@ Z, --Iog-
•
2.
b
•

~
Confocal elliptic Z. --log
" b + Vb' - (:,
2.. (I+~

Parallel plate
I--w-l.L b
Z. _ ,,- 1D »b
b w
T

CoUinear plate I+-D~

->i';;1+- - Z, _-log-
• 4D
• w
D» 1D

Wire above ground plane hi°.!.Td

h Z ... -Iog-
• 2.
4h d
h»d

Shielded pair
l@
n ..y ~
" C' +.',t)
z, .... ;: log d D' -
D'
D »d
• »d

T h»d
Wire in trough
.!.
w _h"j/d •
Z, .... -log
2..
(4W .h)
"""dtanh-
.. 1D w»d

Once the electrostatic C or the magnctostatic L is known, the Zo of the

corresponding transmission line is given by Eq. (2-74) or Eq. (2-75). Table
2-3 lists the characteristic impedances of some common tra.nsmission lines.
When the dielectric is lossy but the conductors still assumed perfect,
all of our equa.tions still apply. Zo (proportional to ,,) and 'Y ( - jk)
66 TlME-B.ARMONIC ELEC!'ROMAGNETIC FlELDS

become complex. The most important effect of this is that the wave is
attenuated in the direction of travel. The attenuation constant in this
case is the intrinsic attenuation constant of the dielectric (Table 2-1,
column 2, row 4). When the conductors arc imperfect, the field is no
longer exactly TEM, and exact solutions are usually impractical. How-
ever, the waves will still be characterized by a propagation constant
"y = a + ifJ. Hence a +z-traveling wave will be of the form
V
1- -
Z.
and the power flow is given by

p, IV.I' e- lt..
= V I· ,.. - - ,.. Poe-f...
Z·
•
or, in terms of time-average powers,
IJ>, - Re (P,) - Re (P.).-~·

The fate of decrease in ~I versus z equals the time-average power dissi-

pated per unit length (1)01, or

<J>" ... - d<J>, = 2a(f>,

d,
Thus, the attenuation constant is given by

.-- IJ>,
21J>, (2-76)

While this equation is exact if d'>" and ~I are determined exactly, its
greatest use lies in approximating a by approximating <P". For example,
attenuation due to losses in imperfect conductors can be approximated by
assuming that EQ. (2-42) holds at their surface. We shall carry out
such a calculation for the rectangular waveguide in the next section.
2-7. Waveguide Concepts. The
waves on a transmission line can be
x z viewed as being guided by the con-
ductors. This concept of wave guid-
/
/ ance is quite general and applies to
many configurations of m.atter. In
general, systems which guide waves
are called waveguides. Apart from
transmission lines, the most com·
monly used waveguide is the reclan·
b y gular waveguide, illustrated by Fig.
FlO. 2·16. The rectangular waveguide. 2-16. It is a hollow conducting tube
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 67
of rectangular cross section. Fields existing within this tube must be char-
acterized by zero tangential components of E at the conducting walls_
Consider two uniform plane waves traveling at the angles ~ and - ~
with respect to the xz plane (see Fig. 2-12). If the waves are x-polarized,
we use Eq. (2-50) and write
E" = A(cikllth.t _ e,kllalnE)e-ih_t
= -2jA sin (ky sin~) e-jh .... E
Let Eo denote (- 2j A) and define
kc=ksin~ 1'=jkcosE
In view of the trigonometric identity sin i ~ + cos 2 E = 1, the parameters
l' a.nd k. are related by

" - k.' - k' (2-77)

The above field can now be written as
E. = E. sin (k,y) r>' (2-78)
let us see if this field can exist within the rectangular waveguide. There
is only an E,,; so no component of E is tangential to the conductors x = 0
and x a. Also, E" """ 0 at y = 0; so there is no tangential component
<:::

of E at the wall y = O. There remains the condition that E" = 0 at

y = b, which is satisfied if

n = 1,2,3, . . . (2-79)

These permissible values of k. are called eigenvalues. or charaeteri8tic

values of the problem.
Each choice of n in Eq. (2-79) determines a possible field, or mode.
The modes in a waveguide nrc usually classified according to the existence
of z components of the field. A mode baving no E. is said to be a tram-
verse electric (TE) mode. One having no fl. is said to be a transverse
magnetic (TM) mode. All the modes in the rectangular waveguide fall
into one of these two classes. The modes represented by Eqs. (2-78)
and (2-79) have DO E. and arc therefore TE modes. The particular modes
that we are considering are TEon modes, the subscript 0 denoting no
variation with x, and the subscript n denoting the choice by Eq. (2-79).
The complete system of modes will be considered in Sec. 4-3.
For k real (loss-free dielectric), the propagation constant 'Y can be
expressed as
k n.
>T
(2-80)
k < n1r
b
68 TUllE-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

where a and fJ are real. This follows from Eqs. (2-77) and (2-79). When
'Y = ifJ, we have wave propagation in the 2: direction, and the mode is
called a propagating mode. When 'Y = a, the field decays exponentially
with z, and there is no wave propagation. In this case, the mode is
called a nonpropagating mod€, or an evanescent mode. The transition
from one type of behavior to the other occurs at a = 0 or k "'" n1r/b.
Letting k = 2rf v'~p, we can solve for the transition frequency, obtaining
n
I. = 2b .y;;; (2-81)

This is called the cutoff frequency of the TEo.. mode. The corresponding
intrinsic wavelength
x. _ 2b (2-82)
n
is called the cuwff wavelength of the TEon mode. At frequencies greater
than Ie (wavelengths less than >".), the mode propagates. At frequencies
less than f. (wavelengths greater than A~), the mode is nonpropagating.
A knowledge of /~ or A~ is equivalent to a knowledge of k~i so they also
arc eigenvalues. In particula.r, from Eqs. (2-79), (2-81), and (2-82), it is
eviden t that
(2-83)

Using the last equality and k CI 27:/ W in Eq. (2-80), we can express 'Y
as

I> I.
(2-84)
1 <I.
Thus, the phase constant fJ of a propagating mode is always less than the
intrinsic phase constant k of the dielectric, approaching k as / -+ co.
The attenuation constant of a nonpropagating mode is always less than
k~, approaching k~ as f -+ O. When a mode propagates, the concepts of
wavelength and phase velocity can be applied to the mode field as a
whole. Thus, the guide wavelength Ag is defined as the distance in which
the phase of E increases by z.., that is, {JAg = z... Using fJ from Eq.
(2-84), we have

X. = VI (Uf)' (2-&5)

showing that the guide wavelength is always greater than the intrinsic
wavelength of the dielectric. The guide phase velocity v, is defined as the
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 69
velocity at which a point of constant phase of & travels. Thus, in a
manner analogous to that used to derive Eq. (2-14), we find

... '. (2-86)

'. - Ii - Vi (Un'
where v.. is the intrinsic phase velocity or the dielectric. The guide phase.
velocity is therefore greater than the intrinsic phase velocity.
Another important property of waveguide modes is the existence of a
characteristic wave impedance. To show this, let us find H (rom the E of
Eq. (2-78) according to V X E "'" -jwJJI. The result is
E. - E. sin (k,y) r<'
H" = .;L Eo sin (keY) tr". (2-87)
J""
H. = ~ Eo cos (keY) el"
J"'.
where E. has been repeated for convenience. The wa.ve impedance in
the z direction is
z. _ E. _ j",. (2-88)
H. ~
This is ca.lled the characteristic impedance of the mode and plays the
same role in reflection problems as does the Zo of transmission lines. If
we substitute into the above equation for "y from Eq. (2-84). we find

I> I,
(2-89)
1 <I,
v(un' 1
Thus, the characteristic impedance of a TEo.. propagating mode is always
greater than the intrinsic impedance of the dielectric, approaching '1 as
f -. 00. The characteristic impedance of a nonpropagating mode is
reactive and approaches zero as f - O.
All our discussion SO far has dealt with waves traveling in the +z
direction. For each +z traveling wave, a -z traveling wave is possible,
obtained by replacing "y by -'Y in Eqs. (2--87). The simultaneous
existence of +z and -z traveling waves in the same mode gives rise to
standing waves. The concepts of reflection coefficients, standing-wave
ratios, etc., used in the case of uniform pla.ne-wave reflection, also apply
to waveguide problems.
The mode with the lowest cutoff frequency in a particular guide is
called the dominant mode. The dominant mode in a rectangular wave-
guide, assuming b > a, is the TEOl mode. (This we have not shown, for
70 TIME-HARMONIC ELEcrnoMAGNETlC FIELDS

y
)lltplt
,, , l ,'
I I 'I
I I
, ,
, ,
I, ',
,.., I!.
x
e------;... lines into paper • ••
, 9 { - - - - -. . Lines out of paper
FIG. 2-17. Mode pattern for the TE ol wAveguido mode.

we have not considered all modes.) From Eq. (2-82) with n = 1, we

see that the cutoff wavelength of the TEo! mode is Xc :>:: 2b. Thus, wave
propagation can take place in a rectangular waveguide only when its
widest side is greater than a half-wavelength.! A sketch oC the instan-
taneous field lines at some instant is called a mode pattern. The mode
pattern of the TEo! mode in the propagating state is shown in Fig. 2-17.
This figure is obtained by determining E and JC from the E and H of
Eqs. (2-87) and specializing the result to some instant of time. AB time
progresses, the mode pattern moves in the z direction.
It is admittedly confusing to learn that many modes exist on a given
guiding system. It is not, however, so bad as it seems at first. If only
one mode propagates in a. waveguide, this will be the only mode of
appreciable magnitude except near sources or discontinuities. The
rectangular waveguide is usually operated so that only the TE ol mode
propagates. This is therefore the only wave of significant amplitude
along the guide except near sources and discontinuities.
Because of the importance of the TED I mode, let us consider it in a
little more detail. Table 2-4 specializes our preceding equations to this
mode and includes some additional parameters which we shall now
consider.
The power transmitted along the waveguide can be found by integrat-
ing the axial component of the Poynting vector over a guide cross section.
This gives
PI'" foG fob E~H: dx dy = IEol! 2i:
which, above cutoff, is real and is therefore the time-average power trans-
mitted. Below cutoff, the power is imaginary, indicating no time-average
I We are referring to the intrinaic wlLvelengt,h of the dieleet,rie filling the waveguide,

which is usually free space.

 INTRODUCI'ION TO WAVES 71
TABi..E 2-4. SUMMARY OF WAVEOUIDE PARAMETERS FOR THE DO),[INANT MODE
(TE ol ) IN A RECTANGULAR WAVEOUIDE

E~ ... Eo sin TY e-"f'

b
Eo . TY 1
Complex field H - -8m -e '
v Zo b
Eo I. TJI
H ---cos-e"'"
• ;" I b

1
Cutoff frequency I. -
2b V III
Cutoff wavelength ).., - 2b

Propagation constant "1'-

{j~ -jkVI -
2... V1
u.;n' f >1.
a - - (fll.)! I <I.
'.
, - ( i"/V
Characteristic impedallce ;WII
z.-- ,IV 1 - (f,ff)' 1>1.
(f<lfP 1) I <I.

Guide wavelength
,
A. - VI (f<ff)1

Guide phase velocity

'. - VI
'.
(f<!f)'

p _ IEoltab
Power transmitted
2Z.

Attenuation due to lossy dielectric a. - 2"VI

WI"
(f<!f)'

Attenuation due to imperfect conductor

a. - a" VI m U<ff)t [2.
+ b ~-)']
1J

power transmitted. (The preceding equation applies only at z = 0 below

cutoff unless the factor cta. is added.) It is also interesting to note that
the time-average electric and magnetic energies per unit length of guide
are equal above cutoff (see Prob. 2-32).
In contrast to the transmission·line mode, there is no unique volta.ge
and current associated with a waveguide mode. However, the amplitude
of a modal traveling wave (Eo in Table 2-4) enters into waveguide reflec-
tion problems in the same manner as V in transmission-line problem.s.
72 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

To emphasize this correspondence, it is common to define a mode voltage V

and a. mode current] such that

Zo =
v
T P = VI- ,, (2-90)

From Table 2-4, it is evident that

V = EO~e-T. (2-91)

satisfy this definition. Remember that we are dealing with only 0. +z

traveling wave. In the -z traveling wave, I = - V /Zo. When waves
in both directions are present, the ratio V/ I is a. function of z. Other
definitions of mode voltage, mode current, and characteristic impedance
can be found in the litera.ture. These alternative definitions will always
be proportional to our definitions (see Prob. 2-34).
Our treatment has 80 far been confined to the ideal loss-free guide.
When losses are present in the dielectric but not in the conductor, all
our equations still apply, except that most parameters become complex,
There is no longer a real cutoff frequency, for 'Y never goes to zero. Also,
the characteristic impedance is complex at all frequencies, The behavior
of'Y = a + jfJ in the low-loss case is sketched in Fig. 2-18. The behavior
of 'Y for the loss-free case is shown dashed, The most important effect
of dissipation is the existence of an attenuation constant at all frequencies.
In the low-loss case, we can continue to use the relationship

provided f is Dot too close to f~, Letting k = k' - jk" and referring to

Flo. 2--18. Propagation

const.a.nt (or & l066y wave-
guide (loss-free. case
• shown dashed).

o f
 lNTRonVC'I'lON TO WAVES 73
Table 2-1, we find

(2-92)

This is t!le attenuation constant due to a lossy dielectric in the guide.

Even more important is the attenuation due to imperfectly conducting
guide walls. Our solution is no Jonger exact in this case, because the
boundary conditions are cbarrged. The tangential component of E is
now not quite zero at the conductor. However, for good conductors. the
tangential component of E is very small, and the field is only slightly
changed, or "perturbed," from the loss-free solution. The loss-free
solution is used to approximate H at the conductor, and Eq. (2-42) is
used to approximate the power dissipated in the conductor. Such a
procedure is called a perturbational mdJwd (see Chap. 7). The power per
unit length dissipated in the wall y = 0 is

lP, L. - (!l f." IH.I' <Ix ~ (!lIE.I' (:i)' J.' d%

= (!lIE.I'a (~)'
and an equal amount is dissipated in the wall y "" b. The power per unit
length dissipated in the wall x = 0 is

lP,1_, = (!l jo(. (lH.I' + IH.I') dy

_ (!lIE.I' (.
jo
[sin' + (I.),
(ry/b)
Zit "1/1
cos' ry]
b
dy

- (!lIE,I' [2;., + Gi)' ~]

and an equal amount is dissipated in the wall x "" a. The total power
dissipated per unit length is the sum of that for the four walls, or

lP, - (!lIE.I' [i., + (:i)' (20 + b)]

Equation (2-76) is valid for any traveling wave; so using the above ~.,
and ~I "*' P of Table 2-4, we have

a, - ab Zo' + (I,)'
6lZ.[b .1 (2a + b) ]

-a. vI (!l V,If)' [I + b (I.),]

7
2a

This is the attenuation constant due to conductor losses. When both

74 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

dielectric losses and conductor losses

x
need to be considered, the total
attenuation constant is
z a""'a<J+a~ (2-94)
for by Eq. (2-76) we merely add the
two losses.
2-8. Resonator Concepts. In Sec.
a 2-2 we noted a similarity between
standing waves and circuit theory
resonance. In the loss-frceca.sc,clec~
troroagnetic fields can exist within
b Y a source-free region enclosed by a
FIG. 2-19. The rectangular cavity. perfect conductor. These fields can
exist only at specific frequencies,
called resona-nt frequencies. When losses are present, a source must
exist to sustain oscillations. The input impedance seen by the source
behaves, in the vicinity of a resonant frequency, like the impedance of an
LC circuit. Resonators can therefore be used for the same purposes at
high frequencies as LC resonators nrc used at lower frequencies.
To illustrate resonator concepts, consider the "rectangular cavity"
of Fig. 2-19. This consists of a conductor enclosing a. dielectric, both of
which we will assume to be perfect at present. We desire to find solu-
tions to the field equations having zero tangential components of E over
the entire boundary. The TElll waveguide mode already satisfies this
condition over four of the walls. We recall that standing waves have
planes of zero field, which sugges~ trying the standing-wave TEol field.
For E" to be zero at z = 0, we choose
E" = E~+ + E~- = A sin 'Jr: (e-i'" - ei/l.)

= Eosin (7) sin pz

For E~ to be zero at z = c, we choose pc = 'Jr, which, according to Table
2-4, is

Solving {or the resonant frequency I = In we have

f _ ..!. ~b' + c' (2-95)

r-2bc tJl

When a is the smallest cavity dimension, this is the resonant frequency of

 IN'TRODUC'I'ION TO W AYES 75
the dominant mode, called the TEolI mode. The additional subscript 1
indicates that we have cbosen the first zero of sin f3z. The higher zeros
give higher-order modes, that is, modes with higher resonant frequencies.
Setting f3 c: rIc in the above expression for E and determining H from the
it

Maxwell equations, we have for the TEo II mode

·ry·r?
BIt = E ,SIDbSlD
C
jbE, . r1J ..-z
II II = Sln-cos- (2-96)
" Vbt + ct b c
jcEo ."y . rz
ll. = - C08-. sm-
_/
"V b + c
t t
C
c
Note that E and Jl are 90 out of phase; so & is maximum when 3C is
minimum and vice versa. A sketch of the instantaneous field lines at some
time when both & and 3C exist is given in Fig. 2-20. Also of interest is
the energy stored within the cavity. From the conservation of complex
power, Eq. (1-68), we know that 'W. "'" 'W.. Thus, the time-average
electric and magnetic energies are

'\\l. ~ '\\l. ~ ~ fff lEI' d, ~ i IB.I'abc

cavit.)'
(2-97)

We also know from conservation of energy, Eq. (1-39), that the total
energy within the resonator is independent of time. ]( we choose a time
for which 3C is zero, '\'1. will be zero, and W. will be maximum and twice
its average value. Therefore,

w - 2'W. = i IEol abc t (2-98)

is the total energy stored within the cavity.

, - .....
,• • •• ••
1
..- ~
/// ..... ---~-- '\
•,,• I I • --...--- • \
I I ,;' • •• • ""\ I I
b JI.I·····I·11
I I \. • I I I
• · • •
• • • •
• • • •
L.-----l
J I \
\
,--~---'
. . ...... / )
,\..... _--
---~--_

II<---.~-, _ _.I
..... -----'
I I
.;

e---~. .!J(--~-

FlO. 2-20. Mode pattern for the TE'11 cavity mode.

76 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

When the resonator has losses, we define its quality factor as

_ w X energy stored w'W
(2-99)
Q - average power dissipated = lYd
by analogy to the Q of an LC circuit. If the losses are dielectric losses,
we have

(2-100)

so the Q of the resonator is that of the dielectric, Eq. (1-79). This is

valid for any mode in a cavity of arbitrary shape. Usually more impor-
tant in determining the Q is the loss due to imperfect conductors. This
is determined to the same approximation as we used for waveguide
attenuation. We assume H at walls to be tha.t of the loss-free mode
and calculate &d by Eq. (2-42). To summarize,

19, ~ m 1f. IHI' d. ~ 2",~I~~'c') [bc(b' + c') + 2a(b' + c')]

c.v.~y
••n.
Sub8tituting this, Eq. (2-98), and Eq. (2-95) into Eq. (2-99), we have
11'"'1 a(bt + ct)H
Q, - 2m bc(b' + c') + 2a(b' + c') (2-101)
From the symmetry of Qc in band c, it is evident that b = c for maxi~
mum Q. For a II square-base " cavity (b = c), we have
1.11'1
(2-102)
Q, - m(1 + b/2a)
The Q also increases as a increases, but if a > b we no longer have the
dominant mode. As an example of the Q's obtainable, consider a cubic
cavity constructed of copper. In this case we have
Q, - 1.07 X 10'/0 (2-103)
which, at microwave frequencies, gives Q's of several thousand. This
idealized Q will, however, be lowered in practice by the introduction of a
feed system, by imperfections in the construction, and by corrosion of
the metal. When both conductor losses and dielectric losses are con-
sidered, the Q of the cavity becomes
I I I
(2-104)
Q~Q,+Q.
which is evident from Eq. (2-99).
 INTRODUcrlON TO WAVES 77
2-9. Radiation. We shall now show that a source in unbounded space
is characterized by a radiation of energy. Consider the field equations
v XE ~ -jw,JI v XH -jW<E+J (2-105)
where] is the source. or impressed, current. These equations apply
explicitly to a perfect dielectric, but the extension to lossy media is
effected by replacing jw~ by ! and jlNt by g. In homogeneous media.
the divergence of the first equation is
v·H = 0
Any divergcnceless vector is the curl of some other vector i so
H - V XA (2-106)
where A is called a magnetic vector 'Potential.l Substituting Eq. (2-106)
into the first of Eqs. (2-105). we have
V X (E + jw,.A) - 0
Any curl-free vector is the gradient of some scalar. Hence,
E + jw,.A = - Voj> (2-107)
where ¢I is an electric acalar potential. To obtain the equation for A.
substitute Eqs. (2-106) and (2-107) into the second 01 Eqs. (2-105).
This gives
v X V X A - klA = ] - jc.>tV4> (2-108)
which. by a vector identity. becomes
v(v . A) - V'A - k'A = J - j",voj>
Only V X A was specified by Eq. (2-J06). We are still free to choose
V • A.If we let
v·A = -jWt~ (2-109)
the equation for A simplifies to
V'A + k'A - -J (2-110)
This is the Helmholtz equation, or complex wave equation. Solutions
to Eq. (2-110) are ca.lled wave potential~. In terms of the magnetic wave
potential, we have
E = -jw,.A + J- V(V . A) (2-11I)
J'"
H~VXA

I In general e.1ectromagnetie theory it is more oommon to let A be the vector paten-

\ial of B. In homogeneous media i·he two potentials are in the ratio"., a constant.
78 TIJrLE-IL\RMONIC ELEcrROMAGNETIC FIELDS

z obtained from Eqs. (2-106), (2-107),

and (2-109). The principal advan-
tages of using A instead of E or H
are (1) rectangular components of A
have corresponding rectangular com~
, ponents of J as their sources and (2)
A need not be divergenccless.
Let us first determine A for a. cur~
II, ;r<'-------;;- y
rent I extending over an incremental
length l. forming a current elermnl or
x electric dipole of moment Il. Take
Fra. 2-21. A z-direct.ed eurrcnt. clement. this current element to be z-dircct.ed
at. the coordinate origin. and situated at the coordinate origin,
as shown in Fig. 2-21. The current
is z-directed; so we take A to have only a z component, satisfying
VIA. + ktA~ = 0

everywhere except at the origin. The scalar quantity AI has a point

source Il and should therefore be spherically symmetric. Thus, let
A. = A.(r), and the above equation reduces t.o

.!.'!.
r dr
2
(r,dA.)
dr
+ k'A • _0
This has the two independent solutions

the first of which represents an outward-traveling wave, and the Becond

an inward-traveling wave. (In dissipative media, k - k' - ik", and the
first solution vanishes as T -+ co, and the second solution becomes
infinite.) We therefore choose the first solution, and take

where C is a constant. I As k-+ 0, Eq. (2-lJOY reduces to Poisson's

equation, for which the solution is

A._E
4",.

1 To be preciee, C might be a function of k, but the solution must also reduce to

the static field u r - O. Bence, C is not Go function of k.
 INTRODUcrrON TO WAVES 79
Our constant C must therefore be

and hence (2-112)

is the desired solution for the current element of Fig. 2-21. The out-
ward-traveling wave represented by Eq. (2-112) is called a. spherical wave,
since surfaces of constant phase are spheres.
The electromagnetic field of the current element is obtained by substi-
tuting Eq. (2-112) into Eqs. (2-111). The result is

E = 2'It11'"
r
e-ib (!L + _._1_) cos 8
r2 JWfCr '

Jl
E',=_e~r
41r
-
r
.,(iw"+"+
-
r:
-.1).
- 8m8
JWfCr '
(2-113)

H. = -Jl
4'11"
e-ib (ik + -1).sm
-
r r2
8

Very close to the current element, the E reduces to that of a static charge
dipole, the H reduces to that of a constant current element, and the field
is said to be quasi-static. Far from the current clement, Eqs. (2-113)
reduce to
E, = '11
.Il
L
2XT
11
H. = L e-ib sin 8
2XT
e-ib sin 8
l T» X (2-114)

which is called the radiation field. At intermediate values of r the field is

called the induction field. The outward-directed complex power over a
sphere of radius r is

PI = t:ffi E X H* . ds = 10'2" dq, 10" d8 r 2 sin 0 E,H:

= • 2; I~ll' [1 - (!,).] (2-115)

The time-average power radiated is the real part of PI, or

~I = .~ ~ll' I (2-116)

This is independent of r and can be most simply obtained from the racli-
ation field, Eq. (2-114). The reactive power, which is negative, indicates
that there is an excess of electric energy over magnetic energy in the
near field.
80 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

FlO. 2-22. Radius vec-

tor Dotation.

To obtain the field of an arbitrary distribution of electric currents,

we need only superimpose the solutions for each element, for the equa-
tions are linear. A superposition of vector potentials is usually the most
convenient one. For this purpose, we shall usc the radius vector notation
illustrated by Fig. 2-22. The ufield coordinates" arc specified by
r=u~+u,y+u.z

and the Hsource coordinates II by

r' = U~' + llllY' + u.z'
In Eq. (2-112), r is the distance from the source to the field point. For
Jl not at the coordinate origin, r should be replaced by
jr - t'l -= V(x - x'p + (y - y'p + (z - ZI)Z
Note the direction of the vector potential is that. of the current; so Eq.
(2-112) can be generalized to a current element of arbitrary orientation
by replacing Il by /1 and A. by A. Thus, the vector potential from
current element of arbitrary location and orientation is
A _ II e-i-lIr-r'1
- 4ilr - r'l
To emphasize that A is evaluated at the field point (x,y,z) and II is situ-
ated at the source point (x',y',z') , we shall use the notation A(r) and
fl(r'). The above equation then becomes
Il(r')c.iilr-r'l
A(r) - 4-rlr _ <'I (2-117)

Finally, for a current distribution J, the current element contained in a

volume element dT is J dT, and a superposition over all such elements is

(2-118)
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 81
The prime on dT' emphasizes that the integration is over the source
coordinates. Equation (2-118) is called the magnetic vector potential inte-
gral. It is intended to include the cases of surface currents and fila-
mentary currents by implication. We therefore have a formal solution
for any problem characterized by electric currents in an unbounded homo-
geneous medium. The medium may be dissipative if k is considered to
be complex.
2-10. Antenna Concepts. A device whose primary purpose is to
radiate or receive electromagnetic energy is called an antenna. To illus-
trate antenna concepts, we shall consider the linear antenna of Fig. 2-23.
It consists of a straight wire carrying a current I(z). When it is ener-
gized at the center, it is called a dipole antenna. The magnetic vector
potential, Eq. (2-118), for this particular problem is
_ 1 ILI2 I(z')e-Jilr-r'l ,
(2-119)
A. - -b -L12 1r r 'I d,
where Ir -r'l = vrt+z't 2rz'c080 (2-120)
The radiation field (r large) is of primary interest, in which case
Ir - e'l = r - z' cos 0 T» Z' (2-121)

and A. ~ ....··ILI2
-- l(z')&"I:o'-' dz' r»L (2-122)
41rr -L/2

Note that the second term of Eq. (2-121) must be retained in the «phase
term" e-i11r-f'I, but not in the llamplitude term" Ir - e'I-I. To obtain
the field components, substitute Eq. (2-122) into Eqs. (2-111) and retain
only the l/r terms. This gives
E. = J1'W/l sin 0 A.} T large
z
H. = - E. r-r'
• (2-123)
This result is equivalent to super-
• r

imposing Eqs. (2-114) for all ele-

ments of current.
To evaluate the radiation field,
we must know the current on the
y
antenna. An exact determination
of the current requires the solution X I(r')
to a boundary-value problem. For-
tunately, the radiation field is rela-
tively insensitive to minor changes in -L/2
current distribution, and mueh use- FIo. 2-23. The linear antenna.
82 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Cui information can be obtained from an approximate current distribution.

We have already seen that on transmission lines the current is a harmonic
function of kz. This is also true for the principal mode on a single thin
wire. The current on the dipole antenna must be zero at the ends of the
wire, symmetrical in <:, and continuous at the source (z = 0). Thus, we
choose
(2-124)

The vector potential in the radiation zone can now be evaluated as

A. = Iae-ibjLI':J. sin[k(~-lzll)]ejh._tdz'
4.1rT -L/2 2

I.e-it. 2 [cos (k~COS 0) - cos (k~)]

=~ ksin 2 8
From EQ. (2-123), the radiation field is

E, =jT/I.. rib[COS(k~COS~) - COS(k~)] (2-125)

2111'" sm 8
with H. = E,/'1. Note" that the radiation field is linearly polarized, for
there is only an E,. The density of power radiated is the r component
of the Poynting vector

s. -
• _ ,11.1' [cos
E,H. - (2.-,)'
H cos 6) - cos H)]'
sin 6 (2-126)
The total power radiated is obtained by integrating S. over a. large sphere,
or
2
~I = ... Sr r 2 sin BdB dtIJ
10 10"
~ ,11.1'
2'lr
r
Jo
H [cos cos 6) - cos H)
sm B
r d6
(2-127)

The radiation resistance R r of an antenna is defined as

iJ>,
R. ~ llI' (2-128)

where I is some arbitrary reference current. For the dipole antenna,

the reference current is usua.lly picked as J... Hencc,

(2-129)
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 83
280
240
200
/
Flo. 2-.24. Radiation re- R 160
, 120
Ilist.ance or the dipole
antenna. 80
40
1/
./
o '/2 310./2 210.
L

This integral can be evaluated in terms of tabulated functions (see Prob.

2-44). A graph of Rr versus L is given in Fig. 2-24.
The radiation field pattern of an antenna is a plot of lEI at constant r
in the radiation zone. For a. dipole antenna, the radiation field pattern
is essentially the bracketed term of Eq. (2-125). This is shown in Fig.
2-25 for kL small (short dipole), kL = ,.. (half-wavelength dipole), and
kL = 2,.. (full-wavelength dipole). The radiation power pattern, defined
as a plot of ISrl at constant r, is an alternative method of showing radi-
ation characteristics. When the radiation field is linearly polarized, as
it is for the dipole antenna, the power patt.ern is the square of the field
pattern. The gain g of an antenna in a given direction is defined as the
ratio of the power required from an omnidirectional ant-enna to the power

FIG. 2-.25. Radiation field paUerm ror the dipole antenna.

84 TIllE-DARMONIC ELEcrROltAGNETIC FIELDS

required from the actual antenna, assuming equal power densities in the
given direction. Thus,
(2-130)

For L :S X, the maximum gain of a dipole antenna occurs at 8 EO: .-/2.

From Eqs. (2-126) and (2-128), we have

kL)' ( 1- C08 kL)'

g( 2
~).,. ,,11.[% ( 1-
~19,
C082" = 11
~R,
2
(2-131)

In the limit kL - 0, we have g{7T/2) = 1.5j so the maximum gain of a

short dipole is 1.5. For a hall-wave dipole, we can use Fig. 2.24 and
calculate a maximum gain of 1.64. Similarly, for a full-wave dipole,
the maximum gain is 2.41.
The input impedance of an antenna is the impedance seen by the source,
that is, the ratio of the complex terminal voltage to the complex terminal
current. A knowledge of the reactive power, which cannot be obtained
from radiation zone fields, is needed to evaluate the input reactance.
The input resistance accounts for the radiated power (and dissipated
power if losses are present). We define the input resistance of a loss-
free antenna as
~,
R; ... fIJi (2-132)

where ~I is the power radia.ted and I, is the input current. If losses are
present, a "loss resistance" must be added to Eq. (2-132) to obtain the
input resistance. For the dipole antenna,
. kD
I i"'" , .. 8m
2
and the input resistance is
R. _ R, (2-133)
- sin'lk(L/2)J
In the limit as kL is mnde small, we find
R. _ .(kL)' (2-134)
• 24.-
The short dipole therefore has a very SDlali input resistance. For exam-
ple, if L = X/10, the input resistance is about 2 ohms. For the haU-
wavelength dipole, we use Fig. 2-24 and Eq. (2-133) and find

R. - R. - 73.1 ohms (2-135)

 iNTRODUCTION TO WAVES 85
For the full-wavelength dipole, Eq. (2-133) shows R o '"'" co. This incor-
rect result is due to our initial choice of current. which has a null at the
source. The input resistance of the full-wavelength dipole is actually
large, but not infinite, and depends markedly on the wiro diameter (see
Fig. 7-13).
2-11. On Waves in General. A complex function of coordinates
representing an instantaneous function according to Eq. (1-40) is called a
tooVt function. A wave function y" which may be either n scalar field or
the component of a vector field, may be expressed as
'" = A (x,y,z)ei 4l (··r••) (2-136)
where A and ~ are renl. The corresponding instantaneous function is
V2 A (x,y,.) cos [wI + "(z,Y,')] (2-137)
The magnitude A of the complex function is the rms amplitude of the
instantaneous function. The phase ~ of the complex function is thc
init.ial phase of the instantaneous function. Surfaces over which the
phase is constant (instantaneous function vibrates in phase) are called
equiphase 8'Urfacu. These are defined by
(2-138)
Waves a.re called plane, cylindrical, or spherical according as their equi-
phase surfaces are planes, cylinders, or spheres. Waves are called 'Uni-
form when the amplitude A is constant over the equiphase surfaces.
Perpendiculars to the equiphasc surfaces are called walle normals. These
are, of course, in the direction of V~ and are the curves along which the
phase changes most rapidly.
The rate at which the phase decreases in some direction is called the
phase constant in that direction. (The term phase constant is used even
though it is not, in general, a constant.) For example, the phase con-
stants in the cartesian coordinate directions arc
a., a<i>
p
• - - ax
- p~-­
• ay P. = (2-139)

These may be considered as components of a vector pha8e constant defined

by
(2-140)
The maximum phase constant is therefore along the wave normal and is
of magnitude IV~I.
The instantaneous phase of a wave is the argument of the cosine func-
tion of Eq. (2-137). A surface of constant phase is defined as
wt + "(x,y,z) ~ constant (2-141)
86 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

that is, the instantaneous phase is constant. At any instant, the sur~
faces of constant phase coincide with the equiphasc surfaces. As time
increases, l) must decrease to maintain the constancy of Eq. (2-141), and
the surfaces of constant phase move in space. For any incrementds the
change in ifl, is
i» 04>
V4>· ds >::: -
ax
d. + -0<%1
iJy
dy + - d,
iJz

To keep the instantaneous phase constant for an incremental increase in

time, we must have
(oj dt + V<}l . ds = 0

That is, the total differential of Eq. (2-141) must vanish. The phase
velocity of a wave in a given direction is defined as the velocity of surfaces
of constant phase in that direction. For example, the phase velocities
along cartesian coordinates arc

v" =
~ ~

v" = .... fJll!jay = fJM (2-142)

~ w
v. = - a()/az = i.
The phase velocity along a wave normal (ds in the direction of -v<P) is

(2-143)

which is the smaUeat phase velocity for the wave. Phase velocity is not a
vector quantity.
We can also express the wave function, Eq. (2-136), as
(2-144)
where e is a. complex function whose imaginary part is the phase 1'.
A vector propagation constant can be defmed in terms of the rate of change
of e as
r - -va - • + j~ (2-1'15)

where (J is the phase constant of Eq. (2-140) and a: is the vector attenu-
ation conatant. The components of IX arc the logaritbmic rates of change
of the magnitude of y; in the various directions.
In the electromagnetic field, ratios of components of E to components
of Hare callcd wave impedances. The dircction of a wave impedance is
defined according to the right-band <I cross-product" rule of comyonent E
 INTRODUCT10N TO WAVES 87
rotated into component B. For example,

E. = Z..+ = Z. (2-146)
H,
is II. wave impedance in the +z direction, while
E
1/
, = Z.,,- = Z_. (2-l47)

is a wave impedance in the -z direction. The wave impedance in the

+z direct.ion involving E. and H. is
-E
__" """ Z,.+ = -Z".- (2-148)
H.
The Poynting vector cnn be expressed in terms of wave impedances.
For example, the z component is
s. -
(2-149)
The conccpt of wave impedance is most useful when the wave imped-
ances arc constant ovcr equiphase surfaces.
Let us illustrate the various concepts by specializing them to the uni-
form plane wave. Consider thc x-polarized z-traveling wave in lossy
mntter,
E. _
H
, .=
.
E~·"·c"Jr'·

E. c''''cit'.

The amplitude of E. is Eae-t'.· and its phase is _k'z. Equiphase sur-

faces are defined by -k't; .= constant, or, since k' is constant, by z = con-
stant. These arc planes; so the wave is a plane wave. The amplitude
of E. is constant over each equiphase surface; so the wave is uniform.
The wave normals all point in the z direction. The cartesian compo-
nents of the phase constant are fl. = fJ,I = 0, fl. = k'; so the vector phase
constant is ~ ... u.k'. The phase velocity in the direction of the wave
normals is ~JI = wlk'. The cart.esian components of the attenuation con-
stant are a.... a, """ 0, a. = k tl ; 80 the vector attenuation constant is
u .= u.k". The vector propagation constant is
y ~ • + 1~ - u.(k" + jk') - u,jk
Tbe wa.ve impedance in the z direction is Z. = Z*"+ - E.I H w "" 71. Note
that the various parameters sJ>C(;ialized to the uniform plane traveling
wave are all intrinsic parameters. This is, by definition, the meaning of
the word "intrinsic."
88 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROr..fAGNETIC FIELDS

PROBLEMS

2-1. Show that E. - Er[/b satisfies Eq. (2-6) but not Eq. (Z-5). Show tha.t it
does not Hlllisfy Eq. (2-3). This ill nol II. possible c.1ectromagnctic field.
2-2. Derive the "wave equatioDs" for inhomogeneous media

VX(f-1VXE)+tiE-O
V X (f)-IV X B) +
!H .,. 0

Are these valid for nonisotropie mcdia1 Do Eqs. (2-5) hold for inhomogeneous
mediar
2-3. Show that for any lossless nonmagnetic dielectric
,.
,- --
v.;
,
,,--
v.;
where t. i$ the dielectric constant and k o, '10, ),,0, and.c are the intrinsic parameters of
vacuum.
2·4. Show that the quantities of Eqa. (2-J 8) satisfy Eq. (1.-35). &peat {orEqa.
(2-21), (2-27), and (2-20).
2-15. For the field of Eqs. (2.20), show tha.t the velocity of propagation of energy
8.9 defined by Eq. (2-19) is

,
_ ~ 1
sin 2kt sin 2wt < _,_
II. -
v," cos 2h: cos ~ - V;

2-6. For the field of Eqs. (2-22), show that the phase velocity i.e

1
tI" - . . . ; ; ;
(A+C A-C.)
A _ C cost kz + A + C kz Sln
1

2-7. For the field of Eqs. (2~28), show that the z-direeted wave impedances are

Would you e;\:pect Z~. + - Z.~ + to be true for al1ll....(; fields?

2-8. Given a uniform plane wave traveling in the +z direction, show that the wave
is circularly polarized if
E.
-
E. - ±.,
being right-handed if the ratio is +j and left-handcd if thc ratio is -j.
2-9. Show that the uniform plane traveling wave of Eq. (2-25) can be expressed as
the sum of a right-hand circularly polarized wave and a left-hand circularly polarized
wave.
2-10. Show that the uniform plane traveling wave of Eq. (2-25) can be expressed as

E - (El + jE1)C /h
 n."Tl\ODOCl'JON TO WA YES 89
where B l and E t are real vecton lying in the %1J plane. ReJate E 1 and E z to A and B.
2-11. Show that the tip of the arrow representing t for 80 arbit.rary complex E
traccs out an elliptl6 in space. [Hint: let E - Re (E) +
i 1m (E) and usc the rcsulta
of Prob. 2.10.\
2-HJ. For the frequencies 10, 100, and 1000 megacycles, determine k - k' - ik"
and., _ lJI. + iOC for (a) polyst.yrene, Fig. 1-10, (b) Plexit!u. Fig. I-II, (c::) Fernunic A,
Fig. 1-12, f. - 10, and (d) copper, " - 5.8 X 107•
2-1S. Show that. when all1088ell are of the maplctie type (" - e" - 0),

2-101. Show th8t for nonm8gnetic dielectrics

Q»I

where Q is defined by Eq, (1-79).

i-Hi. Show that (or nonmagnetic conducton

.' ~ ~(I +~)

." ~ ";" (I -~) Q «1
lJI. - ;(1 +~)
h~(I-~)
where Q is defined by Eq. (1-79).
2-16. Show that for metals

"'"'" lJI.(1 +11

I
'--(1-"
• "'-- 1
.1

where Gl is the surface resistance, II is the skin depth, and" is the conductivit.y.
2-11. Derive the following formulu

Gl (silver) - 2.52 X 10-7 VI

Gl (copper) - 2.61 X 10- 7 v1
Gl (gold) - 3.12 X 10- 7 VI
(Jl (aluminum) - 3.26 X 10-' Vi
Gt (braaa) - 5.01 X 10-7 VI
where I is the frequency in eycles per lICCond.
90 TlllE-HAlWONlC ELECI'aOJolAONETIC FIELDS

2-18. Find t.he power per square meter dissipated in II. copper aheet if the rma mag-
netic intensity at it.e lIurfae6 is 1 ampere per meter at (a) 60 cyclCtl, (b) 1 megacycle,
(6) 1000 mcgacyeletl.
2,.19. Make a sketch similar to Fig. 2-6 for Il. circularly polarized standing wave in
dissipative media. Give a verbal deacription of 8 and :te.
2-20. Given a uniform plane wave normally incident. upon a plMC air-to-dielcctric
interface, abow t.hat the standing-wave ratio is

SWR - V; - index of refraction

wbere ... is the dielectric constant of the dielectric (ILSSUmed nonmaloetic and 100000free).
2-21. Take the index of refraction of water to be 9, and calculate the percentAge of
power reflected and tranamitted wben a plane wave is normally incident on a calm lake.
2-22. Calculate the two polarizing angles (internal and external) and the critical
angle for a plane interface between air and (a) water, f< - 81, (b) high-density gla8ll,
f< - g, and (e) polystyrene, f<- - 2.56.
2-28. Suppose a uniform plane wave in I!Io dielectric just gra.teS a plane dielectric.
to-air interface. Calculate the attenuation constant in the air ta .. defined by Eq.
(2-61)J for the three caee8 of Prob. 2-22. Calculate the distance from the boundary
in which the field ia attenuated to 1/_ (36.8 per ceot) of ita "-lue at the boundary.
What i.a the value of a at the critical an&le?
2-f:!. From Eq8. (U)6) and (2-68), 8how that when R «wI. and G «we

R +GVLiC
a-2~ 2
fJ ,. j,J ....;rc
whcre ")' - or + jfJ.
2-215. Show that '1 &ad C of a transmission line are related by
~" "';'"
O--:rC--Z
• •
when the dielectric II homogcneous. Show that R of a tranamisaion line is appro:!i-
matelyequal to tbe doC n:cistance pet' unit length of hollow conduclora haviol thick-
neu , (akin depth) provided H is approximately conatant over each conductor and the
radiu8 of curvature of t.he conductora i.a large compared. to ,.
2.26. U8ing results of Prob. 2-25, show that for the lwo-wire line of Table 2-3

R ... 2Gt d»a

.d D»d
and that for tbe couialline
R . Gl4 + b 4»1
2. . .

and that for the parallel-piate line

2-27. Verify Eql. (2-70).

R.~
. U1»b

2-28. CoDJIider a parallel-plate waveguide formed by conductor8 covering the planes

y - 0 Ilod 11 - b. Show that the field

" - 1,2, 3, .••

 IN'I'ItoDUCTION TO WAVES 91
defines a set ot TE" modes and the field
n.,
H. - H. COST e-r· n -{I, 1,2, •..

defines a aet ot TM. modes, where

y _ \l(n;), _k'
in both CMClI. Show that the cutoff trequeneies of the TE,. and TM. modes are
n
I. - 2hV;;
---

Show that Eqs. (2-83) to (2-86) apply to the parallel-plate waveguide modes.
2-29. Show that the power transmitted per unit width (z direction) of the parallel·
plate waveguide of Prob. 2-28 ill

P- bl:;I' >o}1 - (J)'

for the TE.. modes, and

for the TM. modea (n P! 0).

2·30. For the parallel-plate waveguide of Prob. 2.28, Bhow thaL Lbe attenuation
due to conductor 1088ca is

for the TE,. modes. and

for the TM. modes (n >L 0).

2-31. Show that the TM. mode of the parallel-plate waveguide 1\8 defined in Prob.
2-28 ia actually a. TEM mode. Show that. for thia mode the atteouation due to con·
ductor loaaea is

a. - -
b,
..
Compare this with a obtained by using the results of Probs. 2·26 and 2-24.
2-32. For thc TEfl reclangWar waveguide mode, ahow that the time-average elec-
tric and magnetic energ.ies per unit. length are

w. - ~- - i lEt/lab
Can this equality of W. and '\9.. be predicted from Eq. (1-62)1
2-SS. Show that the time-average velocity of propagation of energy down a rec-
tangular waveguide ill

p.-----
g. 1
oW V;;
I - G-')'
for tbe TE.. mode.
92 TIME~HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

2-34. For the TED, rectangular waveguide mode, define 8. voltage Vaa fE' dl acro88
the center of the guide and 8. current. 1 as the total z.directcd current in the guide wall
:r _ O. Show that these are

Show that P ¢: V /-, Why? Define a characteristic impedance ZYI - V / I and

show that it is proportional to Zo of Table 2-4.
2-36. Let a rectangular waveguide have 8. diseontinuity in dielectric at t _ 0,
that is, fl, III Cor z < 0 and fl, III for z > 0, Show that the reflection and trans-
mission coefficients for a TEll wave incident from z < 0 arc
r _ Z .. - ZOI
Zn + ZII
where ZOI and Zot are the characteristio impedances z < 0 and z > 0, respectively.
These results are valid for Bny waveguide mode.
2·36. Show that there ill no rollected wavo for the TE ol mode in Prob. 2-35 when

/ ~ 11(/01,1
I
PI )
/" - Joll(s.IU Jollfl)

where /<1 is the cutoff frequcncy .t < O. Note that we cannot have a reflectionless
interface when both dieJectrics are nonmagnetic. This result is valid for any TE
mode.
2-37. Take a parallel-plate waveguide with 'I, PI for z < 0 and 'z, p, for z > O.
Show that there is no reflected wave for a TM mode incident from z < 0 when

For nonmagnetic dielectrics, thi.8 reduces to

L _ ~'I + 'I
1<1 U

Compare this to Eq. (2-60). Thue rCllu!ta are valid for any TM mode.
2-38. Design a square-base cavity with height one-half the width of the base to
reaonate at 1000 meg&cyc!ea (II) when it is air-!illed and (b) whcn it is polystyrene-
filled. Calculate the Q in each ClLllC.
2-39. For the rectangular cavity of Fig. 2-19, dcfine a voltage V lUI that between
mid-points of the top and bottom walls and a current I &8 the total :H:Iirected cur·
tent in tbe side walls. Show that
v- EtII

Defino a mode conductance G 88 G - iii~/IVII and show that

G _ lR(bc(b Z el)+ 2II{b'+ + e') I
2'l'a' (b' e') +
Define a mode resistance R &8 R - iii./lll' and show tbat
R _ r'<Rjbe(b' + e + 211(b' + c,)1
Z)

32(b' + c')'
 INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 93
240. Derive Eqa. (2-123).
2-4.1. Consider the small loop of constant current I all shown in Fig. 2-26. Show
that the magnctic vector potential is

A. -A~
I._0
Ia
__
411"
f"
0
!c08q/d.p'

! _ exp (-ik .yr1+ a l 2ra sin 8 cos ,,"')

where
yr l + a! 2ra sin 8 cos .p'
Expand I in a Maclaurin scrica about a - 0 and show that

Ira! .•
A • _--e-'
.......04...
(i-rk + -') rl
.
SID 8

The quantity hal - ISis called the magnetic moment of the loop.

,
FlO. 2-26. A circula.r loop
of current.
I
y

2-4.2. Show that the field of the small current loop of Prob. 2-4.1 is

IS
H. - -e-'~'
2..
(ik
'L.:.
rl
+-rI)
l cos 8

li, e - - -! + ik
IS e-'l< ( k -r! + -r I) sin 8
411" r l

E• --e-'
411"
-r - i-
'lIS .• (k! k ). ,
r!
SID

Show that the radiation resistance of the small loop referred to I is

R'-'l~e:r
2-48. Consider the currcnt element of Fig. 2~21 and the current loop of Fig. 2-26
to exist simultaneously. Show that the radiation field is everywhere circularly
polarized if
II - US
244. In terms of the tabulated functioDs

Si(;t) ... ( '" ain ;t dx __ r-~dx

Oi(x)
.}o ;t ]. a
94 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

show that Eq. (2-129) can be expressed as

Rr - i [ C + Jog kL - CikL + sin kL(~8i2kL - SikL)

+H coskL( C + log k~ + Ci2kL - 2CikL)]

where C - 0.5772 . . . is Euler's constant.

2-46. If the linear a.ntenna. of Fig. 2-23 is an integral number of baU-wavelcngthll
long, the current will assume the form

regardless of the position of the feed 8.8 long as it is not neM 8. current nulL Such &n
antenna is said to be of resonant length. Show that the radiation field of the antenna is

.I
E, _ ,,, .. c itr
COB (7 0)
---'-'C.'"-<
COB

2,", 8m 8
n odd

I . (n.
SID 2"c088 )
E, - ~ e-/tr
21fT
----'':c..
,,_.L 810 8
'" even

where n - 2L/>. is an integer.

2-46. For an antenna of resonant length (Prob. 2-45), show that the radiation
resistance referred to I .. is

H. - 4: Ie + log 2n... - Ci(2nr)J

where 11. - 2L/". C - 0.5772, and Ci is as defined in Prob. 2-44. Show that the input
resistance for a loss-free antenna with feed point at :: - a). is

R(-. R~
SIn 2r(a + n/4}
Specialize t.his result to L - >"/2, a - 0 (the half-wave dipole) and show that
R, - 73 ohms.
 CHAPTER 3
SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS

3-1. The Source Concept. The complex field equations for linear
media arc
-v X E - £H+M vxH-gE+J (3-1)
where J and M are sources in the most general sense. We have pur-
posely omitted superscripts on J and M because their interpretations
vary from problem to problem. In one problem, they might represent
actual sources, in which case we would call them impressed currents. In
another problem, J might represent a conduction current that we wish to
keep separate from the 1]E term. In stln another problem, M might
represent a magnetic polarization current that we wish to keep separate
from the ~H term, and so all. We can think of J and M as If ma.the·
matical sources/' regardless of their physica.l interpretation.
For our first illustration, Jet us show how to represent 1/ circuit sources II
in terms of the "field sources" J and M. The current source of circuit
theory is defined as one whose current is independent of the load. In
terms of field concepts it can be pictured as a short filament of impressed
electric current in series with a perfectly conducting wire. This is shown
in Fig. 3-la. That it has the characteristics of the current source of cir-
cuit theory can be demonstrated as follows. We make the usual circuit
assumption that the displacement current through the surrounding
medium is negligible. It then follows from the conservation of charge
that the current in the leads is equal to the impressed current, inde-
pendent of the load. The field formula. for power, Eq. (1-66), reduces to

FlO. 3-1. Circuit sources

in terms nf impressed
---- I

+
I
• +
currents. (a) Current
Bouree; Cb) voltage
I' V K'~ D V
source.

Ca) (b)
9'
96 TllLE-BAJUlONIC ,£LEcraoMAGNETIC nELDS

the circuit Cormula (artius source. We have only electric currents; hence

p. - - III E'J"dT - -I" I E·d1- VI'

The "internal impedance" of the source is infinite, since 8. removal of the
impressed current leaves an open circuit.
The voltage &aurce of circuit theory is defined as onc whose voltage is
independent of the load. In terms of field concepts it can be pictured
as a small loop of impressed magnetic current encircling a perfectly con-
ducting wire. This is illustrated by Fig. 3-lb. To show that it has the
characteristics of the voltage source of circuit theory, we neglect displace-
ment current and apply the field equa.tion K "'" -:J'E· d1 to a path
coincident with the wire and closing across the terminals. The E is zero
in the wire; 80 the line integral is merely the terminal voltage, that is,
K' "" - V. The impressed current, and therefore the terminal voltage,
is independent of load. The field formula for power, Eq. (1-66), reduces
in this case to

p. = - III H-· MfdT - -K't H-·dl = VI-

which is tbe usual circuit formula.. The internal impedance of the source
is zero, since a removal of the impressed current leaves a short circuit.
We can use the circuit sources in field problems when the source and
input region are of "circuit dimensions." that is, of dimensions small
compared to a wavelength. Given a pair of terminals close together,
we can apply the current source of Fig. a-la, that is, 8 short filament of
impressed electric currcnt. Given a conductor of 5Inall cross section,
we can apply the voltage source of Fig. a-Ib, that is, a small loop of
impressed magnetic current. As an example of the use of a circuit
source, consider the linear antenna of Fig. 2-23. The geometry of the
physical antenna is two sections of wire separated by a small gap at the
input. To excite the antenna, we can place a current source (a short
filament of electric current) across the gap, which causes a current in the
antenna wire. An exact solution to the problem involves a determination
of the resulting current in the wire. This is difficult to do. Instead, we
approximate the current in the wire, drawing on qualitative and experi-
mental knowledge. We then use this current, plus the current source
across the gap, in the potential integral formula to give us an approxi-
mation to the field.
We shall find much use for the concept of current sheets, considered in
Sec. 1-14. As an example, suppose we have a J. over the cross section
of a rectangular waveguide, as shown in Fig. 3-2. Furthermore, we pos-
tulate that this current should produce only the TEol waveguide mode,
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEI"I"a 97
x

•
/1 ,-
J. I
,I
/:
/L __ + ,L __
z
/
/'
// I
1,- /
FlO. 3-2. A sheet of current in a rectangular waveguide.

which propagates outward from the current sheet. Abstracting from

Table 2-4, we have the wave

E£+ = A sin 1r: ci4~

H"+=~sin7rY_i6~
Zo b <> .
z>O

H~+ = f
~ cos 1r: e-i6•
where the constant A specifies the mode amplitude. The -z traveling
wave is of the same form with {J replaced by -{J and Zo by -Zoo Thus,

E£- = B sin i: eJt'.

B."1/..
H,- = - Zosmb(7~' z <0'
Bf,
H •- = .,-COS-(7-
ry .••
nf b
where B is the mode amplitude of the -z traveling wave. At z = 0,
Eqs. (1-86) must be satisfied. Take the (1) side to be z > 0, so that
n = U" and obtain
-uAH,+ - H,,-J_o = J. (E~+ - E£-l_o =0
Substitution for H, and E£ from above reduces these equations to
A+B."1/
-u~ Zo sm b = J. A - B c: 0

Let J. - u,J. sin 7: (3-2)

98 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

The preceding equations then have the solution A = B = -JoZo/2.

Thus, if the current of Eq. (3-2) exists over the guide cross section z = 0,
then
JoZ, . •y •
- - - sin - e-"" z>o
E. ~ 2 b (3-3)
• 'TO'!J ~
JoZ o sln
1--r
z<O
1)e'

It would admittedly be difficult to obtain the current of EQ. (3~2) in

practice, but this is not of concern at present. We shall learn how to
treat more practical problema la.ter. Note that our approach in this
problem was to assume the field and find the current. This we shall find
to be a very powerful concept.
3-2. Duality. If the equations describing two different phenomena
are of the same mathematical form, solutions to them will take the same
mathematical form. The formal recognition of this is called the concept
of duality. Two equations of the same mathematical form are called dual
cqualion8. Quantities occupying the same position in dual equations are
oalled dual quantitie8. Note that the field equationa, Eqs. (3-1), are
duals of eaoh other. A systematic interchange of symbols ohanges the
first equation into the second, and vice-versa.
A duality of importance to us is that between a problem for which
all sources are of the electric type and a problem for which all sources
are of the magnetic type. The first two rows of Table 3-1 givo the field
equations in each case. The last two formulas of column (1) were
derived in Se<:. 2-9 for homogeneous space. The corresponding equa-
tions for the magnetic source case are evidently the last two formulas of
column (2), obtained by systematically interohanging symbols. The
particular interchange of symbols is summarized by Table 3-2. The
reader should oheok for himseU that a replacement of the symbols of

TAllLE 3--1. DUAL .EQU"-TIO~S ron PaOBLE.'\lS IN Wmell (I) ONJ.y ELECTRIC
SOURCES ExiST MW (2) ONLY \I..IAONETIC SoURCES EXIST

(I) Electric sourcell (2) Magnetic sources

vXH-fJE+J -v X E - IH +M
-v XE ... fH v X H - fJE
H-vXA E - -v X F

I
A -4r
- If! v""-'"
lid.,
r r'
F == -I
4r
Ii! Ir M.-,,"-'"
r'l d...'
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 99
TAIlLE 3-2. DUAL QUANTITIES FOR PR08LE.lfS IN WHICH (I) ONLY ELECTRIC
SoURCES ExIST, AND (2) ONLY MAONETtC SoURCES EXIST

(I) Elearic (2) AIagnetic

IOUrcu =,=
E H
H -E
J M
A F
9
• •9
k k
, 1/,

column (1) of Table 3-2 by those of column (2) in the equations of column
(1) of Table 3-1 results in the equations of column (2). The quantity F
of these tables is called an electric vector potential, in analogy to A, II mag-
netic vector potential.
The concept of duality is important for several reasons. It is an aid to
remembering equations, since almost half of them are duals of other equa-
tions. It shows us how to take the solution to one type of problem, inter-
change symbols, and obtain the solution to another type of problem. We
can also use a physical or intuitive picture that applies to one type of
problem and carry it over to the dual problem. For example, the picture
of elect.ric charge in motion giving rise to an electric current can also be
used for magnetic case. That is, we can picture magnetic charge in
motion as giving rise to magnetic current. Such a picture can serve as
a guide to the mathematical development but cannot, of coursc, serve to
argue for the existence of magnetic charges in nature. The concept of
duality is based wholly on the mathematical symmetry of equations.
It is often convenient to divide a. single problem into dual parts, thus
cutting the mathematical labor in half. For example, suppose we have
both electric and magnetic sources in a homogeneous medium of infinite
extent. The field equations, Eqs. (3-1), are linear; so the total field can
be considered as the sum of two parts, one produced by J and the other
by M. To be explicit, let
E = E' + E" H = H' + H"
where V X H' = yE' + J -V X E' = zH'
and V X H" = yE" - V X E" = iH" + M
We have the solution for each of these partial problems in Table 3-1.
The complete solution is therefore just thc superposition of the two partial
solutions, or
E ~ - V X F + y-'(v X V X A - J)
(3-4)
II - V X A + r'(v X V X F - M)
100 TLME-HAnMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

where
1Iff If _ ell dr'
A(r) = 411"
J(r').-~,,-,·,

1 rrf M(r').-,'1,-'·'
(3-5)
F(r) ~ 4rJJ [ r "I d,'
J

We thus have the formal solution (or any problem consisting of electric
and magnetic currents in an unbounded homogeneous region. The above
formulas arc meant to include by implication sheets and filaments of
currents.
It is instructive to show that an infinitesimal dipole of magnetic current
is indistinguishable from an infiniteBimalloop of electric current. We might
suspect this from the circuit source representations of Fig. 3-1. How-
ever, ratber than rely on this argument, let us consider the fields explicitly.
A z-directed magnetic current dipole of moment Kl at the coordinate
origin is the dual problem to the electric current dipole (Fig. 2-21). An
interchange of symbols, according to Table 3-2, in Eqs. (2-113) will give
us the field of the magnetic current element. For example, the electric
intensity is
E.~
4...
-+-2
-Kl e-ib (jk
__
r r
I).
sm(J

The small loop of electric current is considered in Probs. 2-41 and 2-42
and is pictured in Fig. 2-26. Abstracting from Prob. 2-12, we have the
electric intensity given by

E. IS e- (k' L'k) sin

= -'-
41r
it • _ -
r r2
(J

A comparison of the above two equations shows that they are identical ir
Kl = jwp.IS (3-6)
This equality is illustrated by Fig. 3-3. Thus, effect of an clement of
magnctic currcnt can be realized in practice by a loop of electric current.
3-3. Uniqueness. A solution is said to be unique whcn it is the only
onc possiblc among a given class of solutions. It is important to have

C:;::>lS
(oj (bj

FlO. 3-3. These two sourees radiate the FtO. 3-4. S encloses linear matter !lnd
same field if Ki - ;/,oJ~IS. (a) Magnetic sources], M.
currcnt element; (b) electric current loop.
 SOM.E THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 101
precise theorems on uniqueness for several rea,sons. First of all, they tell
us what information is needed to obtain the solution. Secondly, it is
eomforting to know that a solution is the only solution. Finally, unique-
ness theorems establish conditions for a one-to-one correspondence of a
field to its sources. This allows us to calculate the sourees from a field,
as well as the more usual reverse procedure.
Suppose we have a set of sources J and M acting in a region of linear
matter bounded by the surface S, as suggested by Fig. 3-4. Any field
within S must satisfy the complex field equations, Eqs. (3·1). Consider
two possible solutions, E", H" and Eb, Hb. (These can be thought of as
the fields when the sources Qutside of S are different.) We form the
difference field oE, oR according to
oE=E"_Eb

Subtracting Eqs. (3-1) for the a field from those for the b field, we obtain

-v X IE - HH
v X IH ~ tPE
I within S

Thus, the difference field satisfies the source·free field equations within S.
The conditions (or uniqueness are those for which oE = oH = 0 every-
where within S, for then E" = Eb and H" = Hb.
We now apply Eq. (1-54) to the difference field and obtain

effi (m X mO) . ds + III (11!T/1' + UO!IEI'l dT - 0

Wheneve' effi (IE X mO) . ds - 0 (3-7)

ovcr S, the volume integrnl must also vanish. Thus, if Eq. (3-7) is true,
then
III [Re (1)1!Ii[' + Re (g)laEI'J dT ~ 0 (3-8)
III [1m (zll!HI' - 1m (Ul!IEI'J dT ~ 0
For dissipative media, Re (z) and Re (t/) are always positivc. If we
assume somc dissipation everywhere, however slight, then Eqs. (3-8) nrc
satisfied only if oE = oH = 0 everywhere within S.
Some of the more important cases fOr which Eq. (3-7) is sa.tisfied, and
thereCore uniqueness is obtained in lossy regions, are as follows. (1) The
field is unique among a class E, H having n X E spccified on S, for then
n X. oE- = 0 over S. (2) The field is unique among a class E, H having
n X H specified on S, Cor then n X oR = 0 over S. (3) The field is
unique among a class E, H having n X E specified over part of Sand
n X H specified over the rest of S. These possibilities ean be summarized
by the following uniqueness theorem. A field in a lossy region is uniquely
102 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

specified by the sources within the region plus the tangential components of E
over the boundary, or the tangential components of H over the boundary, or
the former over part of the boundary and the laUer over the rest of the boundary.
Note that our uniqueness proof breaks down for dissipationlcss media.
To obtain uniqueness in this case, we cO'Mider the field in a dissipationleS8
medium to be the limit of the corresponding field in a lossy medium as the
dissipation goes w zero.
We have explicitly considered only volume distributions of sources and
closed surfaces in OUf development, but the results are much more general
than this. Singular sources, such as current sheets and current filaments,
can be thought of as limiting cases of volume distributions and therefore
are included by implication. Surfaces of infinite extent can be thought of
as closed at infinity and can be included by appropriate limiting proce-
dures. Of particular importance is the case for which the bounding sur-
face is a sphere of radius r -+ llQ, so that all space is included. If the
sources are of finite extent, the vector potential solution of Eqs. (3-4) and
(3-5) vanishes exponentially as e-J:"r, l' -+ llQ. We therefore have

(3-9)

for this solution (in lossy media). According to our uniqueness proof
this must be the only solution for a class E, H satisfying Eq. (3-9).
Thus, given sources of finite extent in an unbounded lossy region, any solu-
tion 8ati8fying Eq. (3-9) fnWlt be identically equal W the potential integral
80lution. The loss-free case call be treated as the limit of the lossy case
as dissipation vanishes.
To illustrate the above concepts, consider the current element of Fig.
2-21. Our solution at large r is Eq. (2-114). Let this be the a solution
of our uniqueness proof, or
j l l " ,rsln
H • • = -e-' . 8
2;\T

It can be shown that the inward-traveling wave

-jll",.
H .=2;\r&r
' sm 8 E' H.'
"'=-'1

is also a solution to the equations at large r. In Sec. 2-9, we threw out

this second solution by reasoning that waves must travel outward from
the source, not inward. Let us now consider these two solutions in the
light of the uniqueness theorem. The difference field in this case is

6H. = H.o - Hl"" j :~coskrSill 6

"'E, "'" E ,0 - E', "'" ";\r81n
II . krSIO
. 8
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 103
In dissipationless media (k real), we can pick a sphere r = constant such
that either oH. or oE, vanishes. Thus, Eq. (3-7) can be satisfied without
obtaining uniqueness of the solution. However, in lossy media, sin kr
and cor kr have no zeros T > 0, and Eq. (3-7) cannot be satisfied for any r.
In this case, only the a solution vanishes as r --+ 00. It is therefore the
dp..sired solution in loss-free media.
3-4. Image Theory. Problems for which the field in a given region
of space is determined from a knowledge of the field over the boundary of
the region are called boundary~value problema. The rectangular wave-
guide of Sec. 2-7 is an example of a boundary-value problem. We shall
now consider a class of boundary-value problems for which the bound-
ary surface is a perfectly conducting plane. The procedure is known as
image theory.
The boundary conditions at a perfect electric conductor are vanishing
tangential components of E. An element of source plus an "image" ele-
ment of source, radiating in free space, produce zero tangential compo-
nents of E over the plane bisecting the line joining the two elements.
According to uniqueness concepts, the solution to this problem is also
the solution for a current element adjacent to a plane conductor. The
necessary orientation and excitation of image elements is summarized by
Fig. 3-5. Matter also can be imaged. For example, if a. conducting
sphere is adjacent to the plane conductor in the original problem, then
two conducting spheres at image points are necessary in the image prob-
lem. In other words, we must maintain symmetry in the image problem.
The procedure also applies to magnetic conductors in a dual sense. The
application of image theory in a-c fields is much more restricted than in
d-c fields. It is exact only when the plane conductor is perfect.
As an example of image theory, consider a current element normal to
the ground (conducting) plane, as shown in Fig. 3-6a. This must pro-
duce the same field above the ground plane as do the two elements of
Fig. 3-6b. Let us determine the radiation field. The
radius vector from each current element is then parallel
to that from the origin and given by
ro=r-dcosO)
r»d
r. = r + d cos 0 _II
where subscripts Q and i refer to original and image
elements, respectively. The radiation field of a single
clement is given by Eq. (2-114); so the radiation field ~
of the two elements of Fig. 3-6b is the superposition
j II
H. = -
2A
--
To
(e-fl: + --
r
• e-il:").
r,
sm 8
FlO. 3-5. A sum-
"" j Il rile. cos(kd cos 8) sin 0 (3-10) mary of image
~r theory.
104 TIME-DARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

z Z

r
e e '"
n r;

r
II

(a)
n
(6)
FlO. 3..{t A current clement adjacent to a ground plane. (a) Original problem; (b)
image problem.

and E, = 7JH~. According to image theory, this must also be the solu-
tion to Fig. 3-6a above the ground plane.
The problem of Fig. 3-6a represents the antenna system of a short
dipole antenna adjacent to a ground plane. The total power radiated
by the system is

~, = JJ B,B: ds
hemi_
= 2'l1'"7J fo·
n
11i.lt r t sin () dO
.phere

where integration is over the large hemisphere z > 0, r --+ 00 Substi-

tuting from Eq. (3-10) and integrating, we have

is', - 2""i: I
Ill' [1:3 - cos 2kd
(2kd)' + sin 2kd]
(2kd)' (3-l1)

As kd - t 00. the power radiated is equal to that radiated by an isolated

element [Eq. (2-116)]. As led --+ 0, the power radiated is double that
radiated by an isolated clement. The gain of the antenna system over
an omnidirectional radiator, according to Eq. (2-130), is
4.1rT 211I H40l t
g - is',
2
J (3-12)
= _'I-_---=C=OS'"2ki</;--+-'''i=n<i2;;:kd
3 (2kd)' (2kd)'
along the ground plane. This is g = 3 at /cd = 0, and g 6 as kd -+ 00. =0

The maximum gain occurs at Jed 0= 2.88, for which 9 = 6.57. Thus, a
gain of more than four times that of the isolated element (1.5) can be
i.chieved. Figure 3-7 shows the radiation field patterns for the cases
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 105

FlO. 3·7. Radiation field patterns for the current. clement of Fig. 3-&.

• II

Fro. 3-8. Problema involving multiple images. (0) Current ele.ment. in a conducting
tube; (b) current element in a conducting wedge.
106 TIME-HARMONIC ELEC'rnOMAGNETIC FIELDS

d = 0 (element at the gound plane surface) and d = 0.459>-. (maximum

gain).
Image theory also can be applied in certain problems involving more
than one conducting plane. Two such cases are illustrated by Fig. 3-8.
In the case of a conducting tube (Fig. 3-Sa), an infinite lattice of images
is needed. In the case of a conducting wedge (Fig. 3-8b), a finite set of
images results. Image theory can be used for conducting wedges when
the wedge angle is 180o/n (n an integer).
3-5. The Equivalence Principle. Many source distributions outside
a given region can produce the samo field inside the region. For example,
the image current element of Fig. 3·6b produces the same field above the
plane z = 0 as do the currents on the conductor of Fig. 3-6a. Two
Rources producing the same field within a region of space are said to be
equivalent within that region. When we are interested in the field in a
given region of space, we do not need to know the actual sources. Equiv-
alent sources will serve as well.
A simple application of the equivalence principle is illustrated by Fig.
3-9. Let Fig. 3-9a represent a source (perhaps a transmitter and antenna)
internal to S and free space external to S. We can set up a problem
equivalent to the original problem external to S as follows. Let the
original field exist external to 8, and the null field internal to S, with
free space everywhere. This is shown in Fig. 3-9b. To support this field,
there must exist surface currents J., M. on S according to Eqs. (1-86).
These currents are therefore
J. - n X H M. ~ E Xn (3-13)
where n points outward and E, H are the original fields over S. Since
the currents act in unbounded free space, we can determine the field from
them by Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5). From the uniqueness theorem, we know
that the field so calculated will be the originally postulated field, that is,
E, H external to S and zero internal to S. The final result of this pro-
cedure is a formula for E and R everywhere external to S in terms of the
tangential componentS'" of E and H on S.

(r;)

Flo. 3·9. The equivalent currents prod1J~ the 5&ffie field c.xlernal to S lill do the
original eources.
 SOME TIlEOREJd.S AND CONCEPTS 107

E'H'
. ___
I\ !n
/--
1-... ..... ,
\
s:...
E',H'
--' /
I
(0) (b)

\,; /~__.Jn
(.......
\
" E"H",
\ J,J.
S' -~

(0) M,

Flo. 3-10. A general formulation of t.he cquivalcnce prhu::iple. (a) Original 4 prob-
lem; (b) original b problem; (e) equivalent. to a external to S and to b internal to S;
(d) equivalent to b exwmal to Saud to a internal to S.

We were overly restrictive in specifying the null field internal to S in

the preceding example. Any other field would serve as well, giving us
infinitely many equivalent currents as far as the external region is eon-
cerned. This general formulation of the equivalence prineiple is repre-
sented by Fig. 3-10. We have two original problems consisting of cur-
rents in linear media, as shown in Fig. 3-1Oa and b. We can set up a
problem equivalent to a external to S and equivalent to b internal to S
as follows. External to S, we specify that the field, medium, and sources
remain the Barne as in the a problem. Internal to S, we specify that the
field, medium, and sources remain the same as in the b problem. To suP"'
port this field, there must be surface currents J. and M. on S. According
to Eqs. (1-86), these are given by

J. = D X (Ho - H') M. - (Eo - E') X D (3-14)

where Ea, Ha is the field of the a problem and E', II' is the field of the
b problem. This equivalent problem is shown in Fig. 3-1Oc. We can
also set up a problem equivalent to b external to S and to (J internal to S
in I\n Analogous manner, as shown in Fig. 3-1Od. In this case the neces-
sary ~urface currents are the negative of Eqs. (3-14). Note that in each
case we must keep the original sources and media. in the region for which
we keep the field. Note also that we cannot use Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5) to
108 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAONETIC FIEL06

E,B
/
!
....; ; _...... D
E,B
D
E,B
--~
D

Zero
{ I Sources \
field

Electric
\/
"
S ......- - - -
_/
J
s
conductor .:ftI
M., - EXn
(a) (0) (e)

Flo. 3-11. The field external to S is the Mme in (a), (b), and (e). Ca) Original prob-
lem; (b) magnetic current backed by all electric conductor; (e) eledric current backed
by a magnetic conductor.

determine the field of the currents unless the equivalent currents radiate
into an unbounded homogeneous region. Finally, note that the restricted
form of the equivalence principle (Fig. 3-9) is the special case of the
general form for which all a sources and matter lie inside S and all b
sources are zero.
So far, we have used the tangential components of both E and H in
setting up our equivalent problems. From uniqueness concepta, we know
that the tangential components of only E or H arc needed to de~rmine
the field. We shall now show that. equivalent. problems can be found in
terms of only magnetie eurrents (tangential E) or only elect-ric currents
(tangenlial H).
Consider a problem for which all sources lie within S, as shown in
Fig. 3-110. We set up the equivalent problem of Fig. 3-11b as foUowa.
Over S we place 0. perfect electric conductor, and on top of this we place
a sheet of magnetic current MI' External to S we specify the same field
and medium as in the original problem. Since the tangential components
of E are zero on the conductor (just behind M.), and equal to the original
field components just in front of M I , it follows from Eqs. (1-86) that
MI = E X n (3-15)
We now have the same tangential components of E over S in both Fig.
3-11a and bj so according to our uniqueness theorem the field outside of S
must be the same in both cases. We can derive the alternative equiva-
lent problem of Fig. 3-11c in an analogous manner. For this we need
the perfect magnetic conductor, that is, a boundary of zero tangential
components of H. We then find that the elcctric current sheet
]. - D X H (3-16)
over a perfect magnetic conductor coveri.ng 8 produces the same field
external to S 88 do the original sources.
By now, the general philosophy of the equivalence principle should be
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 109
appa.rent. It is based upon the one-to-one correspondence bet\"een fields
and sources when uniqueness conditions are met. If we specify the field
and matter everywhere in space, we can determine all sources. We
derived our various equivalences in this manner.
Considerable physical interpretation can be given to the equivalence
principle. For example, in the problem of Fig. 3-9b, the field interna.l to
S is zero. It therefore makes no difference what matter is within S as
far as the field external to S is concerned. We have previously assumed
that free space existed within S, so that the potential integral solution
could be applied. We could just as well introduce a perfect electric con-
ductor to back the current sheets of Fig. 3-9b. It can be shown by
reciprocity (Sec. 3-8) that an electric current just in front of an electric
current conductor produces no field. (We can think of the conductor as
shorting out the current.) Therefore, the field is produced by the mag-
netic currents alone, in the presence of the electric conductor, which is
Fig.3-11b. Alternatively, we could back the equivalent currents of Fig.
3-9b with a. perfect magnetic conductor and obtain the equivalent prob-
lem of Fig. 3-He. When matter is placed within S in Fig. 3-9b, the
partial fields produced by J. alone and M. alone will change external to 8,
but the total field must remain uncha.nged.
Perhaps it would help us to understand the equivalence principle if we
considered the analogous concept in circuit theory. Consider a source
(active network) connected to a passive network, as shown in Fig. 3-12a.
We can set up a problem equivalent to this as (ar as the passive network
is concerned, as follows. The original source is switched off, leaving the
source impeda.nce connected. A current source 1, equal to the terminal
current in the original problem, is placed across the terminals. A voltage

I
~

Source
tv Passive
network
Source
Impedance
Passive
network

(0) (b)

Passive
network
I t"''---_~_"'_tw_O_'_k_.J
Passive

(d)
FIG. 3-12. A circuit theory analogue to thQ equivalence principle. (0) Original prob-
lem; (b) equivlilent sources; (c) source impedance replaced by a short circuit; (d)
source impedance replaced by an open circuit.
uo TIME-HARMON'IC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

source V, equal to the terminal voltage in the original problem, is placed

in series with the interconnection. This is illustrated by Fig. 3-12b. It
is evident from the usual circuit concepts that there is no excitation of
the source impedance from these equivalent sources, whereas the exci-
tation of the passive network is unchanged. Thus, Fig. 3-12b is the
circuit analogue to Fig. 3-9b.
Since there is no excitation of the source impedance in Fig. 3-12b, we
may replace it by an arbitrary impedance without affecting the excitation
of the passive network. This is analogous to the arbitrary placement of
matter within S in the field equivalence of Fig. 3-9b. In particular, let
the source impedance be replaced by a short circuit. This short-circuits
the current source and leaves only the voltage source exciting the network
(recall circuit theory superposition). Thus, the voltage source alone, as
illustrated by Fig. 3-12c, produces the same excitation of the passive net-
work as does the original source. This is analogous to the field problem
of Fig. 3-lIb. Now consider the source impedance of Fig. 3-12b replaced
by an open circuit. This leaves only the current source exciting the net-
work, as shown in Fig. 3-12<1. This is analogous to the field problem of
Fig. 3-11e.
S-8. Fields in Half-space. A combina.tion of the equivalence principle
and image theory can be used to obtain solutions to boundary-value
problems for which the field in half-space is to be determined from its
tangential components over the bounding plane. To illustrate, let the
original problem consist of matter and sources z < 0, and free space
z > 0, as shown in Fig. 3·13a. An application of the equivalence con-
cepts of Fig. 3-lIb yields the equivalent problem of Fig. 3-13b. This
consists of the magnetic currents of Eq. (3-15) adjacent to an infinite

z-o • - 0 z~o

I E,H E.H
E,H I E.H
Zero Ima~e
I field fie d
Sources and
matter
I ~

I ~
..,"
@ I
I
I
'C

11
C
8
u
M. = El<n M. - 2El<n

i;]
I
~n n n
(a) (b) (e)

FIo. 3-13. Illustration 01 the otcps uoed to establish Eq. (3-17).

 son THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 111
z
,
z
.
• •

~4y y

x x
p

FIG. 3-14. A coaxial line opening onto a grcund plane. (a) Original problemj (b)
equivalent problem.

ground plane. We now image the magnetic currents in the ground plane,
according to Fig. 3-5. The im3gCS are equ31 in magnitude to, and essen-
tially coincident with, the M. of Fig. 3-13b. Thus, as pictured in Fig.
3-13c, the magnetic currents 2M. radiating into unbounded space pro-
duce the same field z > 0 as do the original sources. They produce an
image field z < 0, which is of no interest to us. The field of Fig. 3-13c is
then calculated according to Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5) with A = O. This cao
be summarized mathematically by

E(r) - - V X II 2'-;"'-;1 E(r') X ds' (3-17)

This is a mathematical identity valid for a.ny field E satisfying Eq. (2-3).
The H field satisfies Eq. (2-4), which is identical to Eq. (2-3); so the
abovc identity must also be valid for E replaced by H. We can show
this by reasoning dual to that used to establish Eq. (3-17).
The above result is particul:JJ'ly useful for problems involving apertures
in conducting ground planes. AB an example, suppose we have a coaxial
transmission line opening into a ground plane (Fig. 3-14a). According to
the above discussion, the field must be the same as that produced by Fig.
3-14b. Note that M. exists only over the aperture (coax opening), for
tangential E is ECro over the ground plane. Let us asume that the field
over the aperture is the transmission-line mode of the coax. that is

E• -
-v
p log (bfa)
112 TIME-H.AJUlONJC ELECI'aOMAG.:·rETIC FIELDS

where V is the line voltage. To this approximation, the magnetic cur-

rent in Fig. 3-14b is
M = V
• p log (bla)
This is a loop of magnetic current which, if b «A, acts as an electric
dipole (dual to Fig. 3-3). Visualize this current as a continuous distri-
bution of magnetic current filaments of strength dK = M. dp. The total
moment of tbe source is then

(3-18)

The equivalent electric current clement must satisfy the equation dual to
Eq. (3-6), or
II = -jw.KS (3-19)
We have now reduced the problem to that of Fig. 3-& with kd = O.
From Eq. (3-10) and the above equalitics, we have the radiation field
given by
..,...V(b' - a') .
H. = 2Ar log (bfa) e-;" 510 8 (3-20)

and E. = flJI._ Thus, the radiation field patted is the d - 0 curve of

Fig. 3-7. The gain of the antenna system is g = 3.
The power radiated is Eq. (3-11) with kd = 0 and II given by Eqs.
(3-18) and (3-19), or

I
_V(b' - a') 2
~, = 2r. 2X log (bla) :I
I'
I
= 4r r'(b' - a')V
3. X'iog (bla)
I' (3-21)

Note that the power radiated varies inversely as ).4. Note also t.hat our
answers are referred to a volt.age, characteristic of aperture antennas.
This is in contrast to answers referred to current for wire anten.nas. For
aperture antennas we define a radiation conductance according to

(3-22)

where V is an arbitrary reference volt-age. In the coaxial radiator of

Fig. 3-14 it is logical to pick this V to be the coaxial V at the aperture.
Hence, the radiation conductance is
4r' [ b' - a' ]' (3-23)
G. - J,j" X' log (bla)
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 113

t
;/
Source
E_E'+gE' n
Obstacle Obstacle
n

/ J .... Hi Xn

'----c~ M. - nxE'
(a) (b)

Flo. 3-15.lilustration of the induction thoorcm. (a) Original problem; (b) induction
equivalent.

For the usual coaxial line, Gr is small, and the coaxial line sees nearly an
open circuit. As a and b are made larger, the radiation becomes more
pronounced, but our formulas must then be modified.!
3-7. The Induction Theorem. We now consider a theorem closely
related in concept to the equivalence principle. Consider a problem in
which a set of sources are radiating in the presence of an obstacle (material
body). This is illustrated by Fig. 3-15a. Define the incident field E',
Hi as the field of the sources with the obstacle absent. Define the
scattered field E-, H' as the difference between the field with the obstacle
present (E, H) and the incident field, that is,
E' - E - E' H' - H - H' (3-24)
This scattered field can be thought of as the field produced by the cur·
rents (conduction and polarization) on the obstacle. External to the
obstacle, both E, Hand E;, Hi have the same sources. The scattered field
E', H' is therefore a source-free field external to the obstacle.
We now construct a second problem as follows. Retain the obstacle,
and postulate that the original field E, H exists internal to it and that
the scattered field E', H- exists external to it. Both. these fields are
source-free in their respective regions. To support these fields, there
must be surface currents on S according to Eqs. (1-86), that is,
J. - n X (H' - H) M.-(E·-E)xn
where n points outward from S. According to Eqs. (3-24), these reduce to
J. - H' X n M. - n X E' (3-25)
It follows from the uniqueness theorem that these currents, radiating in
the presence of the obstacle, produce the postulated field (E, H internal
to S, and E', H' external to S). This is the illdmlion theorem, illustrated
by Fig. 3-l5b.
It is instructive to compare the induction theorem with the equiva-
l H. Levine snd C. B. Papas, Theory of the Circular Diffraction Antenna, J. Appl.

Ph"., voL 22, no. 1, pp. 2H3, January, 1951.

114 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

lence theorem. The latter postulates E, H internal to S and zero fieM

external to S, which must. be supported by currents
J. - H X 0 M. '"'" n X E
on S. These currents can be considered as radiating into an unbounded
medium baving constitutive parameters equal to those of the obstacle.
Thus, we can use Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5) to calculate tbe field of the above
currents. However, we do not know J. and M. until we know E, H on S,
that is, until we have the solution to the problem of Fig. 3-15a. We can,
however, approximate J. and M. and from tbese calculate an approxi-
mation to E, H within S.
In contrast to the above, the induction theorem yields known currents
[Eqs. (3-25». (This assumes that EI, Hl is known.) We cannot, how-
ever, use Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5) to calculate the field from J., M" for they
radiate in the presence of the obatacle. A determination of this field is &
boundary-value problem of the same order of complexity as tho original
problem (Fig. 3-15a). We can, however, approximate the field of I., M,
and thereby obtain an approximate formula for E, H internal to Sand
E', H" external to S.
A simplification of the induction theorem occurs when the obstacle is
a perfect conductor. This situation is represented by Fig. 3-160. The
solution E must satisfy the boundary condition n X E .... 0 on S (zero
tangential E). It then follows from the first of Eqs. (3-24) that
n X E' = -n X E' ooS (3-26)
We now know the tangential components of E' over S; so we can con-
struct t.he induct.ion represent.ation of Fig. 3-1Gb as follows. We keep
the perfect.ly conducting obstacle and specify that external t.o S the field
E', H' exists. To support this field, there must be magnetic currents on
S given by
MI=E'Xn=nXEi (3-27)
We can visualize this current as causing the tangential components of E
to jump from zero at the conductor to those of E' just outside M" The

E_EI+E'
t
;/
Source
p,rloct
n

Perfect
o

conductor conductor

----~~ M. - nXE'
(n) (b)
FIo. 3-16. The induction theorem a.e applied to a perfeetly conducting obstacle. (a)
Original problem; (b) induction eQuivalent
 80ME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 115
Ei+ E'

..
Incident wave
M. . . .

Conducting Conducting
plate plate
Ca) Cb)
FlO. 3-17. Scattering by a conducting plate. (a) Original problem; (b) induction
cquiva.lent.

tangential components of E in Fig. 3-16b therefore have been forced to

be E'. Thus, according to uniqueness concepts, the currents of Eq. (3-27)
radiating in the presence of the conducting obstacle must produce E', H'
external to S.
It is interesting to compare this result with the previous one (Fig.
3-1Sh). We found that, in general, both electric and magnetic currents
exist on S in the induction representation. How, then, can both Fig.
3-1M and Fig. 3-lab be correct for a perfectly conducting obstacle? The
answer must be that an electric current impressed along a perfect electric
conductor produces no field. If the conductor is plane, this is evident
from image theory. We can prove it, in general, by using the reciprocity
concepts of the next section.
To iIlustru.te an application of the induction theorem, consider the
problem of determining the back scattering, or radar echo, from a large
conducting plate. This problem is suggested by Fig. 3-17a. For normal
incidence, let the plate lie in the z = 0 plane and let the incident field be
specified by
(3-28)
According to the induction theorem, the scattered field is produced by
the currents 11{1/ = Eo on the side facing the source and M 1/ = - Eo on
the side away from the source. These currents radiate in the presence
of the original conducting plate, as represented by Fig. 3-17b. Let the
field from each clement of current be approximated by the field from an
element adjacent to a ground plane. According to image theory, this
means that each element of !If1/ seen by the receiver radiates as 2M1/ = 2E o
in free space. Hence, far from the plate, it contributes
116 TIM.E-HARMO:'lo.C ELECTROMAGN1o."T[C FIELDS

in the back«atter direction. Each clement Dot seen by the receiver

contributes nothing to the back-scattered field. Summing over the entire
plate, we ha.ve the distant back-scattered field given by

E,' -if dE,' = -j;~,A e-tk (3-29)

where A i the area of the plate.

The ed&o area or radar cross aeclion of an obstacle is defined a.s the area
for which the incident \vave contains sufficient power to produce, by
omnidirectional radiation, the same back-scattered power density. In
mathemfltical form, the echo area is

A. "'" lim (4Jrr! ~'.) (3-30)

........ S'
where Sl is the incident power density and S· is the scattered power
density. For our problem, gl
= IE,lt/" and, from Eq. (3-29),

S' _ !
•
I I'
kE,A
2rr
The echo area of eo conducting piMo is lherefore
k'J'P -hAt
A, = -
r
- - -~,- (3-.11)

valid for large plates and normal incidence.

3-8. Reciprocity. In its simplest sense, a reciprocity theorem stat.es
that a response of 8. system to a source is unchanged when source and
measurer are interchanged. In a more general sense, reciprocity theo-
rems relate a response at one source due to a second source to the response
at the second source due to the first source. We shull establish this type
of reciprocity relationship for a-c fields. The reciprocity theorem of cir-
cuit theory is a special case of this reciprocity theorem for fields.
Consider two sets of a-c sources, J", M- nnd Jb, Mb, of the same fre-
quency, existing in the same Iinenr medium. Denote the field produced
by the a sources alone by E-, H·, and the field produced by the b sources
alone by Eb, Hb. The field equations are then
v X HG = tiE- + J- "XH'-~E'+J'
- .. X E' ~ m' + M" -v X Eb= iH'+Mb
We mulliply the first equation scalariy by Eb and the last equation by H-
and add the resulting equations. This gives
- ~. (E' X H') ~ ~E' . E' + m" . H' + E' . J' + H' . M'
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 117
where the left-hand term has been simplified by the identity
V . (A X B) ~ B.V X A - A.V X B
An interchange of a and b in this result gives
- V . (Eo X H') ~ OEo . E' + SHo . H' + Eo . ]' + H' . Mo
A subtraction of the former equation from the la.tter yields
- V • (Eo X H' - E' X Ho) _ Eo . ]' + H' . Mo - E' . ]0 - Ho . M'
(3-32)
At any point for which the fields are source-free (J = M = 0), this
reduces to
V . (Eo X H' - E' X Hp) ~ 0 (3-33)
which is called the Lorentz reciprocity theorem. If Eq. (3-33) is integrated
throughout a. source-free region and the divergence theorem applied, we
have
effi (Eo X H' - E' X Ho) . ds ~ 0 (3-34)

which is the integral form of the Lorentz reciprocity theorem for a source-
free region.
For 0. region containing sources, integra.tion of Eq. (3-32) throughout
the region gives

- effi (Eo X H' - E' X Ho) . ds

- III (Eo.]' - Ho. M' - E'·]o + H'· Mo) dT (3-35)

Let us now postulate that all sources and matter arc of fInite extent.
Distant from thc sources and matter, we have (see Sec. 3-13)
E, = TjN.. E~ = -TIll,
The Icftr-hand term of Eq. (3-35), integrated over a sphere of radius
r -+<:0, is then

-'Il1/> (lJ,GH,b + H.alI. b - 11,bH,a - JJ(>bH.") ds = 0

Equation (3-35) now reduces to

III (Eo.]' - Ho. M') dT ~ III (E'·]o - H'. Mo) dT (3-36)

where the integration extends over all space. This is the most useful
form of the reciprocity theorem for our purposes. Equation (3-36) also
applies to regions of finite extent whenever Eq. (3-34) is satisfied, For
118 TIME-RAlUIONIC ELEctROMAGNETIC FIELDS

example, fields in a region bounded by a perfect electric conductor satisfy

Eq. (3-34) i hence Eq. (3-36) applies in this case.
The integrals appearing in Eq. (3-36) do not in general represent power,
since no conjugates appear. They have been given the name reaction. I
By definition, the reaction of field a on source b is

(a,b) ~ fff (E-· J' - H' . MO) dT (3-117)

In this notation, the reeiprocity theorem is

(a,b) - (b,a) (3-118)
that is, the reaction of field a on source b is equal to tho reaction of
field b on source a. Reaction is a useful quantity primarily because
of this conservative property. For example, reaction can be used as a
measure of equivalency, since a source must have the same reaction with
all fields equivalent over its extent. This equality of reaction is a neces-
sary. but not sufficient, test of equivalence as defined in Sec. 3·5. We
shall use the term &tll-reaction to denot-e the react.ion of a field on its own
sources, that is, (a,a).
A valuable tool for expositional purposes can be obtained by using the
circuit sources of Fig. 3-1 in the reaction concept. For 0. current source
(Fig. 3-1a), we have

(a,b) - f E'· I'd!- I' f E-·d! ~ -V'I'

where V- is the voltage across the b source due to some (as yet unspeci-
fied) a source. For a voltage source (Fig. 3-1b), we have K' = - V', and

where 1- is the current through the b source due to some a source. To

summarize, the "circuit reactions" are
J- V'l' b a current source
(a,b) - l + V'I- b a voltage source
(3-119)

If we use a unit current source (I' = I), then (a,b) is a measure of V-

(the voltage at b due to another source a). If we use a unit voltage
source (V' = I), then (a,b) is a measure of J- (the current at b due to
aoother source a).
To relate our reciprocity theorem to the usual circuit theory stMe-
ment of reciprocity, consider the two-port (Cour-terminal) network oC
IV. H. Rum.scy. The Reaction Concept in Electromagnetic Theory, PAy,. Rn.,
Bel'. 2, vol. 94, no. 6, pp. 1483--1491, June 15, 1954.
 SOllE THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 119
Fig. 3-18. The characteristics of a. linear network can be described by
the impedance matrix [z} defined by

[V,]
V,
_[,,, ,,,] [I,]
Zu I,
Zu
(3-40)

Supposc we apply a. current source II at port 1 and a. current source 1, at

port 2. Let the partial response Vi} be the voltagc at port i due to sourcc
I} at port j. Each current source sees the other port open-eircuitcd (sec
Fig. 3-1a)j hence
V'J
ti} - -
IJ
In terms of the circuit rcactions [Eq. (3-39)J, (j,tl = - VijI.; honce

z··- -0,')
1)
- /;/}
(3-41)

Thus, the clernent<s of the impedance matrix are thc various reactions
among two unit current sources. The reciprocity theorem [Eq. (3-38)],
applied to Eq. (3-41), shows that
(3-42)
which is the usua.l statement of reciprocity in circuit theory. Equations
(3-41) and (3-4.2) also apply to an N-port network. The use of voltage
sources instead of current sources gives reactions proportional to the cle-
ments of the admittance matrix {yI, and reciprocity then states that
Yi} = Vit'·
The proofs of many other theorems can be based on the reciprocity
theorem. For ex~mple, the preceding paragraph is a proof that any
nelwork constru.cted 0/ linear isotropic matter has a symmetrical imped-
ame matrix. This llnetwork" might be the two antennas of Fig. 3-19.
Rcciprocity in this case caD be stated as: The voltage at b due to a cur-
rent source at a is equal to the voltage at a due to the same current
source at b. If the b antenna is infinitely remote from the a antenna,
its field will be a plane wave in the vicinity of a, and vice versa. The
receiving pattern of an a.ntenna is defined as the voltage at the antenna.

\ (b)

v~{~ (1) (2)

\
Network

Fla. 3-18. A two-port network. Flo. 3-19. Two antennas.

l20 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

terminals due to a plane wave incident upon the antenna. The reci-
procity theorem Cor antennas can thus be stated as: The receiving patlern
of any antenna constructed of linear i80tropic matter i. identical U> it& trana-
milling patlem.
In Sees. 3-5 and 3-7, we used the fact that an electric current impressed
along the surface of a perfect electric conductor radiated no field. The
reciprocity theorem proves this, in general, as follows. Visualize a set of
terminals a on the conductor and another set of terminals b in space
away from the conductor. A current clement at b produces no tangential
component of E along the conductor; so V06 (Vat a due to 16) is zero.
By reciprocity, Vk (Vat b due to 10 ) is zero. The terminals b ata arbi-
trary; BO the current element along the conductor (at a) produces no V
between any two points in space; hence it produces no E. We can think
of I. l\S inducing currents on the conductor such that these currents pro-
duce a free-space ficld equal and opposite to the free-space field of I •.
3-9. Green's Functions. Our reciprocity relationships are formulas
symmetrical in two field-source pairs. Mathematical statements of reci-
procity (symmetrical in two functions) are called Green's theorems. The
difference between a Green's theorem and a reciprocity theorem is that
no physical interpretation is given to the funcHons in the former.
The scalar Greeo's theorem is based on the identity
V· (fV~) - fV'~ +. vf· v~
When this is integrated throughout a region and the divergence theorem
applied to the left-hand term, we obtain Green's first identity

(3-43)

Interchanging y. and ¢ in this identity nnd subtracting the interchanged

equation from the original equation, we obtain Green's second identity or
Green's theorem

(3-44)

This is a statement of reciprocity (or scalar fields y. and ,p.

The vector analogue to Grecn's theorem is based on t.he identity
V· (A X V X B) = V x A . V x B - A· V X V X B
An integration of this throughout. a region and an application of the
divergence theorem yields the vector analogue to Green's first. identity

1ft (A X v X B) . cis ~ III (V X A· V x B - A· V X V X B) d.

(3-45)
 SOM.E THEOUEAiS AND CONCEP1'S 121

d.
FlO. 3·20. Region to
which Green's thoorem is
applied.
o..c:..-4:---~
r

We can interchange A and B and subtract the resulting equation from

the original equation. This gives the vector analogue to Green's second
identity, or the vector Green's theorem,
~(A X V X B - B X V X A) ·ds
= fff (B • V X V X A - A • V X V X B) dT (3-46)

OUf reciprocity theorem [Eq. (3-3S)}, for a. homogeneous medium, is

essentially Eq. (3-46) with A = Ell and B = Ell. For an inhomogeneous
medium, still another vector Green's theorem corresponds to our reci-
procity theorem (sec Prob. 3-28).
Green's theorems have been used extensively in the literature as
foUows. Suppose we desire the field E at a point r' in a. region. Instead
of solving this problem directly, a point source is placed at r , a.nd its
field is called a Green's function G. We then substitute E = A and
G = B in Eq. (3-46). This gives a formula for E at r' , as we shall dis-
cuss below. What we have done is solve the reciprocal problem (source
at the field point of the original problem) and then apply reciprocity.
The equivalence principle gives the solution more directly.
Let us summarize the various Green's functions used in the literature.
Stratton chooses l
(3-47)
CJk1r-r'[
whe'e ~ _ I' "1 (3-48)
and c is a constant vector. A comparison of Eq. (3-47) with Eq. (2-117)
shows that G 1 is the vector potential of a current clement II = 4rc.
Hence, G 1 is a solution to Eq. (2-108), or
V X V X G1 - k 2G 1 = V(V . G 1) r F r' (3-49)
Now suppose we wish to find E at r' in a source-free region enclosed by S.
The source of G 1 is placed at r' and surrounded by an infinitesimal sphere 8,
as shown in Fig. 3-20. Equation (3-46) with A = E and B = G 1 is now
I J. A. Stratton, "Electromagnetic Theory," p. 464, McGraw-Hill Book Company,

Inc., New York, 1941,

122 TI3oIE-llARMQXIC ELEcrROMAGNETIC FIELDS

applied to the region enclosed by Sand $. The result. is

-4rc. E - t (E X V X G. - G. X V X E + E v· G.)· ds (3..,\Q)

which is a. formula. for calculating E at r' in terms of n X E, n X V X E,

and n . E on S. Furthermore, it is required that E be continuous and
have continuous first derivatives on S. This is a severe restriction on
the usefwness of Eq. (3-50), although it can be amended to admit singular
E'8 on S.
A choice of Grecn's function which overcomes some of the disudvan-
tagcs of Eq. (3-50) is l
O 2 = v X ttl> (3-51)
where tP is given by Eq. (3-48). This is evidently the magnetic field of a
current clement 11 = be. Hence, G t is a solution to
r ,. r' (3-52)
We now apply Eq. (3-46) with A = E and B = G t to the region enclosed
by Sand, in Fig. 3-20. The result. is'

4.e . V' X E ~ 1ft (G. X V X E - E X V X G.) . ds (3-53)

s
This is a formula for Vi X E (bence for H) at r in terms of n X E and
n X V X E on S. Equation (3-53) does not require E to be continuous
on S, nor do we need to know n . E on S. Thus, Eq. (3-53) is a sub-
stantial improvement over Eq. (3-SO). In fact, Eq. (3-53) can be shown
to be identical to the formula obtained from the equivalence principle of
Fig. 3-9, applied to a homogeneous medium.
Another useful Green's function is
G,=vxvxcq, (3-54)

where ¢ is given by Eq. (3-48). This is proportional to the electric field

of an elect.ric current elementi 80 G, also satisfies Eq. (3-52). An appli-
cation of Eq. (3-46) would yield a formula for E at r' , similar in form to
Eq. (3-53).
All of t.he G's considered 80 far are tlfrce-space" Green's functions,
that is, they.are fields of sources radiating into unbounded space. We
can choose other G's such that t.hey satisfy boundary conditions on S.
I J. R. Menber, "Scat.tering and Diffract.ion of Radio Waves," p. 14, P@tgamon

Press, Kew York, 1955.

I The left-hand aide of this equation is a function only of the primed coordinates.
Bence, a prime is placed on v' to indicate operation on r' instead of r.
 SOME THEORE~IS AND CONCEPTS 123
For example, let
Gt = G2 +G t' (3-55)
such that G 4 satisfies Eq. (3-52) and
n X V X G4 "'" 0 on S (3-56)
The physical interpretation of Gt is that it is the magnetic field of a
current element II = hc rad.iating in thc presence of a perfect electric
conductor over S. The G 2 is the incident field, and the G t ' is the scat-
tered field. Application of Eq. (3-46) with A = E and B = G 4 results in
Eq. (3-53) with the last term zero, because of Eq. (3-56). Thus,

be· v· X E ~ 1ft (G. X V X E) . ds (3-57)

s
which is a formula for V' X E in terms of only n X V X E over S. The
same formula can be obtained from the equivalence principle of Fig. 3-11,
as it applies to a homogeneous region.
Similarly, defining a G~ such that
n X G6 = 0 on S (3-58)
we can obtain a formula

41fc • V' X E = -1} (E X V X G 6 ) • ds (3-59)

and so on. All these various formulas, and many more, can be directly
obtained from the equivalence principle. We have discussed the Green's
function approach mel'cly bec:luse it has been used extensively in the
literature.
3-10. Tensor Green's Functions. We shall henceforth usc the term
/lOreen's function" to meau "field of a point source." Suppose we have
a current clement II at r' and we wish to evaluate the field E at r. The
most general linear relationship between two vector quantities can be
represented by a tensor. Hence, the field E is related to the source 11 by
E ~ Ir]!l (3-60)
where IfJ is called a tensor Green's function. In rectangular components
and ma.trix notation, Eq. (3-60) becomes

[E.]
Elf
E.
=
[r.. r..
I'lIz 1'1/11'
r az rill r..
r ..]
I',l'
[II.]
Il"
Il.
(3-61)

Thus, r,j is the ith component of E due to n unit j-directed electric cur-
rent clement. The E might be the free-space field of 11, ill which case
124 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

[rJ would be the "free-space Green's function." Alternatively, E might

be the field of 11 radiating in the presence of some matter, and [1') would
then be called the uGrean's function subject to boundary conditions."
Still other Green's functions are those relating H to 11, those relating
E to Kl, and so on.
Our principal use of tensor Green's functions will be for concise mathe-
matical expression. For example, the equation

(3-62)

where [r] is tbe free-space Green's function defined by Eq. (3-60), repre-
sents the solution of Eq. (2-111), which is

E - -jw,.A + Jw,
.,!.- v(v . A)
-Iff J.-'"'-'''
A - =--:;rdT ,
':t'lrlf - r I
(3-63)

Equation (3-62) also represents the field of currents in the vicinity of a

material body if {rl represents the appropriate Green's function, and so
on. In other words, Eq. (3-62) is symbolic of the solution, regardless of
whether or not we can find [r].
Even though we shall not use tensor Grecn's functions to find explicit
solutions, it should prove instructive to flnd an explicit IrJ. Let us take
[rJ to be the free-space GreenJs function defined by Eq. (3-60). If II is
z-directed,
I Le-Jl:lr-r'l
A , -- 4;1, "I

and . A + 1 a'A,
E '" = -Jwp. '" -.-
JWt
-a
x'
E __1_ alA",
tI jwe ayax
E __1_ alA",
I jWf. az ax
Comparing this with Eq. (3-61) for 1"" = Il. = OJ we sec that

r""" = . 1
( -JwJl+-·--
JWf. aX
, fa')
1 a 1/1
r "'" -jWf.
- ay'-
- ax
r"" = J- dZiJ"Ytax
JWt
e-Jl:1r-r'1
where (3-64)
f - 4rI' _ <'I
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 125
The other elements of [r] are found by taking n to be y-dire9-ted' and
then z-directed. From symmetry considerations, the other r ./s,will differ
only by a cyclic interchange of (x,y,z). The result is theref9re

r;; _ (-i w• +.,!.- a')~

JWf a~2
(3-ll5)
r01 ia" .'~J'
1CI jWf ai aj r-

with 1/J given by Eq. (3-64). The reciprocity theorem is reflected in the
symmetry
(3-66)

which can be proved for r's subject to boundary conditions as well.

3-11. Integral Equations. An integral equation is one for which the
unknown quantity appears in an integrand. We already have the con-
cepts needed to construct integral equations. For example, the potential
integral of Eq. (2-118) is essentially an integral equation when J is
unknown. Most problems can be formulated either in terms of integral
equations or in terms of differential equations. When exact solutions
nre desired, the differential equation approach is usually the simpler one.
An important use of integral equations is to obtain approximate solutions.
There is good reason for this. Integration is a summation process, and
it is not necessary that each element of the summation be correct. Errors
in some elements of the summation may be compensated for by errors in
otber elements. Also, all elements do not contribute equally to a sum-
mation. It is much more important that tbe elements contributing most
to the summation be correct than that the elements of minor contribu-
tion be correct. This is why we were able to obtain useful results by
B.S$uming the current on the linear antenna of Fig. 2-23, by assuming the
field of each element of magnet.ic current in Fig. 3-17b, and so on.
To illustrate the formulation of an integral equation, consider the
induction theorem of Fig. 3-16. Let [r(r,r')J be the tensor relating the
E field at r due to an element of M at [' radiating in the presence of t.he
conductor over S. In equation form, this is
dE(r) ~ [rer,r')) dM(r')

The total scattered field for the problem is then the summation

E'(r) -1} [r(r,r')]M.(r') do'

where M. is given by Eq. (3-27). When r is on S, Eq. (3-26) must
126 TU.fE-HA.R~lONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

also be true; hence

n X E'(r) - n X 1ft Ir(r,r')]E'(r') X ds' ron S 13-67)

s
The incident field E; is assumed to be known; so Eq. (3-67) is an integral
equation for determining Irl. As we mentioned earlier, an exact solution
to Eq. (3-67) would be difficult even for the simplest specialization.
Problems involving a region homogeneous except for small uislands"
of matter are commonly encountered. Examples of such problems are
the linear antenna of Fig. 2-23 and the obstacle of Fig. 3-15a. To illus-
trate the general concepts involved, suppOSe we have an inhomogeneous
region, possibly containing sources Ji and M', Within this region, the
field satisfies
-v X E - tH + M' vxH-liE+J'
where ~ and y arc functions of position. We can define normal values of
iropedivity and admittivitY,.€1 and '01, which may be any convenient con-
stants (usually the most common .€ and '0 in the region). We can now
rewrite the field equations as
-v X E = t,H +M v X H = Ii,E +J
where the effective currents are
M = (I - 1,)H + M' (3-68)
J - (Ii - 1i,)E + J'
These effective turrents can then be treated as source currents in a homo-
geneous region. Since J and M are functions of E and H, a solution in
terms of them will lead to an integral equation. However, if ~ = .€l and
'0 = 01 except in small subregions, we can assume J and M in the su~
regiolls and obtain approximate expressions for E and H elsewhere.
(Recall the linear antenna problem, where we assumed I on tbe antenna
wire.) Note that, when the normal z and yare taken as the free-space
parameters, Eqs. (3-68) reduce to
M ~ jw(P - ",)H + M' (3-69)
J- jw(' - 'olE +.E + J'
The effective currents in excess of the true sources (M' and J') are now
just those due to the motion of atomic particles in vacuum.
Let us reconsider the problem of scattering by an obstacle in the light
of the above concepts. Given the problem of Fig. 3-t5a, we can consider
the total field to be the potential integral solution of Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5),
with J and M given by Eqs. (3-69). The incident field is that produced
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 12i
by Ji and Mi' outside of the obstacle, and the scattered field is that pro-
duced by
M - jw(ll - ,,)H
(3-70)
J = jw(' - <o)E + .E
throughout the obstacle. To be explicit, outside of the obstacle

E' - -v X F J- v
+ JWfo X V X A (3-il)

where _
A - 400
1 iff 1,J .-,,,,-el
"I dr
,

-l
F -k-
iff l
oblt-o.c1e

M,-;'I~el dT ,
r - r' i
(3-i2)

obn.ele

with J and M given by Eq. (3-70). If we can guess J and M with

reasonable accuracy, then Eqs. (3-71) and (3-72) will give us an approxi-
mate solution. For a nonmagnetic obstacle, M, and consequently F,
will be zero. For a good conductor, J reduces to uE, and this current
resides primarily on the surface of the obstacle. If we assume the
obstacle perfectly conducting, then J becomes a true surface current.
The solution in this case reduces to

E' =
1
11-4 V X V X
effi JI'e-/l:1r-'I 'l ds't
(3-i3)
-r"JWfo r r
8

If wc specialize this equation to S, then Eq. (3-26) must be met, and we

have an ibtcgral equation for determining J•.
An approximation to J., known as the physical optics approximat1'on,
is as follows. Let Fig. 3-210. represent a perfectly conducting obst~cle
illuminated by some source. In terms of the t.otal field, t.he surface cur-
rent on the conductor is given by
J. = n X H
When the obstacle is large, we assume that thc total field is negligible in

Incident wave
•
Ca) Cb)
Fro. 3-21. Thc physical optics approximation. (a) Original problem; (b) the
,-pproximation.
t28 TUlE-BARllONlC ELECTROMAGXETIC FJEbDs

the II shadow OJ region. Furthermore, if the obstacle is smooth and gently

curved, each element of surface behaves similarly to an element of a
ground plane. According to image theory, the tangential components
of H at a ground plane are just twice those from the same source in
unbounded space. We therefore approximate the current on the obstaclj)
by
I. "'" 2n x HI over Sf (3-74)
where S' is the illuminated portion of S. The physical optics approxi-
mation to the scattered field is therefore

E' ~ .-:
1
......Jwto
V X v X
If (n X H~c"l.-"
---.:--=-
If -
do'
1 I
(3-75)
8'

This approximation is illustrated by Fig. 3-21b.

As an explicit application of the physical optics approximation, again
consider the large conducting plate of Fig. 3-17a. The incident E is
given by Eq. (3-28); hence
fl'
, =- .
Eo e-ih

The physical optics approximation to the obstacle current [Eq. (3-74») is

therefore
J. _ 2Eo
•
Each element of this radiates as a current element in Cree spnce, 8B
analyzed. in Sec. 2-9. The contribution to the radiation field in the
back-scatter direction from each J. ds is
• -jkE o ds ...-Ilu
dE• = 211'T e'

The total distant back-scattered field is thereCore

If
,~w
dE'
, - - jkE,A
2,.,. .-'" (3-76)

which is identical to Eq. (3-29), the approximation obtained from the

induction theorem. The physical optics a.pproximation to the echo area
of the plate is therefore that of Eq. (3-31), This equality of the two
approximations to back scattering [Eqs. (3-29) and (3-76)) is no coinci-
dence. It can be shown that the two a.pproaches always give the snme
back scattering but do not give the sume scattering in other directions. I
I R. F. Harrington, On Scattering by Large Conducting Bodies, IRE Tram.,

vol. AP-7, no. 2, pp. 150-153, April, 1959.

 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 129
3-12. Construction of Solutions. So far, we have explicitly considered
~nly two types of solutions to the field equations, namely, uniform plane
waves and thc potential integrals. In the next three chapters, we shall
learn how to construct many other solutions. A general method of
obtaining these solutions is considered here.
In a homogeneous source-free region, the 6cld aa.tis6ca

-v X E - ZH
(3-77)
v X H ~ ~E

In view of the divergcncelcss character of E and H, we can express the

field in terms of a magnetic vector potential A or in terms of an electric
vector potential F. More important, we can employ superposition and
express part of the field in terms of A and part in terms of F. The A
must be a solution to Eq. (2-108) with J = 0, and the F a solution to the
dual equation. The general equations for vector potentials aro therefore
v X V X A - k 2A = -9v~
(3-78)
V X V X F - k 2F = -zV<t>'

where cit" and ¥ arc arbitrary scalars. The electromagnetic field in terms
of A and F is given by Eqs. (3-4) with J = M = 0, or

E=-VXF+~VXVXA
(3-79)
H~VXA+~VXVXF
Equations (3-78) and (3-79) arc the general form for fields and potentials
in homogeneous source-free regions.
There is a great deat of arbitrariness in the choice of vector potentials.
For instance, we can choose the arbitrary *'s according to
v . A = -U4>" v·F =-w (3-80)

This reduces Eqs. (3-78) to

V2A +k A = 0
2
(3-81)
V2F + k F '- 0
2

SolutioDs to these equations arc called wave potentials. Note that the
rectangular components of the wave potentials satisfy the scalar wave
equa.tion, or Helmholtz cquation,
(J.<l2)

Also, when Eqs. (3-80) are satisfied, we can alternatively write Eqs.
130 TIYE-DARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

(3-79) ..
1
E = -v X F-lA+-v(V·A)
9 (3-83)
1
H - v X A - gF + j v(v, F)

We have yet to decide how to divide the field between A and F. As a

word of caution, do not make the mistake of thinking oC A as due to J
and F as due to M. This happened to be our choice Cor the potential
integral solutioo, where we considered t.he sources everywhere. We afe
now concerned with regions of finite extent, and we ctln represent a field
in terms of A or F or both, regardless of its actual sourcc.
Let us now consider some particulo.r choices of potentials. If we take
F = 0 and
A = u.y, (3-84)
then E - -fA + ~ V(V . A) H - v X A (3-&)

This can be expanded in rectangular coordinates as

1 ii"l- 1I _ ii'"
E~ = gaxaz • iiy
E ~ ~ ii"l- fI=_iJt (3-86)
, yayaz • iix

-1 (ii'
E. - Y -+k'
dZ'
) '" H. = 0

A field with no IJ. is called transverse magnttic W z (T.M). We shall find it

possible to choose y, sufficiently general to express an arbitrary TM field
in a homogeneous source-free region according to the above formulas.
In the dual sense, if we choose A=-O and
F ,... u.1/t (3-87)
1
then E - -v X F H - -gF + -v (v . F) (3-88)
f
Expanded in rectangular coordinates, this is
a", 1 ii'~
E~ = - oy H. = 'i ax oz
E _ iJt 1I _ ~ ii"l- (3-89)
• AX: • fayot

E. = 0 H. = ~(::s + kS)Vt
A field with no E. is called tromt'trse electric to z (TE). We shall find it
possible to choose Vt sufficiently general to express any TE field in a
homogenoous source-free region according to the above formulas.
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 131
Now suppose we have a field neither TE nor TM. We can dctermine
a. 'It according to
8"/1'
az' + k'," ~ "E
'f'1I'

which will generate a field TM to z according to Eqs. (3-86). This TM

field will have the same E. as does the original field; so the difference
between the two will be no TE field. We cnn therefore determine this
difference field according to Eqs. (3-89), where the y, is found from

8'az'" + k'.'.' _
'f'
!H
•

Thus, an arbitrary field in a homogeneous source-free region can be expressed

as the sum of a TM field and a TE field. Explicit expressions for the field
would be superposition of Eqs. (3-86) and (3-89), with superscripts a and
f added to the y,'s to distinguish between them. Since the z direction is
arbitrary, we can express this independent of the coordinate system by
defining
A - c>/l' (3-90)
where c is a constant vector. The field is then given by Eqs. (3-79),
which become
E - -v X (c>il) +~v
y
X V X (c>/l')
(3-91)
H = V X (c>/l') + 'j1 V X V X (C~f)

where the y,'s are solutions to Eq. (3-82). We must therefore study solu-
tions to the scalar Helmholtz equation to Jearn how to pick the y,'s.
If the region is not source-Cree but is still homogeneous, our starting
equations are
-V X E = ZH + M
(3-92)
vxH=yE+J
instead of Eqs. (3-77). General solutions to Eqs. (3-92) call be con-
structed as the sum oC any possible solution, called a particular solution,
plus a solution to the source-free equations, called a complementary solu-
tion. We already have a particular solution, namely, the po~ential in~e­
gral solu~ion of Sec. 3-2. ThereCore, solu~ions in a homogeneous region
containing sources are given by
E - E~ + E" H ~ H•• + H" (3-93)
where the particular solution (pa) is formed according to Eqs. (3-4) and
(3-5), and the complementary solution (cs) is constructed according to
Eqs. (3-91). We can think of the particular solution as the field due to
132 TIME-BARlIONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

sources inside the region and the complementary solution as t.he field
due to sources outside the region.
3-13. The Radiation Field. It is easier to evaluate tbe radiation
(distant) field from sources of finite extent than to evaluate the near field.
(See, for example, Sees. 2-9 and 2-10.) In this section, we shall formalize
the procedure for specializing solutions to the ra.d.iation zone.
Consider a distribution of currents in the vicinity of the coordinate
origin, immersed in a homogeneous region of infinite extent. The com-
plete 80lution to the problem is represented by Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5). If
we specialize to the radiation zone (r » r:.....). as suggested by Fig. 3-22,
we have
Ir - ['1-+ r - r' cos t (3-94)
where t is tbe angle between rand r'. Furthermore, the second term of
Eq. (3-94) can be neglected in the Umagnitudc factors/' Ir - r/l-I, of
Eqs. (3-5). It cannot, however, be neglected in the flphase factors,1I
exp (-jkjr - ell), unless r~ «"-. Thus, Eqs. (3-5) reduce to

A ~ : ' JJJ J(r')&"-'dT'

(3-9.)
F - ~ JJJ M(r')&"'-'dT'
in the radiation zone. Not-e tha.t we now ha.ve the T dependence shown
explicitly. Many or the opera.tions or Eqs. (3-4) can therefore be
performed.
Rather thnn blindly expanding Eqs. (3-4), let us draw upon some
previous conclusions. In Sec. 2-9 it was shown that the distant field or
an electric current clement was esscntinUy outward-traveling plane waves.
The same is true of a ma.gnetic current element, by duality. Hence, the

z To distant
fieldPOi"1
r - ,-

r
Source
r'
Fro. 3-22. Geometry for
evaluating the radiation
field.

y
x
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 133
z

Flo. 3~23. Conventional

tlounIiull.W oricutu.tioll.
,
y
y

x -------

radiation zone must be characterized by

(3-96)
since it is a superposition of the fields from many current elements. We
can evaluate the partia.l H field due to J according to H' =- V X A (see
Sec. 3-2). Retaining only the dominant terms (r 1 variation), we ha.ve
H~ =- (V X A), = jkA.
H; ~ (V x A). - -jkA.
with E' given by Eqs. (3-96). Simila.rly, for the partial E field due to M,
we have, in the radiation zone,
E;' ~ - (V X Flo - -jkF.
E~ = -(v X F). =jkF,

with R" given by Eqs. (3-96). The total field is the sum of these partial
fields, or
E, = -jwj.LA, - jkF.
(3-97)
E. = -jwj.LA. + jkF,
in the radiation zone, with H given by Eqs. (3-96). Thus, no differenti-
ation of the vector potentials is necessary to obtain the radiation field.
Also, for future reference, let us determine r' cos ~ as a function of the
source coordinates. The three coordinate systems of primary interest
are the rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical, as illustrated by Fig. 3-23.
For the conventional orientation shown, we have the transformations
x=rsin8cost/J X=PCOSt/J
y = rain 8ain t/J y=-paint/J (3-98)
z=rcos8 z= z
To obtain r' cos ~, we form
rr' cos ~ = r . r' = xx' + yy' + zz' (3-99)
134 TWE-HARMONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FiELDS

Substituting for X, Y. z from the first set of Eqs. (3-98), we obtain

r' cos ~ = (x' cos tP + v' sin 4» ein (J + %' C08 8 (3-11lO)
which is the desired form when rectangular coordinates are chosen for
the source. Substituting into Eq. (3-100) for x', Vi, z' from the second
set of Eqs. (3-98), we obtain
r' cos ~ = p'ain Seos (41 - q/) + z' cos (J (3-101)

which is the desired form when cylindrical coordin:ltes are chosen for the
source. Finally, substituting into Eq. (3-100) for x'. y', z' from the first
set of Eqs. (3-98), we have

r cos E = r'[cos 8 cos 0' +. sin 8 sin 8' cos (I/> - ,p')] (3-102)

wruch is the desired form when spherical coordinates arc chosen for the
source.

PROBLEMS

S-1. Show that a current sheet

J- u.J,

over the: - 0 plane produces the out.ward-traveling plane waves

- ~"-'- ,> 0
HI< - _,
{ -Tel
.,.,. 'u
J <0

in an infinite homogeneous medium.

3-2. Instead of the electric eurrent sheet, suppose that the magnetic current sheet

exi!lt.s over the ctOSll section: - 0 in the waveguide of Fig. 3-2. Show that thiJl;
magnetic current :>roducea a field

,>0
,<0

s-s. Suppose now that the two current sheets

A . ...
J,-u·Z,SIn"b
M, - u r A sin '7
 SOME TU.EOREMS AND CONCEPTS 135
~

exist. simultaneously over the Cf'06l leetion I: - 0 of Fig. 3-2. Show that. thcaa pro-
duce a field

• >0
•<0
This BOurce is a "directional coupler."
3-4. In Fig. 3-2, suppolle that a "shorting plate" (conductor) is placed over the
croaa section I: - -d. Show t.hat the current abeet of Eq. (3-2) now produces a field

J,z.
-- - oJ'
- (1 -e-,•• rv _.....
am-e''- .> 0
H. _ 2 b
{ -jJ.z.e-i~ sin T-sin 1tJ(d + %)1 -d < I: < 0

Note t.hat wben d i. an odd number of guide quarter-wavelengths, E,. for Ii > 0 is
twice that for the current sheet alone [aee Eq. (3-3)1. but when d is an integral number
of guide haH-wavelengths. no HI erists {or I: > O.
3-6. The TE and TM modes o{ a parallel-plate wavcguido (prob. 2-28) arc almost
dual to each other. Show that the field dual to the TE. mode of Prob. 2-28 is the
TM. mode for the parallel-plate guide having conductors over the planes 11 _ b/2
and 11 - -b/2. Show that the field dual to the TM. modo of Prob. 2-28 is the TE I

modo of this new waveguide.

3-6. Obtain the field of an infinitc.llimalloop of magnetic current having z-direeted
moment KS. Show that this produces the same field as the electric current clement
of Fig. 2-21 if

3-1. Figure 3-240 aho," the cfOlSllleCtion of a "twin·~o1ot" transmission line. Show
t.hat the field distribution is dual to that of the eollinur plate line of Fig. 3-24b. By
integrating along the eontours shown in Fig. 3-2-k, determine the line voltages and

~
E
l- H
c,' {
TT
D
W

H E cd
I"'~
'.

c,
1 \
'-
H

(oj (b) ('J

Flo. 3-24. Figures for Prob. 3-7. (0) Twin-3lot line; (b) collinear plate line; (c) into-
Iration contoUr!.
136 TIME-HARMONIC ELEcrROMAGNETIC FIELDS

currents of both the 810t line and the plate line. Show t.hat

7i>3~'~'
(Z')NolUM - d(Z
..
) --:;--
Ipta_U.
From Table 2-3. it foUowa that.

{Z.)ot.'lI.. - 4. log (WIlD) D » UI

The two tranamission linea are said to be complementary struetUJ'C8 (Bee Babinct',
principle, Seo. 7-12),
3-8. Show that the field
....
JoZ• sm I~
2 To! ,> 0
E. -
{ J-:, ain ~ ,-,I- ,<0

ia also Ii mathematical801ution to the problem of Fig. 3-2 with J. given by Eq. (3--2).
What do our uniqueness theorems say about tbia l5CCOnd IlOlution? WhaL ean we say
about it on physical grounds? Give a couple of other possible solutions to tbe
problem, and interpret them physically.
8-9. Show that the current sheela

II
] ... -til-a-I'.
4..
(ik
-
(l
1).
o· SUl'
+-
M.- II
-u.-e-
U
jh (iwp."
a
1).
~+-+-.- ,m'
at J-a l

over the sphere r .. (l produce the field or Eqa. (2-.113) r > a and !loro field r < 4.
3-10. If E is well-behaved ill a homogenoous region bounded by S, and if
fH - -v X &, show that the currente
1
J- -~E-!VXVXE

will support this and only t.hi& field among a claas E, H having identieal lange.nti&!
components of E on S. Show that the same H, but different H, can be obtained
within this (ll&sfl if magnetic sources K are allowed in addition to J.
8-11. Suppose there exiBte within t.he rectangular cavity of Fig. 2-19 a field

,-rY'h
E . - E ,Bln"bBln 'YJ:

where 'Y - V
(-rib)' ,tl and 1 is complelt (lOll8Y dielectric). Show that thia field
eAD be supported by the lJOurce
M, - -u.E,sin 'Z sinh 'YC

at the wall z - c. Show tbat for a low~loS6 dielect.ric, M. almost vanishes at the
resonant frequency (Eq. {2-95)J, that iB, a small M. produces a large E.
3-U1. Consider a ~rected current element II a distance It in front of a ground
plane covering the l' - 0 pla.ne, aa shown in Fig. 3-25. Show that the radiation field
ia given by
E, _ -'Ill .-AI' ain 6 lin (kd sin • ain 6)
"
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 137
and 1/110 _ H,. Find the power radiated and show that the radiation resist.a.nce
referred to / is
R _ '1""11 [~ _ sin 2kd _ cos 2A:d + sin 2kd]
• A' 3 2kd (2kd)l, (2kd)l

For d .s: k/4, the ffilH'imurn radiation is in the 1/ direction. Show that

and that the gain is 7.5 for d small, 4.15 for d - A/4, and approximately 6 for d large.

z
,
•
FlO. 3·25. Current ele-
ment parallel to a ground
II
plaoe.
y

3-13. In Fig. 3-&, suppose we have a small loop of electric current. with ~irccted
moment IS, instead of the current element. Show that the radiation field is given by

E • - ;'lj2...IS
~e-"8m '1 . (kd cos ' ) .'
Sln

and ?lB, _ -E•. Find tbe power radiated and show that the radiation resistance
referred to I is

R. - 2>01);('8)' [1"3 + cos(2kd)l

2kd
-
sin 2kd]
(2kd)'
i'1""ISkd
.
For small d, E. ~ - - - e-/" sm 28
u ..... O Air
<'
R. id.:O 15 ('8kd)'
-,-

Thus, ma.ximum radiation is at 6 _ 45" for small d. The gain at small d is 15. For
large d, the maximum radiation lies close to tbe ground plane, and the gain i.e 6.
3-14. In Fig. 3-25, suppose we have a small loop of electric current with ~irected
moment IS, instead of the current element. Show that the radiation field i~ given by

E. _ I/ktlS e-i~' sin 8 cos (kd sin", sin 8)

2~
138 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

aod .,H, - -E~. Show th~t tho radiation resistance referred to / is

R. _
'I'll
(OS)'
h
[~ + sin 2kd + 008 2kd _ sin 2M]
3 2kd (2kd)' (2kd)'

The maximum radiation is lLlong the ground plane, in t.ne z direction. For smaJl kd

R'u::QT X
4,." (OS)'
which is twice that for the isolated loop. For d - 0, the gain is 3; for d - ),/4, it ill
7.1; and for d- "", it is 6.
8-1ri. The monopole antenna consists of a straight wire perpendicular to a ground
plane, fed at the ground plane, 88 shown in Fig. 3-26. Show that the field is the same
118 that from the dipole antenna (Fig. z...23), fed at. the center. Show that the gain
of the monopole is twice that of the corresponding dipole and that the radiation
resist.ance is one-half. For example, the radiation resistance of the ),/4 monopole is
36.6 ohms.

FIG. 3-2G. The monopole

f(z.) antenna.

3·16. Consider an open-ended e08Jl:ial line (Fig. 3-14a without tho ground plane)
of small radii a and b. Treat the problem according to the equivalence principle
as applied to a surface just enclosing the coax. Assume n X II is C8S6ntially zero
over the entire surface and that tangential E is that of the transmission-line mode
over the open end. Show that to this approximation the radiated field is one-half
that of Eq. (3-20) and that the radiation conductance is one-half that of Eq. (3-23).
3-17. A slot antenna consist" of a slot in a. conducting grolWd plane, as shown in
Fig. 3-27. It is coiled a dipole alot antenna when fed by a voltage impressed across
the center of the slot. •The slot and ground plane can be viewed as flo transmission
line, and the field in the slot will be essentially a harmonic function of kz. AS8ume

in the slot, and obtain the magnetic current equivalent of the form of Fig. 3-1:k.
For w small, show that this equivalent representation is the dual problem to the
dipole antenna of See. 2-10. Uaing duality, abow that the radiation field is

jv..e_weoS(k~COS~) -C08(k~) _{ H, y>O

~ mn8 -H. y<O
Denne the radiation conductance of this antenna Il8 O. - (}IdlY.1 1, and show that
(0) 4(R.)'rindlpol•
• 010' dl .... l<o - ,,'
 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 139
z

, /r
I
I
Flo. 3-27. A slot. antenna.. I
I

where R. is as plotted in Fig. 2-24. The input voltage Vi is related to V .. by Vi - V..

Bin (kL/2); 80 the input conductance is given by

8-18. For the antenna of Fig. 3-27, lUlaumo E~ in the slot the same as in Prnb. 3-17,
and show that for arbitrary to
JVMe- i .' {He II> 0
'Iff f«(J,~) - -lit 11 <0

where {I'. oJ
.;n (k ~ ". 0'in.) [00' H 00") - 00' (k ~)]
w. 61116
k 2 cos<f>s1II9
3-19. Figure 3-28 shows an'aperture o.nUmna consistillg of a rectangular waveguide
opening onto 8. ground plane. Assume that E,. in the aperture is that of the TE'1
z

,
FIG. 3-28. A rectangular
waveguide opening onto
a ground plane. y
 140 TUdE-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

waveguide mode, and show that the radiation field is

H• ... 2jbEte-/ b sin ( k ~ COB'; sin 8) cos ( k ~ C08 8)

'IT C09 4> (,..1 (kb COS 8)11

3-20. Figure 3·29 represents a rectangular condullting plate of width a in the ~

direction and b in the .li direction. Let the incident plane wave be specified by

Use the induction theorem with the aame appr~ximation as waa used in the problem

r
r

FlG. 3-29. Scattering by

a rectangular plate.

of Fig. 3-17, and &how that at large T the .scattered field in the zy plane is
E kED/lbll-lv sin (k(a/2)(sin .; +sin 4Jo)J
,'... j21fT k(a/2)(Bio tP +
sin .po) cos 4>

Show that the echo STelL is

A• ... 4:.- [ab eos 4>0 si~ (ia sin ,po)]'

XkaSln 4>0

3-21. ~pcat Prob. 3-20 for the ort.hogonal polarization, that is,

and show that. at large T t.ho scattered field in the :cy plane is
H +
jiB .,abe- jlr sin Ik{a/2) (sin 4> sin 4>0) J
" ... 2,..,. k(a/2) (sin. + sin fla) cos "'a

Show that the eeho area is the same as obtained in Prob. 3·20.
3-22. Usc rcdprocit.y to evaluat.e t.he radiation field of the dipole antenna of Sec.
2-10. To do this, place n 9-direeted current element at. large r, tIond apply Eq. (3-36),
obtaining Eq. (2-125).
3-23. By applying voltage lIOurces t.o the network of Fig. 3-18. show that the
admittance matril( luI defined by

[ I,]
It
_["" "u] [v.]
1111 lin VI

satisfies the reciprocity relationship Un - ~u when Eq. (3-38) is valid.

 SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 141

Flo. 3-30. Differential

lIClatt.ering. Obstacle

3·24. Let Fjg. 3-30 represent two antennas in the presence of an obst.acle. Let
VI be the voltage received at antenna 1 when a unit current source is applied at
antenna 2 and V, be the voltage received at antenna 2 when & unit current source is
applied at antenna 1. Let VI' and V,I be the corresponding voltages when the
obstacle is absent. Define the scattered voltages as

and show that V,' _ V t·.

3·2li. For the problem of Fig. 3-2, define the input impedance of the sheet of
current as

z- -(0,0)
p

where (0,0) is the self-reaction of the currents and I is the total current of the sheet.
Evaluate Z when the field is given by Eqs. (3-3).
3-26. Repeat. Prob. 3-25 lor the current sheet and field of Prob. 3--1.
3-27. In the vector Green's t.heorem (Eq. (3-16) I, let A_E· and B - E~ in a
homogeneous isot.ropie region, and show that it reduces to Eq. (3-35).
3-28. Use the vector identity

v . (A X <tov X B) - <tov X A . V X B - A . v X <tov X B

and derive the modified vector Green's theorem

1ft <to(A X V X B - B X v X A)' ds

-fff (B' v X <tov X A - A . v X <tov X B) dT

Let A - E·, B _ E·, <to - i-I in an inhomogeneous region, and show that the above
theorem reduces to Eq. (3-35).
3-29. Derive the left-hand term of Eq. (3-50), that. is, show

,f{.. (E X V X G I - G t X V X E +EV'GI)'ds , 4",c·E

'JY If f'I.....O
•
142 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

3-30. Let G, be the magnetic field of a z-directed current element situated 11 > 0
and radiating in the prescnce of a perfect electric conductor covering the 11 "" 0 plane.
In other words, let c - u. and S be the y co 0 plane. Show that

where fl ClO Vex x'P + (11 y')' + ell il' )1

ft - vex x')! + (11' + Ill' + (z z')'

3-31. Specialize the G. of Prob. 3-30 to fl - 00, and apply Eq. (3-57) to the prob-
lem of Fig. 3-28. Show that this gives the same answer as obtained in Prob. 3-19.
3-32. Apply duality to Eqs. (3-65), and evaluate the magnetic tenoor Green's
function 11') defined by
H - [rlKI
in free space.
S-33. Evaluate the I'll for the free-space tensor Green's function defined by
H - [rill
3-34. Repeat Prob. 3-20 using the physical optics approximation, and show that
the answer for E,' differs from that of Prob. 3~20 by an interchange of 4i and 4Jo.
Show that the echo area is identical to that of Prob. 3~20.
8-35. Repeat Prob. 3~21 using the physical optics approximation, and show that
the &nswer for H ," differs from that of Prob. 3-21 by an interchange of 4J and 4Jo.
Show that the echo area is identical to that of Prob. 3·2l.
8-36. Let", ... e- /iw in Eqs. (3~86), and evaluate the electromagnetic field. Classify
this field in as many ways as you can (wave-type, polarization, etc.).
3-87. Let of ." e- ib in Eqs. (3·89), and evaluate the electromagnetic field. Classify
this field in B.8 many waye B.8 you can.
8-38. Let c - U z , "'. - r il.., "" .. je- ii" and evaluate Eqs. (3-91). Classify this
field in as many ways as you can.
S-39. Derive Eqs. (3~97) by c.'\:panding Eqs. (3-4) with A and F as given by Eqs.
(3-95).
 CHAPTER 4

PLANE WAVE FUNCfIONS

4-1. The Wave Functions. 'l'he problems that we have considered 80

far are of two types: (1) those reducible to sources in an unbounded
homogeneous region, and (2) those solvable by using one or more uni-
form plnne waves. Equations (3-91) show us how to construct general
solutions to the field equations in homogeneous regions once we have
general solutions to the scalar Helmholtz equation. By a method called
8sparation of variabw8, general solutions to the Helmholtz equation can be
constructed in certain coordinate systems. I In this section, we use the
method of scparation of variables to obtain solutions for the rectangular
coordinate system.
The Helmholtz equation in rectangular coordinates is

(4-1)

The method of separation of variables seeks to fInd solutions of the form

f - X(x) Y(y)Z(,) (4-2)
that is, solutions which are the product of three functions of one coordi-
nate each. Substitution of Eq. (4-2) into Eq. (4-1), and division by,p,
yields
(4-3)

Each term can depend, at most, on only one coordinate. Since each
coordinate can be varied independently, Eq. (4-3) can sum to zero for
all coordinate values only if each term is independcnt of x, y, and z.
Thus, let

where k", kll , and k. are constants, that is, are independcnt of x, Y, and z.
(The choice of minus a constant squared is taken for later convenience.)
lIt hM been shown by Eisenhart (Ann. Mmh., vol. 35, p. 284, 1934) that the
Hclmholh equation is separable in 11 three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate systems.
143
144 TnIE-RARMONIC ELEcrnoMAGNETIC FIELDS

We DOW have Eq. (4-1) separated into the trio of equations

d'X
dx t
+ k 'X _
Z
0

d'Y + k,'Y _ 0 (4-4)

dy'
2
d Z2
dz
+ k!Z
'
= 0

where, by Eq. (4-3), the separation parameters must satisfy

k. 2 + k,,2 + k. t
= kt (4-5)
This last equation is called the separation equation.
Equations (4-4) arc all of the same form. They will be called harmonic
equatiom. Any solution to the harmonic equation we shall call a
harmonic junction,! and denote it, in general, by h(kzx). Commonly
used harmonic functions arc
(4-6)
Any two of these arc linearly independent. A constant times a harmonic
function is still a harmonic function. A sum of harmonic functions is
still a harmonic function. From Eqs. (4-2) and (4-4) it is evident that
f •.•••• - h(k..)h(k,y)h(k.,) (4-7)
are solutions to the Helmholtz equation when the Ie; satisfy Eq. (4-5).
These solutions llre called elementary wave functions.
Linear combinations of the elementary wave functions must also be
solutions to the Helmholtz equa.tion. As evidenced by Eq. (4-5), only
two of the lei may be chosen independently. We can therefore construct
more genera.l wave functions by summing over possible choices for one or
two separa.tion parameters. For example,

f ~ LLB••••f ......
.1:. .1:.

- LL.1:. k.
R••••h(k..)h(k,y)h(k.z) (4-8)

where the B,j are constants, is a solution to the Helmholtz equation. The
values of the k, needed for any particular problem are determined by the
boundary conditions of the problem and are called eigenvalues or charac-
teristic values. The elementary wave functions corresponding to specific
eigenvalues are called eigenfunctions.
I The term harmonic function also is used to denote a rrolut.ion to Laplace's equat.ion.
This is not the present meaning of the term.
 PLA.NE WAVE FUNcrION8 145
StiU morc general wave functions can be constructed by integrating
over one or two of the k a• For example, a solution to the Helmholtz
equation is

~~ IIf(k.,k,)~.,•••• dk. dk,

-!lk. 01:.

f(k.,k,)h(k.;<)h(k,y)h(k..) dk. dk, (4-9)

where f(k",Ie,,) is an analytic function, and the integr3.tion is over any

path in the complex k", and Ie" domains. Equation (4-9) exhibits a con-
tinuous va.riation of the separation parameters, and we say that there
exists a continuous spectrum of eigenvalues. We shall see that solutions
for finite regions (waveguides and cavities) a.re characterized by discrete
spectra of eigenv3.1ues, while solutions for unbounded regions (antennas)
often require continuous spectra. Wave functions of the form of
Eq. (4-9) are most commonly used to construct Fourier integrals.
We should be familiar with the mathematical properties and with the
physical interpretations of the various harmonic functions so that we can
properly choose them for particular problems. Keep in mind that wave
functions represent instantaneous quantities, according to Eq. (1-4.0).
Solutions of the form h(kx) = r ih (k positive real) represent waves
traveling unattenuated in the +z direction. If k is complex and
Re (k) > 0, we have +z traveling wa.ves which are attenuated or aug-
mented according as 1m (k) is negative or positive. Similarly, solutions
of the form h(kx) = fib, (Re (k) > OJ represent -z traveling waves,
attenuated or augmented if k is complcx. If k is purely imaginary, the
above two harmonic functions represent evanescent fields. Solutions of
the form h(kz) = sin kz and h(kx) = cos kx with k real represent pure
standing waves. If k is complex, they represent localized standing waves.
If k is purely imaginary, say k = - ja with a real, then the" trigonometric
functions" sin kx and cos kx can be expressed as Hhyperbolic functions"
sinh ax and cosh ax. We should get used to thinking of the various
functions as defined over the entire complex kx plane. The trigonometric
and hyperbolic functions are then just specializations of the complex har-
monic functions. Table 4-1 summarizes the above discussion, (The
convention k = fJ - ja with a and fJ real is used.) Note that the
degenerate caso k = 0 has the harmonic functions h(Ox) = 1,%. The
choice of the proper harmonic functions in any particular case is largely
a matter of experience, and facility in this respect will be gained as we
use them.
4-2. Plane Waves. Consider an elementary wave function of the form
(4-10)
146 TIME-H.ARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

TABLE 4-1. PaoPERTIES or TIn: HARMONIC FUNCTIONS'

Sped.lil...
Speei_\ Ph)'.i~a1
M.b\ Ze~t I!lfi .. ltl~t tions of
l"CJ)r<:eentatlollll interpretatiDa
.\:,,6-1<>

,-I/f.

.....-".
Ie !"(lal +z tT.vclinli: wave
,-I', i" ..... - j . h ..... f_ A: Im'fri""Y ,-a• Evane.eent field
.l: complex - AtUnu .. ted traveling ..II",

,flo .h: ..... J . b ..... -i-

.I: rn.1
1 imacinary
_.
,Ie. -::0: ttaveLin, .......
Evanucent licld
k eomplu ... ·.ifJ. AtteDulUed trlveli", .... n

.l: real lin 11% SUndinl ......e

.ink.. k,,'" " .. ..., ..... ±i- k Im..;"....y -j 'inll oJ: Two lI".IlNCC'" field.
.\: complex .in fb lotIh .. " Loc&li.ed atandin...,Vel
- i (OfIB.. ainh .."
.l:rnl eo. 8% StIDdi.., ... ave
COlI ..,,, b-(n+H)r k" ..... ±j.. k imlll'inary co.h ..% Two ev.neacen~ fielde
k\lOmplu COlI It" cosh ..:II LocalilO8d 'landi"l WIIVeI
+i,in(jr,inh .."

• For .t ... 0, the harmonic (unetlollll &l"$ 1I(0z) ... t,,,,

t For I" _"ti.... Bln.ula.ity. ~his columD &ive. ~h" ..ympwu" behavior.
The Ie. must satisfy Eq. (4-5), which is of the form of the scalar product
of a vector
k = u"k", + uwk.. + u.k. (4-11)
with itself. Note that in terms of k and the radius vector
r=u...x+uwY+u.z (4-12)
we can express Eq. (4-lO) as
y, = eft·, (4-13)
For k real, we apply Eq. (2 140) and determine the vector phase constant
M

~ ~ -V( -k· r) ~ k

Hence, the equiphase surfaces are planes perpendicular to k. The ampli-

tude of the wave is constant (unity). Equation (4-13) therefore repre-
sents a scalar uniform plane wave propagating in the direction of k.
Figure 4-1 illustrates this interpretation.
For k complex, we define two real vectors
k = ~ - j. (4-14)
and determine the vector propagation constant a.ccording to Eq. (2-145).
This gives
y = -v(-jk.r) =jk +j~

We now have equiphase surfaces perpendicular to lJ and equiamplitude

=.
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 147
Equiphase Direction of
Z surface propagation

,
/
/
Flo. 4-1. A uniform plaDe
w ..vc.

y
x

surfaces perpendicular to a. Thus, when k is complex, Eq. (4-13) repre-

scnt.s a plane wave propagating in the direction of IJ and attenua.ting in
the direction of a. It is a uniform plane wave only if ~ and a: are in the
same direction. Note that definitions k """ lJ - ja and k "'"' It - jk" do
not imply that {J equals k' or that a equals k" in general. In fact, for
loss-free media,
k' = k . k "'"' {J' - a' - j2a . \}
must. be positive real. lIenee, either 0: = 0 or a: • I) = O. When a: "'" 0
we have the uniform plane wave discussed above. When a: and 0 are
mut.ually orthogonal we have an evanescent field, such as was encountered
in tot"l reflection [Eq. (2-62)J.
The elementary wave functions of Eq. (4-10) or Eq. (4-13) are quite
general, since sinusoidal wave functions are linear combinations of the
exponential wave functions. Wave functions of the type of Eqs. (4-8)
and (4-9) are linear combinations of the elementary wave functions. We
therefore conjecture that all wave functions can be expressed as super-
positions of plane waves.
Let us now consider the electromagnetic fields that we can construct
from the wave functions of Eq. (4~1O). Fields TM to z are obtained if
'It is interpreted according to A = ua,p. This choice results in Eqs. (3-86),
which, for the 'It of Eq. (4-10), become
H - - uJk'" + u,ik'"
= v'It X Ua = Nu, X k (4-15)
and UE - jk.{uJk. + u,ik. + uJk.)~ + n.k'>/-
- (- kJ< + u.k')~ (4-16)
For k real, H is perpendicular to k by Eq. (4-15), and E is perpendicular
to k, since
Uk· E - (-k.k' + kJ<')~ - 0
148 TIME-HARMONIC ELECI'ROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Thus, the wave is TEM to the dirootion of propagation (as well as TM

to z). For k complex, define a: and (,\ by Eq. (4-14). It then follows
that the wave is not necessarily TEM to the direction of propagation
(that of (,\). It will be TEM to {.\ only if a and (,\ are in the same direc-
tion, that is, if
k = l} - ja = (uJ + ulJm u.n)k +
with l, m, n real. In this case, fJ = k', a = kif, and l, m, n are the
direction cosines.
The dual procedure applies when'" is interpreted according to F = u."'.
In this case, Eqs. (3-89) apply, giving
E~#kxu.
(4-17)
IH ~ (-k.k + u.k')f
which are dual to Eqs. (4-15) and (4-16). For k real, this is n. wave
TEM to k and TE to z. Its polarization is orthogonal to the correspond-
ing TM-to-z wave. For k complex, the wave is not necessarily TEM to
the direction of propagation. All these fields are plane waves. An arbi.
trary electroma.gnetic field in a homogcneous region can be considered
as a superposition of these plane waves.
4-3. The Rectangular Waveguide. The problem of determining modes
in a rectangular wa.veguide provides a good illustration of the use of ele-
mentary wave functions. In Sec. 2-7 we considered only the dominant
mode. In this section we shall consider the complete mode spectrum.
The geometry of the rectangular wa.veguide is illustrated by Fig. 2-16.
It is conventional to classify the modes in a rectangular waveguide as
TM to z (no H a) and TE to z (no E.). Modes TM to z are expressible in
terms of an A having only a z component ¥t. We wish to consider travel-
ing wavesj hence we consider wave functions of the form
f ~ h(k.x)h(k.y),-i',· (4-18)
The electromagnetic field is given by Eqs. (3-86). In particular,

E. - ~ (k' - k.')f

The boundary conditions 011 the problem are that tangential components
of E vanish at the conducting walls. Hence, E. must be zero at x = 0,
x = a, Y = 0, and y = b. The only ha.rmonic functions having two or
more zeros are the sinusoidal functions with k i real. Thus, choose

h(k,x) ~ siu k,x .

k --~
a
m = 1,2,3, .

h(k,ly) ;;;; sin k,ly k=~

• b n = 1,2,3, .
 PLANE WAVE J'UNC'I'lONS 149
50 that the boundary conditions on E. are satisfied. Each integer m and
" specifies a. possible field. or mode. The TM... 7rWCU funclicm are
therefore
mn . nry
.1.
.,....'nI:
-
= sm a 81D b e iIt" (4-19)

with m .. I, 2, 3, ...• a.nd n "'" I, 2, 3•... ,and the separation pal"11m~

eler equation {Eq. (4-5)] becomes

(m;)' + (n;)' + k.' _ k' (4-20)

The TM.... modo fields are obtained by substituting the l/t.. "TM into Eqs.
(3-86).
Modes TE to z are expressible in terms of an F having only a z com-
ponent J/I. Again. we wish to find traveling waves; so the If must be of
the form of Eqs. (4-18). The electromagnetic field this time will be given
by Eq•. (3-89). In particular,

E--~
• ay

the first of which must vanish at y "'" 0. y '"'" b, and the second at % = 0,
% - a. Harmonic functions SiLtisfying these boundary conditions are

h(k..) - co. k.. k -~.-

n
m=O.1.2.
k _ n...
, b n=0,I,2,

Each inl.cgcr fn and n. except m = n "'" 0 (in whieh case E vanishes

identically), specifies a mode. Hence, the TE.." mode functions are
m'lr% nry .,
If.nTE = cos a cos be-' ,- (4-21)

with m "'" 0, 1,2, . . . ; n = 0, 1.2, . . . ; m = n "'" 0 excepted. The

separation parameter equation remains the same as in the TM MSC [Eq.
(4-20)]. The TE... mode fields are obtained by substituting the If.. "TB
into Eq•. (3-89).
Interpretation of each mode is similar to that of the dominant TE ol
mode, considered in Sec. 2-7. Equation (4-20) determines the mode
propa.gntion const.nnt y "" jk.. For k real, the propagation constant
vanishes when k is

~("'aT)' + (";)' = (k.)•• (4-22)

ISO TlM'E-BAlUlONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

The (k.)•• is called the ctdoff wave number of the mn mode. For otber
values of k, we have
, •• ~ jk. ~ I j~ - j yk'
a =
(k,)••'
(k.)." - k'
(4-23)

Thus, for k > k. the mode is propagating. and for k < k. the mode is
nonpropagating (evanescent). From Eq. (4-22) we determine the cutoff
frequencies

(j,) •• - 2. ~'" - 2 ~ ~(~)' + (~)' (4-24)

and the cutoff wavelengths

2. 2
(Xc)... = -k = /T.:7:'W'F'E:iill (4-25)
• y(mla)' (nib)' +
In terms of the cutoff frequencies, we can ro-oxpress the mode propagation
constants as

(J)'
l
j~ -jk 1 - I> I•
.., "'"' jk. = (4-26)
a"" kc - (J.)' 1 <I.
where mode indices mn are implied. We can also define mode wave-
lengths (or each mode by Eq. (2-85) and mode phase velocities by Eq.
(2-S6), where mode indices are again implied.
It is apparent that "Y = jk. for each mode has the same interpretation
as "Y for the TEol mode. It is the physical size "(compared to wavelength)
of the waveguide that determines which modes propagate. Table 4-2
gives &. tabulation of some of the smaller eigenvalues for various ratios
bla. Whenever two or more modes have the same cutoff frequency, they
are said to be degenerate modes. The corresponding TE..... and TM....
modes nrc always degenerate in the rectangular guide (but not in other-
shaped guides). In the sqU::Lre guide (bla = 1), the TE...., TE..., TM....,
and TM.... modes form &. foursome of degeneracy. Waveguides are usu-
ally constructed so that only one mode propagates, hence b/a > 1 usually.
For b/a - 2, we have a 2:1 frequency range of single-mode operation,
and this is the most common practical geometry. It is undesirable to
make b/a greater than 2 for high-power operation, since, if the guide is
too thin, arcing may occur. (The breakdown power is proportional to
.yo: for fixed b.) To illustrate the use of Table 4-2, suppose we wish to
design an air-filled waveguide to propagate the TEol mode at 10,000 mega-
cycles (>":c1 3 centimeters). We do not wish to operate too close w I~t
since the conductor losses are then large (see Table 2-4). If we take
 PLANE WAVE FtiNCTJONS 151

TABLE 4-2. (1;,)... _ (J~) ... _ (>...).1 FOR TIlE RrCUNOULAlt W.\VEQUlDE, b >c
(k.h. (/.).. ("-)... -

TE u TEll TEn
-•b TE•• TEll
TEll
TM II TE H TEll TM II TM l1 TM n TEll

1 I 1 1.414 2 2 2.236 2.236 2.828 3

1.5 1 l.5 1.803 2 3 2.500 3.162 3.606 3
2 1 2 2.236 2 4 2.828 4.123 4.472 3
3 1 3 3.162 2 6 3.606 6.083 6.325 3
• 1 • • 2
, • • • • 3

b = 2 centimelers, then}... - 4 centimeters for the TEol mode, and we

are operating welt above cutoff. The next modes to become propagating
are the TE IO and TEn: modes, at. a frequency of 15,000 megacycles. The
TEll and TM l l modes become propagating at 16,770 megacycles, and
so on.
The mode pa.tterns (field lines) a.re also of interest. For this, we deter-
mine E and H from Eqs. (3-86) and (4-19) or Eqs. (3-89) and (4-21),
and then determine S, :JC from Eq. (1--41). The mode pattern is a plot
of lines of t and 3C at some instant. (A more direct procedure for obtain-
ing the mode patterns is considered in Sec. 8-1.) Figure 4-2 shows
sketches of cross-sectional mode patterns for some of the lowCI'-'Oroer
modes. When a line appears to end in space in these patterns, it actually
loops down the guide. A more complete picture is shown for the TEo l
mode in Fig. 2-17.
In addition, each mode is chnrocterized by a constant (with respect to

(a) TEo1 (b) TEn (c) TMIl

..
~~' ,
'/
... ,,'-

'-' ' ... ~"r:f-

",
.

(d) TEo, (e) TEI2

e )Io.!J( - - - - -;.,..

Flo. 4-2. Rectangular waveguide mode patterns.

152 TIME-HARMONIC ELEC"rROMAONETIC FIELDS

y) z-directcd wa.ve impedance. For the TE•• modes in loss-free media,

2:,

we h.ve from Eq•. (3-89) .nd (4-21)

·H '" -1·k8~
-. - = -1·k-.0,
P
]WIJ. "'"
8•
. H .. = -1·kI 8~
JWIJ fJy == J·kE
••

The TEa. characteristic wave impedances are t.herefore

f > f.
(4-27)
f < f.
Similarly, for the TM•• modes, we h:lve from Eqa. (3-86) and (4-19)

j~. - -jk.: = jk.N,

jwtElI = -jk. :t = -jl.,.ll,.

Thus, the TM... characteristic wave impedances are

(Z) ~
0 •• E.
--------
H"Wf
-E.
11.
k'-l~-.-a
f > f.
(4-28)
f < f.
JW'

It is interesting to Dote t.hat the product (Zo}••T&(Zo}...n1 = 'It at all fr~

quencies. By Eq. (4-26), P < k for propagating: modesj so the TE char-
acteristic wave impedances are always greater than 'I, and the TM char-
acteristic wave impedances are always less than '1. For non propagating
modes, the TE characteristic impedances aro inductive, and the TM
characteristic impedances are capacitive. Figure 4-3 illustrates this
behavior.
Attenuation of the higher-order modes due to dielectric losses is given
by the same formula as for the dominant mode (see Table 2-4). Attenu-
ation due to conductor losses is given in Prob. 44.
4-4. Alternative Mode Sets. The classification of waveguide modes
into sets TE or TM to z is important because it applies also to guides of
nonrectanguln.r cross section. However, for many rectangular waveguide
problems, more convenient e1a.ssifications can be made. We now con-
sider these alternative sets of modes.
If, instead of Eq. (3-84), we choose
(4-29)
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 153

\
Zo ~ {Ro t > t,
jXo t < t, "-
1\
\RoTE

,
" "-

/ _Ko TAt
/
':;;;,TM
X,TE/ \
/ 1/
1/
o I 2 3

FlO. 4-3. Chnracteristic impedance of wfl.vcguide modes.

we have an electromagnetic field given by a set of equations differing

from Eqs. (3-86) by a cyclic interchange of x, y, z. To be specific, the
field is given by
H. - 0

II ~
, a.a, (4-30)
a;,
Hr=.--
• ay
This field is 'I'M to x. Similarly, if, instead of Eq. (3-87), we chooso
(4-31)

we have an electromagnetic field given by

E __
,
a.az (4-32)
E _
•
a.
ay
 154 TUdE-HAR.YONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

This field is TE to x. According to the concepts of Sec. 3-12, aD arbi-

trary field can be C!'nstructed as a superpositioo of Eqs. (4-30) and (4-32).
The choice of ¥'s to satisfy the boundary conditions for the rectangular
waveguide (Fig. 2-16) is relatively simple. For modes TM to z (TMx••
modes) we have

(4-33)

where m - 0, 1, 2, . . . ; n = 1, 2, 3, ' .. ; and k. is given by Eq.

(4-26). The electromagnetic field is found by substituting Eq. (4-33)
into Eqs. (4-30). For modes TE to x (TEx..... modes) we have

(4-34)

where m - 1,2,3, . . . ; n = 0, 1,2, . . . ; and k. is again given by

Eq. (4-26). The field is obtsinOO by substituting Eq. (4-34) into Eqs.
(4-32). Note that the TAu.. mOOes are the TEo. mOOes of Sec. 4-3,
and the TEx. o modes are the TE.o modes. All other modes of Eqs.
(4-33) and (4-34) are linear combinations of the degenerate sets of TE
and TM modes. Note that our present set of modes have both an E.
and H. (except for the O-order modes). Such modes are called hybrid.
The mode patterns of these hybrid modes can be determined in the
usual manner. (Determine E, H, then S, :JC, and specialize to some
instant of time.) The TEa.. o mode patterns are those of the TE.. modes,
and the TMxo.. mode patterns are those of the TEo. modes. Figure 4-4
shows the mode patterns for the TF.a: u and TMxll modes, to illustrate
the character of the higher-order mode patterns.
The characteristic impedances of the hybrid modes are also of interest.
For the TM% modes, we have from Eqs. (4-30) and (4-33)

H, - -jk,~

Hence, the z-directed wave impedances are

f > f.
(4-35)
f <f.

Note that {or (l small, the cutoff TMx- modes, m ~ 0, have capacitive
Zo's, while tbe cutoff TMx,", modes have inductive Zo's. Similarly, {rom
 , ..
~~
\
1:0
'!I
- x
P~E WAVE FUNCfIONS 155

,
A
I
t
I
\
,\
~:::

(a) TExu

~~~S§i
r-TTTT-' --
111 '~II x
bY'/'-l>'1
~
1 1 \ \, I'
Iif 11 --~--
--~--_
/

....
h
(b) TAbu
PSG. 4-4. Hybrid mode pat.terns.

Eqs. (4-32) and (4-,'34) we find

~.P
f> f.
(
Z) ~
0.. -
- E.
II%. :;z kt
~.k.
(m,../a)' =-
! k' (m. /a)'
T..--~I>:~=.";a,-,,
kt (m..';a)'

Note that for a small, the cutoff TEx.." modes all have inductive charac-
f < f.
(4-36)

teristic impedances.
Sets of modes TM a.nd TE to Y can be determined by letting A = U~Vt
and F = U1/1/I, respectively. The fields would be given by equations
similar to Eqs. (4.30) and (4-32) with x, y, z properly interchanged.
The TMy and TEy mode functions would be given by Eqs. (4-33) and
(4-34) with .",,/a ond ny/b interchanged,
4-'S. The Rectangular Cavity. We considered the dominant mode of
the rectangular cavity in Sec. 2-8. We shall now consider the complete
mode spectrum.. The geometry of the rectangular cavity is illustrated
by Fig. 2-19.
The problem is symmetrical in x, Y. %j SO we can express the fields as
TE or: TM to anyone of these coordina.tes. It is conventiona.l to choose
the z coordinate, and then the cavity modes arc standing wa.ves of the
usual TE and TM waveguide modes. The wave functions of Eq. (4-19)
156 TIME-HARMONIC ELECI'ROMAGNETIC f'TELD8

satisfy the boundary condition of zero tangential E at four of the walls.

It is merely necessary to rcpick h(k.z) to satisfy this condition at the
remaining two walls. This is evidently accomplished if
n-ry
~TK = . m'll'Z
SID - - SID -
. p-rz
COB - (4-37)
"'''1' abc

with m = 1,2,3, .. j n = 1,2,3, . . . ; p - 0, 1,2, ; and Eq.

(4-20) becomes

(4-38)

The field of the TM••,. mode is given by substitution of Eq. (4-37) into
Eqs. (3-86). Similarly, the TE••JI' mode fUDctioDS Brc given by
mrX nry. prrz
,',Till:
"" • •1'
=
a bsm
C08 - - COS -
c - (4-39)

with m = 0,1,2, . . . in = 0, I, 2, . . . ; p "'" 1,2,3, im = n - 0

excepted. The separation equation remains Eq. (4-38). The TE....,.
mode field is given by substitution of Eq. (4-39) into Eqs. (3-89).
AB indicated by Eq. (4-38), each mode can exist at only a single k,
given a, b, c. Setting k = 2r/ W. we solve Eq. (4-38) for the resonant
frequencies

(4-40)

For a < b < c1 the dominant mode is the TE oJ1 mode. Table 4-3 gives
the ratio (j.) ...p/(J.)oll for cavities of various side lengths. Note that

TABLE
(J.)",..
4-3. - - Fon TilE
R ECTANC':t!LAn C ,,"VITT, a <b <C
(fr)tlI - -

, TM III TEl. TE,ulT8tll

-b - TEln TE II1 TM no
TE TEl" TM I11 TM m TM m
TE llt
• • III

I 1 1.22
-1.58 --
1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58
--
1. 73
I 1 1
1 2 1 1 1.26 1.34 1.26 1.84 1.84 1.26 2.00 2.00 1.55
2 2 1 1.58 1.58 1.73 1.58 1.58 2.91 2.00 2.00 2.91 2.12
2 4 1 1.84 2.00 2.05 1.26 1.84 3.60 2.00 2.53 3.68 2.19
4 4 1 2.91 2.91 3.00 1.58 1.58 5.71 3.16 3.16 5.71 3.24
4 8 I 3.62 3.65 3.66 1.26 1.84 7.20 3.65 4.03 7.25 3.82
4 16 1 3.88 4.00 4.01 1.08 1.96 7.76 3.91 4.35 7.83 4.13
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 157
the TE"'''10 and TM..... 10 modes, mnp all nonzero, are always degenerate.
When two or more sides of the cavity are of equal length, still other
degeneracies occur. The greatest separation between the dominant mode
and the next lowest-order mode is obtained for a. square-base cavity
(b = c) with height one-half or less of the base length (b/a ~ 2). In
this case, the second resonance is v% = 1.58 times the first resonance.
The mode patterns of the rectangular cavity are similar to those of the
TE or TM waveguide modes in a. z = constant plane, and similar to the
hybrid mode patterns in the other two cross sections. The most signifi-
cant difference between the waveguide patterns and the cavity patterns
is that E is shifted from JC by 'A Q/4 in the latter case. Also, 8 and :JC are
90° out of phase in a cavity; so E is zero when :JC is maximum, and vice
versa. The TEoll mode pattern is shown in Fig. 2-20. To illustrate
higher-order mode patterns, Fig. 4-5 shows the TE 123 mode pattern.
The quality factor Q of each cavity mode can be determined by the
method used in Sec. 2-8 for the dominant mode. The Q due to dielectric
losses is the same for all modes, given by Eq. (2-100). The Q's due to
conductor losses for the various modes are given in Prob. 4-10. Note
that the Q increases as the mode order increases. The Q varies rougWy
as the ratio of volume to surface area of the cavity, since the energy is

, -I
000
000
o "",

,
"
Section A

r ,""
0
0
0

..,•
a

Section C
Lgo Section B
FIG. 4.-5. Rectangular ca.vity mode pattern for the TE iU mode.
158 TIW.E-llAlU:IONIC ELECl'RO!ol.AONETIC FIELDS

x z

Flo. 4-6. A pa.rtially di·

electrio-filled rcclanlU1ar
.1"--,...----( waveguide.

o b y

stored in the dielectric and the losses are dissipated in the conducting
walls.
4·6. Partially Filled Waveguide. l Consider a waveguide that is
dielectric filled between x = 0 and:z; .. d (or has two dielectrics). This is
illustrated by Fig. 4-6. The problem contains two homogeneous regions,
o < :r; < d and d < z < a. Such problems are solved by finding solu-
tions in each region such that tangential components of E and H are con-
tinuous across the common boundary. An attempt to find modes either
TE to % or TM to % will prove unsuccessful, except for the TE..o case.
Most modes arc therefore hybrid, having both E. and B.. An attempt
to find modes TE or TM to % will prove successful, as we now show.
For fields TM to x. we choose ""s in each region (region 1 is x < d,
region 2 is x > d) to represent the x component of A, as in Eq. (4-29).
The field in terms of the vis is then given by Eqs. (4-30). To satisfy the
boundary conditions at the conducting walls, we take

.•.
'f'1 =
C1 cos k,,1X sIn
. -b-
n'lrtJ ....Ii "
(4-41)
1/It "'" Ct eos [kd(a - x)] sin n;y e-it ••

with n I, 2, 3, . . .. It has been anticipated that Ie" nff/b and

CII :IC

k. must be the same in each region for matching tangential E and H at

x = d. The separation parameter equations in the two regions are

k£l t + (nT)'
b + k. t - kit",", ",tEJJ.ll
(4-42)
k ot
t
+ (bnT)' + k. t - ktt =- ",tEU't

1 L. Pincberle, Electromagnet.ic Waves in Metal Tubes ruled Longitudinally with

Two Dielectrics, Phy•. RG., vol. 66, 00. 5, pp. 118-130, 1944.
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTION8 159
From Eqs. (.wIl) snd (4-41) we calculste
1 nT. nq
E~l = - -.- C 1k lO1 -b SlD. k..tX cos -b "".
'IWE I
1 nT . n,.-y
E~t = -.- Ctkat -5 8m [kat(a - x)] cos -b r ll ••
JWf.t

E' l = 1-. C1kdk. Bin k d % sin nb1r'Y trfk··

"'"
Ed - -
~ ..
..!.. C"'..I<. sin lk..(a - .)] sin n"!/ "...
b
Continuity of E~ and E. at x .,. d requires that

J. C,k.. sin k.,d

tl
- - .!tt Csk.. sin [k•• (a - a)] (4-43)

Similarly, from Eqs. (4-30) and (4-41) we calculate

1I~1 = -jk.C 1 cos klll% sin n;v ell••

H~t - -jk.Ct cos {k",(a - %)1 sin n~ rfl··

Hd - ~T Ct cos k%l% cos n;v r ik .,.

Hd ,." ~T Ct cos {kdCa - z)J cos n~ rPo.•

Continuity of 11~ and H. at x = d requires that

CI cos kdd = Ct cos (kd(a - d») (4-44)
Division of Eq. (4-43) by Eq. (4-44) gives

kill tan kll1d """ _ kill tan [kd(a - d)] (4-45)

tl Et

Both kd and kill are functions of k. by Eqs. (4-42)i so the above is a

transcendental equation for determining possible k.'s (mode-propagation
constants). Once the desired. k. is found, kd and kd are given by Eqs.
(4-42), snd the ratio C,jC, is given by Eq. (4-43) or Eq. (4-44).
For fields TE to z, we choose "",'s in each region to represent the z com-
ponent of F. To satisfy the boundary conditions at the conducting walls,
we take
ill =- C 1 sin kdx cos n;t' r i4 ..
(4-46)
"'t - Ct sin [klll(a - z)] cos n;v e-ik .,.
160 TIME-HARMONIC ELECI'ROMAGNETIC FlELDS

with n "'" 0, I, 2, .. ;. The separation parameter equations are again

Eqs. (4-42). The field is calculated from the ""s
by Eqa. (4-32). A
matching of tangential E and H at % - d yields..the characteristic equation

k.. cot k..d _ _ k.. cot[k..(o - d)J (4-471

III 111

The kd and kd arc functions of k. by Eqs. (442); so tho above is a

tra;scendental equation for determining k.'s for the modes TE to :t.
The modes of the partia.lly filled rectangular waveguide arc distorted
versions of the TEa and TM% modes of Sec. 4-4. The modo patterns are
similar to those of Fig. 4-4, except that tho field tends to concentrate in
the material of higher E and Il. In the lossless case, the cutoff frequencies
(k. =- 0) of tbe various modes will always lie between those for tho corre·
sponding modes of a. guide filled with a material El, Ill, and those--of a
guide filled with a material E" PI. (This can be shown by the pcrturba.~
tional procedure of Sec. 7-4.) In contrast to the filled guide, the cutoff
frequencies of the corresponding TE:t and TMx modes will be different.
Also, a. knowledge of the cutoff frequencies of the partially filled guide is
not sufficient to determine k. at otber frequencies by Eq. (4-26). We
have to solve Eqs. (4-45) and (~7) at each frequency.
Of special interest is the dominant mode of a partially filled guide.
For b > ", this is the mode corresponding to the TJ\uol mode of the
empty guide, whicb is also the TE u mode of the empty guide. For a
given n, Eq. (4-45) has a. denumerably infinite set of solutions. We shall
let m denote the order of these solutions, as follows. The mode with the
lowest cutoff frequency is denoted by m = 0, the next modo by m = 1,
and 50 on. Tbis numbering system is chosen so that the TMx... partially
filled waveguide modes correspond to the TMx... empty-guide modes.
The dominant mode of the partially filled guide is then the TMxol mode
when b > a. lIenee, the propagation constant of the dominant mode is
given by the lowest-ordcr solution to Eq. (4-45) when the k.'s a.re given
by Eqs. (4-42) with n = 1. Fign.re 4-7 shows some calculations for the
case E ",. 2.451'1).
When k l is DOt very different from k l , we should expect k. 1 a.nd k.z
to be small (k. is zero in an empty guide). If this is 50, then Eq. (4-45)
can be approximated by
k..'d
--~
_-:;k",,-,'(",0_d:=!) (4-48)
1'1 1'1

With this explicit relationship between kd and kd , we can solve Eqs.

(4-42) simultaneously for k.r and k. (given Cal). Note that when kd is
real, k.z is imaginary, and vice versa. The cutoff frequency is obtained
hy oetting k, - 0 in Eqa. (4-42). Uaing Eq. (4-48), we have for the
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 161
, ,

~
•
1.6

1.2 T.
1 t-- .b---l :«i
/
/'
.-
~ 0.8
/
0.4

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

0/).0

Fla. 4-7. Propagation constant for a rectangular waveguide pll.rtially filled with
dielectric, • - 2.45-.. alb - 0.45, dla - O.SO. (Alta Prank.)

dominant mode

kd '
+ (i)' = WlflJll

fl(~~d) k + (i)' ""

zl
l l
W ftJll

These we solve for the cutoff frequency Col == We, obtaining

r flea d) + ftd (4-49)
ColC"=-b fl
(a d
- ) fUll + J
E2UfIJlI

valid when Eq. (4-48) applies. When J11 == J11 == J1, this reduces to

(4-50)

Note that thi.s is the equation for resonance of a parallel-plate traDS~

mission line, shorted at each end, and baving

L == ~ == EIES
J10
fl(a - d) + Etd
per unit width. All cylindrical (cross section independent of z) wave-
guides at cutoff are tw<Hlimensional resonators.
A waveguide partially filled in tbe opposite manner (dielectrie boundary
parallel to the narrow side of the guide) is tbe same problem with a > b.
The dominant mode of the empty guide is then the TEz u mode, or TE lo
mode. The dominant mode of tbe pa.rtially filled guide will a.lso be a
162 TWE-HARMON1C ELECTROHAONETIC FIELDS

TEz modej SO the eigenvalues are found from Eq. (4-47) with n "'" O.
We shall order the modes by m 88 followa. That with the lowest cutoff
frequency is denoted by m = 1, that with the next lowest by m = 2, and
50 on. This numbering system corresponds to that (or the empty guide,
the dominant mode being the TEx lO mode. When k 1 is not too different.
from k" we might expect k Z1 and kd to be close to the empty-guide value
k., = ria. An approximate solution to Eq. (4-47) could then be found
by perturbing k. 1 and kd about 7/a. For the cutoff frequency of the

t:= d-----j 0
"I Zo - 'II I Zo - '12
T {j '""' kl I 13 :: k2
b (2,1'2
I 1 I
1 (oj
I-d "I'
(bj
0- d----l
FIo. 4-8. (a) Partially filled waveguide; (b) tran.amission·line resonator. The cutoff
frequency of t.he dominant. mode of (0) ia the reIIOnAot frequency of (b).

1.6 , die 1
I-d-i Ie

.8
-
~l
.6
0.5

12 - l.-?=' ~ ::..-- 0.375

t--o--j
r7k:: V V
--- 0.280

...
o fl; / . /V 0.167
0
~I 0.8
f/ '/1# ~
Iff
0.4

o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

o{>..
FIo. 4-9. Propagation constant for a rectangular waveguide partially 6UOO with
(After PraM.)
dielectric, • - 2.451..
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 163
x

Flo. 4-10. The dielectric-

lliab waveguide.

dominant mode, Eqs. (4-42) becomo

k"'ll = kl~2 = wc2el~1
k l
d = k 2c I . . We 2e 2/JI

and Eq. (4-47) becomes

I I
- cot k1cd = - - cot (k..(a - dlJ (4-51)
", ",
It is interesting to note that this is the equation for resonance of two short-
circuited transmission lines having Z.'s of '11 and 'Ill and P's of k 1c and k'k,
as illustrated by Fig. 4-8. The reason for this is, at eutoll, the TEz lo
mode reduces to the parallel-plate transmission-line mode that propagates
in the z direction. This viewpoint has been used extensively by Frank. 1
Some calculated propagation constants for the dominant mode are
shown in Fig. 4-9 for the case «: - 2.45«:0. Similar results for a centered
dielectric slab arc shown in Fig. 7·10, and the characteristic equation for
that case is given in Prob. 4-19.
4.-7. The Dielectric-slab Guide. It is not necessary to have con-
ductors for the guidance or localization of waves. Such phenomena also
occur in inhomogeneous dielectrics. The simplest illustration of this
is the guidance of waves by a dielectric slab. The so-called slab wave-
guide is illustrated by Fig. 4-10.
We shall consider the problem to be two-dimensional, allowing no
variation with the y coordinate. It is desired to find z-trllveling waves,
that is, rj!~ variation. Modes TE and TM to either x or z can be found,
and we shall choose the latter representation. For modes TM to 2, Eqs.
(3-86) reduce to

E = -k.
'" WE
a"ax E. _ .,!... (k'
)we
_ k.')" H, _ - "'"
ax (4-52)

We shall consider separately the two cases: (1) .p an odd function of x,

denoted by ~, a.nd (2) '" an even function of x, denoted by 1/t'. For case
IN. H. Frank, Wave Guide Handbook, MIT Rad. L4b. Rept. 9,1942.
164 TIME-HAUMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

(I), we choose in the dielectric region

[xl < 2~ (4-53)

and in the air region

a
x>'2
(4-54)
a
x < --2

We have chosen kuj = u and k&O = jv for simplicity of notation. (It will
be seen later that u and v are real for unattenuatcd wave propagation.)
The separation parameter equations in each region become

u1 + k. 1
= kd t = 1
W (dJJd
(4-55)
_Vi + k. 2 = k ol = ",1£0#010

Evaluating the field components tangential to the air-dielectric interface,

we have

E. = ~ u ' sin tLX e-p.,. }

JWEd [xl < ~
2
11" = - Au cos u:c e-jk .-

-8
E. - -.- v1e-""e-il ..
a
JWEo
x>2
E. = .B v1e""e-ik,s
]WED

Continuity of E. and HI/at x = ± a/2 requires that

The ratio of the first equation to the second gives

~tan~ = ~va (4-56)

2 2 EO 2

This, coupled with Eqs. (4-55), is the characteristic equation for deter-
mining k/s and eutoff frequencies of the odd TM modes,
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 165
For TM modes which are even functions of %, we ehoose

(4-57)

The separation parameter equations are still Eqs. (4-55). The field com-
ponents are still given by Eqs. (4-52). In this case, matching E. and
H. at :t - ± 0{2 yields
ua ua E.,va
- -cot- = - - (4-58)
2 2 t6 2

This is the characteristic equation for determining the k.'s and cutoff
frcquencies of the even TM modes.
There is complete duality between the TM and TE modes of the slab
waveguidej so the characteristic equations must be dual. For the TE
modes with odd 1/t we have
ua ua
-tan- ~--
Il4va ( 4-59 )
2 2 PO 2
as the characteristic equation, and for the TE modes with even 'It we have

_ ~cot ua = 1A1l~ (4-60)

2 2 lAO 2
as the characteristic equation. The u's and v's still s:l.tisfy Eqs. (4-55).
The odd wave functions generating the TE modes are those of Eqs. (4-53)
and (4-54), and the even wa.ve functions generating the TE modes are
those of Eqs.. (4-57). The fields are, of course, obtained from the +'s by
equations dual to Eqs.. (4-52), which are, explicitly,

H _ - k, a~ fI, _ .,.!.. (k' _ k,')~ E-~ (4-61)

• WI! ax JWP • ax
These are specializations of Eqs. (3-89).
The concept of cutoff frequency for dielectric waveguides is given a
somewha.t different interpretation than for metal guides. Above the
cutoff frequency, as we define it, the dielectric guide propagates a mode
unattenuated (k. is real). Below the cutoff frequency, there is attenu~
atoo propa.gation (k. "'" fJ - ;0.). Since tbe dielectric is loss free, this
ll.ttenuation must be accounted for by radiation of energy as the wave
progresses. Dielectric guides operated in a radiating mode (below cutoff)
are used as antennas. The phase constant of an unattenuatcd mode lies
between tbe intrinsic phase constant of tbe dielectric and that of air;
tbat is,
166 TUfE-BARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

This can be shown as follows. Equations (4-55) require that u and v be

either real or imaginary when k. is real. The characteristic equations
have solutions only when v is real. Furthermore, II must be positive,
else the field will increase with distance from the slab [see Eqs. (4-54) or
(4-57)J. When v is real and positive the characteristic equations have
solutions only when 'U is also real. Hence, both u and II are real, and it
follows from Eqs. (4-55) that ko < k. < ka. This result is So property of
cylindrical dielectric waveguides in general.
The lowest frequency for which unattenuated propagation exists is
called the cutoff frequency. From the above discussion, it is evident that
cutoff occurs a.s k. -. ko, in which case v -+ O. The cutoff frequencies
are therefore obtained from the characteristic equations by setting
u = ylkd' ko' and v = O. The result is

tan (; ylkd ' ko') = 0 cot (~ylkd' kO') = 0

which apply to both TE and TM modes. These equations are satisfied

when
n = 0, 1,2,

This we solve for the cutoff wavelengths

>.~ = 2a IfdJld _ 1 n = 0, 1, 2, (4-62)

n '\I fO~O
and the cutoff frequencies
n
f~ = 2a V fd~d fO~O n "'" 0, I, 2, . . . (4-63)

The modes are ordered as TM.. and TE" according to the choice of n in
Eqs. (4-62) and (4-63). Note thatf~ for the TEo and TM omodes is zero.
In other words, the lowest-order 7'E and TM modes propagate unattenuated
no maUer how thin the slab. This is a general property of cylindrical
dielectric waveguides; the cutoff frequency of the dominant mode (or
modes) is zero. However, as the slab becomes very thin, k. --+ ko and
t1 --+ 0, so the field extends great distances from the slab. This charac-
teristic is considered further in the next section. Finally, observe from
Eq. (4-62) that when fdJld» EQJto, the cutoffs occur when the guide width
is approximately an integral number of half-wavelengths in the dielectric,
zero half~wavelengtb included.
Simple graphical solutions of the characteristic equations exist to
determine k. at any frequency above cutoff. Let us demonstrate this
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 167
for the TE modes. Elimination of k. from Eqs. (4-55) gives
ou l + Vi = kill - k ol = WI(E,iPd - ~llPll)

Using this relationship, we can write tho TE characteristic equations at'!

~uatan
,u." 2
ua2 \ I(wa)' (ua)'
_.'ua cot ua - V"2 ('m - ,,,,,) - "2
,u." 2 2
Values of uaj2 for the various modes are the intersections of the plot
of the left-hand terms with the circle specified by the right-hand term.
Figure 4-11 shows a plot of the left-hand terms for Jld = ,u.ll. A repre-
sentative plot of the right-hand term is shown dashed. As w or e" is
varied, only the radius of the circle changes. (For the case shown, only
three TE modes arc above cutoff.) If Pd F Po, the solid curves must be
redrawn. The graphical solution for the TM mode eigenvalues is similar.
Sketches of the mode patterns afe also of interest. Figure 4-12 shows
the patterns of the TEo and TM 1 modes. These can also be interpreted
as the mode patterns of the TM o and TEl modes if g and 3C are inter-
cba.ngcd, fOf there is complete duality between the TE and TM cases.

(UB)
-,- ''" (UB) cot 2/~
~ ~ ~2
f--
--
r I
[

I
"
,
I
I
,
••
~ .
"2
I I \
I / I
I I I',\\
/ I
/ I /i \
I
1/ [
,I ,
+ . +
(U~.) (U~.)
Fio. 4-11. Grp.phical solution of the characteristic equation for the Blab waveguide.
168 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTRO?,IAGNETIC FIELDS

• 0

• •
!t1• .1 0 0
0 ".1.
~~~ 14
~~'4 COCO~.. It)D1.1:\1 Q
l\~t1 (ltZ;
>t Q'\~r2:.i
0)8) jJ~~
x It 0 It
• • I
• •
• 0
• •
•
• •
(b)

FlO. 4-12. Mode pfl.ttern.s for the dieJectric-6lab wll.Vcguidc. (a) TEo mode (X lines
dashed); (b) TM 1 mode (t lines IlOlid).

As the mode number increases, more loops appear within the dielectric,
but not in the air region.
4~8. Surface-guided Waves. We shall show that any "reactive
boundary" will tend to produce wave guidance along that boundary.
The wa.ve impedances normal to the dielectric-to-air interfaces of the
slab guide of Fig. 4-10 can be shown to be reactive. A simple way of
obtaining a single reactive surface is to coat a conductor with a dielectric
layer. This is shown in Fig. 4-13.
The modes of the dielectric-coated conductor arc those of the dielectric
slab having zero tangential E over the x 0 plane. These are the TM..,
=0

n =0 0, 2, 4, . . . ,modes (odd if;) and the TE., n = 1,3,5, ...• modea

 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 169
(even '/I) of the slab. We shall retain the same mode designations for the
coated conductor. The characteristic equations for the 'I'M modes of
the coated conductor are therefore Eq. (4-56) with 'a/2 replaced by t
(coating tl},ickness). The characteristic equation for the TE modes is
Eq. (4-60) with a/2 replaced by t. The cutoff frequencies are specified
by Eq. (4-63), which, for the coated conductor, becomes
n
(4-64)
f. - 41 V""" <0,,,
where for TM modes n = 0, 2, 4, . . . , and for TE modes n - 1, 3,
5, . . .. The dominant mode is the 'I'M o mode, which propagates
uoattenuatcd at all frequencies. The mode pattern of the 'I'M, mode
is sketched in Fig. 4-14.
Let us consider in more detail the manner in which the dominant mode
decays with distance from the boundary.....hI the air space, the' field
attenuates as r·%. For thick coatings, k. -. k4 , and, from Eq. (4-55),

"'_k, 1~-1 (4-65)

I W&fI "EOJ.IO

This attenuation is quite large for most dielectrics. For example, if the
coating is polystyrene (to" = 2.56E o, JI.4 - "'0), the field in 0.12~ has decayed
to 36.8 per cent of its value at the surface. However, for thin coatings,

".1'0
Z

Pta. 4-13. A dielcctrie-eoated conductor.

o • 0

o 0
• • • 0
• •
• •• • • 0 0
• 0 0

Flo. 4-14. The TM, mode pattern for t.he coated conduetor (s lines 1lO1id.)
170 T!KE-JlARI(ONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

]{

z
FlO. 4-15. A corrugated conductor.

the field decays slowly. In this case, k. --+ k~, and

flmall k("' ,,)t

v--:,.2r o - - - -
Ilo f,,}.,
(4-66)

If the polystyrene coating were 0.0001 wavelength thick, we would have

to go 40 wavelengths from the surface before the field decays to 36.8 per
cent of its value at the surfaco. We say that the field is It tightly bound"
to a thick dielectric coating and Uloosely bound" to a thin dielectric
coating.
Another way of obtaining a reactive surface is to flcorrugate" a con-
ducting surface, as suggested by Fig. 4-15. For a simple treatment of
the problem, let us assume that the" teeth JJ are infinitely thin, and that
there are many slots per wavelength. The teeth will essentially short
out any E III permitting only E. and E. at the surface. The TM fields of
the dielectric-slab guide are of this type; hence we shall assume that thia
field exists in the air region. Extracting from Sec. 4-7, we ha.ve

x>d

where (4-67)
The wave impedance looking into the corrugated surface is
Z ,." E. = ju (4-68)
-. 1I, W~O

Note that this is inductively reactive; so to support such a field, the

interface must be an inductively reactive surface. (The TE fields of
Sec. 4-7 require a. capacitively reactive surface.) In the slots of the
corrugation, we assume that the parallel-plate transmission-line mode
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 171
exists. These are then shorkircuited transmission lines. of character-
istic wave impedance 'l0. Hence, the input wave impedance is
Z_. - iv. tan k,.J (4-69)
For kod < T/2. this is inductively reactive. Equating Eqs. (4-68) and
(4-69), we have
• = k. tan k,.J (4-70)
and, from Eq. (4-67), we have
k, = k, Vi + tan' k,.J (4-71)
It should be pointed out that this solution is approximate, for we have
only approximated the wave impedance at x "'" d. In the true solution,
the fields must differ from those assumed in the vicinity of x = d. (We
should expect E a to terminate on the edges of the ~th.)
When the teeth are considered to be of finite width. an approximate
solution can be obtained by replacing Eq. (4-69) by the average wave
impedance. This is found by assuming Eq. (4-69) to hold over the gaps,
and by assuming zero impedance over the region occupied by the teeth.
The result is'

k, ~ k. ~1 + G~ ,)' tan' k,./

where g = width of gaps and t := width of teeth.
While at this time we lack the concepts for estimating the accuracy
of the above solution, it has been found to be satisfactory for small
kdl. Note that, from Eq. (4-70), the wave is loosely bound for very
small kod, becoming more tightly bound as kod becomes larger (but still
less than 11/2). Tho mode pattern of the w&ve is similar to that for the
TM o coated-eonductor mode (Fig. 4-14), except in tho vicinity of the
corrugations.
4-9. Modal Expansions of Fields. The modes existing in a waveguide
depend upon the excitation of the guide. The nonpropaga.ting modes
are of appreciable magnitude only in the vicinity of sources or discon-
tinuities. Given the tangential components of E (or of H) over a wave-
guide cross section, we can determine the amplitudes of the various wave--
guide modes. This we shall illustrate for the rectangular waveguide.
Consider the rectangular waveguide of Fig. 2-16. Let E~ = 0 and
E, "" J(x.y) be known over the z = 0 cross section. We wish to deter-
mine the field z > 0. assuming that the guide is ma.tched (only outward-
traveling waves exist). The TEx modes of Sec. 4-4 have no Ea; 50 let uS
Ie. C. Culler, Electromagnetic Waves Guided by Corrugated Conducting Surfaces,
BeU TdqMru Lab. Rept. MM-44-160-218, October, 1944.
172 TI:M.E-HAR~(ONIC flLECI'ROKAGNETlC FIELDS

take a superposition of these modes. This is

. .
'I' -= 2: 2:
._1 ...0
A •• sin m;z cos n~ rr-' (4-72)

where A•• are mode amplitudes and the -r•• are the mode-propagation
constants, given by Eq. (4-23). In terms of !fi. the field is given by Eqs.
(4-32). In particular, E, at z = 0 is given by
. .
E~
I
...
'\'
Lt
0
'\'
L..t
=
. m..
a
"r.... A... am
nry
cos b
",_I .... 0

Note that this is in the form of a double Fourier series: a sine series in :t
and a cosine aeries in y (sec Appendix C). It is thus evident that 'Y.... A ...
sre the Fourier coefficients of E" or

ior dy E, I._0 sin mn

ry
a cos n b
ll
"roo.A ... - E•• = 2t {" dx (4-73)
ab )0
where f .. = I for n = 0 and E. = 2 for n > 0 (Neumann'& number). The
.A••• and hence the field, are now evaluated. The solution for E. = /(x,Y)
and E, .,. 0 given over the z - 0 cross section can be obtained from the
above solut.ion by a rotation of axes. The general case for which both
E~ and E, are given over the z .= 0 cross section is a superposition of the
two cases E• ... 0 and E, = O. The solution for the ease H ~ and H,
givCD over the z = 0 cross section can be obtained in a dual manner.
For a large class of waveguides, when many modes exist simultaneously,
each mode transmits energy as if it existed alone. We shall show that
the rectangular waveguide has this property. Given the wave function
of Eq. (4-72), specifying a field according to Eqs. (4-32), the z-direetoo
complex power at z ... 0 is

P••

Because of the orthogonality relationships for the sinusoidal {unctions,

 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 173

Incident wave

L z
----------
FIG. 4-16. A capacitive wa.veguide junction.

this reduces to

(4-74)

where (yo) .... are the TEx wave a.dmittances, given by the reciprocal of
Eqs. (4-36). The above equation is simply a. summation of the powers
for the individual modes. In a lossless guide, the power for a propagating
mode is real and that for a non propagating mode is imaginary.
To illustrate the above theory, consider the waveguide junction of Fig.
4.~16. The dimensions are such that only the dominant mode (TE IO)
propagates in each section. Let there be a wave incident on the junc-
tion from the smaller guide, and let the larger guide be matched. For
an approximate solution, assume that Ell at the junction is tbat of the
incident wave
...
I {
sm- y<c
Ell "'" a (4-75)
...0 0 y> c
From Eq, (4-73), the only nonzero mode amplitudes are
C
E lo = 'Y10A IO =b
(4-76)
2 . nll'c
E 1.. = 'YhAh = - 5ln-
b n~

Thus, only the m = 1 term of the m summation remains in Eq. (4-72).

Let us usc this solution to obtain an "aperture admittance" for the
junction. From Eqs. (4-74) and (4-76), the complex power at z = 0 is
•
p ~ a<:'
2b
(Y)'
0 10
+ 2 '\'
~
(Y)'
0 1>1
['in (n.c/b)]'j
nTc/b

where, from Eqs. (4-36),

"-.
k' - (~/a)' Vi (Uf)'
(Yoho = wp.(j "" f/
2
(Yoh.. = k - .(tr/a)' "" j2b(Y ohG
J(,JJla }.., vn' (2b/}".) ,
174 TUIE--HARMONIC ELECl'ROYAQNETIC FIELDS

3
+~o~ •
I' 'I
1\ =r-
rrt
0.3

2 f-
I- 0.2
n, 1\ tE
~' E - sin(1l' % fa} X
.\
1'\\ \.
~ "-
1 0- "-
~ "- "-
~ 0-
N
'"
I
o 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
c/b·
Flo. 4-17. Susceptance of a capacitive aperture.

The Ie and X. llre those of the TE lo mode. We shall refer the aperture
admittance to the voltage across tho center of t.he aperture, whieh is
V "'" c. The aperture admittance is then
•
y p. y [a .20 \ ' sin! (nrc/b) ]
• = lVI' = ( .J,. 2b + 1 ~. ._1
f.< (nrc/b)' -In' (2b/~.)' (4-77)

The imaginary part of this is the aperture suscepta.nce

B 2a \ ' - sin! (nrc/b)

(4-78)
• - ~.Z. f.< (nrc/b)' n' (2b/~.)'
.-1
where A, and Z. are those of the dominant mode. Calculated values for
B. are shown in Fig. 4-17. For small c/b, we have'

~2:' B. = -log I0656~ [1 + 1- (~~),]l (4-79)

1 This equation ill a quui-static result.. The direct 15peeialization of Eq. (4_78) to
IlIlall clb yields a numerical factor of O.37\) instead of 0.656.
 PLANE WAVE FUNCfION8 175

tx tx
Incident
W<M!-
z
-----------
Flo. 4-18. An induct.ive waveguide junction.

The aperture susceptance is a quantity that will be useful for the treat,.
ment of microwave networks in Chap. 8. Note that the susceptance is
capacitivc (positive) i so the original junction is called a capacitive wave-
guide jurn;tion. Remember that our solution is only approximate,' since
we assumed E in the aperture. (We shall see in Sec. 8-9 that the true
susceptance cannot be greater than our present solution.) We have
assumed that only onc mode propagates in the guide; hence ou.r solution is
explicit only for

When a second mode propagates, it contributes to the aperture conduct-

ance, and Eq. (4-78) would be summed from 11. = 2 to (lO, and so on.
Another problem of practical interest is that of the waveguide junction
of Fig. 4-18. Again we assume only the dominant mode propagates in
each section. Take a wave incident on the junction from the smaller
guide, and let the la.rger guide be matched. For an approximate solu-
tion, we assume Ell in the aperture to be that of the incident wave
. TZ
81D- x<c
E, 1.·0 ~ 0 c (4-80)
{
Z >c
From Eqs. (4-73), we determine the only nonzero mode amplitudes as
E 2c sin (mrc/a)
(4-81)
., - Tall (me/a)'J
Thus, only the 11. = 0 term of the 11. su.mmation remains in Eq. (4-72).
Again we can find an aperture admittance for the junction. From
Eqs. (4-74) and (4-81), the complex power at z = 0 is
•
p _ 2bc' \ ' (Y)' [sin (mTc/a) ]'
...'a
..
Lt, 0.0 1 (me/a)!
176 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

where, from Eqs. (4-36),

Y) _ k' _
( o 10 - wp.fJ -
VI - U'/f)'
'IJ

(Yo)., == k
l
__ y;:a)t = ~j ~(;t:y _ 1 m> I

The voltage across the center of the a.perture is V ... b. The aperture
admittance referred to this voltage is therefore

Y. - .~~ ([t~-«;::?,r (Yo)"

•
_ 1. "\' [sin (moefa)]' I(mx)' - 11
..
"1.<, I - (_fa)' 'V 2a
(4-82)

The imaginary part of this is the aperture susceptance

(4-83)

which is plotted in Fig. 4-19. The susceptance is inductive (negative);

90 the original junction is called an inductive waveguide junction. For
single-mode propagation, we must. have a < X; so our explicit interpre-

I I I

~-"-=i1
0.2 ~ af- 0.5- 1
F:
~7 h II
b

'" '"
0.8
"
t-,. "-

" "-"- "-

E 0:: sin (yx/c) X

0.1 0.9 ~

"
"' - ...... ::::.; t-..

~
~ 1::3
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
cIa
Fro. 4-19. Susceptance of an inductive aperture.
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 177
tation of the solution is restricted to this range. For wave propaga.tion
in the smaller guide, we must have c > ),,/2 if it is air-filled. However,
if the smaller guide is dielectric-filled, we can have wave propagation in it
when c < >./2. Moreover, the aperture susceptance is defined only in
terms of E~ in the aperture and has significance independent of the
manner in which this E~ is obtained.
4-10. Currents in Waveguides. The problems of the preceding section
might be called II aperture excitation >1 of waveguides. We shall now con-
sider" current excitation" of waveguides. This involves the determi-
nation of modal expansions in terms of current sheets over a guide cross
section. The only difference between aperture excitation and current
excitation is that the former assumes a knowledge of the tangential elec-
tric field and the l::Ltter assumes a knowledge of the discontinuity in the
tangential magnetic field. The equivalence principle plus duality can be
used to transform a.n aperture-type problem into a current-type problem,
and vice versa.
To illustrate the solution, consider a rectangular waveguide with a
sheet of z-directed electric currents over the z = 0 cross section. This is
illustrated by Fig. 3-2, where J. = uz!(z,y) is now arbitrary. We shall
assume that only waves traveling outward from the current are present,
thllt is, the guide is matched in both directions. At z = 0 we must have
E~, E~, and H ~ continuous. Hz must also be antisymmetric about z = 0;
hence it must be identically zero, and it is convenient to use the TMx
modes of Sec. 4-4. (Note that J and its images are x-directcdi so it is
to be expected that an x-directed A is sufficient for representing the field.)
Superpositions of the TMx modes are

. . (4-84)

L 2:
","'0 .... 1
B.....- cos 7 sin n;y e"'-' z <0

where superscripts +and - refer to the regions z > 0 and z < 0, respec-
tively. The field in terms of the ,p's is given by Eqs. (4-30). Continuity
of E~ nnd Ell at z = 0 requires that
B....+ = B.....- = B..... (4-85)
The remaining boundary condition is the discontinuity in H ~ caused by
J s, which is

21'....8 ..... cos a

mr.r . nTy
sm T
178 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

This is a Fourier eosine series in x and a Fourier sine series in y. It is

evident that 2y.....B..... are the Fourier coefficients of J~, that is,
2t", fa [b m1rX . nry
2'Y.....B..... = Jill.. = fib}o ax io dyJ"cOSaSlllT (4-86)

This completes the determination of the field. The solution for a

y-directed current corresponds to a. rotation of axes in the above solu-
tion. When both J" and J II exist, the solution is a. superposition of the
two cases J II = 0 and J" = O. The solution for a magnetic current sheet
in the waveguide is obtained in a dual manner. A z-directed electric
current can be treated as a loop of magnetic current in the cross-sectional
plane, according to Fig. 3-3. A z-directed magnetic current is the dual
problem. Thus, we have the formal solution for all possible cases of
currents in a rectangular waveguide.
It is also of interest to find the power supplied by the currents in a
waveguide. This is most simply obtained from

p - - JJE . J: d, - - J: dx J: dy J: E.!._o
._0
We express J. in its Fourier series and evaluate E. by Eqs. (4-30) applied
to the above solution. Because of the orthogonality relationships, the
power reduces to

(4-87)

where (Zo)..." are the TMx wave impedances, given by Eqs. (4-35).
This is a summation of the powers that each J '"II alone would produce
in the guide. In a lossless guide, the power associated with each propa-
gating mode is real, and that associated with a oonpropagating mode is
imaginary.
As an example of the above theory, consider the coax to waveguide
junction of Fig. 4-20. This is 8. waveguide llprobe feed," the probe
being the center conductor of the coax. If the probe is thin, the current
on it will have approximately a sinusoidal distribution, as on the linear
antenna. With the probe joined to the opposite wa.veguide wall, as
shown in Fig. 4-20, the current maximum is at the joint x = a. We
therefore assume a current 00 the probe
I(x) R< cos k(a - z) (4-88)
The current sheet approximating this probe is
J. - I(.)o(y - c) (4-89)
 PL.~"'E WAVE FUNCTlONS 179

Matched Matched
load load

ICoax
Flo. 4-20. A coax to wAveguide junction.

where !(y - c) is the impulse function, or delta function (sec Appendix

C). The Fourier coefficients for the current arc then obtained from
Eq. (4-86) as
J = 2e",ka sin ka sin nrc/b (4-90)
•• b[(ka)' (mr)'l

This, coupled with our earlier formulas, determines the field.

In terms of this solution, let us consider the input impedance seen by
the coaxial line. The power supplied by the stub is given by Eq. (4-87).
The impedance seen by the coax is then

Z, - 1:"'- R, + iX,
where, from Eq. (4-88), the input current is
Ii - coska
Assume that the waveguide dimensions arc such that only the TEol mode
propagates. Then only the m "'" 0, n ... 1 term of Eq. (4-87) is renl, and

R, = - OOIJ"I'
4 I;
- (ZO)o1

= -a (Z)
b
001 (tan
--
ka
ka)' .
1 5,1I'"C
m-
b
(4-91)

All other terms of the summation of Eq. (4-87) contribut.c to X,. How-
ever, since we assumed a filamentary current, the series for X. diverges.
To obtain a. finite X•• we must consider a conductor of finite radius. For
small a, the reactance will be capacitive. In the vicinity of a "'" "A/4,
we have a resonance, above which the reactance is inductive. Note that
Eq. (4-91) says that the input resistance is infinite at this resonance.
This is incorrect for an actual junction, and the error ties in our assumed
current. Equation (4-91) gives reliable input resistances only when we
are somewhat. removed from resonant points. [This is similar to our
linear antenna solution (Sec. 2-10»). Feeds in waveguides with arbi-
trary terminations are considered in Sec. 8-11.
180 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

x x

=-fl1
Incldent T~---;---~
z

l
Flo. 4·21. A parallel-plate guide radiating into half-flpace.

4-11. Apertures in Ground Planes. We have already solved the prob-

lem of determining the field from apertures in ground planes, in Sec. 3-6.
At this time, however, we shall take an alternative approach and obtain
a different form of solution. By the uniqueness theorem, the two [orms
of solution must be equal. One form may be convenient for some calcu-
lations, and the other form for other calculations.
Let us demonstrate the theory for an aperture in the ground plane
y = 0, illustrated by Fig. 4-21. We further restrict consideration to the
case E. = 0, there being only an E., in the aperture. Taking a clue from
our waveguide solution (Sec. 4-9), let us consider Fourier transforms (see
Appendix C). The transform pair for E% over the y 0 plane is
:IE:

(4-92)

where a bar over a symbol denotes transform. The form of the trans-
formation suggests that we choose as a wave function

(4-93)

which is a superposition of the form of Eq. (4-9). For our present prob-
lem, we take Eq. (4-93) as representing a field TE to z, according to
Eqs. (3-89). There is a one-to-one correspondence between a function
and its transform; hence it is evident that the transform of '" is

if ~ J(k..k.)....• (4-94)
 PLANE WAVE FUNCl'IONB 181
We also can rewrite Eqs. (3-89) in terms of transforms as
n. _ -kJc. if-
1""
R _ -k,.k. if-
(4-95)
, lW~

R. _ k' :- k.' if-

1""
Specializing the above to the y = 0 plane, we have
D.I,_o = - jk,!(k.,k.)
A comparison of this with Eqs. (4-92) shows that
-1
!(k.,k.) - ~k D.(k.,k.) (4-96)
1 ,
where E. is given by the second of Eqs. (4-92). This completes the solu-
tion. As a word of caution, k, = ± Vk l k.' k. ' is double~valued,
and we must choose the correct root. For Eq. (4-9-1) to remain finite as
Y"'-'+ 00, we must choose

k' k < v'k.' + k.' (4-97)

k.' k > v'k.' + k.'
The minus sign on the lower equality is necessary to remain on the
sarno branch as designated by the upper equality.
The extension of this solution to problems in wh.icb both E. and E.
exist over the y=:O plane can be effected by adding the appropriate TE
to x field to the above TE to z field. It can also be obtained as the sum
of fields TE and TM to z, or to x, or to y. The case of H,. and HII speci-
fied over the y = 0 plane is the dual problem and can be obtained by
an interchange of symbols.
For simplicity, we shall choose our illustrative problems to be two-
dimensional ones. Let Fig. 4-21 represent a parallel-plate waveguide
opening onto a ground plane. If the incident wave is in the transmission-
line mode (TEM to V), it is a.ppa.rent from symmetry that H. will be the
only component of H. Let us therefore take H. as the scalar wave func-
tion and construct
I
H. - -2
.J.-. !(k.)&>.·ei'.· dk.

From this, it. is evident that t.he transform of H. is

(4-98)

n. = !(k.)ei'.' (4-99)
182 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

From the field equations, we relate the transform of E to R. as

Specializing E a to y =
E-a = -

-
k'll •

0, we have
(4-100)

E.I .. _0
~ k, J(k.) -
WE
f-
__
E.(x,O)..-"'· dz (4-101)

from which f(k.) may be found. For an approximate solution to Fig.

4-21 for y > 0, we assume E. in the aperture to be of the fOfm of the
incident mode, that is,

1 "
Ixl < 2
E.
1.-. ~

1
0
Ixl > "2
(4-102)

Using this in Eq. (4-101), we find

E.I 11-0
~ k, J(k.)
WE
~ k2 sin (k. -2")
:r
(4-103)

To complete the solution, we must also choose the root of kv for proper
behavior as y _ 00. From Eq. (4-99), it is evident that this root is

k < Ik.1 (4-104)

k> Ik.1
The fields are found from the transforms by inversion.
A parameter of interest to us in future work is the aperture admittance.
To evaluate this, we shall make use of the integral form of ParsevaPs
theorem (Appendix C), which is

f- J(x)O'(x) dz - i. f- J(k)U*(k) dk

We can express the power per unit width (z direction) transmitted by

the aperture as

From Eqs. (4-100) and (4-102), this becomes

p ~ -!:!.
2T
f- I, 111.1' dk. = - .!
_. kll Al1
f-_..
sin'Y,,:/2) dk.
kllk z
 PLANE WAVE Jl'UNC!'IONS 183
4

3
.1 ~~
T1 E -, I )
FJO. 4-22. Aperture ad- 2 r-..
mit.Lance of a capacitive r--.. ",loG.
dot radiator.
I
I, "B. r--
I"

o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

ai'

We now define the aperture admittance referred to the aperture voltage

V - a as
y _ p' = -4 sin' (k.a/ 2) dk
• IVII ),11(11 _ _ k.k,.l ,.
f"
Note that, by Eq. (4-104), tbe above integrand is res! rnr Ik.1 < k and
imaginary for lk,.1 > k.We can therefore separate Y. into ita real and
imaginary parts as

G. = ....!.-
>t"1a1
f' -J:
sin' (k.a/2) dk.
k,.l v'k1 k,.l

-4
B• -),"1(11 (f-' + J.') k,,'sin'v'k,,'
__ J:
(k.a/2) dk
k' ..

The above integrals can be simplified to give

ainl dtD
f,
b/2 tD
X,p. - 2
o w' v' (ka/2)' w'
),"1B. = 2 J.-
b/2 w' v'w'
sin' w dw
(ka/2)l
(4-105)

For srna.ll ka, these 0.00 1

x,p. = r [I - (';1'] } a
I: < 0.1 (4-106)
>..."B. t>:: 3.135 - 2 log ka

For intermediate ka, the aperture conductance and susceptance are

plotted in Fig. 4-22. For large w, we have
I The formula for B. ill a qU&!i-et.at.ic result. The direct specialUation of the
seeond of Eq•. (4-lo.s) to small ka gives a numerical facwr of 4.232 instead of 3.135.
184 TIME~BAlWONlC ELECTROllAGNETIC VJELDS

~"o. ~ ~ !
~.B. ~ (:.)' [1 - ~.faC08(~' + DT] j
~ > 1 (4-107)

The aperture is capacitive, since B. is always positive.

Another problem of practical interest is that of Fig. 4-21 when the
incident wave is in the dominant TE mode (TE to y). In this case,
E. will be the only component of E, and we shall take E. as our scalar
wave fundion. Analogous to the preceding problem, we construct

1
E. = 2... f"_. f(k.)eJk.z,p.· dk. (4-108)

In terms of Fourier transforms, this is

2. - f(k.) ....' (4-109)
From the field equations, we find the trans(orm of H to be

R. :::s -k,S. H, _ k. 2. (4-110)

WJl WJl

Thef(k,,) is evaluated by specializing Eq. (4-109) to y "'" 0, which gives

2.1'.0 ~ f(k.} - f_'. E.(x.O)..-"·· dx (4-11 I}

For an approximate BOlution, we assume the E. in the aperture of Fig.

4-21 to be that of the incident TE mode, tbat is,
TX
a
!
COS
E.
I,-0 ~
0
(4-112)

Substituting this into the preceding equation, we find

E.I,.0 = f(k.} _ 2T' cos (k,af2)

w- t - (k,..a)t
(4-113)

The choice of the root for k, is the same as in the preceding example,
given by Eq. (4-104). This completes the formal solution.
Let us again calcula.te the aperture admittance. The power trans-
mitted by the aperture is

P - f. [E.H:)~. dx - ~ f. [E.n:),•• dk.

where we have used Parseval's theorem. From Eqs. (4-110) and (4-113),
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 185
0.8
f- I tX \La
0.6 f- I- _E

f- I- \ IT
E """ cos ('lIx/a) ( .{l<JG. V
0.4
I V
0.2 I (.;lJB~
t- V
V
o 0.5 1.0 1.5
ai'
FIo. 4-23. Apert.ure admittance of an inductive Blot radiator.

this becomes

p ~ ...=!.
21fwIJ
f" _..
k*IE.I' dk. ~ -2..'
1/ WIJ
f" k: cos' (k.a/2) dk.
_ .. 1~2 - (k.a)2J2
We shall refer the aperture admittance to the voltage per unit length or
the aperture, which is V = 1. This gives
y .,., p.
. rvr
= _2~a2
Wa
f"-" [r'cos (k.a)'l'
kll 2
(k~aj2) dk
•
The integrand is real for Ik~! < k and imaginary for Ik.,l > k. Aseparation
of Y. into real and imaginary parts is therefore accomplished in the same
manner as in the preceding example. The result is
'1 _ 1 (0/2 vi (ka/2)2 w 2 cost W
); G. - 2 }o [(r/2)' w'J' dw
(4-114)
•
-B =-If."
- vlw% (kaj2)tcos2w -dw
}.,.. 2 h/2 [(orr /2)2 w 2J2

For small ka, we have

~G ~ ~(~)'
}.,.. 1r).,

~ B. ~ -0.194
l );a < 0.1 (4-115)

For intermediate ka, the aperture conductance and susceptance are

plotted in Fig. 4-23. For large ka,
• a a
~ G.. = 2>. ); > 1.5 (4-116)
186 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

J. FIo. 4-24. A sheet. of z-di~

rccted currents in the
y - 0 plane.
y

and B.. is negligible. The aperture is inductive since B" is always

negative.
4-12. Plane Current Sheets. The field of plane sheets of current can,
of course, be determined by the potentia.l integral method of Sec. 2-9.
We DOW reconsider the problem from the alternative approach of con-
structing transforms. The procedure is similar to that used in the pre-
ceding section for apertures. In fact, if the equivalence principle plus
image theory is applied to the results of the preceding section, we have
complete duality between apertures (magnetic current sheets) and elec-
tric current sheets. However, rather than taking this short cut, let us
follow the more circuitous path of constructing thc solution from basic
concepts.
Suppose we have a sheet of z-directcd electric currents over a portion
of the y = 0 plane, as suggested by Fig. 4-24. The field can be expressed
in terms of a wa.ve function representing the z-component of magnetic
vector potential. (This we know from the potential integral solution.)
The problem is of the radiation. type, requiring continuous distributions
of eigenvalues. We anticipate the wave functions to be of the transform
type, such as Eq. (4-93). From Eqs. (3-86), we have the transforms of
the field components for the TM to z field, given by

n. - jk,~
D, ~ -jk.~ (4-117)

D. - 0
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 187
These are dual to Eqs. (4-95). We construct the transform of y, as
if!'" = f+(k..k.) •• y>O
(4-118)
,,- ~ f-(k.,k.) -· y<O
For the proper beha.vior of the fields at large Iyj, we must choose k,/,
as in Eq. (4-97), and kll- as the other root. That is,

Our boundary conditions at the current sheet are continuity of E s and

Ell, and a discontinuity in Il~, according to Eq. (1-86). The boundary
condition 011 Es and Ell leads to 1+ = 1-, and the boundary condition on
H ~ then leads to

(4-120)

where J., the transform of J., is

J.(k••k.) = J-". J-". J.(x,z).......•......··dzdz (4-121)

This completes tbe determination of the field transforms. The field is

given by the inverse transformation.
Our two solutions (potential int-egral and transform) plus the unique-
ness theorem can be used to establish mathematical identities. For
example, consider the current element of Fig. 2-21. The potential in~
gral solution is A := u.!Jt where
lle-'h
'" - hr (4-122)
r = V x""+'-y""+'-z::;'
For the transform solution,
J. - II '(x) '(z)
J. = -1,
41r f' f"
_. _. J ~-~·~e-ii .• dx dz = -II,
4r

Hencel for y > 0 we have A = u.J/! where

jll
'" = -
8...,
f" f"
_.
I
_. -k" eJA··~.lIeJA·· dk~ dk.
(4-123)

where k" = k,+ is given by Eq. (4-119). In this example,!Jt as well as the
188 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC nELDS

field is unique. Hence. equating Eqs. (4-122) and (4-123), we have

the identity
rib
- = -
1 f" f- e-i,..;l. l.' .1:,'
...••...··dk.dk (4-124)
r 21f-j _.. _. yk 2 ks t k. t •

This bolds for all y, since kll changes sign as y changes sign.
We have considered explicitly only sheets of z-dirccted current. The
solution for x-directed current can be obtained by a rotation of coordi-
nates. When the current sheet bas both x and z components, the solu-
tion is a superposition of the x-directed case and the z-direct.ed case. The
solution for magnetic current sheets is dual to that for electric current
sheets. Finally, if t-he sheet contains y-directed electric currents, we can
convert to the equivalent x- and z-directed magnetic cunent sheet (or a
solution. and vice versa for ~irecLcd magnetic currents.
A ttl.·o-<Jimensional problem to which we shall have occasion to refer in
the next chapter is that of a ribbon of axially directed current. uniformly
distributed. This is shown in Fig. 4-25. The parameter of interest to us
is the If impedance per unit length." defined by

(4-125)

where P is the complex power per unit length and I is the total current.
Rather than work through the details. let u.s apply duality to the aperture
problem of Fig. 4-22. According to the concepts of Sec. 3-6. the field
y > 0 is unchanged if the aperture is replaced by a magnetic current
ribbon K = 2V. This ribbon radiates into whole space; so the power
per unit length is twice that from the aperture. The admittance of the
magnetic current ribbon is thus
z y
......lb =
p.
TKft -
jP:pott
2Vlt =
lL)"
7::: ."'~

where the aperture admittance

J. "'"' G. + jB.
Y.pe,~
is given by Eq. (4-105). which we can
y represent by
1
Y.~" = .X J(k4)
x By duality, we have the radiation im-
pedance of the electric current ribbon
given by
1 11 11'
FIa. 4-25. A ribbon or current. Z"M'" ~ 2 ~ J(ka) - "2 Y. M " (4-126)
 ltLANlf: WAVE FUNQTIONS 180
(Compare this with Prob. 3-1. The fo.ctor--<lf-two diffcrence arises
because the aperture of Fig. 4.-22 radiatcs into half-spaco and the twin~
slot line sees all-apace.) For narrow ribbons, we have {rom Eqs. (4-106)
and (4-126)

z...... ~ 2~ IT + j(3.135 - 2 log ka)J (4-127)

This we shall compare to the corresponding Z for a cylinder of current in

Sec. 5-6.

PROBLEMS

.-1. Show that Eq. (4-9) i.a t\ solution to the !Calar Behnholh equation.
• -2. For Ie - fJ - ;a, show that
lin b - ain (Jz coah G% - i C08 (Jz Binh GZ
COlI b: - COIJ (Jz eoah lEt + J Bin fJz sinh cr%
4,-3. Derive Eq!!l. (4-17) .
..... Following the method UlIed to establisb Eq. (2-93), sbow that the attenuation
con.atant duo to conductor loasca in a rectangular waveguide is giveD by Eq. (2-93)
tor aU TE.. modes and by
(a) _ 2m [ (a + b)U./J)1 + ~ I I,)' bm' + an' ]
• .... " ab vI - (I./J)' Vi - ( 7 6l m l + ain l
tor TEo.. modes, m and n nonzero, and by

( ) mfb' + lI'a'
Qc • • - IfQb vi26l (J.ln'm'b + nla
t t

(or TM•• modes.

• -6. An air-filled rectangular waveguide ia needed for operation at 10,000 meg....
oycles. It is desired to have single-mode operation over a 2: 1 froquency range, with
center frequency 10,000 megacycles. It. is also desired to havo maximum poWOl'-
handling capacity under these conditionll. Determino the waveguide dimensions and
the attenuat.ion constant ot the propagating mode for copper wa.lIs.
4,·8. For 8. parallel-pllt.te wa.vc~dc formed by conduotors coverins t.he 11 -
11 - b planca, show that.
and °
n-I,2,3• . . .

are the mode functions generating the two-dimenaional TE.. modes according to Eq•.
(3-89), and

R - 1, 2, 3, . . .

arc the mode funct.ionB generating t.he two-dimensional TM. modCll aocording to Eq•.
(3-86). Show that. the TEM mode ill generated by
190 TU,fE-RARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

"·7. Show that an alternative sct of mode functions for the parallel.plate wave-
guide of Prob. 4-6 are

n - 0, 1,2, ..

which generate the TM~ modes Recording to Eq8. (4-32), and

n -= 1,2,3, ..

which generate the TM:t.. mode" according to Eqa. (4-30). Note that n - 0 in the
above TEx mode function gives the TEM mode.
f.-8. Show that the TEa: and TM:z: modes of Sec. 4-4 are linear combinations of the
TE and TM modes of Sec. 4-3, that is,

E TE. _ A (EO'.TE + BE....'Bl.)

H TIoh _ C(H....T£ + DH.....T)I)
Determine A, il, C, and D.
4-9. Show that the resonant frequencies of the two-dimensional (no: variation)
resonator formed by conducting plates over the x - 0, :e - a, 11 - 0, and y _ b planes
arc the cutoff frequencies of the rectangular waveguide.
(-10. Following the method used to establish Eq. (2-100, show that the Q due to
conductor losses for the various modes in a rectangular cavity arc

Q
Til: f/abck?
( <l.... - 2Gl.(bck.'+ 2ack/ + 2abk.')
(Q TK "aock,'
.) ..0,. - 2lR(ack,' + 2b<:k,' + 2abk,l)
Til: f/abcku'k,1
(Q.) ..... - 4.tRlbc(k••• + k"k. l ) + eu:(k,.' + k,'k.') + abk..' k.' ]
Til qabck.
(Q').d - 2lR(abk,' + 2bck.'' + 2ack.')
Til '1abck..'k.
(Q,)",.,. - 4lR{b(a + C)k,1 + a(b + clk,l)
where k._ mr k nr k pr
a '-T ·'-7
k•• = .../k.
'
+ k,l fr, _ Vk.1 + k,l + k.'
4-11. Calcull1tc the first tcn higher-order rcsonatlt frequencies for the rectangular
cavity of Prob. 2-38.
(-12. Consider the two-dimensional parallel-plate waveguide formed by conductors
over the z - 0 and x _ a planes, and dielectrics ~I for 0 < x < d and ~I for d < x < a.
Show that for modes TM to % the characteristic equation is Eq. (4-45) with

and for modes TE to x the characteristic equation is Eq. (4-47). Note that no mode
TEM to z (the direction of propagation) is possible.
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 191
.-18. Show that the lowest-ordcr TM to % mode of Prob. 4-12 reducC6 to the
transmission-line mode either as ' I ..... t l and ~I ..... ~1 or as d ..... O. Show that, if
a« )..10

for the dominant mode. Show that the static inductance and capacitance per unit
widt.h and length of the transmission line are

The usual transmi.ssion-linc formula k, _ Col ..JL{j thereforc applies if {I is small.

Also, the field is almost TEM.
4:-14. Consider the dominant mode of the partially filled guide (Fig. 4-6) for b > a.
WIlen d is small, Eq. (4-45) can be approximated by Eq. (4-48) for the dominant
mode. Denote the empty-guide propagation constant. Cd - 0) by

and show, from the Taylor expansion of Eq. (4-48) about d _ 0 and k. _ tJ., that for
Bmall d

4-16. Considcr the dominant mode of t.he partially filled guide (Fig. 4-6) for a > b.
Denote the empty-guide propagation constant (d .. 0) hy

and show, from the Taylor expansion nf the reciprocal of Eq. (4-47) about d _ 0 o.nd
k, - tJ., that for small d

k. - tJ. FI~tfJ.
+ ---- F1 (.)1 -rIFI (kit -
-a -da + --
3ptfJ,
k.') (d)'
-
a
4:-16. Show that thc resonant frequencies of a partially filled rectangular cavity
(Fig. 4-6 with additional conductors covering the z ... 0 and z - c planes) are solu-
tions to Eqs. (4-45) and (4-47) with

whcre n .. 0, 1,2, . . . ; p .. 0, 1,2, . . . ; n _ p _ 0 excopted.

4-17. For the partially filled cavity of Prob. 4-16, show that if c > b > a. the
resonant frequency of the dominant mode for smll.11 d is given by
192 TDtlE-BARIoIONIC ELECTROHAGNETIC FIELDS

where cq is the r'e«>Dant frequency of the empty ea.vity,

-. -k (;J + (;)'
Hint: Usc the results of Prob. 4-14.
4.-18. For the plU'tially filled cavity-of Prob. 4-16, show that if c > a> b, the
resonant fr~ucney of the dominant mode for IilUall d i8 given by

Col _ "'I [1 _~ _,_._ ~ - 3,.,

"., a + c' a
l
'1"1'1 (tlJl.I -
'Ull
1) (~)']
a

wbere All is the reaonant frequency of the empty cavity

Him: Use the roeults of Prob. 4-15.

4.-19. Consider a rectangular waveguide with a cco.tcred dielectric slab, aa shown in
the insert of Fig. 7-10. Show that the characteristic equation for determining tho
propagation constants of modes TE to :t is

and for modes TM to :t it is

.
k-co k.. tan (,"'.12"d)
•• ,('- a-d) - -;;
l\.~o-2­

where

The dominant mode is the lowest-order TE mode (smallest root for n - 0).
4.-20. Derive Eq. (4-S8).
4.-21. A plane slab of polystyrene (" - 2.56) is ~ centimeter thick. Who.t lllab-
guide modes will propagate unattenuat.cd at a frequency of 30,000 megacyclea? Cal-
culate the cutoff frequencies of these modes. Using Fig. 4-11. determine the prop&-
gation constanta of the propagating TE modes at 30,000 mer;4CYcles. Determine t.he
propagation constanta of the propagating TM modes by numerical solution of Eq.
(4-.56) or (4--68). Bow can the cutoff frequenciee of corresponding TE and TM modee
be the same, yet the propagation conlJtants be different. T
.-2~. By a Taylor expansion of Eq. (4-56) about II - 0. It - 0, &bow that the
dominant TM mode of the lllAb guide (Fig. 4-10) is characleriud by

for small /I.

.. .
Similarly, show that the dominant TE mode is characterized by

1I - - (k4' - k DI ) -
" 2
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIOSS 193
for Iml&l1 /I. In each ea.se, the propagation constant is given by

k.-k.+-
2k.
.
4.·23. A plane conductor baa been coated witb sbellac (eo- - 3.0) to & thickness of
O.OOS inch. It is to be U8ed. in a 3O,()()().megaeyde field. Will any tightly bound
surface wave be possible! Calcuhte the attenuation constant in the direction per-
pendicular to the coated conductor.
4-2'- For the corrugated conductor of Fig. 4-15, it is desired that the field be
attenuated to 36.8 per cent. of ita eurfa.ee vaJue at one wlwclength from the eurfaee.
Determine the minimum depth of slot needed.
,-~t5. Suppo8e that the elota of the corrugated eonductor of Fig. 4-15 are filled
with a dielectric charaeterhed by f4J ~4' Show that. for this case

II -
..
!! k 4 tan k.,d

where k 4 - ., "';;;;4.
k. - k.
....
~I + ~ tan l
k#1

'-~6. Use the TE: mode functioD.ll of Prob. 4-7 for the parallel-plate waveguide
10rmed by conductors covering the ¥ _ 0 and ¥ - b planes. Show that a field baving
DO E. is given by Eqs. (4-32) with
•
~-l A.coa!Trt~.
.., .>0

wh~ A. - -'.,..
. .. /.' I 0 E. ... 0 eoe-..
orJI d

01-27. Conslder the junction of two parallel-plate tran&niaeion linel of height c for
: < 0 and beight b lor. > 0. with the bottom plate continuous. (The C10M fJeCtion
is that of the eecond drawing of Fig, 4-16.) Using the formulation or Prob. 4-26.
show that t.he aperture sWlCCptance per unit width relerred to the aperture voltage is
•
B 4 \' sin l (n ..c!b)
• O¥
" .,
II>' "" (O"C/b)1 VOl (26/>')1

where a constant E. has been assumed in the aperture. Compare this with Eq, (4-78).
(-28. The centered capacitive waveguide junction is shown i.n }o'ig. 4-26. Show
that tbe aperture llU8Ceptanee referred to the maximum aperture voltage fa given by
Eq. (4-78) with>" replaced by 2>... It is UlIumed that E. in the aperture is that of
the incident mode.

FlO. 4-26. A centered capacitive waveguide junctioD

194 TWE-HABllONlC ELECI'ROllAGNETIC I'lELDS

fx tx
I

-
Incident
w.W>

FlO. 4·27. A centered inductive waveguide junction.

4.-29. Consider the centered inductive 1I"&veguide junction of Fir,:. 4-27. Aasumin&
t.hat B, in t.be aperture is that of the incident mode, &how that the apertl1l'6 IU8CePt..
anee referred to t.he muimum apertuJ't! voltage is giVeD by

"
B.
_ ~ (~)'
"..'0 a k\ ' [""" (m..r~)]'
1 (rne/a)!
./(!!!)'
"V 2
_(~)'
).
3,11.7, ••.

•-so. In Eq. (4-83), note that M c/a - 0 the summation becomes similar to an
int.egration. Uso the analogy rM./a ,..,. z and cia "'" th to show that

--8._-
b,
). -
I _-
,/0_0 ...'/."(";''')'
1 0 ZI
%d%

Integrate by pArliI, and use the identity'

• sin ~
- - d% -
/.0%1-1
/.2.
0
sin 11
-r- d1l - Si(Z,..)

toahow that _ b., B.-.... 8i(2 ) _ 0.226

), c/a_O 2...

4.-31. Let there be ••beet of .,..directed current J. over the z - 0 plane of a parallel·
plate waveguide formed by conductors over the 11 - 0 and" - b p1aOell. The guide
ill matched in both tbe +z and -z direetiotlll. Show that the 6eld produced by the
c\U"rent sheet is
"
~ A. cos n...y ,-,..1.1 _ { ll. • >0
..,
~ b
I"
-JJ.
(. n .....
• <0
where A" - 2b Jo J.w) eos T dy

'-32. Let. the eurrent. sheet. or Prob. 4-3l be %-directed imteAd cf v-directed. Show
t.hat. 6eld produeed by this Zodirect.ed eurrent. sheet. is

2:" B" T
B. -
.-.
;161' f.
ain

B" - ..,ob Jo J.(y) 8.ln T

,-T.. lol

. n.....
dll

I D. Bierel18 de Baan, "Nouvelles tables d'intkgrales definiCll," p. 225, table 161,

no. 3, Halner Publishing Company, New York, lQ39 (reprint).
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 195
'-83. Coosider the cou to waveguide junction of Fig. 4-2&. Only the TE'I mode
propagatell in the waveguide, which is matched in both direct.ions. Assume that the
aurren\ on the wire varies a8 cos (ll), where I is the diatance from the end of the wire.
Show tbat. the input. resistance Ren by the coax ia

R _ ~ (Z)
, Co , ..
n (re!b) ain id]'
[Bihleoal(c+d)
where (Z,)., ia the TE.l ch&raeteristic wave impedance.

Xi--b -I
T
Ir--::-, L
I-- '--i
Ir---'
Coa' Y
(aj (b)
FlO. 4--28. Coax to waveguide junctions.

'-K Suppc>ee that the coax to waveguide junction of Prob. 4-33 ia changed to
that of Fig. 4-286. Show that the input resiatance Ren by the coax is now

R _ ~ (z)
I Co '11
lain (..a/bUrin k(c + d) -
kacosk(c+d)
sin b:1}'

f.-36. By expanding (sin VJ/w)l in a Taylor aeries about tD - 0, sbow that the first
of Eqll. (4-105) becomea

),'1'/1. - 'If
I
[ 1 - 6
(ta)' I (to)' -
2" + 60"2 I
1008 (ta)' + ... ]
2"

1m
4.-86. Consider the second of Eqs.
(4-105) as the contour integral w plane

, B
" •-
Ile [/.
c, w' v' w'
(I - ,;N)dw ]
(14/2)1
c,
where C1 ia shown in Fig. 4-29. Cooaider Co
the closed contour C1 + C, + C. + C"
&lid eJ:press M,B. in terma of a contour Re
integral Over C, aDd C.. Show that as
ta/2 becomes l&rge, this last conwur
integral rOO.ueee to the eeoond of Eqa,
(4-107).
Flo. 4-29. CootoW1l for Prob. 4--36.
196 TIl&E-HAB140NJC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlELDe

4.-11. By expanding coal tD/[(1I'/2)· - will in a Taylor seric. about tD _ 0, abow

that the first of Eq•. (4-114) bccomCll
•
(0)"
• 2 \'
);0.-;

bl -
..,
~ b. >:

+1.0
b, - -0.4.67401
6, - +0.189108
b, - -O.05M13
b, - +0.012182
bl _ -0.002083

40-88. Specialir;e the second of Eq•. (4-114) to the C!\8e a - 0, integrate by partll,
and U8C the identity (8ee l"rob. 4-30)
f,- r
lIin 2z. dz _ ~ rain 1/ d _ ~ SiC..)
jt (11'"/2)' :r:' 1I'}o II 1/ 11'
to show that - !!'
). B. --I>
_02.. ~ - 0.194
1. SiC...} - ..I
4.-St. Show that the 6n;t of Eq•. (4-ll4) reduce. to the contour integral
• 'G [f
~G. ka_!o"8 Re le, [(.../2)1
(I dW]
+ ''''')",If!
where C, ia 8hown in Fig. 4-30. Conllider the clOlled contour C. + C. + C. + C..
and CXPre&8 G. in terml of a conlour integral over CJ and C,. Evaluate this Ill.8t
contour integral, and ahow that
•
).
'0
-0._-
4a- ,b-o_

1m x

ED pltlne

---c+,--E------' -r
Co
h
C, _/2 Cl R.

Fro. 4·30. Conloul1l for Prob. 4-39. FlO. 4-31. Two parallel-plate trR~
sion lines radiating into half-spllcc.

,-to. Two parallel-plate trans.misaion lines opening onto & conducting plane are
excited in oppoeit.e phase and equal magnitude, lUI sbown in Fig. 4-31. Assume E. in
 PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 197
the aperture is a con.stant lor each line, and show that the aperture susceptance
referred to the aperture voltage of one line Us

G
• -
8
;\"
J..b
0 WI
8in' to dto
V (bip ttll

B. _ ! (. sin w dID
4

;\" J.to to l vw l (ka) I

4:·4:1. Construct the vector potential A - UN {or & sheet of t-diteeted currents
over tbe 11 - 0 plane (Fig. 4-24) by (0) tbe potential integral method and (b) tbe
transform method. Show by use of Grcen'a second identity [Eq. (3-44)] that the
twO.p1 are equal. Specialize the potential integral801ution to , _ 10, and show that
e-i~
f .,.
--+ -4-
~.
J.( -k cos q, sin 8, -k COB 8)

where J.(k.,k.) is given by Eq. (4-121).

4:-4:2. Supposo that tho current in Fig. 4-25 ~ z.directed rather than z..directed,
Bnd of magnitude

J.-C08-
..,
a
Show tha.t the impedance per unit length, defined by Eq. (4-125), where I is the
current per unit length, is given by Eq. (4~126), where Y.p"r' is now the llperture
admittance of Fig. 4-23.
 C',
CHAPTER 5
CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS

6-1. The Wave FUDctions. Problems having boundaries which coin·

cide with cylindrical coordinate surfaces are usually solved in cylindrical
coordinates. 1 We shall usually orient the cylindrical coordinate system
as shown in Fig. 5-1. We first consider solutions to the scalar Helmholtz
equation. Once we have these scalar wave functions, we can construct
electromagnetic fields according to Eqs. (3-91).
The scalar Helmholtz equation in cylindrical coordinates is

! ~ ( af) + .l.- a.." + a.."2 + k'f _ 0 (5-1)

p up p up p! oq,t dz

which is Eq. (2-7) with the Laplacian expressed in cylindrical coordi-

nates. Following the method of separation of variables, we seck to find
solutions of the form
f - R(p)~(¢)Z(z) (5-2)
Substitution of Eq. (5-2) into Eq. (5-1) and division by '" yields
1 d (dR) 1 d'4> 1 d'Z ,
pR dp p dp + p'4> d¢' + Z dz' + k - 0
The third term is explicitly independent of p and q,. It must a.lso be
independent oC z if the equation is to sum to zero Cor all p, q" z. Hence,

.! d'Zt _ -k' (5-3)

Z dz •

where k. is a constant. Substitution of this into the preceding equation

and multiplication by pi gives

~ ( dR) + .! d'~ + (k'

.e.R dp _ k ') , _ 0
p dp ~ d~' • p
Now the second term is independent of p and z, and the other terms are
I The term "cylindrical" is often used in flo more general sense to include cylinders
of arbitrary cross section. We are at present using the term to mean "circularly
cylindrical."
198
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCI'IONS 199
independent of ¢. Hence, z
Id'4>
- - = -n' (5-4)
'" d~' p

where n is a constant. The pre-

ceding equation then becomes •
y
-p -d ( p -dR) - n l
Rdp dp
+ (k l - k~l)pl - 0
(5-5) x
Flo. 6-1. Cylindrical coordioat.ell.
which is an equation in p only.
The wave equation is now separated. To summarize, define k_ as
k.' + k.' - k' (5-6)

and write the separated equa,ions [Eqs. (5-3), (5-4), sud (5-5)1 as

d ( p dR)
p dp dp + [(k.p)' - n')R - 0
d''''
d~' + n'4> - 0 (5-7)

~~ + k.IZ 0= 0

The cia and Z equations are harmonic equations, giving rise to harmonic
functions. These we denote, in general, by h(n¢) and h(k.,z). The R
equation is Buw', equation of order n, solutions of which we shall denote
in general by B.(k_p).1 Commonly used solutions to Bessel's equation
ar.
B.(k.p) ~ J.(k.p) , N.(k.p), H."'(k.p), H."'(k.p) (5-8)

where J .. (k,p) is the Bessel function of the first kind, N.(k,p) is the
Bessel function of the second kind, H.(I)(k,p) is the Hankel function of
the first kind, and H.<ll(k,p) is the Hankel function of the second kind.
These functions are considered in some detail in Appendix D, and we
shall discuss them later in this section. Any two of the functions of Eq.
(5-8) arc linearly independent solutions; so B,(k,p) is, in general, a linear
combination of any two of them. According to Eq. (5-2), we can now
form solutions to the Helmholtz equation as
of••.•.•• - B.(k.p)h(n~)h(k.z) (5-9)
lIt iI more usual to denote solutions w Bessel'. equation by Z.(k,llP), but we wiah to
avoid conIuaion with our Z(z) function and with impedances.
200 TDU-HAIUlONlC J:LECl'IlO¥AOnrrtC ""LOS

where Ie, and k. Me interrelated by Eq. (lHl). We call these '" ~lenumI<Jry
wave Junction,.
Linear combinations of the elementary wave functions are also solu-
tions to the Helmholtz equlltioD. We can sum over pO!!llible values
(eigenvalues) of 11 and 10" or of 11 and k. (but not over k. and k. for they
are interrelatoo). For example,

"/! - ~ f O.Jo."it.......

- LLO•.•.B.(k.p)h(n.p)h(k••) (5-10)
•••
where the C•.•• are constants, is a solution to the Helmholtz equation.
We can also integrate over the separation constants, although n is usu-
ally discrete (this is dieeu!!800 below). We shall, however, have occllsion
to integrate over either k. or k.. Thus, possible solutions to Lhe Helm-
holtz equation are

y, - L1./·(k.)B.(k,p)h(n.p)h(k,z) die. (5-11)

•
Y, = LI., g.(k,)B.(k.p)h(nq,)h(k.z) dk, (5-12)
•
where the integrations are ovcr any contour in the complcx planc and
!.(k,) and g.(k.) are functions to be determined from boundary condi-
tions. We shs.Il use Eq. (5-11) to construct Fourier integrals, as we did
in Chap. 4. Equation (5-12) is used to construct Fourier-Bessel integrals.
We dillCu8ged the interpretation of the harmonic functions in See. 4-1,
a summary being given in Table 4-1. The. coordinate of the cylindriea.l
coordinate system is also one of the rectangular coordinates; so the sa.me
considcrations that dictated the choice of h(k~) in Chap. 4 apply at
present. The.p coordinate is an angle coordinate and, as such, places
restrictions on the choice of h(n.p) and n. For example, if we desire the
field in a cylindrical region containing all .p from 0 to 2..., it is necessary
that y,(.p) - ,,(.p + 2..-) if "it is to be single-valued. This means that
h(1I.p) must be periodic in .p, in which case n must be an integer. In
most cases, we choose sin (n.p) or cos (n.p) or a linear combination of the
two, although in some caBell the exponentisls eI·. and trI·· are more
descriptive, or easier to deal with analytically. Thus, the 11 summations
of Eqs. (5-10) to (5-12) are usually Fourier serics on .p.
Now, consider the various solutions to Bessel's equation. Graphs of
the lower-order Bessel functions are given in Appendix D. We note that
only the J .(k,p) funotions are nonsingular at p = O. Hence, if a field is
to be finite at p - 0, the B.(k,p) must be J.(k.p), and the elementary
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 201
wave functions are of the form
y,.,...... = J,,(k,p)el".e fl •• p = 0 included (5-13)
We have written the harmonic functions in exponential form, which is
still general since sines and cosines are linear combinations of them.
Note "'from Eq. (5-6) that k, = ± yk' Ie.' is indeterminate with
respect to sign. Our convention will be to choose the root whose real
part is positive, that is, Re (k,) > 0. 1 Now consider the asymptotic
expressions for the various solutions to Bessel's equation [Eqs. (D-ll)
and (D-13)]. Note that H .. (2 1 (k,p) are the only solutions which vanish
for large p if k, is complex. They represent outward-traveling waves if
k, is real. Therefore, if there are no sources at infinity, the B..(k,p) must
be H..(tl(k,p) if p ---+ co is to be included. Hence, the elementary wave
{unctions become
p - . co included (5-14)
Other choices ~f cylinder functions are convenient in certain cases, as we
shall see when we apply them.
Insight into the behavior of solutions to Bessel's equation can be gained
by noting their similarities to harmonic functions. It is evident from the
asymptotic formulas of Appendix D that, except for an attenuation of
l/ykp, the following qualitative analogies can be made:
J .. (kp) a.nalogous to cos kp
N ..(kp) analogouB to sin kp
(5-15)
H ..W(kp) analogous to ell,
H .. (2)(kp) analogous to e- ik ,
For example, J" and N .. exhibit oscilla.tory behavior for real k, as do the
sinusoidal functions. Hence, these solutions represent cylindrical stand-
ing waves. The H.. Cil and H ..m functions represent traveling waves for
k real, as do the exponential functions. They therefore represent cylin-
drical traveling waves, Il.. w representing inward-traveling waves and
H.. C2l representing outward-traveling wavcs. 2 If k is complex, the travel-
ing waves arc attenuated or augmented in the direction of travel (in
addition to the l/Ykp factor). When k is imaginary (k = -ja), it is
conventional to use the modifu:d Bessel functions J.. and K", defined by
I ,Cap) - j'J.( -jap)
K,,(ap) = i (-j) ..+IH,,{2)( -jap) (5-16)

Ilf k, is imaginary, choose the root according to the limit 1m (k) -+ O.

I This direction of wave travel ilJ a consequence of our choice of ,i'" time variation.
If we had initially chosen ,-/.,1, then our interpretation of JI"lIl &nd ll"m would be
reversed.
202 Tllol&HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

These are real when ap is real. From their asymptotic behavior, Eqs.
(D-19), it is evident that we have the qualitative analogies
I.(ap) analogous to eo'
(5-17)
K.(ap) analogous to e-'

From these it is apparent that the modified Bessel functions are used to
represent evanescent-type fields. That the various analogies of EqB.
(5-15) and (5-17) e.'tist is no coincidence. Both Bessel's equation and
the harmonic equation arc specializations of the wave equation. In the
case of waves on water, a dropped stone would give rise to "Bessel func-
tion" waves, while the wind gives rjse to "harmonic Cunction" waves.
Table 5-1 summarizes the properties of solutions to Bessel's equation,
Our understanding of the physical interpretation, given in the last col-
umn, will increase as we apply the various functions to specific problems.
When k = 0, we have the degenerate Bessel functions
B.(Op) """1, log p
8.(Op) - p., P- n .. 0

Note that these are essentially the small-argument expressions Cor J.

and N •.
To express an electromagnetic field in terms of the wave functions 1/1.
the method of Sec. 3-12 can be used. The unit z~oordinate vector is a
constant vector; 80 we can obtain a field TM to z by letting A = u."",
and expanding Eqs. (3-85) in cylindrical coordinates. The result is

E
, _!yapa""az
E 1
.. = fjp a¢a""az (5-18)

E. - ~(::,+k')~ H. - 0

which are sufficicntly general to cxprcss any TM (no H.) field existing in
a homogeneous source-free region. Similarly, we can obtain a field TE
to z by letting F = u.y, and expanding Eqs. (3-88) in cylindrical coordi-
nates. The result is
1 a~
E, - - - -
P a~
E. _ a~
(5-19)
ap
E. '"'"' 0
 TA.8LE 5-1. PnOPERTIEs OF SOLUTfO:<;S TO BESSEL'S EQUATTON Coy - 1.781)·t

Aher ....livo SmaU-ac&\!II>ent Lar.. _r&\!II>ent

B.(4"...) z.~ In1iniliea PhylllCl&llnterpl'flUlion
.... p.......,n~t.lon. formul ... (.I:........ 0) formulas (It,,l .......)

.I: real--inward-travellng w"ve

l-j~IOg(....:..) "_ 0 1:... ... 0
H.lIl{.I:,,) I.(t"l + jN .(t,,)
r )'.1:"
..)-'i
__ j-•• i.p t" ..... j .. .I.: lm&&;inary_v.. n"",eent field
---,
(.1:,,).
2".. r
. 2·{II - I) I
...(.1.:...). " >0 '"
k" ..... - j...
I: complcx_twnuated travelin..
...·..ve

.I.: rul--out ......rd-U'a.vtllnc wave

1:..... 0
l+j;IOCC:... ) " - 0
H.II}{.l.:p) I.(k,,) - jN.(t"l ..)'",
....!.... j"s-i'p
.l.:p ..... -j.. .I.: i~na~van~nt fi~d

("pl" . 2'(" - III kp ..... ; ..

--+, " >0 t complex-attenu.. ted travtllnc
i:l 2".. 1 ...(t,,)"
wa"e

, "_ 0 I"finil.o
t rul_.."di.". wave

J.(k,,) H[II.(OI{kp) + H.I'I(.I:"lJ ..[± ( ...)

-flOll
...."
.1:,,----
2 4
nuroher
..10...
kp-o :tj-
I: lm.... inary-two flvall_lIt fi""d.
(.1:,,).
'hfl ru,1
" >0
20 .. 1 axi! t floropln-loc..Hre<! .''''''di". w..ve
.I: real--.b"dinC .... ve
-~IO"(~) " _ 0 Infinite
, ., TI:P
..)' (1:"-"2-,
...) ,h. number
alon..
.l:P" 0
.I: ima&illllry-two eva....ee"t 5eldt
H.{k,,)
2i
- [H.(»(.I:...) _ HoU)(.I:,,)] r.l:"ain ,~,

- 2'(" - I)!
r(.I:,,)· " >0
axit tp-o i j ..
t comp\eor-loc&lired .u"di... waves

•
"When I: .. -ja. the functiolll'.(jh) .. 1. (a") .. j'J.(-j.,,,) and K.(jtp) .. K.(..,,) .. i{-j)··'H.UI(-j..,,) are "lied.
t When I: .. O. tbe Beuel f"netion. are I alld lOll", .... O. and p' .. nd p-' • ..... O.
204
which are sufficiently general to express any TE (no E.) field existing in
a homogeneous source-free region. An arbitrary field (one having both
an E. and an H.) can be expressed 8S a superposition of Eqs. (5-18) and
(5-19).
5-2. The Circular Waveguide. The propagation of waves in a. hollow
conducting tube of circular cross flection, called tho circular waveguide,
provides a good illustration of the use of cylindrical wave functions.
Qualitatively, the phenomenon is Bimilar to wave propagation in the
rectangular waveguide, considered in See. 4-3. The coordina.tes to be
used are shown in Fig. 5-2.
For modes TM to %, we may express the field in terms of an A havin«
only & z component 'It. The field is finite at. p - 0; 80 the wave (unc-
tions must be of the form of Eqs. (5-13). It is conventional to express
the 4J variation by sinusoidal functions; hence

'" _ J.(k )
,p
ISin
cos n~)
nq, ,-f'" (5-20)

is the desired form of the mode functions. Either sin nq, or COB nq, may
be chosen; 80 we have 8. mode degeneracy except for the cases n "'" O.
The TM field is found from Eqs. (5-18) applied to the above y,. In
particularJ
1
E. - - (k' - k.·)~
9
which must vanish at the conduct-jng walls p - /I. Hence, we must have

J .(k.a) - 0 (5-21)
from which eigenvalues for k, may be determined. The functions J M(Z)
afC shown in Fig. D-l. Note that for each n there are a denumerably
infinite number of zeros. These are ordered a.nd designated by X"JO. the

x
z

Flo. 6-2. The circulu

waveguide.

y
 CYLrNDRlCAL WAVE nJNCI'JONS 205
TABLE &-2. ORDERED ZEROS ~. 0' J .(:)

x I
0

2.40.5 3.832
I 2

6.136
3

6.380
•
7.688
•
8.771
2 5.520 7.016 8.417 9.761 11.005 12.339
3 8.054 10.173 11.620 13.015 14.372
• J1 .7fi2 13.324 14.796

first subscript referring to the order of the Bessel function and the second
to the order of the zero. The lower order %•• are tabulated in Table 5-2.
Equation (5-21) is now satisfied if we choose
k .-- '"
a
(5-22)

Substituting this into Eq. (5-20), we have the TM •• mode functions

~. ~ ~ J. ( ••• sin n¢) .-".,
p) Jlcosn¢o (5-23)
I' a
where n "'" 0, 1, 2, . . . , and p = I, 2, 3, . . .. The electromagnetic
field is then determined from Eqs. (5-18) with the above y,. The mode
phase constant k. is determined according to Eq. (5-6), that is,

(.~.)' + k.' - k' (5-24)

Subscripts np on the k. are sometimes used to indicate explicitly that it

depends on the mode number.
Modes TE to % are e;'(pressed in terms of an F having only a % compo-
nent J/I. This wave function must be of the form of Eq. (5-20), with the
field determined by Eqs. (5-19). The E. component is 81/I/iJp, which must
vanish at p - a; hence the condition
J:(k.a) ~ 0 (5-25)
must be satisfied. The J .. are oscillatory fUDctions; hence, the J~ also
are oscillatory functions. (For example, J~ "'" -J l .). The J~(%) have
a dcnumerably infinite number of zeros, which we order as x~Jl' (The
prime is used to avoid confusion with the zeros of the Bessel function
itself.) The lowcr-order zeros are tabulated in Table 5-3.

x 1
0

3.832 1.841
1 2

3.054
3

4.201
•
5.317
•
6.416
2 7.016 5.331 6.706 8.015 9.282 10.620
3 10.173 8.536 9.969 11.340 12.682 13.987
• 13.324 11.706 13.170
206 TIME-HAn~rONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

We now satisfy Eq. (5-25) by choosing

,
k• =~ (5-26)
a
Using this in the wa.ve function of Eq. (5-20), we have the TE..p mode
functions
~ TO ~
11)1
J (~)
"a
I sin n¢J
cos nq,
"I',. (5-27)

where n = 0, 1, 2, ... ,and p = 1, 2, 3, . . .. The electromagnetic

field is given by Eqs. (5-19) with the above if. The mode propagation
constant is dotermined by Eq. (5-6), which with Eq. (5-26) becomes

(~)' + k.' - k' (5-28)

This completes our determination of the mode spectrum for the circular
waveguide.
The int.erpretation of the mode propagation constants is the same as
for those of the rectangular guide and, in fact, is the same for all cylin-
drical guides of arbitrary cross section if the dielectric is homogeneous.
(This we show in Sec. 8-1.) The cutoff wave number of a mode is that
for which the mode propagation constant vanishes. Hence, from Eqs.
(5-24) and (5-28), we have
,
(k)
~"p
TM _ x"p
a (k.) .. pTE = ~ (5-29)
-
a
If k > k., the mode propagates, and if k < k. the mode is cutoff. Letting
k~ = 'hI. Y;;, we obtain the cutoff frequencies
~ x., ,
(I) (I) TE_ x" P (5-30)
."p =2 _I • "p -
:Ira v EIJ 211'"a VEIJ
Alternatively, setting k~ = 'br/X., we obtain the cutoff wavelengths
') TE = 2'1fa (5-31)
( A. "p x'
••
Thus, tho cutoff frequencies are proportional to the X"p for TM modes,
and to the x~p for the TE modes. Referring to Tables 5-2 and 5--3, we
note that the zeros in ascending order of magnitude are X~l, X01, X~h Xu,
and X~I' etc. Hence, the modes in order of ascending cutoff frequencies
are TEll, TM o1 , TE u , TM I1 , and TEo I (a. degeneracy), etc.
Circular waveguides are used in applications where rotational sym-
metry is needed. The dominant TEn umode" is actually a pair of
degenerate modes (sin 4> and cos 4> variation); hence there is no frequency
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNC'I'rONS 207

(a) TEll (b) TMOl (c) TBn

(d) TMll (e) 2"Eo'l. (f) 7M21

e-~.~ 9£---
FIG. 5-3. Circular wtlveguidc mode patterns.

range for single-mode propagation. (Recall that single-mode operation

over a 2: 1 frequency range is possible in the rectangular waveguide.)
Note that, except for the degeneracies betwcen TE op and TM 1p modes,
TE and TM modes have different cutoff frequencies and hence different
propagation constants. The modes of the circular waveguide have
HJirected wave impedances of the same form as we found in the rec-
tangular waveguide. For example, in a TE mode,
(Z,)" _ E. ~ _ E. _ ~ (5-32)
H. Hp k.
which is the same as Eq. (4-27). The behavior of the Zo's is therefore
the samc as in the rectangular waveguide, which is plotted in Fig. 4-3.
Attenuation of waves in circular waveguides due to conduction losses in
the walls is given in Frob. 5-9. Modal expansions in circular waveguides
can be obtained by the general treatment of Sec. 8-2.
The mode patterns for some of the lower-order modes are shown in
Fig. 5-3. These can be determined in the usual manner (find £ and :JC,
and specialize to some instant of time). Field lines ending in the cross-
sectional plane loop down the guide, in the same manner as they did in
the rectangular waveguide.
Solutions for cylindrical waveguides of other cross sections also can be
expressed in terms of elementary cylindrical wave functions. Repre-
sentative cross scc;tions arc shown in Fig. 5-4. Note that all or these
208 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Ca) Cb) (e)

(d) (.) (I)

FIo. 5-4. Some waveguide cross sections for which the mode functions arc elementary
w&.ve functions. (a) Coaxial; (b) coaxial with baffle; (e) circular with bame; (d) semi-
circular; (e) wedge; (f) sectoral.

are formed by conductors covering complete p = constant and 4> = con-

stant coordinate surfaces. Wave functions for the guides of Fig. 5-4 are
given in Probs. 5-5 to 5-7.
5-3. Radial Waveguides. In the circular waveguide we have plane
wa.ves, that is, the cquiphase surfaces arc parallel planes. Wave func-
tions of the form
'" - B.(k.p)h(k.z).±i··
with B,.(kpp) and h(k~z) real, have equiphase surfaces which arc int.cr-
secting planes (the q, = constant surfaces). Such waves travel in the
circumferential direction, and we shall call them circulating waves.
Examples are given in Prob. 5-10. Finally, we might have wave func·
tions of the form
.H.Ol(k,p)j
'" ~ h(k.z)h(n~) (ll."'(k.p)

with h(k.z) and h(nq,) real. These waves have cylindrical cquiphase sur·
faces (p = consta.nt), and travel in the radial direction. We shall call
them radial waves. l In this section some simple waveguides capable of
guiding radial waves will be considered.
Radial wa.ves can be supported by parallel conducting plates. Depend-
I These arc true cylindrical waves as defined in Sec. 2-11, but we are using the term
"cylindrical wavo function" to mean "a wave function in the cylindrical coordinate
system," regardll$S of il.l:l cquiphllJle surfaces.
 CYLINDRICAL WA VI'J FUNCTIONS 209
z

(b) (0)
FIa. 5-.5. Radial waveguides. (a) PBrBl1cl plate; (b) wedge; (e) hom.

iog upon the excitation, waves between the plates may be either plane or
radial. When the waves are of the radial type, we call the guiding plates
a parallel-plate radial waveguide. Figure 5-5a shows the coordina.te sy&-
tern we shall use. The TM wave functions satisfying the boundary con-
ditions E_ """ E. :z 0 at Z = 0 and z ... a arc

l{!••
~ _ (mT)
a Z cosn41 IH,O'(k,p»)
- cos IJ. m (k_p) (5-33)

where m = 0, 1,2, . . . ,and n - 0, I, 2, .. , and, by Eq. (5-6),

k, _ k' _ ("'.r)' (5-34)

The electromagnetic field i!5 given by Eqs. (5-18) with the above l{!. The
TE wave functions satisfying the boundary conditions arc
. . TE -51n
.,.-..
_ . (mT
aZ) cosn411H..
JH""(k,p»)
cIJ(k,p) (5-35)

where m '""' 1, 2, 3, . . . , a.nd n -=- 0, 1, 2, . . . , and Eq. (5-34) still

applies. The electromagnetic field for the TE modes is found from Eqs.
(&-19) with the above!/t. In both the TM and TE cases, the 11..(I)(k,p)
represent inward-traveling wa.ves (toward the Z axis), and the IJ... u1 (k,p)
represent outward-traveling waves. For a complete set of modes, those
with sin nq, variation must also be included.
Radial waves are characterized by a phase constant which is a function
of radial distance. Following the general definition of Sec. 2-11, we have
the phase constants for the above ~'s given by

p ~~
- ap
[tan-'
N.(k,p)]
J .(k,p)
2 1
(5-36)
- TpJ.'(k,p) +
N.'(k,p)
210 TW}:-HARJ,lONIC ELECI'RO.l.lAGSETIC FIELDS

Using asymptotic formulas (or the Bessel functions, we find that (or real k,

fJI' II,,,....! k, (5-37)

This is to be expected, because a.t large radii the waves should be similar
to plane waves on the parallel-plate guide. Note that the phase constant
of Eq. (5-36) is that of tbe mode function and not that for the field.
Components of E and H transverse to p are not generally in phase. They
become in phase at large radii.
Each mode of the radial waveguide is also characterized by a single
radially directed wave impedance. Using Eqs. (~) and (5--18), we find
for outv.·ani-traveling TM modes
Z ~ __ E. _ ~ H."'(k,p) (5-38)
+" H.;I.>E H.UI'(k,p)
while for inward-traveling TM modes

Z -, ~ = 11.
E. k, H ..Ol(k,p}
= - jWf. H .. (I)I(k,.p} (5-39)

Note that for real k, we have Z_,TW = Z+,TI.I*. Similarly, for TE modes
we find
Z TIl: E. jWIl H,,(l)'(k,p)
+" = H• ... T; H.l2>(k,p}
(5-40)
E.
B ..(II'(kPJ) -;w~
Z_,TE "" - H • .". ~ H.lll(k,.p)

where the first equation applies to outward-traveling waves and the

second equation to inward-traveling waves. Note that the TE wave
admittances are dual to the TM wave impedances.
It is seen from Eq. (5-34) that k,. is imaginary if mr/a > k. In this
case, let k,. - -ja, and

where K. is the modified Bessel function (see Appendix D). The mode
functions are now everywhere in phase, and there is no wave propagation.
The radial wave impedances become imaginary, indicating no power flow.
For example, from Eq. (5-38), if k,. "" -ja,
Z ~ ~ -ja H."'(-jap) ~ ja K.(ap) (5-41)
+,. j<M. H.(2)'(-jap) Wf K~(ap)

which are always capaeitivcly reactive, since K. is positive and K~ is

negative. Hence, whenever a < >'/2, the modes m > 0 are nonpropa-
gating (evanescent). For small 0, only the TM o.. modes propagate, for
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 211
which Eq. (&-33) reduces to

~,.
~ _ /H.Ol(k p
- cos n~ lH.u'(kp)
)! (5-42)

From Eqs. (5-38) and (5-39) we have the wave impedances for these
modes given by
. H.'''(kp)
Z+~TM =:; Z_;n.t· =:; -JY]H..U)'(kp)

~ IH.,,,7(kp)i' l.ip - jIJ.(kp)J;(kp) + N.(kp)N;(kp)]! (5-43)

A consideration of the behavior of the Bessel functions (Figs. D-l and

D-2) reveals that {or arguments kp < n the N" functions and their
derivatives become large in magnitude. Hence, when 2-,;p < n)." the
wave impedances become predominantly reactive. Figure 5-6 illustrates
this behavior by showing XI R. where Z+~Ttd = R + jX, (or the first five
TMo" modes. We shall call kp = n the point of gradual cutoff, the wave
impedances being predominantly resistive when kp > n and predomi-
nantly reactive when kp < n. Note that these gradual cutoffs occur
when the circumference of the radial waveguide is an integral number
of wavelengths.
From the above discussion it is evident that the TM oo mode is domi-
nant, that is, propagates energy effectively at smaller radii than any
other mode. For this mode we have

(5-44)

representing inward-traveling waves, and

k'
E.+ = -.-HoW(kp) 4
JW. (5-45)
H.+ = kH 1(2'(kp) n 4
3
3
which represent outward-traveling
waves. Note that there are no p
components of E or H, the mode 2 \ 1\
being TEM to p. It is called the
transmission-line mode of the paral-
1
K-
lel-plate radial guide, because of its 0
similarity with plane transmission- o 1 2 3 4 5
line modes. For example, at a given kp
radius we can calculate a unique FIG. 5-6. Ratios of wave reactance to
voltage between the plates a.nd a net wave resistance for the TM Oto radial
radially directed current on one of modes on the parallel-plate waveguide.
212 TIME-HARMONIC ELEcrnoMAoNETIC FIELDS

the plates. Also, the radial transmission line can be a.nalyzed by the
classical transmissioll-line equations with Land C a function of p (Prob.
5-13).
Radial waves also can be supported by inclined conducting planes,
called a wedge radial waveguide, as shown in Fig. 5-5b. We shall assume
no z variation of the field, considering the problem as two-dimensional.
TM wave functions satisfying the boundary condition E. "'" 0 at t/> = 0
and t/> = cPo are
Vtt)'rM "'" sin (pr
,po
~) IHr~/ •.(kp»)
H,..'4>.(kp)
(5-46)

where p = 1, 2, 3, __ . ,and the electromagnetic field is given by Eqs.

(5-18). TE wave functions satisfying the boundary condition E~ = 0 at
</J = 0 and t/> = tPo are

l/!pT"; = cos (1'cPo< ~) IHf~/··(kp)

Hp.,•• (kp)
I (5-47)

where p = 0, 1, 2, . . . , and the elccLromagnetic field is given by Eqs.

(5-19). The interpretation of the modes is essentially the same as that
for the TM o.. parallel-plate modes, except that nonintegral orders of
Hankel functions appear. This introduces no conceptual difficulties, but
if numerical results are desired we would be hampered by a lack of tables
for functions of arbitrary fractional order.
The radial wave impedances for the wedge-guide modes are of the same
form as for the parallel-pla.te guide [Eqs. (5-38) to (5-40)]. We nccd only
replace n by 1J7r/q,o and k, by k. These wave impedances exhibit the
same characteristic of gradual cutoff for fractional-order Hankel func~
tions as they do for integral-order Hankel functions. Again the tran-
sitional point is that for which the argument and order are equal, that is,
'[J7f/q,g = kp. The radii so determined correspond to those for which the
arc subtending the wedge is an integral number of half-wavelengths long.
This is as we should expect from our knowledge of plane waves between
p$l.r~lIel plates (the limiting ease rJ'O'- 0).
The dominant mode is evidently the TE g mode, in which case, from
Eqs. (5-47) and (5-19), we have

(5-48)

for inward-traveling waves, and

(5-49)

for outward-traveling waves. This is a transmission-line mode, chamc·

 CYLINDRICAL Wit. VE Pt1NCTIONB 213
terised by no E, or H, and possessing a unique voltage and cuceent at
aD1 given radii. This mode also can be analyzed by the classical teall&-
mission-line equatdons for nonunifonn lines (L and C a function of pl.
Not< tbat tbe field is dual to tbat of the pamllel-plate line (Eqs. (5-44)
Illd (5-45»).
Finally, simple radial waves can be supported by the hom-shaped
~e of Fig. 5-5c. called a sectoral horn w<MJ6fluiM. The TM modes
are specified by the wave functions

1/I...TM _ cos (~z)

a
sin ("", ~) (H~2,··(k,p)1
q,o H •." •• (k,p)
(5-50)

where m - 0, 1, 2, , and p ". 1, 2, 3, . .. The field is given by

Eq•. (5-18), and

k, = ~k' _ (m:)' (5-51)

The TE modes are specified by the mode functions

fo,T< _ sin(~%)C<ls(""'~)
a q"
(H~/ ..
(k"')1
H • ." ..(k,p)
(5-,';2)

where m - 1,2,3, . . . J and p - 0, 1,2. . . .. The field is given by

F.qs.(~19), and k, by Eq. (5-51). These modes are qualitatively similar
to the hybrid modes of the rectangular waveguide (Sec. 4-4). There is,
of course, no transmission-line mode, because of the single conducting
boundary. Only the TMOJo modes propagate if a < >./2; these plus the
TM 1, and TEl. modes propagate if >./2 < a < X; and so on. Each
propagating mode has a radius of
gradual cutoff, tws being the radius z
at which the guide cross section is
about the same size as a rectangular
waveguide at cutoff. The TMo l
mode is usually considered as the
dominant mode. (If a > >./2 one
T •
might argue that the TE lo mode is
dominant at small radii.)
64. the Circular Cavity. U a 1d
eeetion of circular waveguide is closed
by conductors over two cross sec-
tions, we have a resonator known &8
\he circular cavity. This is shown
in Fig. ~7. It is a simple matter X
p
--
.....
y

to modify the circular waveguide

mode functdona to satisfy the addi- Flo. 5-7. The. circulAr uvity.
214 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

tional boundary conditions of zero tangential E at ? = 0 and Z E: d.

The result is a set of modes TM to z, speci.:'ted by

Vt~:q = J ft (X;p) {:~::} cos (~ z) (5-53)

where n - 0, 1, 2, . . . ; p =: 1, 2, 3, . . . ; and q = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
The field is given by Eqs. (5-18). The set of modes TE to z is specified by

~,. ~ J (x~,p) sin n~) sin ('1" ,)

·)If II a 1Icos nib d
(&-54)

wheren 0= 0, I, 2, ... j'P = 1,2,3, . . . ;q = 1,2,3, j and the

field is given by Eqs. (5-19). The separation constant equation IEq.
(5-6)] becomes

for the TM and TE modes, respectively. Setting k = 2701 V;;, we can

solve Cor the resonant frequencies

.y;; ~X"p
'
{fl Tlil
r IIPO
_
- 2rG
1 2+
()
d
qra

(&-55)

(j,)':. ~ 2•• 'v,. ~x~" + (~.)'

Each n except n = 0 denotes a. pair of degenerate modes (cos n¢ or sin nIP
variation). The X Il , and x~p are given in Tables 5-2 and 5-3. The reso-
nant frequencies for various ratios of d/a are tabulated in Table 5-4.

TABLJ; 5-4. --=-,Ct",

-;- )""""-... FOR THE e
rnCULAJ'l. e
,\VITT L
OF RADIUS a AND ENOTJl d
U.)do_;u~1

-d TM Q1t TE IlI TM ut TM oII TEsli

TM ul
TE I l I TM lIO TMoio
• TE t "

0 1.0 ~ 1.59 ~ ~ ~ ~ 2.13 2.29

0.' 1.0 2.72 1.59 2.80 2.00 3.00 5.27 2.13 2.29
1.0 1.0 1.50 1.59 1.63 1.80 2.05 2.72 2.13 2.211
2.0 1.0 1.0 1.59 1.19 1.42 1. 72 1.50 2.13 2.29
3.0 1.13 1.0 1.80 1.24 1.52 1.87 1.32 2.41 2.60
4.0 1.20 1.0 1.91 1.27 1.57 1.96 1.20 2.56 3.00
~ 1.31 1.0 2.08 1.31 1.66 2.08 1.0 2.78 3.00
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 215

/;:;---
•• •• •• •• ••
-::::" ••• ••
./ 1 . /~"
I / . 0\ 0"\' \
.t. To ':0) "fl
,""
\ \ ,..
.\ ...... ~ ;/ /
r
• ° • • •
........ -"./
-// .!J(---. • • • • •
~- e--....~ • • • • •
Fla. 6-8. Mode pattern (or the TM1 • 1 mode (dominant when dlo :$ 2).

Note that for dla < 2 the TM tII mode is dominant, while for dlo, ~ 2
the TE IIl mode is dominant. If dlo, < 1, the sceond resonance is 1.59
times the first resona.nt frequency. Note that this is very similar to the
square-base rectangular cavity of small height (the mode separation is
1.58 in that ease).
The TM OIO mode corresponds to the first resonance of a short-circuited
radial transmission line. The field pattern of this mode, which is domi-
nant for small d, is shown in Fig. 5-8. The TE IIl mode corresponds to
the first resonance of a short-circuited circular waveguide operating in
the TEn mode. Its mode pattern is thus that of a standing wave in a
circular wnveguidc , similar to Fig. 5-30,. The case dlo, --t 0;0 corresponds
to that of a two-dimensional circular resonator, for which the resonant
frequencies are the cutoff frequencies of the circular waveguide. The
last row of Table 5-4 therefore is also the cutoff frequency spectrum of
the circular waveguide.
The Q'S of the circulnr cavity are also of interest, especially the Q of
the TM OIO mode (dominant for small d). From Eqs. (5-53) and (5-18)
we determine the field components of the mode as

Following the procedure of Sec. 2-8, we calculate thc stored energy in

the cavity as

w -~. -. ffl IEI'dT

_ !5: 2.d (. pJ.' (,,,p) dp
""f}O a
216 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

This is a. known integral,' the result being

rk 4 cIa'
W = 2 J 1'(XOI) (5-56)
""
The power dissipated in the conducting walls is approximately

rf>, - <R 1f> IHI' d.

= <R (aX'')' 211" [adJ( l
t
%01) + 2 J.'0 pJl'(-(X"p)
a dP]
where /R is the intrinsic wave resistance of the metal walls. The above
integral is again known,l and we obtain

iJ>d = at (X~l Y2Ta(d + a)J 1'(XOI) (5-57)

The Q of the cavity is therefore

wOW k 4 da'
Q- - ~ n--=-::"";';--.---,-;c
cJl.. 2wt(]b;o,'(d + a)
Recalling that the condition for resonance is ka = X01 = 2.405, we can
simplify this to
1.202.
(5-58)
Q - <R(1 + a/d)

where f/ is tbe intrinsic impedance of the dielectric. This can be com-

pared to the Q of a square-base rectangular cavity [Eq. (2-102»). It is
seen that, for the same height-to-diameter ratio, the circular cavity has
an 8.3 per cent higher Q than the rectangular cavity. This i.s to be
expected, since the volumc-to-area ratio is higher for a circular cylinder
than for a square cylinder. The Q's for the other modes of the circular
cavity are given in Prob. 5-16.
5-5. Other Guided Waves. The geometries of some other cylindrical
systems capable of supporting guided waves are shown in Figs. 5-9 and
5-10. We treated the analogous plane-wave systems in Chap. 4. The
methods of solution for the systems of Figs. 5-9 and 5-10, as well as their
qualitative behavior, are similar to those of Chap. 4.
For the partially filled radial waveguide of Fig. 5-9a, we can obtain
fields TM to z which satisfy the conditions E p E. = 0 at z = 0 and ::II

z = a by choosing
Vtl = C. cos k.,z cos n~ H ..{!l(kpp)
(5-59)
,p! = c! cos Ik.,(a - z)J cos nlf> H ,.(!l(kpp)
1 E. Jahnke and F. Erode, "Tables of FunctioD.ll," p. 146. Dover Publications, New
York, 1945 (reprint).
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNcrlONS 217
z z
Conductor

(c)

FlO. 6-9. Some radial waveguides. (a) Partially filled; (6) dielectric slab; (c) coated
conductor; (d) corrugated conductor.

where n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the regions

z < d and z > d, respectively. We have anticipated that the p and 4J
variations must be the same in both regions to satisfy boundary con-
ditions at z ... d. Equations (5-59) represent outward-traveling waves.
Inward-traveling waves would be of the same form but with H .(!) replaced
by 8.(1). The k's in each region must, of course, satisfy the separation
relationships
k,! + kIll - kl! = W!~1PI
(5-00)
k,! + kl!! DO k!! = W 1t!}l1

The field vectors themselves arc obtained from Eqs. (5-18), using the y,'s
or Eqs. (5-59).
To evaluate the G's and k" we must satisfy the conditions that E" E.,
H" and H. be continuous at z = d. For E, we ha.ve

[B,I - E"J..., = -:- 1[ a' (1- tJll - -1)]

JW
~
up uZ
tJI!
«=l fl .-1
= 0

which reduces to
,
kit CI sin kold = -k., C sin k. , (a - Ii)
ft fl
(5-61)
For E. we have
1[ (1
(E. l - E. , ]-.:I = -.- - a' -tJlt - -1/11
Jwi/. iJ4J 81. fl ~1
1)] .-1
= 0
218 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

which also reduces to Eq. (5-61). For H, we have

IH,. - H,,]..... - ; [aa~ ("'. - "',)]... . ~ 0

which reduces to
0 1 cos kdd = C S COB kd(o - d) (5-62)
Finally, for H. we have

- [!-ap ("'. -",,)] .-4

~0
which a.gain reduces to Eq. (5-62). Division of Eq. (5-61) by Eq. (5-62)
yields
k.. tan k"d ~ _ k.. tan Ik.,(a - d») (5-63)
tl ts

The kd and kd are fun~tions of k, according to Eq. (5-60); so Eq. (5-63)

is a. transcendental equation for determining possible k,'s. Once k, is
evaluated, the ratio CI/Ct may be obtained from either Eq. (5-61) or
Eq. (5-62).
For fields TE to z we can satisfy the condition E, = E. = 0 at z = a
by choosing
1/11 = C1 sink. 1zcosnq,H..U)(k,p)
(5-<H)
tit, = Ot sin k.t(a - z) cos nq, H .. (~)(k,p)
where n = 0, 1,2, . . . j and Eqs. (5-60) must again be satisfied. The
field components are found from these ""s by Eqs. (5-19). Matching
tangential components of E and H at z = d yields

k d cot k.1d __ kd cot [k 12(a - d)] (5-65)

J,ll J,l2

as the equation for determining k, for TE modes. It is interesting to

note that the characteristic equations for the partially filled radial wave-
guide lEqs. (5-63) and (5-65)] are of the same form as those for the
partially filled rectangular waveguide {Eqs. (4-45) and (4-47)}. This we
could have anticipated, since at large p the Ha.nkel functions reduce to
plane waves, as shown by Eqs. (D-13).
The modes of the partially filled radial guide can be ordered in the
Mme manner as were the modes of the partially filled rectangular wave-
guide. The dominant mode is the lowest-order TM mode (logically
designated the TM oo mode). It reduces to the radial transmission-line
mode in the empty guide and has no cutoff frequency. For a « 11. it can
be analyzed by conventional transmission-line concepts.
It should be apparent from our treatment of the waveguide of Fig. 5-9a
that the characteristic equations for the radial waveguides of Fig. 5-9b, c,
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 219
and d will be of the same form as those for the plane waveguides of Figs.
4-10,4-13, and 4-15. We need only to repla.ce the k.'s by k,'s. Hence,
for the dielectric-slab radial waveguide of Fig. 5-9b, the characteristic
equations are

~
"" taD "2
"2 ""
(~)

"" ""
-2"cot2"
for modes TM to z, and
~taD~

for modes TE to
l 2
- un
2
2" cot ""
z. The u and v are related
2"
to k, by
(5-67)

ut + k,t _ k~t .. wtf~ (5-68)

_Ill + k,t = kot = wtE~O

Possible solutions to these equations can be obtained graphically by the

method of Fig. 4-11. Just as in the plane-wave case, the lowest TE and
TM modes have no cutoff frequencies. The cutoff frequCDcies of the
mades in general are given by Eq. (4-63).
The modes of the coated~nductor radial waveguide of Fig. 5-9c are
those of the slab waveguide having E, = E. = 0 over the mid-plane of
the slab. The dominant mode is the lowest TM mode, which has no
cutoff frequency. The cutoff frequencies of the modes in general are
given by Eq. (4-&1). Finally, for the corrugated-eonductor radial line
of Fig. 5-9d, the characteristic equation for the dominant mode is
k, = k o VI + tan' kod (5-69)
This is analogous to Eq. (4-71) in the plane-wave case.
The circular waveguide systems of Fig. 5-10 are interesting, because,
except for rota.tionally symmetric fields, the modes arc neither TE nor
TM to any cylindrical coordinate. The systems of Fig. 5-100, b, and c
have the common property that they are If two-dielectric" problems.
We can consider them all at oncc, as follows. Let region 1 be the inner
dielectric cylinder in each case and region 2 the outer one. We then
choose electric and magnetic ""s ~
",.. I :z A B... I(k,lP) cos nq, cj1l..
(5-70)
y,-l ... BB•• I(k,lP) sin -n.; cit..
in region 1, and ",.., = CB."'(k,tP) cos -nq, e-fk..
(5-71)
~' = DB.·t(k,tP) sin nq, r i " ••
220 TLME-1lAIWONIC ELECl'ROHAGNETIC FIELDS

X Z X
Z

f~"2

y y

..,.,
cU'"

(a)
Conductor
(b)

X Z
Z

y y

(,) (d)
Pto. ~10_ Some ci«:ular waveguides. (4) Partially filled; (6) dielectric alab; (e)
coated conductor; (d) corrugated conductor.

in region 2. The "'- determine partial fields according to Eqs. (5-18)

and the 1ft' determine partial fields according to Eqs. (5-19). The total
field is the sum of the two partial fields in each region. The B ..(k,p)
denote appropriate solutions to Bessel'l:! equation of order n, chosen 80 as
to satisfy all bounda.ry conditions except those at the interface p = a.
In each region the ,p'S must satisfy the separation relationships
k,I' + k. k
t
- 1' "'"
t
W El/ll
(5-72)
k,t' + k.' "'" k 1' = ",'ElIlt

The requirements that H" E., H., and E. be continuous at p = a lead to

E,k,l'AB.-l(k'la) = E1k"tCB.-t(k,sa>
IAtk,I'BB..'I(k,ta) => pJk"IDB.·t(k,za)
Ak,tB.._l'(k,t a) + Bk.n
wp.la
B.d(k.. 1a) = Ck..1B...1/(k..sa) + Dkln B.d(k.. sa)
ClIp.~

AKin B."'(k.. 1a)

WEta
+ Bk.. 1B.oI'(k.. 1a) _ Ck.n B.-1(k..sa)
WEJ<!
+ Dk..1B"d'(k,sa)
These equations have a nontrivial solution only if the determinant of the
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNcrlON8 221
eoefficien ts of A, B, C, and D vanishes. Hence, defining,
F I "" B I(k.la) F s "'" B ..-I(k.ta)
(5-73)
Fa = B S(k.ta) F. = B..ot(k.sa)
The characteristic equation in determinantal form is
f.sk.t'F I 0 f.lk.,sF s 0
0
k,IF: -
IlJc,I'Fs
k.n F
W""Ia
,
0
k,sF;
Illk,s2F
k.n
W",,'
F
4

-- =0 .
(5-74)

k.n F ,
--
"",a k'IF~
W'"
-
k.n F ,
k,sP~

When n = 0, the field separates into modes TE and TM to z, and the

characteristic equation is much simpler. It is
k,tFIF~ - k,IFiF. = 0 (5-75)
lor TM modes (n ." 0), and
k,sF tF~ - kplF;F'. = 0 (5-76)
for TE modes (n = 0).
We must now pick the proper F functions for the various cases, For
the partially filled circular waveguide (Fig. 5-10a), the field must be
finite at p = 0; hence
FI = P, = JII(k,la) (5-77)
To satisfy E. = 0 at p = b, we choose
F, - J.(k,..)N.(k,ob) - N.(k,..)J.(k"b) (5-78)
Furthermore, to satisfy E. "'" 0 at p "'" b, we choose
F. ~ J.(k,..)N;(k,ob) - N.(k"a)J:(k,ob) (5-79)
The dominant mode is the lowest-<lrder n = 1 mode, which reduces to the
TEll mode 01 the empty guide. A solution for the k. of this dominant
mode is plotted in Fig. 5-11 for the case EI "" lOEo, EI = Eo, III = "'" ra Ilo,
b = 0.4).0.
For the dielectric-rod waveguide (Fig. 5-lOb), the field must again
be finite at p = 0; so Eqs. (5~77) still apply. However, external to the
rod, the field must decay exponentially above the cutoff frequency and
represent outward-traveling waves below the cutoff frequency. Hence,
we choose
(5-80)

Once again, the dominant mode is the lowest n = 1 mode, and its cutoff
222 TIME-HARMONIC ELECI'nOMAGNETIC FIELOS

3
l---
/

1
/
@J "
"
.
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
° 0.2
alb
Flo. 5-11. PhlLSC constant (or the part.ially filled circular waveguide, II - 10£1,
b _ 0.4).1. (After H. Seidel.)

frequency is zero. 1 Some solutions for the k. of the dominant mode are
shown in Fig. 5-12 for the case E1 = EO and ~l = Jl2 = po. Note that
ko < k. < k l , which is the same relationship that applies to the dielectric--
slab guide of Sec. 4-7.
For the coated conductor of Fig. 5-lOc we must again have exponential
decay of the field as p -+ CIO; so Eqs. (5-80) still apply. However, to
1 S. A. SchelkunofT, "Electromagnetic Waves," pp. 425-428,.0. Van Nostrand

Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1943.

f - 10 '0
3
V
I 00:4(0

V
• 2.5 4:1

~G
I

02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

° al>'
FIo. 5-12. Phase constant for the circular dielectric rod. (After M. C. GrG1I.)
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNc-rIONS 223
satisfy the condition E. = 0 at p = b, we should choose
F, = J.(k.,a)N.(k.,b) - N.(k.,a)J.(k..b) (5-81)

and, to satisfy E• .", 0 at P .", b,

F1 - J.(k,la)N~(k,lb) - N.(k,la)J~(k ..lb) (5-82)

For this guide the dominant mode is the lowest n r: 0 TM mode, which
bas no cutoff frequency. (Compare it with the dominant mode of the
plane coated conductor of Seo. 4-8.) Copper wire with an enamel coat-
ing can be used &8 an efficient waveguide for some applications. I
Finally, the corrugated wire of Fig. 5-1Od can be analyzed in a mAnner
similar to t.hat used for the corrugated plane (Fig. 4-15). The field extel'-
nal to the corrugated wire will be essentially the dominant TM (n ... 0)
mode of t.he coated wire. The field in the corrugations will be essentially
that of tho shorted parallel-plate radial transmission line. The charac-
teristic equation is obtained by matching wave impedances at the corru-
gated surface. As the radius of tbe corrugated cylinder becomes large,
the solution approaches tha.t for the corrugated plane.
fi·6. Sources of Cylindrical Waves. In this section we shall consider
two-dimensional sources of cylindrical waves, that is, sources independent
of the z coordinate. The extension to three dimensions can be effected
by a Fourier transformation with respect to z (see Sec. 5-11).
Suppose we h.&ve an infinitely long filament of constant &.--Q current
along the z axis, 0.8 shown in Fig. 5-13a. From the theory of Sec. 2--9,
we should expect the field to be TM to z, expressible in terms of an A
having only a z component "'. From symmetry, '" should be independent
1 G. Goubau, Surface-wave Tra.nlfmission Linee, Proc. IRE, vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 619-
624, June, 1951.

z y

I
'-I"
Y
,
P'
X
p

X
Ca) (b)
FIo. 5--13. An infinite filament of collltaDt a-e current (0) along the I" axis aDd (b) m..
placed parallel to the I" axis.
224 TIM.E-BARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

of ¢ and z. To represent outward-traveling waves, we choose

A. - ~ - CH,"'(kp)
where C is a constant to be determined according to

lim '+'H.pd¢ = I
~o'f
Evaluating H := V X A, we find

H. _ - Of _ -C 2. [H,"'(k,)] ~ j2C
8p dp t_O -rp

The preceding equation then yields

I
C=4j
I
Hence, A. - ~ - 4j H,"'(k,) (5-83)

is the desired solution. The line current is the elemental two-d.imen-

sional source, just as the current element (Sec. 2-9) is the elemental three-
dimensional source.
The electromagnetic field is obtained from Eqs. (5-18), using the 1ft of
Eq. (5-83). The result is

(5-84)

Thus, lines of electric intensity run parallel to the current, and lines of
magnetic intensity encircle it. Equiphase surfaces are cylinders, but E
and H are not in general in phase. However, at large distances we have

E. - rT
-.kl ~s;rp '-;"1 (5-85)
H. = kl ~8.,;kp
j g-li,

which is essentially an outward-traveling plane wave. The amplitude of

the wave decreases as p-~t, in contrast to the r 1 variation in the three-
dimensional case. The outward-directcd complex power crossing a cylin-
der of unit length and radius p is

P, =1PE H··ds 102'r E.H:pd4J

X = -

_";! Ikl!'H,"'(kp)[H,""(kp)]' (5-86)

The real part of this is the time-average power flow (SJ" which, by virtue
 OYLINDRICA.L WAVE FUNcrIONB 225

of the Wronskian [Eq. (0-17)1, reducee to

/PI - Re (PI) _ .k Ill'

4
(5-87)

Hence, the time-avemge power is independent of the distance from the

source, as we should expect. It could be more simply obtained from
Eqs. (&-85).
If the current filament is not along the z axis but parallel to it, we can
extend Eq. (5-83) by replacing p by the distance (rom the current to the
field point. In radius vector notation, we specify the field point by
p-uzX+UI/Y
and the source point (current filament) by
'1' - Uz:z;' + u,y'
as shown in Fig. 5-13b. The distance (rom the source point to the field
point is then
I. - .'1 - V(x x')' + (y if)'
= .,;pI + p'l 2pp' cos (I/> 1/>')
We emphasize that A. is evalua.ted at '1 by writing A.(p) and that J is
located at p' by writing I(ri). We can now generalize Eq. (5-83) to read

A.(.) ~ l~./ H."'(kl. - .'1) (5-88)

This is our (re&space Green's (unction (or two-dimensional fields.

The solution for two or more filaments o( z...directed current can be
represented by a summation of the A/a from each current clement. Sup-
pose we have two filaments of equal magnitude but opposite phase, as
represented by Fig. 5-14a. As the separation 8--+ 0 and the magnitude
1_ 00 such that 18 remains constant, we have a two-dimensional dipole

y y

-I
j.-."'-lO""'+:-I;-'---X""

(aj

Flo. ~I4. Sources of higher-order wave-. (0) Dipole aource; (6) quadrupole aoUl'Ce.
226 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

source. Note that A. at a point (xtY) due to a current filament at (x',O)

is the same as A. at (x - X',Y) due to a current filament at (0,0). Hence,
for Fig. 5-14a, the vector potential is

A. - A+ -~.y) - A.'(Z +~.y)

where A,l is that due to a single current filament at the origin [Eq.
(5-83)]. In the limit 8 --+ 0 the above equation becomes
A,_ -8-
(JA.l 18 a
= - -. - (H o(2)(kp)]
_0 ax 4J ax
The differentiation yields
kl.
A.... 4j H 1 (2 J(kp) cos ¢ (5-89)

Thus, the vector potential of a dipole line source is a cylindrical wave

function of order n """ 1.
For the quadrupole BOUTee of Fig. 5-14b we have, by reasoning similar
to that above,

where A.(2)is the vector potential of the dipole 8Ouroe, given by Eq.
(5-89). Hence, \
-kIsts! a
A. - 4; oy [H,"'(kp) cos ~J
which reduces to A. =- k2~?8t 1:l 2(2l(kp) sin 2q, (5-90)

Thus, the vector potential of a quadrupole line SOurce is a. wave function

of order 11. = 2.
This procedure can be continued to obtain sources for the higher-order
wa.ve functions. It can be shown (Prob. 5-29) that, when A. is a wave
function of order 11, a possible souree consists of 211. current filaments
equispa.coo on an infinitesim.al cylinder. We shall call such a SOurce a
multipole source of order n. The dual analysis applies to the case of mag-
netic current filaments. It is merely necessary to replace I by K and
A by F in the various vector-potential formulas of this section. For
example, from Eq. (5-88), the electric vector potential at p due to a
magnetic current filament at p' is

F.(p} = K~r) H ,'''(kip - p'[) (5-91)

Using both electric and magnetic multipoles, we can generate an arbi-

trary source-free field in homogeneous space (P > 0).
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE PUNCI'lON8

Fro. 5-15. A cylinder of

uniform cmrcnt.
y

The field due to a cylinder of Currents can be obtained quite simply by

treating the problem as a boundary-value problem. We shall consider
here only a cylinder of uniform z-directed surface current. (The general
case is considered in Prob. 5-30.) The geometry of the problem is illuSo-
trated by Fig. 5-15. Because of the rotational symmetry, we choose
of I A.- ~ C,J.(kp) p<a
- l A.+ ~ CI H.(t'(kp) p>a
The boundary conditions to be satisfied are

where J. is the density of the z-dirccted current sheet. Using Eqs. (5--18)
with the above ¥to and satisfying the boundary conditions, we obtain

- ; .kaJ.H,'''(ka)J.(kp) p <a
(5-92)
E. -" T

1- -2 ,kaJ,J.(ka)fl,"'(kp) p>a

as the only component of E. Let us calculate an impedance per unit

length for this source, as we did for the ribbon of current in Sec. 4-12.
By definition,
p
Z - jl[i
where P is the complex power per unit length
r
p = - Jo'J E.J:ad4l = -2raJ:E.I..._
228 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

a.nd I is the total z-directed current

f 2.
J =}o J.a d~ ~ 2~aJ.

Hence, the impedance per unit length is

z ~ ,k4 J.(ka)H,"'(ka) (5-93)

Using small-argument formulas for J a and H 0(2) I we obtain

z __O2"- r ka )
-, ( "--J21og-
. (5-94)
la..... 2
where"Y = 1.781. Compare this with the Z of a ribbon of current [Eq.
(4-127)]. Tho resistances (real parts) are identical. The reactance of a
cylinder of current of small diameter d is approximately equal to the
reactance of a ribbon of current of width w = 2d. More generally, it
CaD be shown l by a quasi-static approximation that the impedance per
unit length of a small elliptic cylinder of minor axis a and major axis b
is the same as that of a circula.r cylinder of diameter
d ~ ).f(a + b) )

A ribbon is the special case a = 0 and b = w.

6-7. Two-dimensional Radiation. We can construct the solution {or
an arbitrary two-dimensional distribution of currcnts by dividing the
source into elemental filaments of current and summing the fields {rom
all elements. For example, if' we have a J~, independent of z, each ele-
ment J ds' produces &. vector potential
0

dA. ~J418' Ho"'(kle -e'l)

where ds' is an element of area perpendicular to z. Summing over the

entire sourcc, we have
A. ~ ;j II J.(e')H."'(kle - e'l) dB'

where the integration extends over a. cross section of thc source. Since
the equations for A z due to J~ and for Al' due to Jl' a.re of the same
form as those for A~ due to J o, the above equation also applies for z
replaced by x or y. Combining components, we have the vector equation

A(e) - ;j II J(e')H,"'(kl. - e'l) d8' (5-95)

I R. W. P. King, "The Theory of Linear Antennas," pp. 16-20, Harvard Uni-

versity PreM, Ca.mbridge, M88S" 1956,

 CYLINDRICAL WAVE PUNcrlONB 229
representing the solution for an arbitrary two-dimensional distribution of
electric currents. The cases of surfa.ce currents and current filaments
are included by implication. The electromagnetic field is obtained, as
usual, from H - V X A. The electric vector potential due to two--
dimensional magnetic currents M is given by the formula dual to Eq.
(5-95), or

F(p) - i ff
j M(p')H."'(klp - p'l) M (5-96)

'the electromagnetic field in this case is given by E = - V X F.

When the field point is distant from the source, our formulas simplify
to a. form similar to those for three-dimensional radiation (Sec. 3-13).
For klo - fl'l large, the Hankel function can be represented by the
asymptotic formula

Furthennore, when p» p', as shown in Fig. 5-16, we have

If' - f"I--+ P - p' cos (~ - ~') (5-97)
The second term must be retained in the phase factor, exp (-jkle - £1'1),
but not in the magnitude factor, 10 - (l'l-~. Hence, the vector poten-
tial. of Eq•. (5-95) and (5-96) reduce to

(5-98)

provided p »p~w These arc the radiation-zone formulas corresponding

to Eqs. (3-95) in the three-dimensional ca.sc.

Fio. ,&-16. Geometry (or So",,,,

determining the radia.-
tion field.

x
230 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

We now have the p variation explicitly shown in Eqs. (5-98), and sim-
plified formulas for the radiation field can be obtained. A13 evidenced by
Eq. (5-85), the distant field of a single current filament is essentially an
outward-traveling plane wave; so the superposition of fields from all cur-
rent elements should also be of this type. Hence, in the radiation zone,
E, - .H. E. - -.H, (5-99)
which can be verified by direct expansion of Eqs. (3-4), using Eqs. (5-98).
To obtain the field components, let us again divide the field into that due
to I. given by H' = V X A, and that due to M, given by E" = - V X F.
Retaining only the dominant terms (p-~ variation), we obtain
H. = jkA. E': = -jkF.
H~ = -jkA. E~' = jkF.
in the radiation zone. The corresponding E~, E~, H~', and H:' can be
determined from Eqs. (5-99). The total field is simply the sum of the
primed and doublo--primcd components, or
)
E. = -jwp.A. - jkF.
(5-100)
E. - -jwp.A. + jkF.
in the radiation zone, with H given by Eqs. (5-99). These formulas
correspond to Eqs. (3-97) in the three-dimensional case. Note that,
except for the contrasting p-J1 and r- 1 dependences, the radiation fields
are of similar mathematical forms in two and three dimensions.
6-8. Wave Transformations. It is often convenient to express the
elementary wave functions of one coordinate system in terms of those of
another coordinate system.' We refer to expressions of this type as
wave transformations. Some representative wave transformations are
derived in this section. Others will be derived as they arc needed.
Suppose we have the plane wave e-iz , which we wish to express in terms
of cylindrical waves. (The conventional coordinate orientation of Fig.
5-1 is assumed.) This wave is finite at the origin and periodic in 2'11' on 1/>.
Hence, it muet be expreesible 80S
•
rf:r< = e-i,.-.:o:: L
,,-- ..
a..J .. (p)e"'·

where the a.. are constants. To evaluate the a.., multiply each side by
r~ and integrate from 0 to 2'11" on </J. This gives

102
.. rip -.e-"". d</J = 2'11"a""/...(p)

I Two coordina.te systems are considered to be distinct if their origins or orienta·

tions are different, even though they may be geometrically t.he same.
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNcrlONB 231
The left-hand side is actually a well-known integral, but we need not
recognize this, The mth derivative of the left-hand side with respect to
p evaluated at p - 0 is

.. 2r_j--
j--
J. o
cos· <p e-~ dt/J __
2-
_

Tbe mth derivative of the right-hand side evaluated at p ... 0 is 2";0../2-,

Hence,

and we have shown that

•
e-P = e-1- - - = l j-..J ..
.. --.
(p)e iro• (5-101)

and also that

J.(P) (frI02)

Equation (5--101) is the wave transformation expressing the plane wave

ria in terms of cylindrical wave functions. It is closely related to the
so-ealled "generating function" of Bessel functions.!
Another wa.ve transformation of interest is that which corresponds to
a tmnslation of cylindrical coordinate origin. Consider the wave function
'" ~ H,(I)(I(l - (I'D = Ha(ll(Vpl + p" 2pp' cos (41 41')]
where p and p' are as defined in Fig. 5-13b. We can think of '" as the
field of a line source at p' in terms of a cylindrical wave function having
its origin at the source. We shall reexpress '" in terms of wave functions
referred \:.0 p ".. O. In the region p < p', permissible wave functions are
J.(p)ei"., n an integer, for'" is finite at p "'" 0 and periodic in 2... on 41.
In the region p > pi, permissible wave functions are ll.. (I)(p)e;"·, n an
integcr, for'" must represent outward-traveling waves. Also, '" must be
symmetric in primed and unprimcd coordina.tes (reciprocity). Rcnce,
f is of the form
•
L
It _ _ •
b.H."'(p')J.(p)ei",....., p < p'

L• b.J.(p')H•.,'(p)ei",.....,
It _ _ •
p> p'

wbere the b.. are constants. To cvalua.te thc b.. , let p' -+ 00 and 1/>' - 0,
and use the asymptotic formulas for the Hankel functions. Our original
I R. V. Churcbill, "Fourier Series and &undary Value Problems," p. 141, MeGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1941.
232 TIM.&RAR.MONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

and our constructed expression for !f becomes

These are now representations of a plane wave, and, from Eq. (5-101),
it follows that b.. ... 1. Thus,
•
2: H ."'(p')J.(p)""f-'" F < p'
(5-103)
•
2: J.(p')H."'(p) ...,....., p> p'

This equation is known as the addition theorem for Hankel functioDs.

It is also valid for superscripts (2) replaced by superscripts (1), since
H.Ul = H.(!)·, Adding the addition theorem for BoU) to that for Bo(l),
we obtain

J .(1. - .'1) - 2:• J .(P')J.(p)...,....., (5-104)

.--.
which is the addition theorem for Bessel fUDctions of the first kind. An
addition theorem for Bessel functions of the second kind is obtained by
subtracting that for H O(I) from that for HoOl.
5-9. Scattering by Cylinders. A source radiating in the presence of a
conducting cylinder is onc of the simplest "wave-scatter" problems (or
which an exact solution can be obtained. We shall at present consider
only two-dimensional cases. Extension to three-dimensional cases can
be efleeted by the method 01 Sec. 5-12.
Let us first consider a plane wave incident upon a conducting cylinder,
as represented by Fig. 5-17. Take the incident wave to be z-polarized,
that is,
(5-105)
Using the wave transformation or Eq. (5-101), we can express the incident
field as
•
E.' = E.
.--.2: i-·J .(kp)....
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 233
y

p
Flo. 6-17. A plane wave
incident upon a conduct...
ing cylinder.

-
Incident
wave x

The total field with the conducting cylinder present is the sum of the
incident and scattered fields, tha.t is,
E. = E.' + Eo'
To represent outward-traveling wa.ves, the scattered field must be of the
form

Eo' .,. Eo 2:• j-"a..H .. m(kp)ejr,,~ (5-106)

hence the total field is

•
E. ~ E, l
..... - .
j-[J.(kp) + a.H."'(kp»)e"'· (5-107)

At the cylinder the boundary condition E• ... 0 at p - a must be met.

It is evident from the above equation that this condition is met if
-J.(k.)
(5-108)
'. ~ H.'''(ka)
which completes the solution.
The surface current on the cylinder may be obtained frOID

Using Eqs. (5-107) and (5-108), and simplifying the result by Eq. (0-17),
we obtain

(5-109)

In a thin wire the n = 0 term becomes dominant, and we have essentially

a filament of current. Using the sma.ll-argument formula for H o(2), we
 TDdE-RA.R.IolONIC ELEcraOKAGNETIC FIELDS

find the total current as

2rE,
h
f,
1- o J,ad~~.
JWp. Iog ""
(1;-110)

Hence, the current in a thin wire is 900 out of phase with the incident
field.
The pattern of the scattered field is also of interest. At large distances
from the cylinder we can use the asymptotic formulas for H ..(I), and Eq.
(1;-10ti) becomes
•
E I ' ---+
~,.....
i
Eo "\j;kp ~ a.tI-...-
[2Jk eft' L,
a __ •

where the a. arc given by Eq. (5-108). The magnitude of the ratio of
the scattered field to the incident field is therefore

~ _(21 ,,---
IE.'1 - V:;kp
'\''-< •
J .("")
H.'" (ka)
""'1 (1;-111)

This is the scattered-field pattern. For small ka, the n = 0 term becomes
dominant and
(1;-112)

The scattered-field pattern for a thin wire is therefore a circle, whicb is

to be expected, since the wire is essentially a filament of current.
When the incident field is polarized transversely to %, it can be expressed
as
•
H.' = Hrril:s "'" H o L j-J.(kp)e""· (1;-113)

Again, the total field is considered as the sum of the incident and reflected
fields, that is,
H, = H.' + H.'
fo represent outward-traveling waves, the scattered field is of the form
•
no' = H. l
a __ •
j-b.H."'(kp)""·

6Dd the total field is given by

•
H. - H. l j-·[J.(kp) + b.H.'''(kp»)''''· (1;-114)
. ---
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 235
This time our boundary condition is E. = 0 at p = a. From the field
equations
1
E, - -. (V X a,H,),
J~

= ~ H, L:.-0
•
j-'[J;(kp) + b.H.""(kp)),;·'
and the boundary condi tion is met if
-J;(ka)
b. = H"C2l'(ka)
(5-115)

An incident wave of arbitrary polarization can be treated as a super-

position of Eqs. (5-105) and (5-113),
When the incident wave is polarized transversely to z, the surface cur-
rent on the cylinder is

(5-116)

For small ka, the n = 0 term becomes dominant. However, the n = ± 1

terms radiate more efficiently and cannot be neglected, as we shall now
show. At large distances from the cylinder, the scattered field becomes
•
H,' - + H 0 /2j e-I", \' b"eJlof
..,...... V1fkp
....'-'- .
with b" given by Eq.. (5-115). The magnitude of the ratio of the scattered
to incident field is thus
•
~ _ I2
IH,'I - "JTkp
I 1..<'\' J;(ka) M
H.""(ka) '
I (5-117)
"00-"
For small ka we find
jT(ka)'
n=O
4
J;(ka) jT(ka)'
H,,(ll'(ka) = 4
Inl = 1
jT(ka(2),,"1
InJl(ln - 1) 1
Inl > 1

Hence, for thin wires the scattered-field pattern is

]H,'l"I- T(ka)' ~2
IH.. "a-oO - 4 - ."-kp 11 - 2 eos ~I (5-118)

The n "" 0 term of Eq. (5-116) is equivalent to a ~-directcd magnetic

236 TlME-HARMON1C ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

y
p

Current
p' filament Fto. 5l"18. A current fila-
ment. parallel to a con-
ducting cylinder.

x
Conductor

current filament, while the n = ± 1 terms are equivalent to a y..<J.irected

electric dipole.
A more general problem is that of a current filament parallel to So can..
dueting cylinder, as shown in Fig. 5-18. (Plane-wave incidence is the
special case p' -. co,) When the filament is an electric current I, the
incident field is
-ktl
E.' = - - H,'''(kl. - .'1) (5-119)
4w.
For p < p' we have, by the addition theorem (Eq. (5-103»),

E.i = ~:I l:
•
H,.(2)(kp')J ..(kp)ei"<......·)

To this we must add a scattered field of the same form, but with the J.
replaced by H II (2), namely•

4:12:
•
E.. = c..H"Ul(kp')H..{2)(kp)ejro(·-") (5-120)

From the preceding two equations it is evident that

J.(ka)
c. - - H.U'(ka) (5-121)

satisfies the boundary condition E. '"" E.l + E.' = O. Thus, our final
solution is
•
-kif
4w.
L: Il.'''(kp')[J.(kp) + c.H.u'(kp)]e!"''-'" p < pi
E.=
~:I 2:
•
H,,(t)(kp)[J ..(kp') + c.H.(2)(kp')]e"'(......·) p > p'
,,-- .
(5-122)
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 237
Note that our answer is symmetrical
in P, tP and pi, ~' (reciprocity). Note
also that the "reflection coefficients"
of Eq. (5-121) are equal to those of
Eq. (5-108) and are, in general, in·
dependent of the incident field.
Specializing the second of Eqs.
(~122) to the far zone, we have

•
E, 0;:;: I(p) 2:
. ---
j. [ J .(kp')

_ J.(ka) H '''(k ')] ,,"''-''J

B ..Ul(ka)· p

The magnitude of this is the radia-

tion field pattern. Figure 5-19 shows
the radiation pattern of a current fila-
ment O.25~ away from a conducting
cylinder of radius 3.75A. The radia-
tion pattern of a current filament
0.25" in front of a plane reflector is Fla. 5-19. Radiation pattern for a. cur·
rent filament 0.25). away from a cylin-
shown for comparison. The patterns drical reflector of radius 3.75), (plane
of Fig. 5-19 are also valid for current reflector case shown dllllbed).
elements of finite length as long as
the reflector is of infinite extent.
If the line source of Fig. 5-18 is a magnetic current filament K, we have

instead of Eq. (5-119). The problem is dual to the electric current case,
except that the reflection coefficients at the conducting cylinder must be
those of Eq, (5-115) instead of those of Eq, (5-121), Therefore, the final
solution will be dual to Eq. (5-122), or
•
~~:K 2:
. --.
H.U'(kp')(J.(kp) + b.H."'(kp»)e'·''-'" p < pi
H.= •
~~:K 2: H.'''(kp)[J.(kp') + b.H.U'(kp')[,,"''-'' p> p'
,,--- (5-123)
where the b. are given by Eq. (5-115). According to the equivalence
238 TIME-HARKONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC PlELDS

principle, the field of a nATrOW slot in

8.conducting cylinder is the same as
the field of a magnetic current on the
surface of a conducting cylinder.
Specializing the second of Eqs. (&-123)
to the case p' "'" a, ~' - 0, p --+ co, we
have
•
\' j"e i'"
~ • 11.""(1<0)
II. - !(P) n __

The magni tude of this is the radiation

pattern of a "stitted cylinder." Fig-
ure 5-20 shows a. slitted-cylinder pat.-
tern for the ease a = 2>.. The pattern
for a slit in an infinite ground plane
is shown for comparison. The pat-
terns of Fig. 5-20 are also valid for
slits of finite length as long as the
conductor is of infinite extent.
FIG. 5-20. Radiation pat.tern for a 5-10. S<attering hy Wedges. A
a1itted cylinder of radius 2). (slit. in a source radiating in the presence of a.
ground plane shown dashed). conducting wedge is also a relatively
simple problem. 1 We again restrict
consideration to the two-dimensional case at this time. We shall solve
for the field of current filaments in the vicinity of wedges and obtain
solutions for plane-wave illumination and aperture radiation as special
cases. A wedge of vanishingly small angle is the classical conducting
half-plane problem.
Consider first the case or a filament of electric current at P'. q,' adja.-
cent to a conducting wedge defined by til ... 0: and til - 211'" - 0: (wedge
angle - 20:). This is shown in Fig. 5-21. The incident field is given by
Eq. (5-119) and has only a t component of E. The total field also will
have only n. z component of E, since this is sufficient to satisfy the bound-
ary conditions. We construct

I aJl."'(kP')J.(kp) sin ,(~. - 0) sin ,(~ - < p'

l
0) p
E. = •
I a.J.(kp')H.'''(kp) sin ,w - sin ,(~ -
0) 0) p> p'
•
(&-124)

I Problema involving conductol"l over tol'l1phk coordinate surfaces are usually easy
to solve. In this cue the wedge covel'lJ t....o .. - constant. coordinate surfaces.
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 239
which satisfies reciprocity and insures continuity of E. at p = p'. To
satisfy the boundary conditions E, = 0 over ¢ =- a and ¢ = 211' - a, we
choose
mr
v = 2('lf a) m = 1,2,3, .. (5-125)

The a. Ilre determined by the nature of the source.

To evaluate the a., we view the current element as a.n impulse of cur-
rent on the surface p = p'. The boundary condition to be satisfied at a
current sheet is
J. - H.(P'+) - Il.(p'-)
Using the field equations and Eq. (5-124), we find

--!:- "Lt a.H.U)(kp')J~(kp) sin v(¢' -

JWIJ
a) sin v(¢ - a) p < p'
H. = •
~ Lt
" a.J.(kp')1l.(1l'(kp) sin v(¢'
JWIJ
- 0:) sin v(¢ - a) p > p'
•
Thus, using the Wronskian [Eq. (D-17)J, we have the surface current
given by
J. = -2, \ ' a. sin v(¢' - a) sin v(¢ - 0:)
W/,l1rp 1...1
•
This is simply a Fourier series for the current on p = p'. The Fourier
sine series for an impulsive current of strength I at ~ = r/l' on p = p' is

J~ = ('II" I a)p" 2: •
sin v(¢' - a) sin v(r/l - 0:)

By comparison of the preceding two

equations it is evident that
y
-WIJ,7rI
a. = (5-126)
2(r - a)
This completes the solution.
To obtain the radiation pattern of Current
pi filament
a current I near a wedge, use the
asymptotic formula for H.(2)(kp) in ~' Condudor
the second of Eqs. (5-124). This, •
with Eq. (5-126), gives x
E.~ I(p) 2>"J.(kp')
• Flo. 5-21. A current filament adjacent
sin v(r/l' - a) sin v(¢ - a) to a conducting wedge.
240 TIME-HARMONIC ELEcrRQMAGNETIC FIELDS

FIG. 5-22. Radiation patteroe for an electric current filament adjll.Cent to a. conducting
hal! plane, p' _ a, .' ... ~/4. (Ajur J. R. Wail.)

where v is given by Eq. (5-125). Figure 5-22 shows some ra.diation pat-
terns for the special case a = 0 (the conducting half plane).
Another special case of interest is that of plane-wave illumination.
This is obtained by letting the source recede to infinity. In this case,
the incident field becomes

This is recognized as the pla.ne-wave field

E.' = Eoei t , - c,-,')

where E
, ~
- fJJJJI
-4-
f2T e-ItII
V;:kpi (5-127)

The total field in the vicinity of the wedge is obtained by specializing the
first of Eqs. (5-124) to Ia.rge p'. This gives

E. kp,__ l ~T"%' e-i"'" L: a"j-J.(kp) sin v(rI,' - a) sin v(.p - a)

•
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 241
Finally, substituting fnr a" from Eq. (5-126) and for I from Eq. (5-127),
we obtain

E. ~ r2rE. " j'J,(kp) sin vW

- 0.4
- a) sin v(. - a) (5-128)
,
where 1/ is given by Eq. (So.125). This is the solution Cor a plane z-polar-
ized wave incident at the angle 41' on a wedge of angle 2a. For 0 0. ...
we have
•
2Eo ~ jf'/'Jf'/!(kp) sin n:' sin n24J
E. =
.. , (5-129)

which is the solution for a plane wave incident on a conducting half plane.
The Halmost dual" problem (dual except for boundary conditions) is
that of a magnetie-current filament K at p', 4J' in Fig. 5--21. We con-
struct a solution

L b.H,"'(kp')J,(kp) cos vW - a) co. v(. - a) p < p'

HI""

!•
2: b.J.(kp')H.(t)(kp) COBV(41' -
,
a) cosv(4J - a) p> p'

(5-130)
which is similar to Eq. (5-124) except for the sines replaced by cosines.
The boundary conditions E~ - 0 at q, "" a and 4J = 2r - a can now be
satisfied by choosing
mr (5-131)
1/ - 2(... a) 111. - 0, 1,2, . . .

The coefficients b. are determined by the nature of the source, in a

manner analogouB to that used to obtain Eq. (5-126). The result is

v ~ 0
(5-132)
v>O

whicb completes the solution.

The radiation pattern of a magnetic current K near a wedge is obtained
from the second of Eqs. (5-130) by using the asymptotic expression for
H.I!)(kp). The result is

H. ...... " ..j'J,(k,') cos vW - a) co. v(. - a)

---+ 1(P) L,
,
242 TIME-HARMONIC ELEC'l'ROYAGN"ETIC FlELDS

where Neumann's number t. i.s 1 (or", - 0 and 2 for 1/ > O. Figure 5-23
shows some radiation patterns (or tbe special case a = O. When q,' - a
we have the solution (or a radiating slit in a conducting wedge.
Finally, for plane-wave incidence we can specialize the first oC Eqs.
(5-130) to the case p' --+ co. The procedure is analogous to that used to
establish Eq. (5-128), and the result is

H. = TH, '\' ••j'J.(kp) cosvW - a)

7f - a 1::1 cosv(~ - a) (5-133)
•
This is the field due to a plane wave polarized orthogonally to z incident
at an angle tIJ' on a wedge of angle 2~ The case a = 0 gives

(5-134)

which is the solution for a plane wave incident on a conducting half plane.
6-11. Three-dimensional Radiation. A thrro-dimensionnl problem
having cylindrical boundaries can be reduced to a two-dimensional prob-
lem by applying a Fourier transformation with respect to z (the cylinder

Flo. 5-23. Radiation patterM for a magnetic current filament adjacent. to a conducting
half plane, p' - II, . ' _ ../4. (A.fUr J. R. Wait)
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 243
axis). 1 For example, if t/;(x,y,z) is z
a solution to the three-dimensional
wave equation
l(z)
-- - r'
a' a' a' )
( ax' + ay' + az' + k' '" - 0
then
J,(x,y,w) = f _*".. t/;(x,y,z)e-i¥· dz
y
will be a solution to the two-dimen- p

sional wave equation

(:;, + :;, + «,) J, = 0

x

where «' = k' - w'. Once the two-

dimensional problem for J, is solved, FlO. 5-24. A filamCDt of curreDt aloDg
the three-dimensional solution is ob- tho z a.xis.
tained from the inversion

~(x,y,,) - 2.
1 f"_" ~(x,y,w)"" dw

This is usually a diffioult operation. Fortunately, in the radiation zone

the inversion becomes quite simple. We shall now obtain this far-zone
inversion formula.
Consider the problem of a filament of z-directed current along the z axis,
as illustrated by Fig. 5-24. The only restriction placed on the current
l(z) is that it be Fourier-transformable. In the usual way, we construct
a solution
H-VXA A = u.t/; (5-135)
where t/; is a wave function independent of ¢ and representing outward-
traveling waves at large p. Anticipating the need for Fourier trans-
forms, we construct

~ - i. J-"" f(w)H,"'(p yk' w')...• dw

which is of thegenersJ form of Eq. 105·)1). Tne Fourier transform 0/ jP is

evidently
~ - f(w)H ,'''(p yk' w')
The I(w) is determined by the nature of the source, according to

10'1.. R. p d¢ -;::t lew)

I Thill applies to cylinders of arbitrary cross sectioD as well as to circular cylinders.
 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROWAGNETIC FIELDS

where D. and I are tDe transforms of HI and I. From the small-argu-

ment formula for a,en, we have
!If 2·
B. - - -iJp --+ ..1.f(w)
,......0 rp

and the preceding equation yields

few) - It')
Hence, the "transform solution" to the problem of Fig. 5-24 is

f -1..,
8rJ
f"
_ ..
l(w)H,"'I...v'k' w')...• dw (5-136)

where lew) - f-"" I(z')clw'dz' (5-137)

The field is obtained from !/I according to Eqs. (5-135). Compare the
equations of t.his paragraph to those of the second paragraph of Sec. 5-6.
The transformed equations in t.he three-dimensional problem are of the
same form as the equations in the twCHiimensional problem.
Another solution to the problem of Fig. 5-24 is the "potential integral
solution II oC Sec. ~9. This is

J.
•
~ f"_. I(z') .-J"/~+<.
4.< V p' + (,
o'l'
")'
dz'
(5-138)

with the field given by Eqs. (5-135). It can be shown that the.p is unique
in this problem. Hence, Eqs. (5--136) and (5-138) are equal, giving us a
mathematical identity. For example, if 1(:) is & short current. element of
moment Il, then 1(10) "., Il and Eq. (5-136) becomes

!/I gO .!i..
8"1 -.
f" IJoUl(p Vk 1 wt)ei"'-dw
Ile-/!r
and Eq. (5-138) becomes f - ~

Equating these two !/I's we have the identity

elk'
_
r
1
= -;
2J-"
f"
II ,(t)(p v'k t w 1 )ei"'- dw (5-139)

Many other identities can be established in a similar fashion.

It is convenient to have two forma for 'f because some operations are
easier to perform on one form than on the other. For example, it is
simple to specialize Eq. (5-138) to the radiation zone, and we did so in
Sec. 2-10. In particular, the specialization is given by Eq. (~l22), which
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE PUNcrION8

can be written as
ri"
"'~ 4n l(-k COO B) (5-140)

where lew) is given hy Eq. (5-137). By Eq. (3-97) we have

E, __
~.
-jw~A, =jw~sin8'"

e-p,·
or E, -;:::;: jw~ 4Tr sin 8 1( - k cos 8) (5-141)

Hence, the radiation field is simply related to the transform of the source
evaluated at 10 - -k cos 8. More important, the specialization of Eq.
(5-140) must also be the corresponding specialization or Eq. (5-136).
We therefore have the identity
- rik,
f_.l(w)H''''(py'k· w·) ...·dw~2j-r-l(-kcooB) (5-142)

which holds for any function 1(10). Equation (5-142) can also be estal>--
lished by contour integration, using the method of steepest descent. I
Finally, we shall need a formula similar to Eq. (5-142) valid for Hankel
functions of arbitrary order. The desired generalization can be effected
by considering the asymptotic expression

f2i j"~
H ..U}(:x:) ----+
--'Vn
from which it is evident that

--
8 ..(2)(%) ---+ j"B ,(I) (:x:)

AAlong as" ¢ 0 or 7', we have p -+ 00 as r --+ co I since P = r sin 8. Also,

if k is complex (some dissipation assumed), then .y k' - 10' is never zero
on the path of integration. We are then justified in using the asymptotic
formula for Hankel functions and can replace the HoC') of Eq. (5-142) by
;....8 ..(1). The result is

f-·. l(w)H.U'(P y'k' ~.

rI'O'
w·)...·dw--+ 2-j'+'1(-k cos B)
r
(5-143)

We shall have use for this formula in the radiation problems that follow.
6-12. Apertures in Cylinders.' Consider a conducting cylinder of
infinite length in which one or more apertures exist. The geometry is
I A. Erde1yi, "Aaymprotic Expanaiona," pp. 26-27, Dover Publieationa, New York,
1956.
t Silver &nd Saunders, The External Field Produced by a Blot in an Infinite Cir·
cular Cylinder, J. Appl. Ph"., vol. 21, 00. 5, pp. 153-158, February, 1950.
246 TDUi-HAlWONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

z
r

FlO. &-25. An aperture in

a condu.ctiog cylinder.
y

x
------ -
shown in Fig. 5-25. We seck a solution for the field external to the
cylinder in terms of the tangential components of E over the apertures.
Anticipating that we shall use transforms of the fields, let us define the
"cylindrical transCorms l l of the tangential components of E on the
cylinder as
B.(n,1D) = -2
1
r
J." d~ f"
0 -.
dz E.(a.~.z)c~e-/W·
(5-144)
1 J." dljl f"
E.. (n-,tD) = -2
T 0 _.
dz E.(a,~,z)r~rjw·

The inverse transformation is

2: ".. f.",
"
1
= 2T E.(n,.,),·" dw
, (5-145)

E.(.,¢,z) - 2~ 2: ,;"' !-", E.(n,")&-· d.,

.. --.
Note that these nre Fourier series on 41 and Fourier integrals on %. The
field external to the cylinder can be expressed as the sum of a TE com-
ponent and TM component. According to the concepts of Sec. 3-12, the
field is given by
E - -'0 X F - ;w"A +.,!.. '0'0' A
JW' (5-146)
H ."" V X A - jwiF J- vv· F
+ JW.
where A "" u.A. F - uJ'. (5-147)
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 247
We now construct the wave functions A. and F. as

(5-148)
"
F. =1. \'
4w
~ ,, __
eM f"-. g.(w)H."'(p Vk' - w')e'" dw
)

which are of the form of Eq. (5-11). We choose the Bessel functions as
H,.(I)to represent outward-traveling waves. We choose the rp and z
functions such that the field will be of the same form as Eqs. (5-145).
To determine the f,.(w) and g.. (w) in Eqs. (5-148), let us calculate E.
and E. according to Eqs. (5-146). The result is

"
E.(p,~,,) = -2
1 \'
rJWf 1..( tJ·. f"-_ (k' - w')!.(w)H."'(p Vk' w')t!-· dw

"
E.(P,tP,z) "".!. \'
2r L. ei •• f"__ [- ~w f .. (w)H .. (ll(p Vlc 1
.... --
- Wi)
JWf

+ g.. (w) v'lcl - w 1 1I,,(I)'(p Vk 1 - Wi)] eiw' dw

Since these equations specialized to p = a must equal Eqs. (5-145), we
have

f.(w) _ jw.E.(n,w)
(k 1 _ w 1)H"U)(a Vk2 Wi)

g.. (t.r) = vk! _ Wi fI.. (~l'(a Vlcl _ Wi) [ 2.(n,w) (5-149)

+ a(k,nw w') E.(n,W)]

This completes the solution.
The inversions of Eqs. (5-148) are difficult except for the tar zone, in
which case we ean use Eq. (5-143). Hence, we have

(5-150)
248 TWE-HARMONIC ELECI'ROKAGNETIC FIELDS

z Z

-a3 f-a':::
I I
-J.~I--'
I
II 'f.
Flo. 5-26. A conducting
11--·a--1 cylinder and (a) an a,;ia.I
slot, (b) a circumferential
slot.

---
I
I
v-- -~, -~,

(a) (b)

Finally. in the radiation zone Eqs. (3 97) apply j hence R

E, --+ jwp rib ain 8

-
\ ' eJrl.j"+!j.. ( -k cos 6)
,....... rr Lt
n--" (&-151)

1t _ _ OO

Thus, the radiation pattern of apertures in cylinders is relatively easy to

calculate. The only difficulty is that the number of significant terms in
the summation becomes veri)' large for cylinders of large diameter.
To illustrate the theory, let us consider the thin rectangular slot in the
two orientations shown in Fig. 5-26. For the axial Blot we shall assume
in the aperture

!
-~<z<~
E. =
a.
V
-cos-
rz
L a
--<~<­
2
a
2
(5-152)

and E. = O. (This approximates the case of excitation by a rectangular

waveguide.) For a very narrow slot (a -+ 0) the transforms of Eq.
(5-144) become

'" ( ) _ VL cos (wL/2)

J!J.n,w - a ... 2 (LtD)!
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNC"I'lON& 249
.nd B.(n,w) = O. Frnm Eqs. (5-149) we then have /.(w) - 0 and
VL cos (wL(2)
g.(w) - (~. (LtD)']a yk' _ w' H.Ul'(a yk' w')
Finally, by Eqs. (5-151) we have the radiation field given by E, -= 0 and

~
E. - Vr.......[COS(¥COS8)]
rJar (kL)t
-cos9
1-
'-'
11 _
.....sin 9)
H.(tl~(1uJ (5-153)
~

which can be further simplified to a cosine series in';. The radiation

pattern in the plane B = 90° is identical to that of the stitted cylinder; 80
for a 2>. the pattern is given in Fig. 5-20. The "vertical" pattern in
the .; 0 plane is almost indistinguishable from the radiation pattern of
the same slot in an infinite ground plane. l
For the circumferential slot of Fig. 5-26b, we assume in the aperture

1
v ~. -~<'<~
E.... -C08- (5-154)
W a a a
-"2<.<"2
and E• ... O. (Again this approximates excitation by a rectangular wave-
guide.) For a narrow slot (W --+ 0) the transforms of Eq. (5-144)
become
- ( ) _ Va cos (na(2)
E• n,1D r1 (na)'

and B,(n,w) - O. Then Cram Eqs. (5-149) .nd (5-151) we can calculate
the radiation field as
•
kVae-iir " j" cos (na/2) t/".
E, =.JrT'sm
. e Lt [rt - (nc:r)']H.. (t)(1uJsin 8)
11--- (5-155)
E __ Va"- cot'8 ~ nj' cos (na(2) ....
• ...,.ka sin 8 Lt [rt - (na)')HII<t)I(ka sin B)
11---
In the principal planes 8 - r /2 and ~ - 0, the field is entirely B-polarized.
However, in other directions, the cross-polarized component E. may be
appreciable. The radiation patterns for circumferential slots in reason~
ably large cylinders are very close to the radiation patterns for the same
I L. L. Bailin, The Radiation Field Produced by a Slot. in a Large Cireular Cylinder,
IRE Trani., vol. AP-3, no. 3, pp. 128-137,.July, 1955.
 TIME-ElAlWOllo'lC ELEcraOllAGNETIC FIELDS

Fla. &-27. Radiat.i.on pat.-

tern for a circumferential
slot of length 0.65>" in a
conducting eylinder of
diameter 3>" (same slot
in a ground plane shown
dashed).

slot in an infinite ground plane. To illustrate t.his, Fig. 5-27 shows the
radiation pattern in the plane 0 = 11/2 for a circumCerential slot O.65X
long in a cylinder 3X in diameter. The radiation pattern for the same
slot in an infinite ground plane is shown dashed.
5-13. Apertures in Wedges. The problem of diffraction by a con-
ductor is reciprocal to the problem of radiation by apertures in the con-
ductor. By this, we mean that a solution to one of these problems is
readily converted to a solution to the other by using the reciprocity
theorem. We shall illustrate the procedure Cor the case of conducting
wedges.
Figure 5-28 shows the reciprocal problems of (a) a current element and
a conducting wedge and (b) an aperture in a conducting wedge. To keep
the theory simple, we shall consider only the case of a distant current ele-
ment and the radiation field of the aperture. For the z-directed elcctric-
current clement of Fig. 5-28a the field will be TM to z, expressible in terms
of an A = u.~. The incident field is
e-1l1r-r'1
"" - Il 4;1, <'I
which, when r» r', reduces to

-
"-''''
"" "'" Il--ei".. _·tJi,·...,-(......,
This is simply a plane wave incident upon the wedge. The'" in this
three-dimensional problem is subject to the same boundary eondition
(w = 0) on the wedge as is E. in the two-dimensional problem of Sec.
(5-156)
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 251
5--10. Hence the solution must be of the same (orm as Eq. (5-128), that
is,

f - 2<>1-, "\' j'J,Ckp' sin 0) sin vW - 0) ,in v(~ - 0) (5-157)

a 4
?< -
,
e-jh
where "4'0 = I l - &"1:1'000'
hr
(5-158)
m.
V = "2(".=""a")
In terms of y" the field is given by Eqs. (5-18). This completes the solu-
tion to Fig. 5-28a.
To obtain the solution to Fig. 5-28b, we apply reciprocity (Eq. (3-35»
to the region bounded by the conducting wedge. Because of the bound·
ary conditions on E at the conductor, Eq. (3-35) reduces to

- JJ E,bH: ds - !lE,· (5-159)

.,."
where the superscripts a and b refer to the fields of Figs. 5-28a and b,
respectively. From Eqs. (5-18) and (5-157) we calculate

H: = p,(;'7f'/!o a) L• vjoJo(kp' sin 9) cos v(4)' - a) sin v(4) - a)

z n
z

y y

x
x

(a) (6)

FlO. 5-28. The reciprocal problems of (a) a current clement and a conducting wedge
and (b) an nperture in a conducting wedge.
252 TlME-HA..BMONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlELOS

Specializing this to the surface ,p' = a, we can reduce Eq. (5-159) to

IlE. - - f" dz' f." dp'

__ 0
~T/ooE.,)
p r a \ ' vj'J,(kp' ain B) sin
'-'
,
.(~ - a)

Finally, 1/10 is given by Eq. (5-158), and in the radiation ZODB

E, __ ,E.
SlD 9

Hence, the 8 component of E in the radiation zone is given by

Jl
E, - 2 ( e- ; . fJ \ ' vj" sin v(,p - a) J,(k cos 8, k sin 0) (5-160)
r", a 8m '-'
,
where 1.(10,11,) sa
f"
-.
&v'dz 10" J .(up) dp -1 E.(p,o,z)
0 P
(5-161)

Note that f.(tlJ,u) is of the form of a Fourier transform on z and a Fourier-

Bessel (or Hankel) transform on p.l
In a similar manner, the E. component of the radiation field caD be
obtained by applying reciprocity to Fig. 5-284 with Il replaced by Kl.
This z-directed magnetic-eurrent element gives rise to a field TE to z,
expressible according to F = u.". The incident field is then specified by
Eq. (5-156) with 1 replaced by K. Again the three-dimensional problem
is essentially the lS&IDe as t.he two-dimensional problem of Sec. 5-10. The
solution is then of the form of Eq. (&-133), t.hat is,

>/- ~ T ~.
-
\ ' •• j'J,(kp' Bin B) coo ,(~'
ex Lt
- a) COB ,(~ - a) (5-162)
,
where
hr
....'"
';'0 = K l - eft.. _·
(5-163)
v = 2(... ex) m = .9, I, 2,

The electromagnet.ic field is found from'" according to Eqs. (5-19).

To relate this solution to the field from an aperture in a conducting
wedge, we again apply reciprocity [Eq. (3-35)}. This reduces to

ff
.,..,
(E,'H: - E,'lI.·) d. ~ KIH,' (5-164)

where superscripts a and b refer to the fields of Fig. 5-2& with Il replaced
by Kl, and of Fig. 5-28b, respectively. From Eqs. (5-19) and (5-162) we
11. N. Sneddon, "Fourier Tranaforma," p. 6, McGraw-Hili Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1951.
 CYLINDBJCAL WAVE FUNctIONS 253
calculate

H: ...
1fkl sin /1 cos /1
(
wp. 1f a
)
L:.
¥t, .
f.J·J~(kP' Stu 8) cos v(t/>' - a) cos vet/> - a)
,
l
H.' = .1fk ( sin I 8) 1f1J
JWIJ. 1f a
L: f.j·J.(kP' sin 8) cos v(t/>' - a) cos vet/> - a)
•
Finally, we evaluate Eq. (5-164) and use the radiation-zone relationship

E. _ -"fB, = ~H.
Sin 8
The result is

"'-~.
E. - 4r(1f a)
'\' e.j· cos vet/>
L, - a)(cos 8 g.(k cos 8, k sin 8)
, (&-165)
+ j sin 8 h.(k cos 8, k sin 8)]
where Q'.(w,u) = J--.. e it.. dz fo - J~(up) dp E.(p,a,z)
(5-166)
h.(w,u) ~ /_"" .... dz / ; J.(up) dp E.(p,a,z)
We now have a complete solution for the radiation field from apertures in
conducting wedges.
As an example, let us calculate the radiation from a narrow axial slot
of length L, as shown in Fig. 5-29. We shall assume that in the slot

E. ~ VI(p - 0) cas L
.. (5-167)

is the only tangential component of E.

The I, Q', and h functions [EQs. (5-161)
and (5-166)] are then found to be
I.~O 8,-0
h• ~ 2.VL
7'1
cas (wL/2) J ( )
(Lw)! • ua

From Eq. (5-160) we see that E. - 0,

and from Eq. (5-165) we have
· 8 caslk(L/2) cas 8)
E• "" I()
T 8m ... 1 (kL cos 8)1

L: .,j·cos,(~
•
- a) J .(kosin 8) (5-168)
FlO. 6-29. A narrow axial slot in a
where v =~, 1, %, . . .. Plots of conductine halr plane.
254 TIME-HARMONIC ELEctROMAGNETIC Fl.ELDS

Flo. &-.30. Radiation patterns for axial slot.ll in a conducting half plaoe (the slot in
fLn infinite ground plane is shown dashed).

the radiation pattern in the plane 8 - 90 0 arc shown in Fig. 5-30 for the
case ex - 0 (half plane). The cases a ... 0.16A and a = 0.96>. are sbown,
with the infinite ground-plane pattern shown dashed for comparison.

PROBLEMS

6-1. Show that Eq. (5-12) is a IlOlution to the ecalar Bclmholtl equation.
6-2. Show that", - Oog p)e-'k ia a 1I01ution to the sealar llelmholu equation.
Determine the TM field generated by this" according to Eqa. (5-18). Sketch the
t and :Je Jines in a ~ - constant plane. What pbysicalllystem IIUpporla this wave?
Repcat for the TE case.
6-S. For two-dimensional fields (no :e variation) ahow that an arbitrary field in a
llOurce-frce homogeneous region can be eJl:prCMC'd in ten.Ila of two lICalar wave fuoc-
tioDa, ,p, and lJ-1, according to Eqs. (3-79) whcro
A - u"py.,
Note that. ihis corresponds to choosing

* j;P(~~) ~ _ _j~(F:)
illlltead of Eqs. (3-80).
6-4. A circular waveguide has & dominant mode cutoff frequency of 9000 mega-
cycles. What ia ita inside diameter if it. is air-filled! Determine the cutoll frequen-
cies for the next ten loweJ~rder modeJ. Repeat for the case f. _ 4.
6-6. All the waveguides whose CtOSll eeetiona are shown in Fig. f).4 are characl.erized
by wave functions of the form
'I- - B.(.c,p)h(n.)eslA'••
where TM modes are detenninoo by Eqs. (&-18) and TE IDOdea by Eqs. (&-19). The
phue constant ia given by
 CTLTh"DRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 255
Let. a denote the inner ndius and b the outer radius of the eoaxiaJ. waveguide of Fig.
5-411. Show that for TM modes
B..(i",) _ N ..(i,o)J.(i"p) - J ..(i,a)N..(i"p)
h(n.) _ &in n. or COlI n•
..here n - 0, 1.2, . . . , and i, is a root of

Show that for TE modes

B.(k",) - N~(kptJ)J..(k,p) - J:(k,a)N..(k,p)
h(n.) - sin n. or cos n •
..here n _ 0, 1.2, . . . ,and k, is a root of

G·8. Show that the modea of the coaxial waveguide with a bame (Fig. 6-4b) are
ehal'$Cterizcd by the lAme B.(k",) fWlction. u the coaxial guide (prob. &-5), but for
Tl\f modes
n - ~. 1. H.2, .
&lid for TE modes
n - 0, }i, 1, M•.•.
..here the baffle iI at • - O. The dominant mode is !.he lowen TE mode with
• -)i.
5·7. Show that the ,.,.edge waveguide of Fig. 6-k supportA TlI,l modes specified by

~na _ J .(l-".) ain "'. cua,-

....... n--.-,-.··
T

• a ....
2... :w
.
&lid k,IJ is a KJ'O of J.(lllS). Show that it aupporta TE modes specified by

....
I/-TZ _ J.(i".) COIn. e*ia..
• 2•
• h"" n-O-.-,···
'
and kpa is a tero of J~(k,a). The guides of Fip. 5-4c and d are the special cases
... - 2.. and T, respectively.
G-8. Show that the cutoff wavelengtb for tbe dominant mode of the circular wave-
guide witb bame (Fig. 5-4c) iI

1-'. Using the perturbational method of Sec. 2-7, ahow tbat tbe attenuation eon-

'" "'1
..
Il&nta due to conductor loaaes in a circular waveguide arc given by

~ - :;;-:;7i~:7:ff,iii
V.tn'
for all TM modes, and by

.. - '" VI" V.tn' [(>:,>:'- .' + GY]

256 TU.I];-RARMONlC ELEC'I'ROMAGN'ETlC Fl,ELDS

(or all TE modes. Note that for the "circular electric" modes (n - 0) the attenua,.-
tion decreases without limit as f -. ...
6-10. Consider the two-dimensional "cireulatinc waveguide" formed of concentric
conduct.iDg cylinders, - CJ a.nd p - b. ShOw that the wave function

specifies circulating modes TM to I: according to Eqa. (5-18) if n is a root. of

Show that tbe above wave function specifics modes TE to z according to Eqa. (6-19) if
n ill a root of
B J~(ko) J:(kb)
------=
.A N~(ko) N .(kb)

6-11. For the TM radial wave specified by Eq. (5-33), show that the radial phaae
constant of E. is given by Eq. (b-36), while tbe radial phase constant of H. i.

IJ'-.![l-(~)'].
Tpk r, 1,
IJ.(k,,)!' + IN.(},,»)'
Show that Eq. (6-37) is also valid for this phase constant.
6-12. Consider the TM radial wave impedances of Eqs. (5-38) and (5-39). Show
that for luge radii
Z+,.nI _ Z_..TN _ 11
.......
and that for small radii

{
~k"(d;I"+) .-0
Z+.~ - Z_.~·~ k [(2• )'(k..»~ + J'J >0
.......
",p ft.! "'2 n •

where y _ 1.781.
6-18. Conaider the radial parallel-plate w&veguide of Fig. 5-50. For the trans-
mission-lino mode IEq8. (5-45)J. one can define a voltage and current. lUI
V(P) _ -oB.

Show that V &nd I sati8fy the transmiMion-line equatiool!l

dV -
- -J(jI
, LJ dl -jwCV
dp dp -

where Land C are the ".static" parametera

L _.e c _ 2rtp
2., •
Why.should we expect circuit conecpta to apply for this mode?
6-1'. Cooaidenhe wedge guide of Fig. 5-Sb. For t.he dominant mode (Eq. (5-49»).
one can define a voltage and eurre.nt. as

1(P) - H~
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 257
Show that V and 1 aatiafy tbe tranamission-liDe equation (prob. 6-13) with

c-~
•••
6-16. Show that the re8Qnant frequenciel of the two-dimensional cylindrical cavity
(no I: variation, conductor over p - 0) arc equal to the cutoff frequencies of tbe
circular waveguide.
6-18. Following the perturbational metbod used to derive Eq. (5-58), sbow tbat the
Q due to conductor lOIlllel for tbe various modes in the circular cavity of Fig. 6-1 are

1-17. The circular cavity of Fig. 6-7 baa dimensions II - d - 3 centimetera.

Detennine the first ten resonant. frequeDciei and tbe Q of the dominant mode if the
...alls are copper.
6-18. Consider tbe dominant mode of the partially filled radial waveguide of Fig.
&-90. Show tbat for small a and large ,. the phase constant is

Compare tbill to the uniform transmiasion-line formula IEq. (~)I, using the .tatic
approximations
L _ lAid + "1(0 - d)
2r.
6-19. Conlider tbe dieleetric-elab radial guide of Fig. S-9b. Let II - 41. and
PI - ,.. and 0 - )... Which model can propagate unattcnuated in the a1ab? Rcpeat
the problem for the coatcd~onduetorguide of Fig. 5-9c witb t - 0/2.
6-20. For the partially IDled circular waveguide (Fig. 5-10a), show tbat tbe charac-
teristic equation (Eq. (5-74)] for the n - 1 modell reduces to

IANI(A:_.l!) + BJI(k_.l!)IlAN;(k,ib) + BJI(k,tb)l - 0

where A - k,IJ;(k,10)J1(k_lO) - k,J'I(k_IO)J1(k_10)
B - k,aN';(k,tO)J 1 (k,la) - k_IJ;(k,lo)N.(k,,a)
6-21. Consider the dominant. (n - 1) mode of the dielectric-rod waveguide of
Fig.5-1Ob. Show tbat for small a tbe cbaracteriatic equation beeomes
(,.1 + ,.f)(11 + If)
2,... ,K.(PXl)

Note tha.t t.bere ia no cutoff frequency.

258 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

6-22. The field external to a dielectric-rod waveguide varies as K1{vp). Using the
results of Prob. 5-21, show that for a small (4 « A,), nonmagnetic &01 - #1) rod

I 2 1 ~l + t l
og:;va ... (k1o)l h - h

where,. - L 781. Take I I - 9'1 and a - 0.1).1, and calculate the distance from the
lUis for which the field is 10 per cent of its value at the surface of the rod.
6-23. Consider the circular cavity with concentric dielectric rod, as shown in Fig.
&-310. Show that the dominant resonant frequency is the smallest root of

~ J;(kc) "" ~ [No(ktIJ)J;(kl$:) - Jo(kotl)N;(ktcJ]

"Jo(ke) 1'/0 N.(koa)Jo(koe) Jo{koa)N.(koc)

For small c/o., show that resonant frequency"" is related to theempty-eavity resonll.nce

%"
:1:01 - 2.405

according to

where I,. - ./to.

~a
I I 1 --a

l
~ ------ 'J
-----.... d
r
b
L
•
(a) (b)
FlO. 6-31. Plirti~ly filled cavities.

6-24. Consider the circular cavity with a dielectric slab, as shown in Fig. 5-31b.
Show that the characteristic equation for tbe resonant frequency of the dominant
mode is
- -~tank,b
•
where k.t _ kt _ (X;IY
Show that when both d and b are small

Iolr ... lola

• lr.l;:::;J(~l::::JIZ/.~,
-V~l + ~
)~bId
l)bjd

where lola is the cmpty-cavity reaooant frequency, given in Prob. 5-23, and f. - .1"
and ~ - /JI/J •.
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNClIONS 259

FlO. 5-32. Wedge jn A cir-

cular cavity.

1-26. Consider the circular cavity "dth a conductiDg wedge, as showD in Fig. 5-32
Show that, for daman, the resoDant frequency of the dominant mode is given by

whcre 1D is the firet root of J.(w) - 0 and 11 - .. /(2.. - ..,. Somc representative
values of ware

• 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

3.14 3.28 3.4.2 3.56 3.70 3.83

1-26. Figure 5-330. shows a linear den.e.ity of z-directcd current elementa alODg the
r axil. Show that the field is given by H - V X A where

Show that t.be field is idcntical to that. produced by t.he magnetic dipole formed of
a-direct.ed magnet.ic currents +K at 11 - -'/2 and -K at 11 - ,/2 in tbo limit, _ O.
&-27. Show that the field of the magnetic-dipole source of Fig. s-33b in the limit
._ 0 is given by E _ -v X u.'" where

6-28. Consider the quadrupole 80uree of Fig. s-33c in the limit '1 - 0 and '1 _ O.
Show that the field is given by H - V X u."
where

a-2ft Figure &-33d represents a 50urce of 2n current filaments, equal in amplitude

but alternating in sigo, on a cylinder of radius p _ a. Show t.hat, in the limit a --. 0,
260 TIME-HARMONIC ELECl'nOMAGNETIC FIELDS
y y

,
J.l
• X
T
••_K
...1.
+
X
CG) (b)

Y Y

- I, ,+1
+ I, ,- I
,A , A - I' G
'+1
+1 - I -I +I X + I' '-I X
f.--,,-.:.j - I' ,
•-'+1
+1 I
(e) (d)
FIo. S.33. Some two.<fimensional sources.

the field is given by H - V X u..'" where

,.
r-2j(n
.I 1)1 (kG)"
2" II •'''(k) p sinn';
.

6-80. Let the cylinder of current in Fig. &-15 be an arbitrary function of 41. but still
independent of z. Show that the field is given by H - V X u,y, with

•
••2j
I AJ.(ka)H.(t)(kp)e i " ,>.
+- 11--.
•
•• I
2j
A.H.(ll(ka)J.(kp),'''' p <.
I I " - ..

wh"" 1 /."
A. - 2.. 0 J. ,-/'" d41

A cylinder of z-dircct.ed magnetic currents is dual to this problem.

6-31. Show that the radiation field from a ribbon of uniform z..directed current
(Fig. 4-25) i.e given by

E.-
 CYLINDRICAL WA.VE FUNCTIONS 261
6-32. Consider the a10t antenna of Fig. 4-21, and make the Mn1l'Opiion that tangen-
tial E in the a10t is ~B .. a cooaia.nt. Show that the radiation field is

. -1_
H ... -1""Iae ' E
sin cos .) (""2
• 2rjkp 0 (ka/2) COR •

And E. - TiH •.
li-83. Derive the following wave tra08formations:

•
COR cP.!!in 41) - l
• -0
I.J IoocP) cos 2n•

•
lin cPain 41) - 2
••0
L JIoo'tlcP)ain (tzn + 1) •

li-34. Let the cylinder of Fig. 5-17 be dieloctric witb parameters '4, J.I4. For a TM
incident plane wave fEq. (5-105»), show thllt the scattered ficld is given by Eq. (5-106)
"itb

-J.(ka) [ ~J:(k.ra)/Jc4aJ.(k4a) - J'.(ka)/laJ.(ka) ]

a.. - JI.CII(ka) 14J~(kllG)/lk4aJ.(k,J(J) H.Ul'(ka)/kaH.ltJ(ka)

Ind that the field internal to the cylinder ill given hy

•
B. - B. l j~..J.(k4P)ei'"
.--.
1
witb c. - J.(k4C) fJ.(ka) + a.1J.U'l(k4))
Note that tbis solution reduces to the solution for the conducting cylinder when
foI .... 00.
li-Sli. Repeat Prob. 5-34 for the opposite polarization, that ill, when the incident
field is given by Eq. (5-113). Note that thiB problem ia completely dual to Prob. 5-34;
80 the solution is obtllinable by using the interchange of symbols of Table 3-2. Noto
that the solution reduces to the solution for a conducting cylinder as Jl4 - O.
15-36. Show that the solution of Prob. 5-34 in the nonmagnetic csse reducea to

E.·_ ---..
-jrE. (ka)l(fo. _1)H,CIl(k,)
4

where Il-- ~/I" Repeat for the opposite polarization, using the result of Prob. 5-35.
6~7. Con&idcr a conducting half plAne eovering the. - 0 surface and a ..polariud
plane wave of m~nitude B, incident at. an angle Q'. The IOlution is given by Eq.
(5-129). Show that. the current on the half plane is

J. _ :8, ..'L\' ,
]W~P
•
nj./IJ./1(kp) sin n:'
262 TIME-llMUIONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

&0 d 2£
B • ;;:0'
.
Show that near the edge of the half plane

.,.....0 ., ~
1. _ _ 8. =aio-
1-
•

jkp
p

--J2---;- .
IUD
.'
.' Il1D
2" . "2
1/1

Bence, E. vanishes lUI VfP, and J. bceomCll infinite as 1/v'kP. This is a geoc.ral
characteristic of knife odgea.
6-38. ColUlider the half plane of Prob. 5-37 with the incident plano wave polarized

..
tral1llverse to %. The solution is given by Eq. (&-134) Show that the currcDt on the
half plano is
•
'\' T'
Show that. DeAl" the knife edge
..,
J, - 2H. ~ ..;..IIJ.II (I:,,) CO!!

J,_2H,
.~,

2 1/1'. 1/1
E,k;:O -"llo jrkpC08"2Sln"2

where .' i$ the angle of incidence and 4> the angle to the field point. Nol-e that J, is
finite at p - 0, while E, bceoroCll infinite as l/...;t;. This is abo a gencc!l1 charlot-
teristic of knife edges.
6-39. Figuro 5-344 show. a conducting cylinder with an aria11y pointing magnetic
dipole Kl on ita surface at. • - 0, Z - O. Show that the radiation field is given by

where r. ill Neumann'. number.

z z Z

-- ~

~ f!'.
KI >II n
X X X
r- b-l
--- . ---..
(a) (b) (e)
Flo. 5-34. Conducting cylinder with to) axial magnetic dipole on its surface, (b) uial
eleetric dipole a distance b from t.he AXis, and (e) radial electric dipolc on its surface.
li-4.0. Consider the uill.lIy pointing electric dipole a dilltance b from the axill of II.
conducting cylinder of radius G, 8.8 shown in Fig. 5-34b. Show that t.he radiation field
is given by
•
E, _/(,) sin' \' J .(a)N.~) - N .(a)1.~) ,'~/"

where a - ka sin 8 and fJ - 1b ain 8.

.---
~ H.!II(a)
 CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 263
6-41. Consider the radially pointing electric dipole on a conducting cylinder of
radius a, M shown in Fig. 5-34<:. Show that in the z _ 0 plane (in which Illics) the
radiation field is given by
•
~ nj" sin nq,
E. - f(P) ~ H ~(I)'(ka)
• -I

The field in other directions hM both 9 and q, components.

6-42. Figure 5-35a shows a conducting half plane with a magnetic dipole parallel
to the edge, a distAnce a from it, and on the side 4> - O. Show that the radiation
field is
•
Eo - j~~1 e-;lr sin 9 l
•• 0
'..itO/IJ.11(ka sin 8) eos n:

where~. is Neumann's number.

6-43. Suppose that the magnetic dipole of Fig. 5-35a points in tho x direction
instead of the % direction. Show that the radiation field is then given by

K/,e-/lr
E, - 4r . 9
ar
I• n,
nj"ItJ"u(ka sin 8) sin-
81n
.-, 2

E. - j:t e-il' sin 8 2:.-0 ~,.j

•
..I'.t"II(k4 sin 9) cos n2</J

z x
p

II
x

FlO. 5-35. A eonducting half plane with a Fro. 5-36. Electric current element on the
magnetie dipole on the side 4> - 0 a dis- edge of a conducting wedge.
tance a from the edge.
6-U. Consider the z-directcd electric dipole on the edge of a. eonducting wedge, M
shown in Fig. 5-36. Show that in the plane of the element the radiation field is given
by

For a half plane, the pattern is a cardioid with a. null in the 4> - 0 direction.
 CHAPTER 6

SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS

6-1. The Wave Functions. The spherical coordinate system is the

simplest one for which a coordinate surface (r = constant) is of finite
extent. The usual definition of spherical coordinates is shown in Fig. 6-1.
Once again we must determine solutions to the scalar Helmholtz equation,
from which we ma.y construct electromagnetic fields.
In spherical coordinates the Helmholtz equation is

f, :r (r ~) + r* ~n 9 :9 (sin 9 ~) + r* s;n* 9 ;~ + kty, -

l
0 (6-1)

Again .....e use the method of separation of variables and let

(6-2)

Substituting this into Eq. (6-1), dividing by 'It. a.nd multiplying by

r* sin' 9, we obtain

~ 2. (
R dr r dr
,dR) + sinII 9!!..d9 (. 8 dH)
SID d9
d~ + k'r' sm
+ ell! d¢* . '8 = 0
Tbe ¢ dependence is now separa.ted out, and we let

(6-3)

where m is a constant. Substitution of this into the preceding equation

and division by sin l 9 yields

1 d (
Rdr T dr
,dR) + Hsin9d9
1 d ( . dH) m' + k'r' "'" 0
sm9 d9 -sin'9

This scparatal the rand 0 dependence. An apparently strange choice of

separation constant n is made according to

1 d (. dH) -
H sin Od9 SID 0 d8
m'
sin' 8 = -n(n + 1) (64)

...
because the properties of the H functions depend upon whether or not n
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 265
z
r
I
I
Flo. ~L The spherical • I
I
coordinate system.
y

is an integer. With this choice the preceding equation becomes

R dr
a( aR)
1 _ 1'2_ -n(n+l)+k 2r 2 ..,O
-
dr
(6-5)

which completes the separation procedure.

Collecting the above results, we have the trio of separated equations

a( aR) + (kr)' - n(n + I)IR - 0

- r'-
d1' dr
a(.am edi
sin1 8 d8 aH) + [n(n + 1) - f:in2m' e] H"., 0 (6-6)
a"l>
- + m"l> ~ 0
a~'

Note that there is now no interrelationship between separation constants.

The ~ equation is the familiar harmonic equation, giving rise to solutions
h(m41). The R equation is closely related to Bessel's equation. Its solu-
tions are called spherical Bessel functions, denoted b.(k1'), which are
related to ordinary Bessel functions by

(&-7)

(see AppendiX" D). The 8 equation is related to Legendre's equation, and

ita solutions are called a3sociaied Legerulre functiona. We shall denote
solutioDS in general by L."(C08 8). Commonly used solutions are
L..... (C08 0) "..." P .... (C08 8), Q.... (cos 8) (6-8)

where P ."(cos 8) are the associated Legendre functions of the first kind
and Q.-(C09 8) are the associated Legendre functions oC the second kind.
These are considered in some detail in Appendix E. We caD DOW form
266 TIME-JiARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

product solutions to the Helmholtz equation as

f ... - b.(kr)L.-(cos 9)h(m~) (&-9)
These are the elementary wave functions (or the spherical coordinate
system.
Again we can ;construct more general solutions to the Helmholtz equa-
tion by forming linear combinations of the elementary wave functions.
The most general form that we shall have occasion to use is a summation
over possible values of m and n

• •
~ II C_.•b.(kr)L.-(cos 9)h(m~)
-. (6-10)

where the C.... are constants. Integro.tions over m and n are also solu·
tions to the Helmholtz equation, but such forms are not needed (or OUf
purposes.
The ho.rmonic functions h(mlj) have already been considered in Sec.
4-1. If a singlc-valued y, in the range 0 to 2.. Oil 4J is desired, we must
choose h(m;.) to be a linear combination of sin (mQ) and cos (m.p), or of
~ and r~, with m an integer. A study of solutions to the associated
Legendre equation shows that aU solutions have singula.rities a.t 6 - 0 or
6 = 'I' except the P.-(cos 6) with n an integer. Thus, if oJ- is to be finite
in the range 0 to 'I' on 6, then n must also be an integer and L.-(C08 6)
must be P.-(cos 9). The spherical Bessel functions behave qualitatively
in the same manner 88 do the corresponding cylindrical Bessel functions.
Thus, for k real, i.(1cr) and n .. (kr) represent standing waves, h.(II(kr)
represents au inward-traveling wave, and h..(l)(kr) represents an outwnrd-
traveling wave. IncidentaUy, it turns out that the spherical Bessel
functions are simpler in form than thc cylindrical Bessel functions. For
examplc, the zero-order functions are

Jo sin -
. (k r ) .... - kr
kr
(&-11)
no(kr) .... _ cos kr
kr
The higher-order functions are polynomials in l/kr times sin (kr) and
C06 (kr), which can be readily obtained from the recurrence formula.
The only spherical Bessel functions finite at r = 0 are the i.(Jrr). Thus,
to represent a finite field inside a sphere, the elementary wave functions
are
"'_.• - i.(kr)P.-(cos 9).... r 0 included
:IZ (&-12)
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 267

with m and n integers. To represent a finite field outside of a sphere, we

must choose outward-traveling waves (proper behavior at infinity).
Hence,
'!'",.... = h"U)(kr)P,,"'(cos 8)ei"'. r --+ !Xl included (6-13)
with m and n integers, arc the desired elementary wave functions.
To represent electromagnetic fields in terms of the wave functions ,!"
we can use the method of Sec. 3-12. This involve.s letting y, be a rec-
tangular component of A or F. The z component is most simply related
to spherical components; hence the logical choice is
A = u.y, = Ury, cos fJ - uey,sin fJ (6~14)

which generates a field TM to z. Explicit expressions for the field com-

ponents in terms of,!, are given in Prob. 6-1. The dual choice is
F = u.'" = ur'!' cos 8 - U6'" sin 8 (6-15)
which generates a field TE to z. Explicit expressions for the field com-
ponents are given in Prob. 6-1. An arbitrary electromagnetic field in
terms of spherical wave functions can be constructed as a superposition
of its 'I'M and TE parts.
An alternative, and somewhat simpler, representation of an arbitrary
electromagnetic field is also possible in spherical coordinates. Suppose
we attempt to construct the field as a superposition of two parts, one TM
to r and the other TE to r. For this we choose A = urA, and F = urF'"
with the field being given by Eq. (3-79). The A, a.nd F, are not solutions
to the scalar Helmholtz equation, because 'V 1 A. ¢ ('V 2A),. To determine
the equations that A. and F r must satisfy, we return to the general equa-
tions for vector potentials [Eqs. (3-78)]. For the magnetic vector poten-
tial we let A = u,A, and expand the first of Eqs. (3-78). The 0 and q,
components of the resulting equation are, respectively,

where <Il" is an arbitrary scalar. Note that the above two equations are
satisfied identically jf we choose

(6-16)

Substituting this into the r-componcntequation obtained from the expan-

sion of Eq. (3-78), we have

c'A,
or'
+ r_1_ ~ ( . CA')
2 sin 0 00 SID (J 00
1
+ rl sin' c'A, k'A-
8 a¢' + ,- 0 (6-17)
 268 TruE-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

It readily caD be shown that this equation is

(V' + k') A, _ 0 (6-18)

r
so Ar/r is a solution to the scalar Helmholtz equation. A dual develop-
ment applies to the electric vector potential. To be explicit, if we take
F = urFn substitute into the second of Eqs. (3-78), and choose

-zif>'> ~ aF, (6-19)

ar
we find that (v. +k')F,=0 (6-20)
r

is the equation for Fr. Thus, electromagnetic fields can be constructed

by choosing
(6-21)

where r = Urr is the radius vector from the origin and the y,'s Brc solu-
tions to the Helmholtz equation. The field is found from the above
vector potentials by Eq. (3-79), which is explicitly

E ~ -V X "" + -g1 V X V X fOP

(6-22)
1
H = V X r.p +!V X V X 'of'

These we shall find sufficiently general to express any a-e field in a source-
free homogeneous region of space.
The 1//a of Eqs. (6-22) arc always multiplied by T, and, because of this,
it is convenient to introduce another type of spherical Bessel function,
defined as '
A r;;;;.
".(kr) - krb.(kr) - "';2 B.+M(kr) (6-23)

These arc the spherical Bessel functions used by Schelkunoff. l Their

qualitative behavior is the same as the corresponding cylindrical Bessel
function. The differential equation that they satisfy is

.'!: + k' _ n(n + 1)] h. _ 0 (6-24)

[ dr2 r2

which can be obtained by substituting for b.. in terms of lJ.. in the first of
Eqs. (6-6). General forms for the AT and FT in terms of the spherical

lB. A. Bchelkunoff, "Electromagnetic Waves," pp. 51-52, D. Van Nostrand Com-

pany, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1943.
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 269
Bessel functions of Eq. (6-23) are
I C_.•ll.(kr)L.-(cos 9)h(m~)
m••
(6-25)

where the e...... are constants. The considerations involved in choosing

specific forms for 13..(kr), L,,"'(cos 0), and h(mq,) are the same as those used
in Eqs. (6-12) and (6-13).
For future reference, let us tabulate explicit formulas for finding the
field components in terms of A, and F,. Letting A = u~A, and F = u,F'"
and expanding Eqa. (3-79), we obtain

E, =
(a.
1i1 ar2 + kt ) A,
E, = --=-!...- aF~ + l a2 A,
r sin 0 a¢ f)r ar ao
E _! of, + 1 a' A,
• r ao f)r sin 0 ar aep
H. = '1£ ar 2 (a. + k )F. t
(6-26)

H, = _1_ aA. + ..!. a2P.

rsin 8 aq, ~rara8
H __ ! aA, + 1 a'F,
• r ao ir sin 8 aT aq,
When F, ::u 0, that is, when only A, exists, we have a field TM to r.
Similarly, when A. = 0, the .$.bove equations represent a field TE to r.
6-2. The Spherical Cavity. Figure 6-2 shows the spherical cavity,
formed of a conducting sphere of radius a enclosing a homogeneous dielec-
tric t, p. We shall find it possible to satisfy the boundary conditions
(tangential components of E vanish at r = a) using single wave functions.
For modes TE to T we choose

m~) z
F, _ J.(kr)P.-(cos 9)
1J cos
smm,+,
(6-27)
wbere m and n are integers. The J..
is chosen because the field must be
finite at r "'" 0; the P,,'" is chosen be-
cause the field must be finite at 8 = 0 y
and 'lI'. The field components are
tben found from Eq. (6-26) with
A, = 0 and F. as given above. Note X
that E, = E. = 0 at r "'" a if
J .(kG) - 0 (6-28) FlO. 6-2. The spherical cavity.
270 T(ME-HARMONlC ELECTROMAGNETJC FIELDS

TABLE 6-1. ORDERED ZEnas 1.1•• 0' J.. (U)

~n 1 2 3 4
• 6 7 8

1 4.493 5.763 6.988 8.183 9.356 10.513 11.657 12.791

2 7.725 9.095 10.417 11.705 12.967 14.207 15.431 16.641
3 10.904 12.323 13.698 15.040 16.355 17.648 18.923 20.182
4 14.006 15.515 16.924 18.301 19.653 20.983 22.295
•
6
17.221
20.371
18.689
21.&54
ZO.122 21.525 22.905

Hence 1m must be a zero of the spherical Bessel fUDction. The denumec-

ably infinite set of zeros of J.. (u) are ordered as U.. p • Table 6-1 givC8 the
lower-order zeros.
We now satisfy the boundary conditions by choosing

k = u"" (6-29)
a
which is the condition for resonance. Hence, the TE to r mode functions
are

(Fr ) ...." = J( a') P..

II ?Lot,. "'(cos 9) Jcosm¢)
l sin m¢ (6-30)

where m = 0, 1, 2, . . . ; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ; and p = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
The field is given by Eqs. (6-26) with A. = O.
If an A. is chosen of the form of Eq. (6-27), we generate a field TM to T.
The boundary conditions E, = E. = 0 at T = a arc then satisfied if
J~(ka) ~ 0 (6-31)

so ka must be a zero of the derivative of the apherical Bessel function for

TM modes. The denumerably infinite set of zeros of j~(1L') are ordered
as U~PI and the lower-order ones are given in Table 6-2.

TAllLE 6-2. ORDERED ZEROS u~" Of' J~(u')

>-; 1 2 3 4 5
• 7 8

1 2.744 3.870 4.973 6.062 7.140 8.211 9.275 10.335

2 6.117 7.443 8.722 9.968 11.189 12.391 13.579 14.753
3 9.317 10.713 12.064 13.380 14.670 15.939 17.190 18.425
4 12.486 13.921 15.314 16.674 18.009 19.321 20.615 21.894
5 15.64.4 17.103 18.524 19.915 21.281 22.626
•
7
18.796
21. 946
20.272 21.714 23.128
 8PHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 271
Our boundary conditions are now satisfied by choosing
,
k = u .." (6-32)
a
which is the condition for resonance. The TM to r mode functions are
therefore

(A r ) ..... , =
,
J .. ( u.... a
r) P .."'(cos8) 1I sinmq,
m~)
cos (6-33)

where m = 0, 1, 2, . . . in"" 1, 2, 3, . . . ; and p = 1, 2, 3, . . . .

~ The field is giv.e:n by Eqs. (6-26) with F r = O.
The resonant frequencies of the TE and TM modes are found from
Eqs. (6-29) and (6-32), respectively. Letting k = Ztrfr V;, we have

(f,) TE u..,.
r ...... =2 .r-
'll'a
,v fJJ
(6-34)
')TM =
(J. 'U .."
"'....
21fa v_ ~
fjJ.

Note that there are numerous degeneracies (same resonant frequencies)

among the modes, since fr is independent of m. For example, the three
lowest-order TE modes are defined by

(Fr ) 0,1,1 = J t ( 4.493 ~) cos 8

(F.)iTl = JI(4.493~)sin8cosq,
(FrH~t.t = Jl (4.493~) sin 8 sin ¢
where superscripts "even" and "odd" have been a.dded to denote the
choice cos mq, and sin m¢, respectively. These three modes have the
same mode patterns except that they are rotated 900 in space from each
other. The next higher TE resonance has a fivefold degeneracy, the
modes being ordered (0,2,1), (1,2,1) even, (1,2,1) odd, (2,2,1) even, and
(2,2,1) odd. In this case there are two characteristic mode patterns.
For each integer increase in n, the degeneracy increases by two, since
P..-(cos 8) exists only for m S; n. The situation for TM modes is anal-
ogous.
We see by Eqs. (6-34) that the resonant frequencies are proportional
to tbe u .." and u~p. Hence, from Tables 6-1 and 6-2 it is evident that the
modes in order of ascending resonant frequencies are TM""I.l, TM.. ,2,l,
TE,..,I,l, TM... 1.1, TE",.1,11 and so on, The lowest-order mode~ ar~ then;-
272 TIME-llAR~tONlC ELECTRm,UONETIC FIELDS

e •
. 9 ( - - ...... -

Flo. 6-3. Mode pattern for the dominant. modes of the spherical cavity.

(ore the three TM",.I.I modes. Except for a rotation in space, these three
modes havo the same mode pattern, which is sketched in Fig. 6-3.
The Q of the lowest-order modes is also of interest. For this calcula.-
tion, consider the TM u . 1 mode. The magneLic field is given by

H. - ~ 1 (2.744~) sin IJ
1

Following the procedure of Sec. 2-8, we calculate the stored energy as

w = 2W. -" III IHl'd.

=JJ Jo2·d~ for dB !o"drH.2rtsinIJ
The 8 and q, integrations are easily performed, giving

w - S;" 1.'J,' (2.744~)dr

This last integral is evaluated as l
(. a
J. J,'(kT) dr - 2 [J,'(ka) - 1.(ka)J,(ka)]
which, for ka II: 2.744, is numerically equal to 1.14/k. Thus, the stored
energy is
w _ 8;: (1.14) (1)-3.>)

The power dissipated in the conducting walls is approximately

tl', - Illlff> 11l1'd. = ill 8; 1,'(2.744) (1)-36)

Hence, the Q of the cavity is

_ Q _ ~W _ ~"(1.14) = 1.01 l! (1)-37)
~ kIllJ ,'(2.744) ill
I E. Jahnke and F. Emde, "Tablea of Functiona." p. 146, Dover Publications, New

York, 1945 (reprint).

 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 273
Comparing this with Eqs. (5-58) and (2-102), we see that the spherical
cavity has a. Q th3.t is 25 per cent higher than the Q of a circular cavity of
height equal to its diameter and 35 per cent higher than the Q of a cubic
cavity. The Q's of higher-order modes are given in Prob. 6-4.
6-3. Orthogonality Relationships. In many ways the Legendre poly-
nomials are qualitatively similar to sinusoidal functions. For example,
the P.. (cos 8), sometimes called zonal harmonics, form a complete orthog-
onal set in the interval 0 to 11" on 8. An arbitrary function can therefore
be expanded in a series of Legendre polynomials in this interval, similar
to the Fourier series in sinusoidal functions. The functions P.... (cos 8)
cos mq, and P.."'(cos 0) sin 1»4', sometimes called te88eral harmonics, form
a complete orthogonal set on the surface of a sphere. Hence, an arbi-
trary function defined over the surface of a sphere can be expanded in a
series of tessel'al harmonics. We shall, in this section, derive the neces-
sary orthogonality relationships.
For our proof it is convenient to use Green's theorem [Eq. (3-44)],
which is

1ft (~, ~~ - ~, ~:,) ds - Iff (~,V"", - ~,V"",) dT (6-38)

The right-hand side vanishes if 1ft and 1f, are well behaved solutions to
the same Helmholtz equation. Assuming this to be the case and applying
Eq. (6-38) to a sphere of radius r, we have

rl 10
2
., d¢ fa" dO sin 0 ( 1fl 0;1 - 1f, at) = 0 (6-39)

In particular, choose
'" ~ j.(kT)P .(cos e) ~, ~ j.(kr)P.(cos e)
which are solutions to the Helmholtz equation. Equation (6-39) then
becomes
27rkT'(j,.j~ - jqj~) 10" p,.pq sin 0 dO = 0

This must be valid for all Tj 80, if n ,e q, the integral itself must vanish.
Hence,
fo" P ..(cos O)Pq(cos 0) sin 0 dO = 0 (6-40)

When n "'" '1, we have

for [P.. (cos O)p sin 0 dO = 2n ~ 1 (6-41)

which can be obtained by using Eq. (E-lO) and integrating by parts.

274 TIM:E-BAltMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

To obtain a Legendre polynomial representation of a function /(8) in

o to 'It: on 6, we assume
l•
fee) -
.-. a.P.(COB e)

Multiply each side by P ,(cos 8) sin 8 and integrate from 0 to 'If

(6-42)

on B.
•
J: f(e)p,(c,," e) sin ede - l a. J: P.(c,," e)p,(c,," e) sin ede
.-.
Each integral on the right vanishes by Eq. (6-40), except the one n - P,
which is given by Eq. (6-41). The result is

a. - 2.+11.'
2 • f(B)P .(c,," B) sin B de (6-43)

Equation (6-42) with the coefficients determined by Eq. (6-43) is called a

Fourier-Legendre &erie.. It converges in the same sense as the usual
Fourier series.
For a more general result, define tbe tesseml harmonics as
T••·(e,~) - P.-(cos e) COB m~
(6-44)
T...~(81t/J) = P..... (cos 8) sin mt/J
and assume two solutions to the HelmholLz equation as

These are well behaved within a sphere of radius r; hence Eq. (&-39) applies
and reduces to

kr2(j,J~ - ivj~) 102• d¢ 10" dB T....·1',/ sin Bde "" 0

The term outside the integral vanishes for arbitrary T only when n - q;
hence

n"q

For the t/I integration, we have the known orthogonality relationships

102" sin m</1 sin p</1 dt/l 0 ::::II

r"·8lDmt/lsinp</1dt/l = Jor" cosmt/lcospt/ldt/l - (0...

)0
m"p
m-p¢O
(6-45)
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNOl'IONS 275
Hence, the final orthogonality can he expressed 88

I:' d~ I; d9 T,.'(9,~)T ..'(9,~) sin 9 - 0

(6-46)
10 ... dq, /0" d8 T .....'(8,q,) T
2
pq l(8,q,) sin 8 = 0 m,n ¢ p,g

where i ... e or o. \Vhen m, n "" p, <1, we have

4T
m=O,i=e
2n+1
d~ f, d9 [T•• '(9,~)J 8m 9 -
2. . . . . t'
10 2r !n + m)l
i 2n + 1 (n - m)! m '" 0
(6-47)
which can be obtained by using Eq. (E-16) for P ..... and integrating on 8
by parts.
A two-dimensional Fourier-Legcndrc series can now be obtained for a.
function !(O,q,) on n spherical surface. For this we assume
. .
f(9,~) - l l
... 0 ... _0
(a.S••' + b.S,.')
• •
= l L (a .... cos mq, + b..... sin m41)P.....(cos 0)
.. ·0 ... -0
(6-48)

multiply each side by T 1/) sin 0, and integrate over 0 to 2r on rP and 0 to

on 8, All terms except those ha.ving tn, n = p, q vanish by Eqs. (6-46),
'lr

and by Eqs. (6-47)

a,. -
2n + 1 }o("
4...
(.
d~}o d9 f(9,~) P.(coa 9)

2n + 1 (n - m) I (', (' .
a,. = 2. (n +
m)!}o d~}o d9f(9,~)T,.'(9,~)8m 9 (6-49)

b. o -
2n + 1 (n
2.
- m)! (2'" r'" .
(n + m)l}o d~}o d9f(9,~)T,.'(9,~)8m 9

The series Eq. (6-48) with coefficients Eqs. (6-49) converges in the same
sense as the usual Fourier series.
Still another orthogonality relationship is of interest when dealing with
vector fields. To establish the desired relationship, we start from the
Lorcntz reciprocity theorem (Eq. (3-34)], which is

1P (Eo X H' - E' X Ho) . ds - 0 (6-50)

valid when no sources are within the surface of integration.! l<'(lr the
I We could just as well use the vector Green's thoorem, Eq. (3.46).
276 TIME-HARMONIC ELECfROMAGNETIC FIELDS

a and b fields, choose those obtained from Eqs. (6-26) with F r """ 0 and
At ~ J.(kr)T•• ;(B,~) A,' - J.(kr)T,,;(B,~)

respectively. Applying Eq. (6-50) to a sphere of radius r, we obtain

!(J'J -J'J) ("d~ ('dB(' BaT.jaT,.' +_1_aT••'aT",)_o

o . q '''}o )0 sm ao a8 sin 8 84> oq,
For arbitrary T and n '" q this equation CRn be satisfied only if the inte-
gral vanishes. Also, by the orthogonality relationships of Eqs. (6-45)
the integra.l vanishes if m ¢ p and i ¢ j. Thus,

('1'" dq, f" dB (Sin 8 aT"'../ aTpl + _._1_ aT....' iJT p,/) ~ 0
}o}o ao ao smO iJq, o,p
m, n, i :;I! P, q, i (6-51)
When m, n, i ;::>I p, q, j, we have

r d~ j,' dB [Sin B(a~;.;)' + do e~;';)']

"",,(n + 1)

l
m = 0, i"'" e
2n + 1
(6-52)
~ 2",,(n + I) (n + m)!
2n + 1 (n m)!

which can be obtained by integrating once by parts and using Eq. (6-47).
6-4. Space as a Waveguide. We have seen that in a complete
spherical-shell region (0 ::; 8 ::; 71,0 ::; q, ::; 211") only spherical wave func-
tions of integral m and n give a finite field. The fields specified by these
wa.ve functions can be thought of as the Hmodes of free space." When
viewed in this manner, the space is oft-en called a 8pherical waveguide,
even though there is no material guiding the waves.
The spherical coordinate system is defined in Fig. 6-1. There exists a
set of modes TM to T, generated by

( A) , - 7' '(B) J
r "''' - ....
n.'O)(h)!
,q, \ 11,,(21(kr) (6-53)

where n = I, 2, 3, . . . ; m = 0, 1, 2, ' , . , ni and i = e or o. The

T functions are defined by Eqs. (6-44), and the field is given by

(6-54)

Inward-traveling waves are represented by the (!) and outward-a..

traveling waves by the 11.. (2), In the dual sense there exists a set of
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 277
modes TE to r, genera.ted by

,- , In.W(Ier»)
(F,)•• - T.. (e,~) n.m(kr) (6-55)

where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ; m = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n; and i = e or o. The

field is given by

HT£;
1
= --.-VXE~~i
•• (6-56)
!w.
Thc set of TM plus TE modes is complete, that is, a summation of them
cRn be used to represent an arbitrary field in a source-free region. Mode
patterns for the TM ol and TE ot modes are sketched in Fig. 6-4. The
'fM and TE modes are dual to each other; so an interchange of E by H
and H by -E in Fig. 6-4 gives the TEo I and TM ot mode patterns.
The spherical modes are qualitatively similar to the radial modes of
Sec. 5-3. There is no well-defined cutoff wavelength but rather a Ir cutoff
radius." To illustrate, consider the radially directed wave impeda.nces
for the TM modes
E,+ E.+. B .. C21 / (kr)
Z+,'" = H.+ = - H,+ "'" 1'1 B,,(2)(kr)
(6-57)
E,- E.- . B,,{l)/(kr)
= - H.- = H,- = -JY] O,,(I)(kr)

where the superscripts + and - denote outward- and inward-traveling

waves, respectively. Note that, for real Y] a.nd k, Z_/'M = (Z+r™)*. For

9(---_
(b)

Fro. 6-4. Mode patterns lor the (a) TM ol and (b) TE ol modes ollrce space.
278 TDlE-HARMONIC ELEC'rROYAGNETlC FIELDS

the TE modes the radially directed wa.ve impedances are

Z n: 0:: E,+ __ E.+ '"'" _j." B.(t)CJ.;r)
+r lJ.+ H.+ O.Ull(kr)
(6-58)
ZTE
E.- E.- J":;11~("ik::rl
o.
- H.- H.- "' 11 ,,(l)'(kr)

The behavior of these wave impedances is qualitatively similar to the

behavior of the twtrdimensional wave impedances, illustrated by }~ig.
5-6. In other words, the wave impedances of Eqs. (6-57) and (6-58) are
predominantly reactive when kr < n, aod predominantly resistive when
Icr > n. The value kr = n is the point of gradual cutoff. Nate that
this cutoff is independent of the mode number m.
The frequency derivative of the various wave impedances is of interest
for determining the bandwidth of various devices (see Sec. 6-13). A
Dovel way of representing this frequency derivative, which also illustrates
the above cutoff phenomenon l was devised by ProCessor Chu. 1 He took
the wave impedances and, using the recurrence formulus for spherical
Bessel functions, obtained a partial fraction expansion. For example,
for the TM impedance of outward-traveling waves

Z+rTV. "'" 1'1 {j~ + 2n _ 1 +l 1

jkr 2.3+
jkr

(6-.\9)

1
+-3- 1
-+~­
jkr j~ + 1

This can be interpreted as a ladder network of series capacitances and

shunt inductances, as shown in Fig. ~5a. The equivalent circuit (or the
TE.. modes is shown in Fig. 6-5b. Those of us familiar with filter theory
will recognize thc equivalent circuits as high-pass filters. The dissipation
in the resistive element at the end of the network represents the trans-
mitted power in the field problem. It is therefore apparent that, for
fixed r, the higher the mode number n the less easily power is transmitted
by a spherical waveguide mode.
I L. J. Chu, Physical Limitations of Omnidirectional Antennas, J. Appl. Phl/., vol.

19, pp. 1163-1175, December, 194.8.

 8PHERICAL WAVE F'ONcrION8 279
"
2n-3
- - - - f--...,.--i"f---,-- - - ---
ZTII _ _
•• "'
L 2n-I
'--

la,

"
C· 2n-1 "
2n-5
~------,,-""'H"--..,...--i'f-
-- - -.-
z'£ __
••

'"
FIG. 6--5. Equivalent circuits for the (0) TM.. And (b) TE... model of free apaee.

A quality factor Q. for modes of order n can now be defined 88

(6-60)
'W.. > 'W.

where W. and W.. are the average electric and magnetic energies stored
in the C's and L's, and (J' is the power dissipated in the resistance. In
TM waves 'W. > OW.., while in TE wa.ves 'W. > OW.. However, the two
eases are dual to each other; so the Q's of TM waves are equal to the Q's
of the corresponding TE waves. An approximate calculation of the Q's
for Q > 1 is shown in Fig. 6-6. Note that for kr > n the wave imped-
ances are low Q and for kr < n they arc high Q_ This again illustrates
the cutoff phenomenon that occurs at kr - n.
6-6. Other Radial Waveguides. A number of structures capable of
supporting radially traveling waves can be obtained by covering 8 = con..
stant and ~ - constant surfacee with conductors. Such II radial wave-
guides" are e.ho·.rn in Fig. &-7.
We can have waves outside or inside eo single conducting cone, 88 shown
in Fig. &-70 and b. These two cases are actually a single problem with
two different values of 81• The fields must be periodic in 2.. on 1/1 and
280 -
TWE-RARMONIC ELECTROWAGNE'rIC I'l.ELDS

kr
10'10.6-6. Quality factor'll Q. for the TM•• and TE... modes of free llP:t.ee.

finite at 6 = O. Hence, we choose the TM to r mode functions

. mq,
(A,)" - P,'(eos 9) cos
I I '"
• n,"'(kr)
am m",
(6-61)

where m = 0, 1,2, . . .. To satisfy tho boundary condition E r = E. - 0

at () = 01, the parnmet.er v must be a solution to
P ,,(cos 9,) - 0 (6-62)
Also, we choose the TE to T mode functions

(F,),. - P,'(eos 8 ) '"

cosm,pl B,'~(lT) (6-63)
(. smmep
where m = 0, 1, 2, .. _ _ To satisfy the boundary condition E. = 0 at
8 = 81, the parameter" must be a solution to

(6-64)
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 281

zl

~
"

(0) (0) (e)

-
(d) (.) (f)
Flo. 6-7. Borne spherically radial waveguides. (a) Conical (wavC8 external); (b)
conical (waves internal); (c) biconical; (d) couial; (e) wedge; (f) born.

Because of a scarcity of tables for the eigenvalues v, it is difficult to obtain

numerical values. The field components are, of course, obtained from
the A, and F, by Eqa. (1)-26).
The biconical and coaxial guides of Fig. 6-7c and d are again a single
mathematical problem. Now both 8 = 0 and 8 = 'If are excluded kom
the region of 6eldj so two Legendre solutions, P.-(cos 8) and Q.-(cos 8),
or P.-(cos 8) and P.-( - coe 8), are needed. Choosing the latter two
sohfiions, we find modes TM to T defined by

(A,),. = [P.'(eoa 8) p."( -eoa 8,) - p."( -eoa 8) P."(eoa 8,)]

lc?S m4» fJ.l::(kf') (6-65)
18lD m4J
where m = 0, 1,2, . . . I and the v are determined by the rootB of
P.-(eos e,)p,,(- cos e,) - P.-(- cos e,)P.-(eos e,) = 0 (6-66)
I
282 TW&-IIARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC :rtELDS

Similarly, for the modes TE to r we have

(F,)_, _ [p,-(COS 8) dP,-( ~8'cOS 8,) P,_( _ cos 8) dP,-~~~s 8,)]

(~7)
where m = 0, 1,2, . . . ,and the 1:1
lc?Sm4>\
sm mq,
are determined by the
n.al(kr)

TOOts of
dP,-(cos 8,) dP,-( - cos 8,) _ dP,-( - cos 8,) dP,-(cos 8,) _ 0 (6-65)
de! d(h dB, dB I
Again the field components are found from 'the A r and F r of Eqs. (6-65)
and (6-67) according to Eqa. (6-26).
The dominant mode of the biconical and coaxial guides is a. TEM, or
transmission-line, mode. The eigenvalues m = 0, v - 0 satisfy both
Eqs. (6-66) and (6-65), but the A, and F, of Eqs. (6-65) and (6-67) vanish.
We could redefine Eq. (6-65) such that the limit v - 0 exists, but instead
let us separately define the TEM mode 88 a TM oo mode defined by
(II B
(A,) .. - Q,(cos 8)B,"'(kr) - log cot 2 ('l'J)~tt (6-69)

The field components of this mode, determined from Eqs. (6-26), are
(

Eif' _ 'k
J. e±iAr
uxr 810 8
(6-10)
H
•
'f = ---i- e±i
+ 1'Sl08 kr

where the upper signs refer to inward-traveling waves and the lower signs
to outward-traveling waves. The wave impedance in the direction of
travel is

(6-11)

which is the same as for TEM waves on ordinary transmission lines.

The characteristic impedance defined in terms of voltage and current. is
of great-er interest.. At a given r, t.he volLage is defined as
E d ' 1 cot (8./2) .",
V 1:3
J.
I,
'-h
' r 8 -= 311 og cot (8J2) e (6-72)

and the current as

1 = f02~ H.,. sin 8 d,p - +21r;je±/i'r (6-13)
 SPHJ!:RICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 283
At small r these are the usual circuit quantities. The characteristic
impedance is
v+ V-, cot (8,/2)
Z, - [+ = - [_ = 2r log cot (8.12) (6-74)

Note that the various equations are the same as for the usual uniform
transmission lines. For this reason the biconical and coaxial radial lines
are called uniform radial transmission lines.
Spherical waves on the wedge waveguide of Fig. 6-7e exist for all fJ
but only for restricted fjI. Hence, the wave functions will contain only
the PIl"(cos 0) with n an integer and to determined by the boundary con-
ditions. We then find TM modes defined by

CA,)., = P.'CC08 8) 'in w~ n.lUCkr) (6-75)

where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,and
pr
w=- C6-76)
~,

with p = 1, 2, 3, The TE modes are defined by

'"
(F,)_ = P .'(C08 8) coo w~ l1.'''(kr) (6-77)
where n - I, 2, 3, . . . , and to is given by Eq. (6-76) with p "'" 0, 1,
2, . . .. There is no TEM spherical mode, the TEM mode being a
cylindrical wave defined by Eq,. (5-48) and (5-49).
Finally, the spherical-horn waveguide of Fig. 6-7/ will require Legendre
functionsL."(cos fJ) of nonint.egral v and w. The TM modcs can be defined
by Eqs. (6-65) and (6-66) with m changed to wand only the sin wq, func-
tions allowed. The values of to are those of Eq. (6-76). Similarly, the
TE mode, can be defined by Eq,. (6-67) and (6-68) witb m changed to w
and only the cos wq, functions allowed. Again, to is given by Eq. (6-76).
There will, of course, be no TEM mode.
6·6. Other Resonators. Resonators having modes expressible in terms
of single spherical wave functions can be obtained by closing each of the
radial waveguides of Fig. 6-7 by one or two conducting spheres. Some
examples are shown in Fig. 6-8. The fields in each case can be expressed
in terms of mode functioll8 which are the same as for the radial wave--
guides of the preceding section, except that the traveling-wave functions
11.(l)(kr) and 11..(I)(kr) are replaced by standing-wave functions J.(kT)
and IV.. (kr). Numerical calculations are hampered by a scarcity of tables
of eigenvalues.
Let us calculate the Q's for the dominant modes of the first three cavi-
tics of Fig. 6-8. For the hemispherical cavity of Fig. 6-80, the dominant
mode is the dominant TM to T mode of the complete spherical cavity,
284 TWE-BARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

z
"
zl zrt 'r

~a---ol
(a)
NJ f---a---l
(b) (0)
~!J
Z!

....~;, f
(d) (.) (f)
FlO. &-8. Some cavities having modes expressiblo in terms of singlc spherical wft.ve
functions. (a) Hemispherical; (6) hemisphere with cone; (e) biconical; Cd} conical;
(e) wedge; (f) !legmen".

considered in Sec. 6-2. The magnetic field is

ll. - ~ JI (2.744~) sin 8

and the stored energy is one-half that for the complete spherical cavity
[Eq. (6-35»); hence
4<.
w = 3k (1.14)

The power dissipated in the hemispherical part of the walls is one-half

that dissipated in the walls of the complete spherical cavity; hence
4r
(el'.) •••,...... = <liS (1.13)

The power dissipated in the plane wall is

I."
(el'.)_ - <R2r o H.~1,-,,/2 r dr = <lI2r(O.571)
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 285
Thus, the Q of the resonator is
~'W ,
Q - i$>, - 0.573 (ii (6-78)

If we compare this with the Q of a rectangular cavity (Eq. (2-102») and

with the Q of a circular cavity IEq. (5-58)1 we sec that, for the same
height-to-diameter ratios, the hemispherical cavity Q is only 3.2 per cent
higher than the rectangular cavity Q, and 4.5 per cent lower than the
circular cavity Q. The hemispherical cavity Q is 54 per cent less than
the spherical cavity Q, but we have removed the mode degeneracy.
From Tables 6-1 and 6-2 we find that the second resonant frequency is
1.41 times the lowest resonant frequency for the hemispherical cavity,
compared to approximately 1.58 for the rectangular and circular cavities.
The cavities of Fig. 6-8b and c arc theoretically important because they
have circuit terminals available. In other words, a voltage and current
calculated at the cone tips have the usual circuit theory interpretation.
The dominant mode
H _ A cos k(n - r) _ . A sin ken - r)
E:,'-3"1 rsin8
.. - r sin 8

will be excited if the cavity is fed across the cone tips. The voltage
secn by the source is
VI. = lim [" E. r d8 = 2'WjAZ o sin lea
r-o}"
where Zo is the characteristic impedance [Eq. (6-74)}. The current at
the source is
II. = lim
~O
j.2r H. r dq, =
0
2.. A cos ka

Hence, the input impedance seen by the source is

..
la
ZI. = V. = jZo tan ka
I
(6-79)

which is the usual formula for the input impedance of a short-circuited

uniform transmission line. (We saw in the preceding section that the
TEM mode of the bieonieal guide is a uniform transmission-line mode.)
The resona.nces occur when ka = n7:/2, or
nr
(6-80)
"n-"'-y;;;r.="
w. =2

where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. In the loss-free casc, the input impedance is

infinite for n odd (antiresonance) and zero for n even. When small
losses are present, tbe input impedance is large for n odd and Bmall for
n even.
 TIllE-HARMONIC ELEcrnOYAONETIC nELDS

Let US consider the lowest resonance (n =- 1) in more detail. The

input conductance at resonance can be determined from the power
losses as
G <T>" wOW
I. - rv:fi - Ql vl.I'
The energy stored 'W is simply calculated as

VI =. Iff IHI'd. = ~ IAI'Z,

T·Z. T
Thus Gla """
Q(2rZ,)' - --
- 4Z,Q
(6-31)

where Z. is given by Eq. (6-74) and Q can be calculated in the usual

manner as 1
T'
Q - 4<ll 1
I+ csc 8 1 +
0.824 iOi!{cot (0,72) tan (0,/2)]
CSC 8, \-. (6-32)

This Q is maximum when 81 .,. T - 8, := 33.5°, in which case

Q - 0.350;

Note that this is smaller than the Q's of other cavities that ,we have con-
sidered because of the introduction of the biconical feed system. In the
special case 8, =- 90°, we have the cone-fed hemispherical cavity of Fig.
6-&, for which

Q - 4<ll
T' [ 1
1 + 0.824 log cot (0';2)
+ CSC 8 1 ]-' (6-33)

This Q is maximum when 8• .,. 24.1°. in which case

Q - 0.276;

This is a lower Q than that for the hemispherical cavity without the cone
[Eq. (6-78»). because of the feed system. The input conductance [Eq.
(6-81» is not minimum when Q is maximum, because Zo is also a function
of 8. and 8,. For the biconical resonator (Fig. 6-&), the input conduct.-
ance is minimum when the cone angles are 81 "'" T - 8, =- 9.2°. For the
cone-fed hemispherical cavity (Fig. 6-8b), the minimum conduct-ance is
obtained when 81 _ 7.5°.
6-7. Sources of Spherical Waves. The sources of the lowest.-order
spherical waves are current elements, treated in Sec. 2-9. For exam·
• B. A. Schclkunorr, "Electromagnet.ic Waves," pp. 288-290, D. Van rJ08trand
Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1943.
 SPHERJCAL WAVE FUNcrJON6 287
Z z Z

, r

Xl r n
•
y y
In y

X X X
(0) (b) (0)

Z Z z

llt),
n
Y II
01
n
Y
.t
..
.1.
\0" .j
•t y

X X X
(d) (.) (f)
FlO. &-9. Some 8OU~ of spherical wavcs.

pte, the electric-current element of Fig. 6-9a radiates a field given by

H ... V X A with

(6-84)

where 1i.U> is the spherical Hankel function of Eq. (6-11). Alternatively,

the field can be represented by a radially directed A given by

(6-85)

The field of the current element is discussed in detail in Sec. 2-9. The
dual source is the magnetie-eurrent element of Fig. 6-9b. The field of
this source is given by E ,. - V X F where F. or F~ is the same as AI or
A. with I replaced by K.
Tbe fields of the dipole and higher-multi pole sources, rcpresented by
Fig. 6-9c to I, can be obtained by tbe same metbod as used in Sec. 5-6.
For example, for the dipole source of Fig. 6-9c,
288 TIME-HARMONIC ELECrROMAGNETIC FIELDS

where A,I is the potential from a single current element [Eq. (6-84»).
AI! the separation 8 is made small,
aA' jklls a
A • --+
_0
-8 - - ' -
IJz
-- -
4..- iJz
ho(t)(kr)

where r = -v!x t + yl + Z', Also,

Hence for the dipole of Fig. 6-9c

k'Ils
A. - 4.j h,U'(kT)P,(cos 8) (6-86)

and H = V X A. Thus, the vector potential is a first-order spherical

wave function.
For the dipole source of Fig. 6-9d, we have

which caD be written as

This is a first-order wave function of n co; 1, m - 1. Similarly, for the

dipole source of Fig. 6-ge, we find

kllla .
A. - 4.j h,U'(kr)p,'(cos 8) sm ~ (&-88)

Thus, all wave functions of order one can be interpreted as the A, of

dipole sources.
This procedure can be extended to higher-mullipole sources in &
straightforward manner. For example, for the quadrupole source of
Fig. 6-9/, we have
alA,! clA.(t)
A• = 81"-- -
all dz
-8,--
iJy

where A.m is for the dipole of Fig. 6-9c, given by Eq. (6-86). We also
 SPHERICAL WAVE l'UNm'IONS 289
MV.
!..
~
[h,'"{kr)P,{cos 9») = ~!..
rar
[h,<"{kr) ~]
T
ky,
- - - ht(t'(kr) ... -kh,(I)(k1') sin B cos B sin ~
r'
- ~ h,"'(kr)P,'(cos 9) sin ~
Hence tbe vector potential of the quadrupole of Fig. 6-9/ is
jk l IlJh8t l( .
A. = 12:11" ht(t kr)Ptl(cos 6) sm ifJ (6-89)

In this manner we can identify each wavc function of order n with the
A. of a multi pole source of 2n z-directed current elements.
6-8. Wave Transformations. Now that we have wave functions in
three basic coordinate geometries available, the number of possible wave
transformations becomes very large. We shall here establish only a few
representative transformations involving spherical wave functions. A
convenient method of obtaining the desired results is that of Sec. 5-8.
Let w first consider the plane wave eJ- and express it in terms of spheri-
cal wave functions. This wave is finite at the origin and independent
of +i hence an expansion of the form
•
e> = e>-' - I
a,.j.(r)P.(cos 9)
•••
must be possible (see Fig. 6-1 for tbe coordina.te orientation). To evalu-
ate the a.., multiply each side by P,(cos 8) sin 6 and integrate from 0 to
T on 6. Because of orthogonality (Eq. (6-40)], all terms except q "" n
vanish, and by Eq. (6-41) we have

1," c" _. P .(cos 9) sin 9 d9 - 2:;~ 1 j.(r)

The nth derivative of the left-hand side with respect to r evaluated at

,=Ois
. ('r . j" 2,,+t(n!)l
r j. cos' 9 p.(cos 9) sm 9d9 = (2n + 1)1
The nth derivative of the right-hand side evaluated at r - 0 is
2"+I(n!)I
(2n + 1)(2n + 1)1"
Hence, equo.ting the preceding two expressions, we obtain
a. - j'(2n + 1)
290 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

which, substituted back into our starting equation, gives

eP = .. - . - I•
• •0
j·(2n + l)j.(,)P.(cos8) (6-90)

Note that we have also established the identity

; ..(r) = i;" h" eir ...o ' P .. (cos 8) sin 6 dB (6-91)

Equation (6-90) is the desired transformation expressing a plane wave in

terms of spherical wave functions.
Transformations from cylindrical waves to spherical waves can be
obtained in a similar fashion. For example, consider the cylindrical wave
Jo(p), which is finite at T = 0, independent of ,p, and symmetrical about
8 = 7f/2. Hencc, there exists an expansion

J,(p) - J,(, sin 8) ~ I•

•• 0
b.j,.(,)P,.(cos 8)

As before, we multiply each side by P a(cas 8) sin 8 and integrate from

oto 11' on 8. The result 18

for Jll(r sin 8)P",(cos 8) sin 6 dB = 4;~ 1 ;I..(r) /

To determine the b", we differentiate each side 2n times with respect to r

and set r = O. This gives
b _ (-I)·(4n + 1)(2n - 1)1
.. 2 1 ..- l n!(n 1) I

Hence the desired wave transformation is

•
.
J,(p) ~ J,('8>08) ~
"\' (-I)·(4n
L.. 2'" 'nl(n 1)1
+
1)(2n - I) I .
],.(,)P,.(cos8)
•• 0
(6-92)
Note also that the two equations preceding Eq. (6-92) establish an inte-
gral formula for iz.. (r).
Now let us consider wave transformations corresponding to changes
from one spherical coordinate system to another. To illustrate, consider
the field of a point source at r'
e-Jlr-r'l
h,'''(I' - r'1) - - 11' ,'I
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 291
z
source

FlO. 6-10. Spherical coor·

dinates or r and r'.

where rand r' are defined in Fig. 6-10. We desire to express this field in
terms of wave functions referred to r = O. The field bas rotational sym-
metry about the r' axisj so let us express the wave functions in terms of
the angle t where
cos t = cos (J cos 8' + sin 8 sin 8' cos (<p - <p') (6-93)
Allowable wave functions in the region r < r' are j,.(r)P,.(cos t), and
allowa.ble wa.ve functions r > r' are h,.c2l(r)P,.(cos n.
Furthermore, the
field is symmetric in rand r' j hence we construct
•
L c.h."'(")j.(,)P.(cos I) ,<"
hOU1(jr - r'D = •••
•
L c"j.(")h.",(,jP.(cos I) , >"
•••
where the c,. are constants. If we let the source recede to infinity, the
field in the vicinity of the origin is a plane wave. Using the asymptotic
formula

we have for the leCto-hand side of the preceding equation

je-ir'
holU (1r - rl') eir-'
>-.
-I' -,-
r'_oo r
and for the right-hand side

- je~ir' L-
-
r'-o..
.'_0
r
.-. c,.j"(r)P ,,(cos 9)
292 TutE-HAlUlONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

z
r

Flo. &.11. A plane wave

incident on a conducting
sphere.
y
I
1
,I
-J
x
t Incident plane wave
A comparison of these two expressions with Eq. (6-90) shows that
c" = 211. + 1j hence

-
L: (2. + l)h."'(r')j.(r)P.(cos!l r < r'
._0
h,"'(lr - r'J) =
- (2. + l)j.(r')h."'(r)P.(cos n
L: r> r'
(6-94)

._0 I
This is the addition theorem for spherical Hankel functions. Since
ha(l) = ham., Eq. (6-94) is also valid for superscripts (2) replaced by

(1). The real part of Eq. (6-94) is nn addition theorem for io(lr - rD,
and the imaginary part is an addition t.heorem for nD(lr - t'l).
Finally, one can express the zonal harmonics P .(cos t) in terms of the
tesseraJ harmonics P.-(cos 8)h(m4». In other words, a wave function
referred to the t = 0 axis of Fig. 6-10 cnn be expressed in terms of wave
functions referred to the 8 = 0 axis. The identity is
.
\' (n - m)'
.

P .(co. !) ~ __
'-'I '_ (n +
m)! P .-(co. 8)p.-(co. 8') co. m(~ - ~') (6-95)

where too is Neumann's number (1 for m = 0 and 2 for m > 0). The
proof of Eq. (6-95), plus some ot.her wave transformations that we have
not treated explicitly, can be found in Stratton's book. 1 Equation (6-95)
is an addition theorem for Legendre polynomials.
6-9. Scattering by Spheres. Figure 6-11 represents a conducting
sphere illuminated by an incident plane wave. Take the incident wave
I J. A. Slrat.ton, "Elec:l.romagnetic Theory," pp. 406-414, MeGra.w-HiIl Book Com-
pany. Inc., New York, 1941.
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 293
to be x-polarized and z-traveling, t.hat. is,
E~; = Ecl.... _ EI1~~-flir_'

H;
'. .= Eo eft. = Eo c11ir_'

For convenience in applying boundary conditions, we express t.his incident

field as the sum of components TM and TE to r, that is, in terms of an
(6-96)

Fr and an Ar _ From Eqs. (6-26) we see that AT can be obtnined from

Er, nnd Fr from Hr. The r component of E' is

Er; - cos q, sin 9 E~' _ Eo c~:/ :9 (e-i l'r_')

Using Eq. (6-90), we can write this as

•
Ei = E, ej~r~ 2>-'(2n + l)j.(kr) :0 P.(eDs 8)
._0
Finally, using Eq. (6-23) and the relationship aP./ao = P.I, we obtain l

E,' - - jEt:;: ~
- 2>-'(20 + I)J.(kr)P.'(eDs 8)
.-,
Noting the form of E r \ we construct. the magnetic vector potential as
•

w. ~ L.-
Ai = E, CDS
..
"
,
a.J.(kr)P.'(cos 8) (6-97)

and evaluate E,' by Eqs. (6-26). Simplifying the result by Eq. (6-24),
we obtain
•
E,' ~ - jEtk:~: ~ L
.-,
a.n(n + I)J.(kr)P.'(cDs 8)
Compa.ring this expression with the preceding formula for Er', we see that
j-'(20 + I) (6-98)
a. = n(n + I)
A similar procedure using H,' and F r ' gives
•
Pi = ~. sin ~ L
.-,
a.J.(kr)P.'(CDS 8) (6-99)

where the a. Me again given by Eq. (6-98).

I Note that. t.he II. _ 0 term of the lIummation drops out because ptl - O.
294 TIME-HARUmnC ELECTROUAGNETIC FIELDS

Now that the incident field is expressed in terms of radially TE and

TM modcs. the rest of the solution parallels the cylinder problem (Sec.
5-9). The scattered field will be generated by an A. and P. of the same
form as the incident field with J. replaced by 0 ..<11. Hence, we con-
struct scattered potentials as
•
A r" == Eo cos q, '\' b.. B"u)(kr)P.. I(cos 6)
W" '-<
.-1 (6-100)
•
F r" = ~o sin q,
.-2:, c"fl.. (S)(kr)P.. I(cos 8)

The total field is, of course, the sum of the incident a.nd scattered fields.
Therefore E and H arc given by Eqs. (6-26) where
•
A, = ~
E cos ~
W" ...2:, [a.J.(kr) + b.B."'(kT)jP.'(cos 6)
(6-101)

F, - ~. s;n ~ 2: [a.J.(kT) + c.B.m(kr)]p.'(cos 6)

.. _1 I

The boundary conditions are E, "'" E. "'" 0 at r = a, which require that

J:(ka)
b - -a
.. - .. B.. IW(ka)
(6-102)
J.(ka)
c --a
.. - .. B..Ul(ka)
This completes the solution. Note that the problem call be viewed as
a. short-cirouited radial transmission line (Sec. 6-4) with many modes
superimposed.
The surface current on the sphere can be found according to
J. = U r X H at r = a. The result is
•
J, = iE cos Q \ ' a [Sin 6 P.I'(COS 6) + jP.I(C08 8) ]
11 0 ka
..•
4·
, O.(t"(ka) sin 8 O.(t)(ka)
(6-103)
8iD412: a [P.. I(C088)
J .. -- i- E , - - - sin 8P.I'(COS 8)]
• ka
.., • s;n 6 B.(~'(ka) iB.m(ka)

where the a.. a.re given by Eq. (6·98). The distant scattered field can be
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 295
found from the general expressions by using the asymptotic formula
O..U>{kt) ~ j ..+te-1u
and retaining only the terms varying 88 1/r. The result is

e.. -
•
2:.-,
j~o e-ib cos.; j" sin P.. I'{C08[b.. B B) - c.. P.:~~o; B)]
• (6-104)
E•., o
jE e-ikr sin.; \ ' j" [b
P"l{COS 8) _ c sin 8 !'(cos P B)]
• kr
..,
4 " sin B " "

where the b" and c" are given by Eqs. (6-102). Of particular interest is
the back-scattered field

E.' ~ E"I ,_.-- E.' I'_r

._r • __ r/2

From this we can calculate the echo area according to Eq. (3-30), which is
,.
A • = ~~ (._,IE.'j')
·IE l
,..-, ol
Making use of the relationships
P.'(cos 0) ~ (-I)' n(n + 1)
8m B I-r 2

....
sin 0 P ."(cos 0) --+ (-21)' n(n + 1)
and the Wronskian of the spherical
10
Bessel functions, we find

A _ ~,
•
\' (-I)'(2n + 1)
,
Lr VV
, 4..- ..'-<, B."'(Im)B.''''(ka) 1
/

A plot of A.I>.l is shown in Fig. 6-12.

(6-105) '"
--.
~
f1
For small ka, the n = 1 term of Eq. 0.1
(6-105) becomes dominant and

A • --+ 9X' (1m)'

.to--oo 4....
(6-106)
0.0 1
which is a good approximation when o 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
a/~ < 0.1. Equation (6-106) is a/'
known as the Rayleigh scattering FlO. 6-12. Echo Ar'e& of a ooDdue;ting
law. It states that the echo area. of apbere of radiua a (optical approrima.
small spheres varies as >.-4 and was tien shown dashed).
296 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROPoL\ONETIC FlELDS

first used to expla.in the blueness of the sky. For large spheres
A. J lI'a 2 (6-107)
kG......

which is the physical optics solution. The region between the Rayleigh
and optical approximations is called the resonance region and is charac·
terized by oscillations of the echo area.
Let us now look at the field scattered by the small conducting sphere.
Using small-argument formulas for the spherical Bessel fUllctions, we find
from Eq. (6-102) aod (6-98) that

b.. _ _ ---c.~
n +1 [2'(n - (2n)! 1)']' (ko)"+'
. (6-108)
la_O n la-O ),,+1

so the n = I terms of Eqs. (6-104) become dominant for small /ro.

Hence, at large distances from small spheres,
e- jkr
B,' - + Eo - k (ka)l cos 4> (cos 8 - ~)
k..-O r
rrlJ..
(6-109)
E.' -10 Eo - k (ka)! sin 4> (~ cos 0 - 1)
la-O r

A comparison of this result with the radiation field of dipoles shows that
the scattered field is the field of an x-directcd electric dipole

Il = Eo ~~{ (ka)' (6-110)

plus the field of a y-directed magnetic dipole

2.
Kl - E. jk' (ka)' (6-111)

The ratio of the magnetic to electric dipole moments is IKif Ill. = '1'//2.
Figure 6-13 illustrates the origin of these two dipole moments. A surface

z z

J.

x x

(aJ (bJ
FlO. 6-13. Components of surface current giving rise to the dipole moments of a con-
ducting sphere. (a) Electric moment; (b) magnetic moroent.
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIOr.."S 297
current in the same direction on each side of the sphere gives rise to the
electric moment, while a circulating current gives rise to the magnetic
moment. In general, the scattered field of any small body can be
expressed in terms of an electric dipole and a magnetic dipole. For a
conducting body, the magnetic moment may vanish, but the electric
moment must always exist.
Now consider the case of a dielectric sphere, that is, let the region
r < a of Fig. 6-11 be characterized by t.I, lSd, and the region r > a by
to, 1010. In addition to the field externnl to the sphere, specified by poten-
tials of the form of Eqs. (6-101), there will be a field internal to the
sphere, specified by
•
A,- ~ E, cos ~ \ ' d.J.(k.,.)P.'(cos 0)
WJlO
..L.t,
• (6-112)

F,- - ~: sin ~ 2: ..
.-,
J.(k.,.lP.'(cos 0)

The superscripts - denote the region r < 0, and superscripts + denote

the region r > a. Boundary conditions to be met at r :.: a are
E,+ = E,- H,+ = lJ,-
E.+ = E.- lJ.+ = H.-

that is, tangential components of E and H must be continuous. Deter-

mining the field components by Eqs. (6-26), using Eqs. (6-101) for r > a
and Eqs. (&-112) for T < 0, and imposing the above boundary conditions,
we find

b.. "'"
- v;;,;; J~(koa)J.(k,a) + ...r.;;;; J.(koa)J~(k,al a
•
v;;,;; fl.''''(koa)J.(k,a) - vi"., fl."'(koa)J~(k,a)
- vi;;;;; J.(koa)J~(k,a) + ...r.;;;; J~(koa)J.(k,a)
c. - vi,,,,, fl."'(koa)J~(k,a) _ vi,,,,, fl.,n'(koa)J.(k,a) a. (6-113)
d.. = - j v';;;;; 0"
vi"", fl.''''(koa)J.(k,a) - vi,,,,, n."'(koalJ~(k,al
e _ i~ 0
• v;;,;; fl."'(koalJ~(k,a) - ''''' n.''''(koalJ .(k,al •
where a" is given by Eq. (6-98). The conducting sphere can be obtained
as the specialization J.ld _ 0, Ei --. co, such that k" remains finite. ote
that, in contrast to static-field problems, t.I- co is not sufficient to
specialize to a conductor.
In the special case of a small dielectric sphere, the n = 1 coefficients
298 TIM"L-HARYOSIC ELECrROaLAGNETIC FIELDS

are dominant nod reduce to

(IH14)

tlt ~ 2jl,(2 + p,)

where f r cc fd!fG and /J. "'" IldllJo. A calculation of the scattered field
reveals that it is the field of the two dipoles
_ 47rj 1(,-1
II - u.Eo .k' (ka) <, 2+
(IHI5)
4rj (k }'"' - 1
KI = u~ E tF a 11-,+2

Note tbat the magnetic dipole vanishes if the dielectric is nonmagnetic,

that is, if IJr "'" 1. Similarly, a magnetic material with IT "'" 1 would
scatter no electric dipole field. The field internal to the sphere is uni-
form in both E and H for tbe small sphere. In fact, the specialization
represented by Eqs. (6-114) is the lfquasi·static" solution'! It can be
obtained by taking the d-e electric and magnetic polarizations and
assuming that they vibrate in phase Quadrature with the incident field.
6-10. Dipole and Conducting Sphere. Figure 6--14a shows a radially
directed electric dipole near a conducting sphere. Figure 6-14b shows a
problem reciprocal to that of Fig. 6-14a in the following sense. The
component of E- in the direction of Ilb equals the component of Eb in

z z

II

x x

(a)
FIG. &-14. The conducting sphere and a radially directed dipole. (0) Oripnal prob-
lem; (b) reciprocal problem.
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCl'IONS 299
the direction of /la. (Superscripts reter to Fig. 6-14a lLnd b.) If the
II of Fig. 6-14b recedes to infinity, we have the plane-wave scatter prob-
lem treat.ed in the preceding section. Hence, the radiation field of Fig.
6-14a can be simply obtained from the results of Sec. 6-9.
In particular, in the vicinity of the conducting sphere we have

(E%,i)t - t o -jwjJIl e-/trcitr'_r

r-o_ 4rr

which is a plane wave. Letting

-jwp./l cJkr
(6-116)
4n'
we have the wave of Eq. (6-96). Hence, the field of Fig. 6-14b is speci-
fied by Eqs. (6-101) with coordinates primed. To relate this solution to
that of Fig. 6-14a, we need the r' component of E, which is

1 •"
Er' - ]Wt
-. ur
(0' + k' )Ar'
•
- ~: cos ¢'
..L:, n(n + 1)[..J.(kb) + b.fl.'''(kb)]P.'(cos U')
Finally, by reciprocity, E.,) evaluated at r' = b, 8' = 'If - 8, q,' '=' 0
equals -Efa at r, 8, q,. Hence,
•
Eo' - j:', ..L:, n(n + 1)[a.J.(kb) + b.fl."'(kb»)(-I)·P.'(cos U) (6-117)

where all, b and Eo are given by Eqs. (6-98), (6-102), a.nd (6-116),
ll ,

respectively. In the special case b ". 4, that is, when the current cle-
ment is on the surface of the sphere, Eq. (6-117) reduces to
•
E _ ,II ....", \ ' j'(2n + 1) P ,(cos U)
, thjkr
..,
Lt 0,,(1)'(100) "
(6-118)

This is the radiation field of a radially directed electric dipole on the

surface of lL conducting sphere. Figure 6-15 shows the radiation patterns
for spheres of radii 4 = >"/4. and a = 2>... The pattern for the very small
sphere is the usual dipole pattern. For a very large sphere it approaches
the pattern of a dipole on a ground plane but always with some diffrac-
tion around the sphere. The radiation field for dipoles of other orienta-
tions, and also for magnetic dipoles, can be obtained in a similar manner.
The ficld in t-he entire region r > b can be determined from the radiation
300 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

I
FlO. 6-Hi. Radiation patterna for the radially directed dipole on a conducting Bphere
of radius a.

field as follows. From symmetry considerations (Fig. 6-14a) we conclude

that H = u.H+, and therefore the field can be expressed in terms of an
A = urA r. Also, A, must be independent of q, and represent outward
traveling waves; hence
•
A. ~ L...
.., fl.'''(kr)P. (cos 0) r>b (6-119)

From this we can calculate E, by Eqs. (6-26), obtaining

(6-120)

The a.. are then evaluated by equating this expression to the radiation
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 301
field previously determined. For ex- z
ample, in the special case b = a we
equate Eq. (6-120) to Eq. (6-118) and
obtain •
a" _ 1l(2n + 1) (6-121)
41fkB ,,(2)'(ka)
Tbe field everywhere can now be ob-
tained from Eq,. (6-26), (6-119), nud
(6-121).
6-11. Apertures in Spheres. In • x
Sec. 4-9 we saw how to express the
field in a matched rectangular wave-
guide in terms of the field over a
cross section of the guide. In Sec. FlO. 6-16. Slotted conducting sphere.
6-4 we saw that space could be viewed
as a spherical waveguide. A given sphere r = a is a cross section of the
spherical guide. If r > a contains only free space, then the guide is
matched, that is, there are no incomir.g waves. By writing the general
expansion for outward-traveling waves and specializing to r - G, we
obtain the field r > G. When apertures exists in a conducting sphere
of radius r = a, tbe tangential components of E are zero except in the
apertures. Our f9rmulas for the field r > a then reduce to ones involvinl?,
only the tangential components of E over the apertures.
A general treatment of the problem is messy; so let us restrict con-
sideration to the rotationally symmetric TM case, that is, one having
only an H.. The slotted. conducting sphere of Fig. 6-16 gives rise to
such a field if there exists only an E, independent of ~ in the slot. The
field is expressible in terms of nn A r of the form
•
A, -
..l ,a.n.'''(h)P.(co, 0) (6-122)

From Eqs. (6-26) we calculate

•
k \' a
jWf.T' L, a"J1.(t)I(lcr) a8 P.(cos 8)
E. =
.. , (6-123)

Noting iJP./a8 = p.l, we multiply each side of the above equation by

P.,I(COS 8) sin 8 and integrate from 0 to 'II' on 8. By the orthogonality
relntionship [Eqs. (6-46) nnd (6-47»), we obtain

fao• E.P"l(COS 8) sm. 8 d8 -- )r..,....""

4,.n,,('I'(kr) 2T1l(n + 1)
",::;2:'';:'-.=-'
2n+l
302 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

FIG, 6-17. Radiation patterns for the slotted sphere, 8D .. 11:/2.

Specializing this to r = a, we have the coefficients a.. determined as

ja(2n +1)
aft = 172'1m(n + l)fl,,(z)'(ka»)o E,
r' I '
r_a
.
P .. (cos 8) sm 8 de (IH24)

The field simplifies to some extent in the radiation zone. Using the
asymptotic forms for fl.. m in Eq. (6-123), we obtain
•
E, - . ! l e-II:< '\' a,.j"P"I(cos 0) (6-125)
kr-o .. r i..J
"-,
This result could also be obtained from the plane-wave scatter result of
Sec. 6-9, using reciprocity.
For tho slotted sphere of Fig. 6-16, let us assume a small slot width,
so that E, is essentially an impulse fundiOIl at r = a. Hence. we assume

(6-126)
 SPHERICAL WAVE PUNcrlONS 303
where V is the voltage across the slot. Then Eq. (6-124) reduces to
jV(2n+ l)P.. J(C08 8 sin 8
0) 0

G. - .2rn(n + I)O.""(ka)
and the radiation field [Eq. (6-125)] becomes
•
jV....." . 9 \ ' ;'(20 + 1)P.'(cos 9.) P '( 9) (6-127)
E, - 2S1" SID 0 Lt n(n + l)fl..uJI (ka) .. cos
.-,
Figure 6-17 shows radiation patterns for the case 80 = -r/2, that is, when
the conductor is divid~d into hemispheres. Patterns for sphcres of radii
>../4 and 2" are shown. Very small spheres produce a dipole pattern,
while very large spheres produce an almost omnidirectional pattern with
severe interference phenomena in the 8 "'" 0 and 8 = -r directions. In
the limit 80 """, 0 we obtain tho patterns of Fig. 6-15, which is to be
expected in view of the equivalence of a small magnetic current loop and
an electric current element.
The general problem of finding the field in terms of arbitrary tangential
components of E over a sphere is treated in the literature. l
6-12. Fields External to Cones.
The general treatment of the prob- z
lem of sources external to a. conduct-.
ing cone is also messy but can be
found in the literature. l We shall
here l"C3trict consideration to the
e,
rotationally symmetric case of "ring-
source" excitation of a conducting y
cone. The geometry of the problem Current
filament
is shown in Fig. 6-18. The special
case of a magnetic current ring on e,
the conical surface gives the field of X
a slotted cone. The limit as the
magnetic current ring approaches the
cone tip gives the field of an axially
directed electric current element on FlO. 6018. Ring excitation of a conduct-
iog oooe.
the tip.
Consider first the case of an electric current ring. From symmetry
considerations, it is evident that E will have only a 4> componentj so the
field is TE to T. The modes of the "conical waveguide" are considered
in Sec. 6-5, Eqs. (6-61) to (6-64). In the region r < a we have standing
waves, while in the region r > a we have outward-traveling waves.
I L. Bailin and B. Silver, Exterior Electromagnetic Boundary Value Problems

for Spheres and Cones, IRE TroBl., vol. AP-4, no. I, ~p. 5-15, January, 1956.
304 TIME-HARMONIC ELECrROllAGNETIC FIELDS

Hence, we construct
1a.P.(eas o)B.ln(kT) r>a
F~ "'" • (6-128)
I
1 b,P.(eo, O)J.(kT) r<a
•
where the" are ordered solutions to

[fop.(eas 0) t., = 0 (6-l21l)

Continuity of E. at T = a requires thaf
a.B.ln(ka) = b.J.(ka) (6-130)
Finally, Il, at r = a must be discontinuous by an amount equal to the

k
J. - -,-
JW1-JB
r
eurface-eurrcnt density (in our case it is an impulse function). Thus,

•
a P.(eo, O)la.B.""(ka) - b.J;(ka)!'
'0
v

which, using Eq. (6-130) and the Wronskian of the spherical Bessel func-
tions, becomes

J. - - Ira
""
•
'0 P.(e<)rl)
a
..
-J-
.(ka)
(6-131)

By the methods of Sec. 6-3 the following orthogonality relationship can

be derived:

f,"(:op·)(:op·),;nOdO = 1~. w= "

(6-132)

where N. "'" -
.(.+1)[, a'p,]
21' + 1 am 8 P. iJ8 iJu ,_" (6-133)

Hence, multiplying each side of Eq. (6-131) by P.(cos 8) sin 8 and inte-
grating from 0 to 6, on 8, we obtain
,a J
.. - N. .(ka) j.f" J. ao
iJ
IP.(eas 0)) s;n 0 dO (6-134)

This completes the solution (or an arbitrary 4Kiirected current sheet at

r = Q. For the current filament,
I
J. = - 6(0 - 0.) (6-135)
a
and Eq. (6-134) reduces to

.. - ~~ J.(ka) sin 0, a~, P.(cas 0,) (6-136)

 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 305
Numerical calculations are difficult because of the problem of obtaining
the eigenvalues '" and the eigenfunctions P•.
When the ring source of Fig. 6-18 is a magnetic current, the problem is
dual to the eleetrie-current case, except for boundary conditions. Henee,
we construct
\l c.P.(cos O)J1.u'(kr) r>a

A, - / I
•
d.P.(cn. O)J.(kr) r<a
(6-137)

wbere the u a.re ordered solutions to

P .(cos 0,) - 0 (6-138)
in contrast to the v which were solutions to Eq. (6-129). Continuity of
ll. at T = a requires that
c.J1.'''(ka) - d.].(ka) (6-139)
At T = a we have E, discontinuous by an amount equal to the surface-
current density. Thus, analogous 1.0 Eq. (6-131), we have

M. - - 2 \' :. P.(cos 0)
a ,-,..
-.(ka)
c.J (6-140)
•
The orthogonality relationship for the eigenvalues defined by Eq. (6-138)
is

j,"(:Op·)(:Op·)·inOdO -l~f. w-u

(6-141)

where M. _ u(u + 1) [.in 0aP. ap.] (6-142)

2u +1 ao au '_',
Multiplying each side of Eq. (6-140) by P ..(cos 0) sin 0 and integrating
from 0 to 0 1 on 0, we obtain

(6-143)

This completes the solution for an arbitrary ~irected magnetic current.

sheet at r - a. For the magnetic current filament,
K
M. - -0(0 - 0,) (6-144)
a
and Eq. (6-143) rednces to
-K a
J (ka) sin Ot aO P..(cos Ot)
c. = '11 M ... (6-145)
t
306 TWE-HAn~ONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FiELDB

FlO. &19. Radiation patterns for the slotled conducting cone. (ilfler Bailin and
SUVff.)

Again a. calculation of the eigenvalues u and the eigenfunctions P.. is

difficult.
If we now let 82 = 91 and set K = V in the magnetic current solution,
we have the case of a cone slotted at r = a with a voltage V across the
slot. For T > a Eq. (6-137) becomes

A r = : sin! Ih
•
LA}u p~ (cos 81)P.. (cos 8)J..(ka)Il,,(l)(kr)

Using the asymptotic form for 8 m and evaluating E, by Eq. (6-26),

10

we find for the radiation field

E. _ V ,_;'" \ ' j·(2u + l)(.P.(cos O)/.oJ J.(ka) (6-146)
Jr L<u(u + 1)(.P.(eo, O,)/QuJ
•
Some radiation patterns for slotted cones with cone angle 30° are shown
in Fig. 6-19. A discussion of the problem of plane-wave scattering by a
cone is given by Mentzer. I
I J. R. Mentzer, "Scattering and Diffraction of Radio Waves," pp. 81-93, Pergamon

Press, Inc., New York, 1955.

 SPHERICAL WAVE PUNCTIONS 307
6-13. Maximum Antenna Gain. The general form of the field in a
spherical spnce external to aU sources is Eqs. (6-26) with
A, - 2: a••fl.,o(kr)P.·(cos 8) cas (m~ + a••)
~.
(&-147)
F, - 2: b••fl.'O(kr)P.'(cos 8) cos (m~ + P••)
-.'
Given an arbitrary field at T = Ti, the field can be projected backward
toward tbe origin as far as desired. At some sphere T - a we can deter-
mine sources by the equivalence principle (Sec. 3-5), which will support
this field. Hence, it appea.rs that sources on an arbitrarily small sphere
can support any desired radiation field.
The gain of an antenna. is defined by Eq. (2-130) in general. We shall
here consider the largest gain
4n"(S,)._ (&-148)
g - ~I
where (8.)... is the maximum power density in the radiation zone and
~I is the power radiated. By the discussion of the preceding paragraph,
it appears that arbitrarily high gain can be obtained, regardless of antenna
size. In practice, however, the gain of a directive antenna is found to be
related to its size. A uniformly illuminated aperture l type of antenna is
found to give the highest practical gain. This apparent discrepancy
betwoon theory and practice can be resolved if the concepts of cutoff
and Q of spherical waves are properly applied.
Let us orient our spherical coorclinatc system so that maximum radi-
ation is in the tJ = 0 direction. The radially directed power flux in this
direction is then
(8.)... = E.H: - E.H: (&-149)
From Eqs. (&-147) and (&-26) we find

E~ = 2jr
e-ik' L..t
\'
n(n + l)j"(l1 alii cos "'Ill - h. sin (hI!)
•

(&-150)

I The term "uniformly illuminated aperture" ill u.sed to describe antcnnss for which
the &Duree (primary or aeeondary) is COl1Iltant in 3mplitudc and phase over a given area
on .. plane, and zero e1aewhere.
308 TU.£E-.HARMONIC ELECTROBLAONETIC FIELDS

in tbe 8 = 0 direction of the radiation zone. The total radiated power is

found by inwgrating tbe Poynting vector over a. large sphere. The
result is
~ _ ,- '\' n(n+ I)(n+m)! (I
~/- ~ '-' ..(2n + 1)(n
~
m)! .'.I')
.a...1'+!lb (&-151)

where f . - 1 for m - 0 and t. - 2 for m > O. We used the ortbog-

onality relationships of Eqs. (6-51) in the derivation of Eq. (6-151).
Equations (6-148) to (6-151) give a. general formula for gain in terms
of spherical wa.ves. We shall now consider under what conditions g is a.
maximum. Note that the Ilumerator of Eq. (6-148) involves only the
aIR and bhl coefficients. Hence, the denominator caD be decreased with-
out changing the numerator, by setting
a.... = b... =0 (&-152)
Also, both numerator and denomina.tor of 9 arc independent of 0'1" and
PI.. ; so they may be chosen for convenience without loss of generality.
In particular1 let al. = T and Pl. = T/2 1 and the gain formula reduces to

12: (A. +E.) ['

g - ---.=.----'-;'- - - - - (6-153)
22: 2n ~ 1 (IA.I' + IB.I')
•
where (&-154)

The denominator of Eq. (6-153) is independent of the phases of A. and

B.; so we ean maximize the numerator by choosing A. and B. real.
Furthermore1 g is symmetrie in A. and B.. ; hence the maximum exists when
A .. """ B .. = real (&-155)
The maximum gain thorefore will be found among those specified by

(&-156)

•
where A .. is real. As long as n is unrestricted, this g is unbounded, as we
anticipated earlier.
If the field, specified by Eqs. (6-147), contains only wave functions of
order n ~ N, then an upper limit to g exists. Setting iJgjaA i = 0 for
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 309
all A i, we find
N

U_ -
.l-. (2n + I) - N' + 2N
2n + 1 A
(6-157)

and also A .. = 3 I (6-158)

Equation (6-151) represents the highest possible gain using spherical

waveguide modes of order n 5" N. A similar limitation to the near-
zone gain also exists. l
To relate gain to antenna si7.e, we define the radius a of an antenna M
the radius of the smallest sphere that can contain the antenna. We saw
in Sec. 6-4 that spherical modes of order n were rapidly cut 01T when
ka < n. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that modes of order n > ka
are not normally ·present to any significant extent in the field oC an
antenna of radius a. We define the normal gain of an antenna oC radius
aas
u_••• = (ka)' + 2ka (6-159)

which is obtained by sett-ing N "'"' ka in Eq. (6-151). Hence, the normal

gain is maximum gain obtainable when only uncutoff modes are present.
It is interesting to note that, for large 1M, a circular, uniformly illumi-
nated aperture of radius a h3S the same gain as the above-defincd normal
gain." It is thereCore not surprising that the uniformly illuminated
aperture gives the highest antenna gn.in in practice.
The normal gain is not an absolute upper limit to the gain of an
antenna. Antennas having higher gain are a distinct possibility and
will be called supergain antennQ.$. We shall use the Q concept of Sec. 64
to show that (1) supcrgain a.ntennas must necessarily be narrow-band
devices, and (2) supergain techniques yield only a smaU increase in gain
over normal gain for large antennas. Other characteristics which we
shall not demonstrate here are (3) supcrgain antennll8 have high field
intensities at the antenna. structure and (4) they tend to have excessive
power loss in the antenna structure.
The Q of a loss-free antenna is defined as

'11.>'11.
(6-160)
w. > W.
I R. F. Harrington, Effect of A.ntenna Siu on Gain, Bandwidth, and Efficiency,
J. ReuGrcA NBS, vol. 640, no. I, pp. 1-12, January, 1960.
t S. Ramo and J. R. Whinnery, "Fields and Waves in M.odern Radio," 2d ed., p. 533,
iohn Wiley &: Sons, Inc., New York, 1953.
310 TlllE-HARMOXIC ELECTROI.LAGNETIC FIELDS

Ill'

10' e- 0

Ill'
30 FlO. 6-20. Quality factofft
0' for ideal loss-free anten·
25 \ nas adjusted for mlUi-
Ill' 20 mum gain using modes of
\ \ order n ::; N.
10 i~5
10

I
o
\';'-\
5
\.
10
\ \ 1\
15 20 25
ka

where 'W. and OW. are the time-average electric and magnetic energies
Bnd {j>, is the power radiated. 'Vc shall define an ideal loss-free antenna
of radius a as ODC having no energy storage r < a. The Q of this ideal
antenna. must be less than or equal to the Q of any other loss-free antenna
of radius a having the same field r > a, since fields r < a can only add to
energy storage. If the Q of an antenna is large, it can be interPreted as
the reciprocal of the fractional bandwidth of the input impedance. If
the Q is small, the antenna has broadband potentialities.
Antennas adjusted for maximum gain according to Eq. (5-158) have
equal excitation of 'I'M and TE modes. The Q.. of spherical modes,
defined by Eq. (6-60) and plotted in Fig. 6-6, involve OW. for 'I'M modes
slid "XI", for 1'E modes. We need Q's defined in terms of the same energy
for aU modes, and it is convenient to deal with Q's for equal TM and
TE modes. The Q for equal TM,. and TE" modes is
ka < N (6-161)
because the 'W, is essentially that of the TM.. mode alone a.nd the rJJ is
twice that of the TM II mode alone. When QII < I, we take it as unity.
Because of the orthogonality of energy and power in the spherical
modes, the tolal encrgy and power in any field is the sum of the modal
energies and powers. Hence, the Q of our ideal loss-free antenna is

2: A.' (2n ~ I) Q.
2: p.Q.",m - ='=o---'='i:--=--:::t.....,,.-
2: p. 22:A"(2n~l)
Q~
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 311
where P. is the transmitted power in the TM. and TE. modes. Using
Eq. (6-158), thie becomes

.-1
l (2n + 1) Q.(ka)
Q- ::-:---:2"'N""·;-+-;--;4"N,.------ (6-162)

where the Q. are given in Fig. 6-6. Curves of antenna Q for several N
nre shown in Fig. 6-20. Note that the Q rises sharply for ka < N, show-
ing that supergain antennas must necessarily be high Q, or frequency
sensitive.·,
The Q of Fig. 6-20 is a lower bound to the Q of any loss-free antenna.
of radius a. By picking a Q, we can calculate an upper bound to the
gain of an antenna of radius a. Figure 6-21 shows the ratio of this upper
bound to the normal gain. Note that for large ka the increase in gain
over normal gain possihle by supergain techniques is small. For small
ka supergain can give considerable improvement over normal gain. In
fact, ns ka --+ 0 the supergain condition is unavoidable. All very small
antennas are supergain antennas by our definition. The problems of
narrow bandwidth and high losses associated with small antennas are
well-known in practical antenna. work.

10
9
~
8
II
.~
7
"
Ii 6
g
5
.'\
~

..
3
~
4
\"-
'" Q = 10·

--
~l~ '- ........
.!! 3
lO'" '-..
.... "-
0
~ 2
1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Fro. 6-21. Ma.ximum poasible iocrea.ee in gain over normal gain tor a given Q.
312 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

PROBLEMS

6-1. Use Eqs. (3·85) p.nd t.he wave potential of Eq. (6-14) to show that a general
expression for fields TM to t: is

.
E. - -1fsJJJy, cos (I + 1<.l~
-:-1 -iJr• [COB
-- - (rti) - -
8 ali}
r t Ur
.
. - - (V- sm'
r aln (I iJ9
6) ]

. .•
E , -JfsJj.I.,ylUn + Jw€1'
-1. - a- [COS
aD
iJ (r-",
- -8 -
,1 iJr
") --. 1 -- a (>/-Sin
r Sin 8 iJ(J
.')]
8

1 a [COS //
B. - jw6' sin 8 iJ(/I --;:t ara (r:l,J.) - 1 a .
r sin 8 a8 (y, san' 8)
1
,a.
_! a",
..
R,

H, _ cot 8 ay,
,
H. - ~ 1 [ sin (J : , (rof) + aag (", COB 9) ]
where'" is a solution to the scalar Helmholtz equation,
6-2. Verify that Eqa. (6-17) and (6-18) are identical.
6-3. Consider an air-filled .spherical resonator of radius 5 centimeters bounded by
copper walls. Determine the first ten resonant. frequencies and the Q of the dominant
mode.
6-4. For the spherical cavity of Fig. 6-2, show that the Q due to conductor losses is,
for TM modes,

(Q').A" -
TO ,[,
' In
_Ut
UA" -
n(n
u."
+
,
1)]
where the u~" are given in Table 6-2, and, for TE modes,

T& "U A"

(Q.)...." "" 2m

where the u.." are given in Table 6--1.

6-6. Consider the cavity lying between concentric conducting spheres r "" a and
r - b, with b > a. Show that the characteristic equation for modes TM to r is

And for modes TE to r it is

Jo(kb) flo(kb)
Jo(,",) - fI.(,",)

6-6. In the concentric-6phcre cavity of Prob. 6-5 let a «b, and show that the
resonant frequency w is related to the empty cavity resonant frequency w. by

w - "'I
- - ... %(2.744)'
<ol.
n;(2.744)
J"
_ 1(2.744)
(a)'
b
where <ol. _ 2.744/b.y;;.. {Hint: El'press the characteristic equation in the form
f(k,a):a 0, and el'pand in s. 'l'aylor series about kl - "" -v;;.j
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCI'IONS 313
8-'1'. Consider the partially Iilled spherical cavity formed by 8. conductor covering
r _ b and containing: a dielectric II, 1'1 for r < a and a dielectric III 1'1 for a < r < b.
Show that the characteristic equation for the dominant mode is

h:(k,b)J~(k,a) - J~(ktb)n;(k,a)
n:(k,b)J I (k,a) J;(k,b)n I(ktll)

where k l - <01 ~ and k l - <01 V;;;;.

6-8. In the partially filled spherical cavity of Prob. 6-7, let 11« b and II - la and
III - 1'1. By expanding the characteristic equation in 8. Taylor series about the
empj.,Y-cavity resonant frequency ""0, show that the resonant frequency", is given by

~ ItS 3i(2.744)' ~~(2.744) .. - 1 (~)'

WI 11 (2.744) + 2 b
f.

where I, '"' .d•• and <010 - 2.744/b V;;;. Compare this with the answer to Prob.
6-<l.
6-9. Consider the function

[(',.) -{ :
and determine the coefficients 4.. and b•• for the two-dimensional Fouricr-Legendre
scriea of the form of Eg. (6-48).
6-10. Let A and B be two vectors and B be the angle between the1ll. Define
C _ A - B and show that, for B > A,
•
I
C 2AB COB B

6-11. Consider the characteristic impedances of the spherical modC$ of f:Ipa.ce IEqs.
(6-57)1. Bhow that

and zrE ... '11/ZTM. Show also that the change from primarily resistive to primarily
reactive wave impedances occurs at kr ... n.
6-12. Show that the field of an electric current elemcnt II is the dominnot TM
spherical mode of space, and the field of a magnctic-currcnt clement Kl is the domi-
nant TE mode.
6-1S. Using the usual perturbational method, show that the attenuation COtl8tant
due to conductor losses for the TEM mode of the biconical or coaxial radial guide
(Fig. 6-7c and d) ill given by

.-- lR
2"
cae 01
I0 0
+ esc 8,
cot- Bal2
--
cot 01 /2
6-101. Show that the dominant spherical TE mode of the wedge guide (Fig. 6-7e)
is the free-rspa.ce field of a z-directed magnctie..current element.
314 TUn;-HAIU,(Ol'o'lC ELECTROMAGNETIC J"IELDS

6-1fi. Uae the qualitative behavior of the tpbtrieal Hankel funetioJ\l, to iustify the
statement. t.hat the apherieal.horn guide of Fig. 6-7} has a "cutoff radiw" approxi.
mately equal to Uat. radiWi for which the Cf'OlllI aection is t.he \lame aa II. rect.anlUlar
guide at. cutoff.
6-16. Considtr a hemispherical eavity (Fig. &-Sa) constructed of copper with
a - 10 eentimet.el"8, and air-filled. Determine the fint ten resonant. frequeocie. and
the Q of the dominant. mode.
6-1'1. Conaidcr the lleCOnd rCllOoance In - 2 in Eq. (6-80)! of the biconieal cavity of
Fig. 6-&. Caleulate the Q of the mode and the input resistance seen at t.he CODe tipa.
6-18. Coll8idcr the conical cavity of Fig. ()..8d. Show that modes TM to r arc given
by H _ v X u,.A. where

(A.) ..... - P .-:(C04 I) COl m<ll J. (10:, ~)

where 10:, is the pth I:cro of J:(Ul) and II is a solution to Eq. (~2). Similarly, show
that modes TE to r are given by E - -v X u,.p. where

(F.}..~ - p."'(coe 8) coe "'«IJ. (Ul•• /i)

where to.,
ia the pth zero of J.(tlJ) aod 1.1 is a 101utiofl to Eq. (6-64). For a complete
lIet of modes tho sin m'; variation mUllt allO be included.
8-19. Let. tho eumlDt. elemcntll of Fig. G-9c be replaced by magnetic-current. ele--
ments Kl. Show that., in the limit.' ..... 0, the field is given by B - -v X uJ. where
k'Kla
P. - 4.j 1a.(I)(b')P1(eoa,}

z
8-20. Consider the quadrupole tIOW'Ce of
Fir;. 6-22 where each element is an elec-
II J. tric current. ll. Show that., in the limit
T ..
,,' t~
y
'\"'" 0 and " .....
H ... v X u.A. where
0, the ficld it! given by

x +i'
FIG. 6-22. A quadrupole source.
6·21. Derive tho following wave transformat.ion:

e-llr-rJ 1
~ - -.-, __ 0 (2"
Ir-r, 1"
l• + 1).!.(r')B.lfJ(r)P.(cos U
"here f is t.be angle between rand r.
6-21. Derive the following wave transformation:

L•
J.(P) - __ 0 A.,jr..... (r}P,. . .·(eoa,)

A _ (-1)·..... (4"1 + 2ft + 1}(2m}1

wh"" • 2r..-(m + ,,)1"11
 SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCfIONS 315
6-23. Derive the following formula:

r' >r
where ~ is the aogle between rand r'.
6·24. CoIlBider the scattering of a plane-polariled wave by a smrill conducting
sphere (Fig. 6-11). Show that the distant. llCatt.ered field is plane pol/lri1ed in t.he
direction 8 _ 60'.
6-26. Considcr an z.polariled, z traveling plane wave incident on a conducting
sphere encased in llo concentric dielectric
z ,
coating, IUl shown in Fig. 6-23. Show
that the 6eld ill given by Eqll. (6-26),
where for r > b the A. and F. are given o
by Eqs. (G-lOl), and for (1 < .,. < b
•
A. _ E, COli <It \ ' d.IG~(k(1)J.(u)
"'I" i.J
.-,
- J~(ka)R_(kr)JP.'(COlI B) y
• I
p. - ~·!in •
...l, e.[G.(ka)J.(u)

- J.I..)G.lb-)[P.'looo')
x '. , I
~
Incident
Impose boundary conditions 00 the tan- W<lve t
zential componcnts of E at H at r - b, FlO. 6-23, A plane wave incident on a
and obtain exprcllaionll for b., c., d.. and coaled conducting sphere.
eo. in terma of a., givcn by Eq. (6-98).
6-26. Consider a radially directed magnetic dipole Kl adjacent to a conducting
sphere (Fig. G-14 with n replaced by Kt). Show thnt the radiation field is given by
B. - -fill, and

where a. is given by Eq. (6-98) and c.. by Eq. (6-102).

6-27. Con8ider a radially dircc:tcd eleetric dipole adjacent to a dielectric sphere
(Fig. 6-14 with the sphere DOW dielectric). Show that the radiation field i8 then
given by Eq. (6-117) if b. is given by Eq. (6-113) instead of Eq. (6-102).
6-28. Consider a loop of uniform current I of radius 0, as shown in Fig, 2-26.
Show that the radiation field ~ given by
.
E. - ; e- jlrt

..2:, 2:<:' ~ l ;-A.P_ ' (O)P.ICCOlI B)

U
wbu. A. - i.Cm)
and "H, - -8•.
316 TWE-HARMONIC ELECI'nOMAGNETIC FIELDS

6-29. Figure 6-24 shows & conducting sphere of radius R concentric with a loop of
uniform current 1 of radius (I. Show that the radiation field is of the SlUllO form as
given in Prob. 6-28 except that

..1.-' _ 8.''''(ka) _ J.(kR)R;(ka) - R,(kR)J;(ka) 8.")(ka)

J.(kR)R.(ka) - R,(kR)J,(ka)

Show that. this reduces to the answer for Prob. 6-28 aa R - O.

z
z e r

x
FIa. 6-24. A conducting sphere with a FlO. 6-25. Current element at the tip of a
concentric ring of electric current. conducting cone.

6-30. Figure 6-25 shows a current element II at tbe tip of a conducting cone.
Show that. the radiation field is given by
E, - I(r) sin 8 ~(C08 8)
where u is the first root of P .(C08 81) - O. Some approximate eigcnvalue8 are

r -',
u
I"I I I I I I I I I
O.l
'0'
0.2
24'
0.3
37'
0.4
49'
0.5
60'
0.6
69'
0.7
77'
0.8
84'
0.9
90'
1.0

6-31. By considering t.he equivalent circuit of Fig. &-5 and the definition of Eq.
(6-60) for Q. show that the Q of the n - 1 epherica.l mode is

If equal TE and TM waves are present, the total Q is approximately one-half this
value. A small antenna (say ia < 1) will have minimum Q if only the n - 1 modes
are present in ita field. Hence, the minimum possible Q for a smalll088-free antc.nnll is

where a is the radius of the smallest. ephere that can contain the antenna.
 CltAPTER 7

PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES

7-1. Introduction. The differential equation approach of the preced-

ing three chapters leads to an exact solution of the mathematical problem.
However, many problems cannot be treated by this method. We saw in
Sec. 3-11 that electromagnetic field problems caD be expressed in integral
equation form. This form is particularly useful for (1) obtaining approxi-
mate solutions and (2) for general expositions of theory. In this chapter,
we shall consider two techniques uscful for integral equations arising in
electromagnetic theory.
Perturbational Methods. The word "perturb" means to disturb or to
change slightly. The perturbational methods arc useful {or calcula.ting
changes in some quantity due to small changes in tbe problem. Usually
two problems are involved: the "unperturbed" problem, for which the
solution is known, and the It perturbed" problem, which is slightly differ-
ent from the unperturbed one. We have already used perturbational
methods for calculating resonator quality factors and waveguide attenu-
ation constants. Further uses are given in Sees. 7-2 to 7-4.
Variational Methods. The variational methods are useful for deter-
mining characteristic quantities, such 85 resonant frequencies, imped-
ances, and SO on. In contrast to the perturbational procedure, the
variational procedure gives an approximation to the desired quantity
itself, rather than to changcs in the quantity. The variational pro-
cedure differs from other approximation methods in that the formuJa is
Ustationary" about thc correct solution. This means that the formula
is relatively insensitive to variations in an assumed field about the cor-
rect field. If the dcsired quantity is real, the variational Cormula may
be an upper or lower bound to the quantity. Furthermore, iC an assumed
field is expressed as a series oC functions with undetermined coefficients,
then the coefficients can be adjusted by the Ritz procedure (Sec. 7--6).
In Cact, if a complete set of Cunctions is used for the assumed field, the
exact solution can sometimes be obtained, at least in principle.
7-2. Perturbations of Cavity Walls. Figure 7-1a represents a resonant
cavity formed by a conductor covering S and enclosing the loss-free
region T. Figure 7-1b represents a deformation or the original cavity
317
318 TIME-HAR~{oNIC ELECTRO~[AGNETJC FIELDS

D D

s S'
Eo. H o E, H

(a) (b)
FIG. 7-1. Pert.urbation of cavity walls. (a) Original cavity; (b) perturbed cavity.

such that the conductor covers 8' = S - lJ.S and encloses -r' = 'T - AT.
We wish to determine the change in the resonant frequency due to the
change of the cavity wall.
Let Eo. H o, WI) represent the field and resonant frequency of the original
cavity, and let E, H, w represent the corresponding quantities of the
perturbed cavity. In both cases the field equations must be satisfied,
that is,
- V X Eo = jWoJlH o -v X E =jwlJH (7-1)
V X HI) = jWflEE o vXH=jwfE
We sealarly multiply the last equation by E~ and the conjugate of the
first equation by H. The resulting two equations aTC
Et·V X H =jwEE·Et
-H· v X Et = -jwo,l.lHci· H
Adding these and applying the identity
V • (A X B) ~ B •V X A - A. V X B
we have
v· (H X Et) = jWfOE· ES - jWaJ.lHS· H
By analogous operations on the second and third of Eqs. (7-1), we obtain
V . (H: X E) = jwp.H . H: - jwotE: . E
These last two equations arc now added, and the sum integrated through-
out the volume of the perturbed cavity. The divergence theorem is
applied to the left-hand terms, one of which vanishes, because n X E = 0
on 8'. The resulting equation is

t H X Et· ds = j(w - wo) JJJ (fOE· Et + p.H . HS) dT (7-2)

Finally, since n X Eo = 0 on S, we have

c/fHXEt.dS=O
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 319
and the left-hand side of Eq. (7-2) cau be written as

1ft H X E:·ds = 1ft H X E;·ds = -1ftH X E;.ds

r s-s d

The last term is taken as negative, to conform to the convention that

ds points outward. We can now rcwrite Eq. (7-2) as

ieffiH X Et·ds
.s (7-3)

This is an exact formula for the cha.nge in resonant frequency due to an

inward perturbation of the cavity walls. Note that our development
assumes that E and}J are real, that is, wc have assumed no losses. Prob-
lem 7-1 gives the gcneral formulation in the lossy case.
The crudest approximation to be made in Eq. (7-3) is that of replacing
E, H by the unperturbed field Eo, H o. For small perturbations this is
certainly reasonable in the denominator and should be valid in the
numerator if the deformation is shallow and smooth. With this approxi-
mation the integral in the numerator of Eq. (7-3) becomes

...effi H X E~ . ds "'"

=
..iw.111
1f>(H o X E~) . ds

(.IE.I' - _lll,I') dT
••
The last equality follows from the conservation of complex power [Eq.
(1-62)]. Substituting this into Eq. (7-3), and also substituting Eo. H o
for E, H in the denominator, we have

W-WDR<~"
III WI,I' - .IE.I') dT
(7-4)
w, III (_lll,I' + .IE.I') dT
•
Note that the terms in the numerator are proportional to the electric and
magnetic energies II removed" by the perturbation, while the denominator
is proportional to the total energy stored. Hence, Eq. (7-4) can be
written as
(7-5)

where tlv>. and a'W. are time-average electric and magnetic energies
originally contained in AT and ,v
is the total energy stored in the original
320 TIMErfiARMONIC ELECTROl\lAQNETIC FIELDS

cavity. Finally, if AT is of small extent, we caD approximate the AW'S

by aT times the energy densities at the position of liT. Furthermore,
W caD be written as T times a. spoce-average energy density Ul. Thus,
Eq. (7-5) can be written as
W - 000 ..., (tV... --= 10,) AT = C AT
(H)
000 Wr T

where C depends only on the cavity geometry and the position of the
perturbation.
It is evident Crom the preceding equations that an inward perturbation
will raise the resonant frequency if it is made at a point of large H (high
U>..), and will lower the resonant frequency if it is made at a point of
large E (high We). The opposite behavior results from an outward pertur-
batiOn. It is also evident that the greatest changes in resonant frequency
will occur when the perturbation is at a. position of maximum E and zero
H J or vice versa.
Numerical calculations using Eqs. (7-4) to (7-6) are easy for the cavi-
ties treated previously, because we calculated W when we determined the
Q'5. For the dominant mode of the rectangular ca.vity of Fig. 2-19, W is
given by Eq. (2-98), or
'II> ~ -
-IE,I'T
4
For tJ.T located at the mid-point of the base (maximum E) we usc Eqs.
(2-96) to find aW... = 0, and

6oW. ~ -
:lIE,I' 60T
Hence, from Eq. (7-5) we find
w - Wo ::::: -2 tl:r
w, T
(7-7)

If the perturba.tion occurs at the mid-point of the longer side wall (maxi-
mum H), we have 11"1». = 0 and
-IE,I'
6oW. ~ 2(1 + c'/b') 60T
Hence, from Eq. (7-5) we fInd
w-wo 2117
(7-8)
Wo ::::: 1 + (c/bp7
Note that for a square-base cavity (b = c) the cbange in resonant fre-
quency due to 117 at maximum H is only one-half as great (and in the
opposite direction) as that due to a7 at maximum E.
 PERTURDATIONA.L AND VARlATIONAL TECHNIQUES 321
'fABLE 7-1. TUE PAB,A)lETER C OP EQ. (7-6) FOR DEFOnMATIONS (a) AT MAXJllU1ll
E AND (b) AT MAXlloIU){ H 011' THE DOMiNANT MODE

Cavity Geometry C

Rectangular
(a S b ;5 c)
/' 1A1
I (O!>---L-- -L
/" (a)
(a) -2
b) 2
( 1 + (c/b)l
t--b--!'"

Short cyliDder
(d < Za) ~(;'~jI (a) -1.85
(b) 0.'

d~ (a) -0.843
Long cylinder
(d ~ Za) ~(b) "- (b) 2.80
(a>
1 + (1.714/d)'

Spherical
tE"- (4) -0.3Gl
(b) 'a...,' (b> 0.680
(a> . /

Hemispherical
':U (a) -2.02
(b) 0.680

Table 7-1 gives the value of C in Eqs. (7-6) for cavities of several
geometries for a., located at (a) maximum E and (b) maximum H. These
values have been obtained using the crude approximations of replacing
E, H by Ee, H o in Eq. (7-3). They are therefore valid only for smooth,
shallow deformations. In general, the frequency shift depends on the
shape of the deformation as well as on the shape of the cavity. The
formulas for deformations of the form of small spheres or small cylinders
caD be obtained from the results of the next section by letting E _ 00
and 11- O.
7-3. Cavity-material Perturbations. Let us now investigate the change
in the resonant frequency of a cavity due to a perturbation of the material
within the cavity. Figure 7-2a represents the original cavity containing
matter E, IJ, Figure 7-2b represents the same cavity but with the matter
changed to E + AE , IJ + All.
322 TDrE-RAIUIONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

n n

Flo. 7-2. Perturbatwn of

mat.ter in a cavit.y. (4)
Original cavity; (b) per·
'. , s turbed cavit.y.
(a) (6)

Let E Ot HOI Wo represent the field and resonant frequency of the original
cavity. and let E, H, (oj represent the corresponding quantities of the
perturbed cavity. Within S the field equations apply, that is,
- V X Eo = jwopHo - V X E = jw(p + .1p)H (7-9)
V X H o "'" jwotE o V X H = jW(E + ..6.E)E
AB in the preceding section, we 8calarly multiply tbe last equation by
E: and the conjugate of the first equation by H, and add the resulting
two equations. This gives
v . (H X E:) = jW(E + AE)E • E: - j(J},pB: . H
Analogous operation on the second and third of Eqs. (7-9) gives
V. CD: X E) = jwCp + dp)R· H: - jW(ltE: . E
The sum of the preceding two equations is integrated throughout the
cavity, and the divergence theorem is applied to the left-hand terms.
The left-hand terms then vanish, because both n X E = 0 on Sand
n X Eo = 0 on S. The result is

0= III IIw(. + 6.) - w"jE· E: + [wu. + 6,) - w.,IH· H:I dT

Finally, this can be rearranged as

w - Wo
w - IIIIII (llEE· Et
(tE. E:
+ ~pH· Hn dT
+ pH . Ht) d,.
(7-10)

This is an exact formula for the change in resonant frequency, due to a

change in t and/or p within a cavity. Once again our development bas
assumed the loss-free case, that is, E and p are real. The general formu-
lation when losses are present is given in Prob. 7-5.
In the limit, as ~t -+ 0 and IIp -+ 0, we can approximal-e E, H, w by
Eo, H o, Wo and obtain

III (6·IE,I' + 6,IH.,') dT (7-11)

III (·IE,,' + ,IH.l') dT
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARL-\TIONAL TECHNIQUES 323
This slates that any small increau in E and/or ~ can only decrease the
resonant frequency. Any large change in E ,and/or ~ can be considered
as n succession of mnny small changes. Henco, any imrease in f and/or ~
within a cavity can only decroou the reMnant frequ.emy.
We can recognize t.he various terms of Eq. (7-11) as energy expressions
and rewrite it as

w -
w,
w, ::::s - -
'"
1 fl! (d' - + d" - )d
-10.
E
-"'_
~
T (7-12)

where W is the total energy contained in the original cavity. Now if

the change in E and ~ occupies only a small region AT, we can further
approximato Eq. (7-12) by

(7-13)

where tb is the space average of W. The parameters C1 and C! depend

only on the cavity geometry and the position of aT. Note that 0. small
change in E at a point of zero E or a small change in p. at a point of zero IJ
does not. change the resonant frequency. If we compare Eq. (7-13) wit.h
Eq. (7-6), it is evident that. C - C! - CJ. For the cases considered.in
Table 7-1, aT' is either at a point of zero H, in which case C! = 0, or at a
point of .tero E, in which case CI = O. To be explicit, for a material
perturbation at (a) of Table 7-1 we have C1 "'" -C and C! = 0, while for
a material perturbation at (b) of Table 7-1 we have C 1 = 0 and C! = C.
The preceding approximations require that AE, Ap., and AT all be small.
We shall now cODsider a procedure for removing these restrictions on AE
and Ap.. This introduces the further complication that the change in
frequency depends on the shape of tl.r, as well as on its location. The
modification is accomplished by using a. quasi-static approximation to the
field internal to tl.T. This assumes that the ficld internal to AT is related
to the field external to AT in the same manner as for static fields. The
procedure is justifiable, because, in a region small compa.red to wave-
lengt.h, the Helmholtz equation can be approximated by Laplace's
equation.
There are Cour types oC samples for which this quasi~static modification
to the pert.urbat.ional solution is very simply accomplished. These are
shown in Fig. 7-3 for the dielectric case. For the magnetic case, it is
merely necessary to replace E by Hand E by p.. For the thin slab wit.h
E normal to it (Fig. 7-3a), we must have continuity of t.he normal com-
324 TIME-HARr.l0NIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

O'----_.:.JD
(cj (d)

FlO. 7-3. Some small dielectric objects {or which the quasi-.static solutions are simple.

ponent of D. so that
(7-14)

This approximation is valid regardless of the cross-sectional shape of the

cylinder. For the long thin cylinder with E tangential to it (Fig. 7-311),
we must have continuity of the tangential component of E, so that
(7-15)

Again this approximation is independent of the cross-sectional shape of

the cylinder. For E normal to a long thin circular cyliuder (Fig. 7-3c),
we can use the static solution, I which is

(7-16)

Finally. for E normal to a small sphere (Fig. 7-3d), we can use the static
solution,' which is

(7-17)

The static solution for a dielectric ellipsoid In a uniform field is also

known but is not very simple in form.'
To use the above quasi-static approximations, we approximate E (and
H in the magnetic case) in the numerator of Eq. (7-10) by E 1D , of the
preceding equations. In the denominator we can stilJ use the approxi-
mations E = Eo and H = H o, because the contribution from AT is small
compared to that from the rest of T. Hence, our quasi-static correction
to the perturbational formula is

(oj - WD
~
JII AtE IDI • Eci dT
(7-18)
2jjj.IE.I'dT
I W. R. Smyth, "Static and Dynamic Electricity," pp. 67-68, McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc., New York, 1950.

I J. A. Stratton, "Electromagnetic Theory," pp. 205-213, McGraw-Hili Book Com.
pany, Inc., New York, 1941.
 PERTURBATIOYAL AND VARIATIOXAL TECHNIQUES 325

,
A , - -71 1

d--W=-a-----..j
(a) (b) (e)

FIo. 7-4. CAvities used t.o illustrate t.be pcrturbatKlnal fonnulas.

for the case t1p. "'" O. (The denominator bas been simplified by equating
W.. to 'W•. ) The corresponding formula for the frequency shift due to
a magnetic material would be of same form, but with E replaced by H
and E by p. throughout.
Equation (7-18) is, of course. most valuable for problems for which
the exact solution is not known. However, so that we may gain confi-
dence in the results as well as pr:lCuce in the procedure, let us apply
Eq. (7-18) to problems for which we have the exact solution. These are
illustrated in Fig. 7-4. For a dielectric slab on the base of a rectangular
cavity (Fig. 7-44), we have E l ., given by Eq. (7-14). The field and energy
expressions for the unperturbed cavity are given in Sec. 2-8. Appli-
cation of Eq. (7-18) then yields

lE,-ld
- 2-,-,-. (7-19)

where d is the slab thickness and a is the cavity height. A comparison

of this with the result of Prob. 4-17 for P.l = P.I "'" p.o and EI = EO shows
that our answer is identical to the fU'St t-erm of the expansion for cal in
powers of dla. ~n fact, if tip. is also nonzero a.nd we treat it to the same
degree of approxima.tion (match tangential H), we again get the correct
first term of the expansion. To illustrate the improvcment obtained by
using the quasi-static field, we can compare Eq. (7-19) to the result
obtained from Eq. (7-11), which is

I) ~
o

It is apparent that the above formula is accurate only {or Er F:S I, that is,
when tu is small.
A nonmagnetic dielectric slab at a. side wall of the rectangular cavity
(Fig. 74b) has but little effect on the resonant frequency, because E is
zero at the wall. In this case E is tangential to the air-dielectric inter-
race; so Eq. (7-15) should apply. Note that Eqs. (7-18) and (7-Jl) give
326 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGXE'I'lC FIELDS

identical approximations in this case. In particular, we obtain

",-wo
".. - (t~-l)f,J.t'll'"Xd
sm - :t:
Wo a 0 a
~ _ T' (. _ 1) (~)' (7-20)
3' •
A comparison of this with the answer to Prob. 4-18 shows that we again
ha.ve the correct first term of the expansion when tip. "'" O.
As a final example, consider the spherical cavity with a concentric
dielectric sphere (Fig. 7-40). The field of the unperturbed cavity is
defined by

H. =~JI(2.744&)Sin9
and tbe stored energy is given by Eq. (6-35). Applying Eq. (7-18),
using the quasi-static Eq. (7-17), we obtain

w - Wo === -0.291 fOr - 1 (2.744 ~)'

"'0 t.+2 b
where a is the radius oC the small dielectric sphere and b is the radius of
the conductor. This we can compare to the exact solution (Peob. 6·8),
which is the same. The perturbational method used in conjunction with
the quasi-static approximation gives excellent a.ecurncy when properly
used. This sbift in resonant frequency caused by the introduction of &
dielectric sample into a resonant cavity can be used to measure the
constitutive parameters of matter.
7-4. Waveguide Perturbations. We shall now consider waveguides
cylindrical in the general sense, that is, all z: = constant cross sections
are identical. Figure 7-5a represents a cross section of the unperturbed
wavegUide, Fig. 7-5b represents a wall perturbation, and Fig. 7-5c repre-
.sents a material perturbation. All perturbations must, of course, be
independent of z. The guide boundary is taken as perfectly conducting
in aU cases.

n n
•
E. H
Eo.Bo E.H
.c
'. , S S-

C C'
(,j
c
(0) (b)

Flo. 7-5. Perturbat.ions of eylindrieaJ waveguides. <a) Original cross section;

(b) wall per~urbalion; (c) material perturbation.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATtoNA.L TECHNIQUES 327
At the cutoff frequency a cylindrical waveguide is a two-dimensional
resonator. We should therefore expect formulas similar to those for
perturbations of cavities to apply to waveguides at cutoff. In fact, we
can apply the cavity derivations directly to the region formed by the
cyundrical waveguide bounded by two z "'"' constant planes, changing
only some of the explanations. For example, in deriving Eq. (7-2), the
left-hand side results from the integral

1P(H X E: +H: X E)·ds

taken over the perturbed surface. For lL length of a cylindrical wave-
guide at cutoff, the ficlcle are independent of Zj 80 the surface integrals
over the two z = constant cross sections cancel each other. This leaves
only the surface integral on the left-hand side of Eq. (7-2) taken over the
wall of the waveguide. Following the derivation further, we find that
Eq. (7-3) applies directly for calculating the change in waveguide cutoff
frequency. But both numerator and denominator involve an integration
with respect to z. which reduces to the length of the segment of thecylindri-
cal waveguide. Hence, from Eq. (7-3) we obtain the change in cutoff
frequency 6wc due to an inward perturbation of the waveguide wall as

j,{.. H X E:·ndl
_"-l.'Y-",,c'-__'- _
6",c "'"
fJ
B
(oE • E: + ,H· H:> ,u
(7-21)

where 6C is the contour about the volume of the perturbation and S' is
the cross section of the perturbed waveguide (see Fig. 7-5b).
The crude approximation of replacing the perturbed fields E, H by the
unperturbed fields Eo, H o in Eq. (7-21) gives good results for smooth,
shallow perturbations. This leads to

6",c
If (,IH,[' - ,[E,[') _d.
11~~-,--,-_-,- (7-22)
-
w,
~
II (,IH,['+,IE,!'),u
7

which is analogous to Eq. (74). Hence, an inward perturbation of the

waveguide walls at a position of high E will lower the cutoff frequency,
while one at a position of high H will raise the cutoff frequency. For
perturbations not shallow and smooth, we can obtain a better approxi-
mation to .6.wc by using a quasi-static approximation for H in the nwner·
ator of Eq. (7-21). An example of the perturbation of waveguide wallE
is the "ridge waveguide." formed from the rectangular waveguide by
328 TIM~HARMONIC ELECTROAlAGNETIC FIELD8

adding ridges along the center of the top and bottom walls. 1 Such ridges
will lower the cutoff frequency of the dominant mode and will raise the
cutoff frequency of the next higher mode (sce Prob. 7-12). Hence, a
greater fange of single-mode operation caD be obtained. The ridges also
decrease the characteristic impedance of the guide; hence, they arc used
for impedance matching.
The formulas for material perturbations in cavities can also be special-
ized to the case of material perturbations in waveguides at cutoff. The
reasoning is essentially the same as that used for the wall-perturbation
case. Hence, from Eq. (7-10) we can obtain tbe exact formula for the
change in cutoff frequency due to a change of matter with the waveguide.
It is
A",. if (alE· E: + d~' H:> dB (7-23)
"'. ff (oE· E: + ,.H. H:> d.
where the integrals are taken over the guide cross section. Note that
an increase in either f or ~ can only decrease the cutoff frequency of a
waveguide. If.o.E and !:J.,.,. are small, we can replace E, H by Eo, H o and
obtain
A",. ff (A,IE,I' + A"IH,I') d' (7-24)
ff (,IE.I' + "IH.I') d.
-~

"'.
This is analogous to Eq. (7-11). If at' and OjJ are large, but of small
spatial extent, we caD improve our approximation by using the quasi-
static method of Sec. 7-3. For example, analogous to Eq. (7-18) we bave
in the nonmagnetic case

A"" Jf !:J.a;la,· E: dB (7-25)

ff ,IE.I' d.
-~

"" 2
where Elu is given by the appropriate one of Eqs. (7-14) to (7-16).
AB long as the perturbed guide is homogeneous in f and P, we can
determine the propagat-ion constant at any frequency from the cutoff
frequency according to

l
j~ -jk~l- (:')'
~- (7-26)
a - k, 1 - (;.)' w < CAl,
IS. B. Cohn, Propertiea of Ridge Waveguide, PNX.. IRE, vol. 35, no. S. pp. 783-788,
August, 1947.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 329
(This is proved in Sec. 8-1.) If the perturbed guide is inhomogeneous,
no such simple relationship exists. In such cases we can obtain pertur-
bational formulas for the change in 'Y. In the loss-free case we can express
the unperturbed fields as
Eo "'" to(z,y)e-i~"
(7-27)
K o = a:o(x,y)e-i~••
and the perturbed fields as
E = t(x,y)e-i6a
H = :a(x,y)e-i~a
(7-28)

The perturbational formulas are then

j, (j);: X 1l:) • n dl
-) ---;-:;'-'Y=6C"--::--;;_--::- _
QQ'
~ - ,.,,0 =
f!s
r
(j);: X 1l: + j); X 1l::> . u. d8
(7-29)

in the case of a wall perturbation, and

ff (6,j);. j);: + 6.ll: . 1l::> d,

~ - ~. ~ w T,s~:----:;--:;---;:---­ (7-30)
ff (j);: X 1l: + j); X ll::) . u. d8
•
in the case of a material perturbation. The perturbational formulas in the
lossy case are given in Probs. 7-15 and 7-16.
To illustrate the derivation of the above formulas, consider a material
perturbation. The unperturbed and perturbed fields satisfy Eqs. (7-9)
with w = wo, for the frequency is kept unchanged. The two equations
following Eqs. (7-9) are still valid, and, with Wo = w, their sum becomes
V . (H X E: + H: X E) ~ jw(AEE • E: + ApR· H:)
Integrating this equation throughout So region and applying the diver-
gence theorem to the left-hand term, we obta.in

1ft (H X E: + H: X E) ·ds = jw IfI (AEE·E: +ApH·H:)dT (7-31)

This is an identity for any two fields of the
same frequency in a region for which E and
Il are changed to E + At and p + Ap. For .... ----- -- •
material perturbations in a cylindrical wav&- dzI
guide, we express the fields according to Eqs.
(7-27) and (7-28) and apply Eq. (7-31) to FlO. 7·6. DilTe.rential slice or a
the differentia.l slice of Fig. 7-6. On the cylinde.r.
330 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

waveguide walls both n X E and n X Eo vanish; so this part of the surface

integral vanishes. Also, since the thickness of the slice is a differential
distance,

The right-band side of Eq. (7-31) caD be expressed as the integral over
the cross section t.imes dz; hence Eq. (7-31) reduces to

-j(ji - ~.) II (a x ~: + a: x E). u. d•

•
- jw II (6&:' li: + 6 a .a:) d• p
•
Rearrangement of this equation gives Eq. (7-30). In the derivation of
Eq. (7-29), the right-hand side of Eq. (7-31) is zero, and the left-hand
side equated to zero leads to the desired result.
Equations (7-29) and (7-30) as they stand are exact. To usc them,
we must make various approximations for :2 and H, just as we did in
the cavity problems of Sees. 7-3 and 7-4. For example, in the case of
shallow, smooth deformations of waveguide walls, we can approximate
a
t, ft by to, o in Eq. (7-29). Using the conservation of complex power
(Eq. (1-62)], we arrive at the result

[f (P[O.I' - .[2.1') ds
".-'''---;:---;0----;:-,--- (7-32)
fJ - fJo """ Cal
II (li: ao+ li. 1l::) . u. d•
X X
•
(The denominator is twice the time-average power flow in the unper-
turbed guide.) If the perturbation is not shallow and smooth, better
results can be obtained using a quasi-static modification. Similarly, for
small .o.E and .o.p. we have the approximation for material perturbations

II (6·12.1' + 6pl0.[') d.
fJ - fJ. == (7-33)
II (li: ao+ li. an· ds
Cal " , " ' - : - - - - ; - - - : - - - : - - -

X X
•
For large .o.e and .o.p. we can obtain better result-s by using the quasi-static
approximation for the fields within .o.E and .o.p..
As an example of the perturbational approo.ch applied to a waveguide
problem, consider a circular waveguide of radius b containing a concen-
tric dielectric rod of radius a. The exact solution to this problem was
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 331

FJO. 7-7. Comparison of

1.0

0.9 - @
... • b
~~/
/
/
the perturbational 801u· ~ 0.8
tion ""iUt the eu.ct lJOoo
lution for the partially ./' L?'Perturbation
solution-
0.7
filled circular waveguide,
I _ lOc., b - 0.44 0.6

o 0.1 0.2 03
o/b

considered in Sec. 5-5, a.nd a numerical example is shown in Fig. 5-11.

For the perturbational SoluLion we shall use Eq. (7-30) with tip. = O. In
thc numerator we make the quasi-static approximation of Eq. (7-16),
and in the denominator we approximate t, by ~lll 11 0 • The unper-:a
turbed field of the dominant TEll mode for the circular waveguide is

E, - ; J I ( 1.841 £) sin rP H, = - ~:
E. = l.:U J~ (1.841~) cOS ¢ H. = ~:
where Zo is the characteristic impedance [Eq. (5-32)]. The denominator
of Eq. (7-30) tben becomes

2
Zo
1," 1,'
0
d41
0
dp p(E,l + E.l) = 0.7892 ~
1J

where We is the cutoff frequency. The numerator is easily evaluated as

and Eq. (7-30) reduces to

;:: ~~ EO( 1.841 iY
P-P.
ko "'" vi
2.146(w./w)1 •. +-1(.)'
b
E. 1
(7-34)

Figure 7-7 compares this solution to the exact solution of Fig. 5-11. OUf
approximations give good results for small a/b. At frequencies near the
unperturbed cutoff frequency, the We in Eq. (7-34) may be taken as that
of the perturbed guide.
7-5. Stationary Formulas for Cavities. Suppose we have a resonant
cavity formed by a perfect conductor enclosing a dielectric. possibly in-
homogeneous. The {<wave equations" arc
v X p.-'v X E - ~IEE = 0
(7-35)
V X r v 1
X H - ",~l~ = 0
332 TIME-BARMONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

where w. is the resonant frequency. These reduce to the usual Helmholb

equations when f and ~ are constants. If the first of Eqs. (7-35) is scalarly
multiplied by E and the resulting equation integrated throughout the
cavity, we obtain

III E· V X .-·v xEd, (7-36)

6.1..' = '-'-'--/'/'I-'-,-E-'-d-'---
Similarly, multiplying tbe second of Eqs. (7-35) scalarly by H and inte-
grating throughout the cavity, we obtain

III H·v X ,-'V X Hd,

w,' ~ !..L!--/"'-'/I-'-.-H-'
(7-37)
d,--

Equations (7-36) and (7-37) arc identities, but, even more important,
they are useful for approximating w,. by assuming field distributions in a
cavity. They are particularly well-suitcd for this latter application
because of their Ustationary" character. which we shall now discuss.
We take Eq. (7-36) and substitute for the true fitl4 E a trial field
(7-38)

where 'P is an arbitrary parameter. This procedure gives

w'(p) -
III (E+pe)·V X .-·V X (E+pe)d,
'-'--''--77,----------- (7-39)
1II,(E+pe).(E+pe)d,
where we show wt as a. function of 7J for fixed e. The Maclaurin expan-
sion of ",t is

",2(P)=Wr t ow'l
+p-
up .... 0
p2 uw
+--t
21 up
2 t
I
.... 0
+ ... (7-40)

Note that the first term is the true resonant frequency, because
",t(O) "'rt. In the variational notation l the above expansion is written
::::I

as
",t(p) = wrt + p&."t + p'
21lPwt + ... (7-41)

By definition, each term of Eq. (7-41) equals the corresponding term of

Eq. (7-40). The term 8",t is called the first variation of ""t, tbe term 8t ",t
is called the second l!ariaiwn, sDd so on. A formula for w t is said to be
IF. B. Hildebrand, .. Metbodaof Applied Mathemat.iea," p. 130, Prentice-Hall,Inc.,
Englewood Cliff" N.J., 1952.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 333
stationary if the first variation of ",,2 vanishes. This is equivalent to

(7-42)

The extension to more tha.n one p parameter is straightforward.

We now wish to show that Eq. (7-39) is stationary. The derivative
of the numerator N(p) evaluated at p - 0 is

N'(O) = JJJ (E·V X p-IV X e +e·v X p-IV X E)d'1

It is a vector identity that

111 E· V X p-IV X e dr - JJI p-IV X e· V X E d'1

+ 1ft [(.-·v X e) X E)· d.
The last term vanishes, because n X E "'" 0 on S. A similar identity
states

JJf p-tv X !; V X EdT"'" IfJ e· V X ",.-IV X EdT

-1ft [(.-·V X E) X eJ· d.

Using these two identities and the fi.rst of Eqs. (7-35), we obtain

N'(O) - 2w; ff f .e· E d. -1ft [(.-'v X E) X e)· d.

The derivative of the denomina.tor D(P) of Eq. (7·39) is, for p - 0,

D'(O) - 2 fff .e·Ed.

We then obtain

aW'1
ap ._0 _ D(O)N'(O)D'(O)
- N(O)D'(O)

1ft [(.-IV X E) X eJ· d. (7-43)

-- fffoE'd.
which has been simplified, using Eq. (7-36). The above equation van-
ishes if n X e = 0 on 8, which requires n X EbloJ. "'" 0 on 8. Hence, Eq.
(7-36) is a stationary formula. for the resonant frequency if the tangential
components of the trial E vanish on the cavity walle.
334 TIME-IlARMONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC F1ELD8

Equation (7-36) can be put into a more symmetrical form by applying

the identity

III E· V X .-'V X EdT - III .-·V X E· V X EdT

+ # l<.-·V X E) X E] . ds

The last term vanishes, because n X E = 0 on S. Substituting this

identity into Eq. (7-36), we obtain

III .-·(V X E)'dT (7-44)

w,' - l.LL-f"'fI".E=--'d:-T-
This formula proves to be stationary, provided n X E lrial =: 0 on S. If
we look carefully at the first variation of Eq. (7-44), it is evident that the
requirement n X E kW = 0 on S caD be relaxed if the term

2# [(.-·V X E) X E]· ds

is added to the numerator. This gives

III .-·(v X E)' dT + 2# [I;c'v X E) X E!· ds

..' - (7-40)
lll.E'dT
which is stationary, even if n X £"1&1 yf 0 on S. This is an important
modification, because it is not always easy to find a trial field with vanish·
ing tangential components on the cavity walls, especially if the geometry
is complicated. Still further modifications in OUf formulas are required
if n X E or n X (/r1v X E) are discontinuous over some surface within
the cavity. All such modifica.tions can be quite simply effected by the
reaction concept of Sec. 7-7.
A similar procedure shows that EQ. (7-37) is a st8.tiooary formula. in
terms of H, provided n X (ciV X H) = 0 on S. The H-field formula
corresponding to Eq. (744) is

..' _ f",f",I<"7-'7(V_X_H_)_'_dT (7-46)

JJJ .fl'dT
which turns out to be stationary subject to 00 boundary conditions on S.
Further modifications to account for discontinuities in n X H or n X
(f- 1V X H) over surfaces within the cavity can be made. These modifi-
cations aga.in follow directly from the methods of Sec. 7-7.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 335

-,'

o p, p o p, p
(a) (b)
Flo. 7--8. Illustration of Wi Ver1!US 'P for (0) a stationary formula and (b) a nOlUltationary
formula.

Let us now briefly consider the advantages of a stationary formula

over a nonsLationary one. Figure 7-8 shows pictoraUy the primary
ndvao,tage. Given a class of trial fields of the form of Eq. (7-38), the
parameter w' (p) determined from a stationary formula such as Eq. (7-39)
will have a minimum or maximum at p = 0. 1 This is shown in Fig.
7-8a. The parameter 61 ' determined from a nonstationary formula must
have some definite slope at P =* 0, llS shown in Fig. 7-8b. For a givcn
error in the assumed ficld, say .dE - pie, the corresponding error in the
resonant frequency is WI' - w,.'. It is evident that for small PI the sta-
tionary formula gives a. smaller error in 61' than does the nonstationary
formula. This property is sometimes summarized as follows: fl A param-
ctcr determined by a stationary formula is insensitive to small variations
of the field about the true field." An crror of the order of 10 per cent
in the assumed field gives an error of the order of only 1 per cent in the
parameter. In some cases the true field can be shown to yield an abso-
lute minimum or maximum for the parameter. The stationary formula
then gives upper or lower bounds to the parameter. Our formulas for 61 '
give upper bounds, as we shall show later,
We might also inquire about the general procedure of establishing
stationary formulas. One characteristic of all such formulas is that the
numerator and denominator contain squares of the trial field. This
insures that amplitude of the trial field will have no effect on the calcu-
lation. Classically, the method of establishing stationary formulas is to
construct formulas of the proper form and then separate the stationary
ones from the nonstationary ones by testing the first variation, In Sec.
7-7 we shall give a general procedure which leads directly to the various
stationary formulas.
I A complex parameter would have 0. saddle point at 'P - O.
336 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Now let us apply some of OUf stationary formulas to a problem Cor

which we have an exact answEl):, so that we may get an idea of the accu-
racy obtainable. Consider the dominant mode of the circular cavity
(Fig. 5-7), for the case d < 2a, The TMo,o mode is dominant and the
exact resonant frequency is
2.4048
w, = a VEP. (7-47)

The field is sketched in Fig. 5-8 and is given mathematically by

E. = j J o (2.405~) -H~ ... 2.~05 J (2.405~)

1

Substitution of this true field into any of our stationary formulas must,
of course, give us Eq. (7-47).
Suppose we first try a formula that requires no boundary conditions
[Eq. ('1-46)1. Assume as a trial field
VXH=u.2
Equation (7-46) then becomes

foG 4pdp 8
wi = =_
EIJ. 104
pVJP Epa'

and our approximation is

w ~ 2.818 (7-48)
r a~

This is 16 per cent too high, which is a relatively poor result. This sug-
gests that our trial field was too crude an approximation. We can
improve our trial field by assuming

H = 14 (p - %) V X H = u.2 (1 - ~)
which is chosen to satisfy the condition n X E = 0 on S. Equation
(7-46) then yield.

=
l" 4(1 - ~)' pdp 180

j,o' ( 23ap')' pdp

1012 ElI __

fll p-- ,.31a'

4.nd oW' approximation is now

2.410 (7-49)
Wr "'= _ /-
a v EjJ.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECUN1QUES 337
This is only 0.2 per cent in error. Even though a formula is stationary,
we must use care in choosing trial fields. It is advisable to meet the
physical boundary conditions 88 closely as possible, for this will hclp to
obtain a trial field close to the true field. If the same trial field is used in
Eq. (7-37), we again get Eq. (7-49), since n X E "'" 0 on S.
Now consider a stationary E-field formula, say Eq. (7-44). This
formula requires n X E = 0 on S; henee we choose
1
VXE-u.-a

Substituting this into Eq. (7-44.), we obtain

{o!... dp
Jo a l
6
w' ~ -r"'."i('--=-~)"'- - ,.a'
Ell Jo l-~ pdp
Our approximation is therefore
2.449
Wrt::S _l_ (7-50)
OVE",

which is 1.8 per cent too high. If we had chosen a trial E field not
satisfying n X E .,. 0 on S, we would have had to use Eq. (745).
Note that all our approximations are too high. This suggests that the
true resonant frequency is an absolute minimum, which we shall now
sbow. For example, take Eq. (7-39), and, by means of various identities,
put it into the form

Ilf pe' (v X Il-IV X pe - W/Epe) dT

(7-51)
w' - w,' - '-L'----j'j'j-,--,-(E-+-pe-)-'-:a,----
It is known thR.t, the eigenfunctions, that is, the fields of the various
modes, form a complete set of orthogonal fUDctions in the cavity space.!
Hence, the error field pe can be expanded in a series

where the Ali are constants and the Eli are the various mode fields. Sub-
stituting the above equation into Eq. (i-51), making use of the wave
I Philip M. Morse and Herman Fcshbach, "Methods of Theoretical Physics," part I,
Chap. 6, McGraw~HiI1 Book Compa.ny, Inc., New York, 1953.
338 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

equation and the orthogonality relationshipl5, we obtain

l (~;' - w.')A;' JJ! .E;'dT

wI - w
r
' = ~;--'f"!"!'-.(:-E-"-'"-)-'-d-T--- (7-52)

where the w. arc the resonant frequencies of the ith modes. Since we
ha.ve chosen W r as the lowest eigenvalue, Eq. (7-52) is always positive.
Hence, any w calculated from Eq. (7-36) will be an upper bound to the
true resonant frequency. Also, if we choose a trial field orthogonal to
the field of the lowest mode, we have an upper bound to the next higher
resonant frequency, and so on. This, of course, requires that tbe domi-
nant modo be known exactly, which is seldom the case for complicated
geometries. .
Look now at Eq. (746). The trial field H = constant vector is a
permissible trial field, since DO boundary conditions are required. The
result is W r "'" 0, which is less than the true resonant frequency IEq.
(7-47»). Why do we not ha.ve an upper bound in this case? The answer
lies in the fact that we have overlooked the "static mode." A static
magnetic field (wr = 0) can exist in a cavity bounded by a perfect electric
conductor. Fortunately, it is easy to insure that our trial field is orthogo-
nal to all static fields, thereby obtaining an upper bound to the dominant
a-e mode. Any trial field satisfying
,Jf.-OonS (7-53)
is orthogonal to aU static fields, as we shall now prove. The desired
orthogonality is

where, in general, H ,t• lI • = -va. By virtue of the identity

". (U.,H) - .,H. "U + U,,· pH
the preceding equation becomes

This requirement is met for all U by the conditions of Eq. (7-53). Our
choices for H in the foregoing examples satisfied Eq. (7-53); so we
obtained upper bounds to the dominant TM oio mode, as desired.
7-6. The Ritz Procedure. A further advantage of the variational
formulation is that one can choose the best approximation to a stationary
quantity obtainable from a given class of trial fields. This is done by
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 339
including adjustable constants, or variational parameters, in the definition
of the trial field and then choosing those parameters which will give a
minimum or maximum of the stationary quantity. For example, if we
choose
(7-54)

where the Ai are variational parameters, and substitute into the station-
ary formula Eq. (7-36), we obtain

(7-55)

The best approximation to w. 2 will be the minimum value of w\ which

can be chosen by requiring

a",'
-=0 i ::::0 1,2, ... ,n (7-56)
aA,

This general method is known as the Ritz procedure. I

The most common way to include variational parameters is to express
the trial field as a linear combination of functions
(7-57)

Since the labor of the calculations increases approximately as the square

of the number of terms in EQ. (7-57), it is desirable to keep n small.
However, it is also necessary that some choice of the Ai will give a
reasonably close approximation to the true field. When a complete set
of functions E, is used, the method may, in principle, lead to an exact
solution. It is also sometimes convenient to choose the E; as an orthog-
onal set.
For an example of the Ritz method, let us again consider the circular
cavity of Fig. 5-7 and trial fields of tbe form
H = .. (p + Ap') v X H ~ u.(2 + 3Ap) (7-58)

where A is a variational parameter_ Note that H satisfies no boundary

conditions on S; so we choose Eq. (7-46) as the stationary formula..
Substituting the trial field into Eq. (7-46), we obtain
f:(2 + 3Ap)'p dp
",' _ J.:""",--- _
+ A p2)!p dp
E~ foG (p
15 8 + 1Ma + 9(Aa)' (7-59)
= a"~ 15 + 24Aa + lO(Aa)'

I The method is also referred to as the "Rayleigh-Ritz procedure."

340 TU!E-HAIW:ON1C ELECTROllAGNETIC FIELDS

Note that the approximation of Eq. (7-49) is the special case Aa ",. - 3i'.
To determine A by the Ritz method, we set

- -0
a",'
aA
and obtain 24 + 55Aa + 28(Aa)' - 0
This can be solved (or Aa as

A _ -55 ± v'ffi ~ ( -1.3100 (7-60)

a 56 -0.6543
A substitution of the second of these values into Eq. (7-59) gives
2.4087
'" ~--
aw (7-61)

which is smaller than what the first of Eq. (7-60) gives. Hence, Eq.
(7-61) is the desired "best" approximation to t.he true resonant fre-
quency {Eq. (7-47)J. The solution Aa - -1.31 gives ka = 7.191, which
is an approximation to the next higher eigenvalue 5.520. If the trial
field bas two variational parameters, we obtain approximations to the
lowest three eigenvalues, and 80 00. The Ritz procedure also gives us
an approximation to the true field, but it is difficult to esta.blish the
nature of tbe approximation.
7-7. The Reaction Concept. 1 A general procedure for establishing
stationary formulas can be obtained, using the concept of reaction 88
defined in Sec. 3-8. To reiterate, the reaction of field a on source b is

(a,b) - f (Eo. dJ' - Ho . dM') (7-62)

H all sources can be contained in a finite volume, the reciprocity theorem
(Eq. (3-36)1 ;,
(a,b) - (b,a) (7-63)
The linearity of the field equations is reflected in the identities

(a,b + c) - (a,b) + (a,c) (7-64)

(Aa,b) - A{a,b) - (a,Ab)
where the notation Aa means the a field and source are multiplied by
the number A.
Many of the parameters of interest in electromagnetio engineering are
proportional to reactions. For example, the impedance parameters of a
IV. H. RumllCy, The Reaction Concept in Electromngootic Theory, PhlJ•. Reo., lief.
2, vol. 94, no. 6, pp. 1483-1491, June 15, 1954.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 341

multiport Unetwork" are proportional to reactions, as shown by Eqs.

(341). Approximations to the desired reactions can be obtained by
a.ssuming trial fields (or sources) to approximate the true fields (or
sources). It is then argued that tbe best approximation to a desired
reaction is that obtained by equating reactions between trial fields to
the corresponding reactions between trial and true fields. To be specific,
suppose we want an approximation to the reaction (c.,c.). (The symbol
c stands for II correct.") The approximation (a,b) is then best if we
15ubject it to
(a,b) - (c.,b) - (a,c,) (7-1i5)
because we have imposed all possible constraihts. Equation (7-65) caD
be thought of as the statement that all trial sources look the same to
themselves as to the correct sources.
The reaction (a,b) obtained from Eq. (7-65) is also stationary for small
variations of a and b about c.. and c.. This we can prove by letting

and showing that

a(a.b)
ap..
IP.-JlIlo-O -
a(a,b)
aP/l
I
""'-Pl-O =
0 (7.00)

Substituting for a and b ioto Eqs. (7-65), we have the three relationships
(a.b) - (c.,,,) + P.«.,,,) + p,(c.,<.) + P.p,« ....)
= (c.. ,c.) + PIJ,(c.,e.)
- (c.,,,) + p.«.,,,)
Using the last two equations in the first equation, we obtain
(a,b) = (c..,c.) - p..p.(e..,e.)
It is now evident that Eqs. (7--66) are satisfied, proving the stationary
character of (a,b).
We have a slightly different case when the reaction concept is used to
determine resonant frequencies of cavities. The true field at resonance
is a source-free field; so the reaction of any field with the true source is
zero. Hence, if we let a = b represent a trial field and associated source.
Eq. (7-65) reduces to
(a,a) - 0 (7-f>7)
We can think of this as stating that the resonant frequencies are zeros
of the input impedance.
To apply Eq. (7--67), we assume a trial field and determine ita sources
irom the field equations. For example, an assumed E field can be sup-
342 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

---'8 (a) (b) (c)

FIG. 7·9. Sources needed to support (a) a trial E field, (b) a trial H field, and (el both a
trial E field and a. trial H field.

ported by the electric currents

] ~ -jw,E - ~V
}w
X (.-'V X E)
•
(7-68)

However, if the trial field docs not satisfy n X E "" 0 on S, we need the
additional magnetic surface currents
M. = n X E on S (7-69)
to support the discontinuity in E at S. This is illustrated by Fig. 7-9a.
We now substitute from Eqs. (7-68) and (7-69) into Eq. (7-67) and obtain

o- (a,a) ~ III J. 1P E dd M, . C~. V X E) ds

= -jw Iff HII

,E·Edd E· V X (.-'V X E) dT

- ~ 1P (n X E) . (.-'V X E) d'
If n X E = 0 on S, this reduces directly to Eq. (7-36). If n X E ~ 0
on S, the above equation roouces to Eq. (7-45).
If 8. stationary formula. in terms of the H field is desired, we consider
the trial field to be supported by the sources

M - -jw.II - ~ V X (,-'V X II)

}w
(7-70)
M.""nxC~VXH) onS

as represented by Fig. 7-9b. Application of Eq. (7-67) now lea.ds to Eq.

(7-46), or to Eq. (7-37) if M. - O.
Statiomiry formulas in terms of both E and H are also possible. This
time we consider both electric a.nd magnetic currents, as shown in Fig.
7-9c. They are found from the trial fields according to
J = -jW<E +VXH
M = -jwllH - V X E (7-71)
M.... nxE ODS
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VABlATIONAlo TECHNIQUES 343
Equation (7-67) then gives

0- fII (E. J - H . M) d, -<jp H . M. da

- Iff (-jW<E' + E· v XH + H· v X E + j".H') d,
-<jpE X H·cls
which can be rearranged to

.fII (E· V X H + H· V X E) d, -1P E X H· ds

" - 1
fff (.H' - ,E') d, (7-72)

This is sometimes called a "mixed-field 1/ stationary formula. The minus

sign in the denominator might seem strange, but it. is easily shown that
E and lJ are 90° out of phase in the loss-free case (see Sec. 8-4). Henco,
the denominator is twice the stored energy in the cavity.
Finally, if the trial fields have discontinuities in n X E or n X Hover
surfaces within the cavity, we must add the appropriate surface currents
to support the discontinuities. This procedure leads to additional sur-
face integrals in the stationary formulas, as shown in Probs. 7-Zl and
7-28.
Earlier we showed that reactions constrained according to Eq. (7-65)
were stationary. But in the above cavity formulas we calculated w by
forcing the reaction to vanish. We shall now prove that the w so deter-
mined is stationary about the true resonant frequency. In the usual
manner, we let the trial field be the true field plus 8. parameter times an
error field, represented by
a=c+pe
For fixed e the reaction (a,a) is a function of both wand p. Equation
(7-67) constrains (a,a) to vanishj hence, as wand p are varied, we have

a(a,a) ~ ;w + a(a,a) ~ p _ 0
iJw..... iJp .....
p-o p.. o

The second term of this equation vanishes because (a,a) is stationary

about p - O. The coefficient of the first term is not in general zerOj SO
ow = 0
Thus, the first variation of w vanishes, and all formulas for w derived
from Eq. (7-67) are stationary.
The reaction concept also provides US with an alternative way of
viewing the Ritz procedure for improving the trial field or source. We
344 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

assume the trial field or source to be a linear combination of functions,

represented by
a"'" Uu + Vv + ... (7-73)

where U, V, ... arc numbers to be determined. According to the

reaction concept, all trial fields should look the same to themsel ves as
to the true source; hence we should enforce the conditions
(a,u) - (c,u)
(a,v) - (c,v) (7-74)

Substituting from Eq. (7-73), we obtain the set of equations

U(u,u) + V(v,u) + ~ (c,u)
U(u,v) + V(v,v) + - (c,v) (7-75)

which can be solved for the parameters U, V, . The solution 80

obtained is identical to that obtained by the Ritz procedure.
To illustrate, let us reconsider the example of Sec. 7-6, which was the
Ritz procedure applied to the circular cavity (Fig. 5-7). Our trial field
was Eq. (7-58); so for the same approximation by the reaction concept
we choose
(7-76)
The sources of these fields, according to Eq. (7-70), are
2·
M." =..1
w, (7-77)
M .. = 3ia
w,
Calculating the various reactions according to Eq. (7-62), we obtain

(u.u) :=
a'
211'da 2 ( jwp."4 + jWf:
2 )

a'
(u,v) = (v,u) = 211'da 3 ( jwlJ, 5" 2)
+ jWf (7-78)

(v,v) = 211'da t ( jwp. a'

'6 9)
+ jwri
All reactions with the correct source Ilre zero, because the true field is
source-free. Bence, (c.lt) = (c,v) = 0 and Eqs. (7-75) reduce to
U(u,u) + V(v,u) - 0
U(u,v) + V(v,v) = 0
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 345
These equations can have a .J,lOntrivial solution only if the determinant
of the coefficients of U and V vanishes. Hence,
(U,UXll,ll) - (U,ll)1 = 0 (7-79)
ia the equation from which w is to be found. The solution of Eq. (7-79),
with the reactions 01 Eq,. (7-78), yields Eq. (7-61).
7-8. Stationary Formulas for Waveguides. At cutoff, a waveguide is
a two-dimensional resonator; so we should expect stationary formulas
for the cutoff frequencies to be of the same form as those for the resonant
frequencies of cavities. We must, of course, be careful in applying the
reciprocity theorem, because the sources of our trial fields are not of
finite extent. However, if we take a slice of the waveguide, as was done
in Sec, 7-4, surface integrals over the top and bottom just cancel at
resona.nce. The height of the slice is common to all terms and therefore
cancels. Starting from Eq. (7-67), we arrive at stationary formulas dif-
fering from our cavity formulas only in that volume integrals are replaced
by surface integrals and surface integrals by line integrals. Renee, the
E-field formula corresponding to Eq. (7-45) is

II .-'(V X E)' ds + 2 f lc.-'v X E) X E] . n dl

w,' - II tE'da (7-80)

where n is the outward-pointing unit vector normal to the waveguide

walls. The H-field formula corresponding to Eq. (7-46) is

II ,-'(V X H)' d. (7-411)

.
w ' -
II·H'd.
and the mixed-field formula corresponding to Eq. (7-72) is

.fI (E· V X H +IH· V X E) d. - f E X H· n dl

w, - J
I (.II' - ,E') d, (7-412)

None of the above formulas require boundary conditions on the trial

fields. Corrections for discontinuous trial fields can be made as out-
lined in the preceding section.
As an example, consider the partially filled rectangular waveguide of
Fig. 4-84. In See. 4-6 we obtained a transcendental equation for the
cutoff frequency [Eq. (4-51»). For a variational solution, let. us use Eq.
(7-80) and a trial field
E - . ""
U.Sln-
a
346 TIME-HA1U£ONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

which is the empty-guide field. The result is l

w.= r [1 +" - "(da 2r1.

o Vt!'ut (1
2r~]-"
---SIn -
a
(7-83)

Noto that this is an explicit fonnula for We, in contrast to the exact equa-
tion, which is transcendental. Table 7-2 compares the above result with
the exact solution for the case fl . . 2.45(. and It ... Eo. We should expect
the approximation to become \Vorse as tdEt becomes larger, since the
field then tends to concentrate more in the dielectric.
TABLE 7-2. RATIO OF W ...VEoumE WIOTlt TO CU'J'()I'P WAVELENGTH FOR TIll:
Rr:cTANOOLA"lt WAVEGUIDE WITH DII~LECTaIC SLAB
("ElI:aet" valuce read from curvell by Frank)

dfa a~ (cnct) al>.. (approximate)

0 0.500 0.500
0.167 0.'1.85 0.486
0.286 0.4.50 O.4sa
0.500 0.375 0.383
0.600 0.350 0.352
1.000 0.319 0.319

A knowledge of the cutolT frequency of a waveguide homogeneous in

t and ~ is sufficient to determine the propagation constant at any other
frcqucncy according to Eq. (7-26). If the guide is inhomogeneously
filled, as for example the above-treated rectangular waveguide with
dielectric slab, there is no simple relationship betwecn the cutoff fre-
quency and the propagation constant. We therefore have need of sta-
tionary fonnulas for propagation constants.
In all of the previous examples, the field equations were given by an
operator which was self-adjoint with respect to the desired integration. I
For inhomogencously filled waveguides, the field equations lead to an
operator which is not self-adjoint Hence, an appropriate adjoint opera-
tor must be fowid and the derivation of the stationary formulas suitably
modified. It turns out that the operator for waves traveling in the -z
direction is the adjoint of the operator (or waves traveling in the +z
direction, and the derivation proceeds as follows.
Define +2: traveling waves 88
E+ :t+(::,y)e-J6' == (~I + u.B.)e-ii•
:::I
(7-84)
H+ "'" ft+(x,y)e-J~' == Ca, +
u.O.)e-i '.
I A. D. J3erk, Variational Principles for Electromagnetic RCl'Ionatotli and WllV~

guides, IRE Trana., vol. AP-4, no. 2, pp. 104-110, April, 1956.
t B. Friedman, "Principles and Techniques of Applied Mathematics," John Wiley
"nd Son.} [nc., New York, 1956, p. 44.
 PERTURBATIONAL Al'Ii"D VAlUATIONA.L TECHNIQUES 347
Substituting these into the field equations, we obtain
V X ~+ + jW.f!+ - jPU. X ~
V X it+ - jW&:+ "'" ilJu.. x ft+
Using analogous definitions for -z traveling waves, we find
V X ~- + jw.fl- = -jpu. X ~-
V X a- - jw.P:- = -jpu. X iI-
By direct substitution, it can be shown that for any +z traveling wave
solution there exists a -2 traveling wave solution given by
E- .. ~-(x,y)e~" .,.. (tl - u..2.)e»·
(7-85)
H- = f!-(x,y)e'" = (-fl, + u.B.)e"·
where the t/, tt, e., and 9 .. of Eqs. (7-84) and (7-85) are the same
functions.
Now multiply the first of the +z wave equations scalarly by :A-, and
t.he second of the -z wave equations by ~+, and add the two resultant
equations. This gives
Ji-. V X ~ + ~+ . V X iI- + jw.fl- . fl+ - jw'£+ . ~-
= -2iP~, X a
l • u.

which, when integrated over the guide cross section and rearranged, yields

II
(w.t+ . ~- - w.tt+ . fl- + Jll-. V X ~ + J"t+ . V X a-) dB
P = <..<....---------,7"""C--,---------
2 II~, X a,. u.dB
(7-86)
This is a mixed4field formula, stationary if n X E = 0 on C.
For the E-field formulation, eliminate it from the +2 and -2 wave
equations, and proceed as in the derivation of Eq. (7-86). The resultant
formula is
pi II lA-IE/Ids - j21J JJp-IEI' vEldB
+ II I.-'(v X t+) . (V X ~-) - w',£+ . t-] d8 = 0 (7-87)

stationary if n X E = 0 on C. Tho H-field formula is given by Eq. (7-87)

with E, lA, E replaced by P, E, H, and it is stationary with no boundary
conditions on H. Equations (7-86) and (7-87) remain stationary in the
lossy case, for which ilJ should be replaced by 'Y = (I + iP·
For an example of the calculation of propagation constants, consider
the centered dielectric slab in eo rectangular waveguide, as shown in the
insert uf Fig. 7-10. AJ< a trial field, take
.. . n
r.,-Uwsm-
a
348 TIME-HARMOllo'lC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

1.6
y+ --Idl+-
1.4
BEI
1-- --1 • 0
d/o- 1.0-
_0.5

12
• 2.45 ~
/. V
~:-
-- 0.3

~~
l=: 0.1
~O
0.8

0.4
1//' /
( Exact--
Approximate ----

a 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

of>.,
Fla. 7-10. Compariaon of approximate and enet. propagat.ion col1$lanta for the
rectangular waveguide with centered dielectric slab, t - 2.454. (After BeT.I:.)

and use Eq. (7-87). The result is l

p.
kG
~ [1 +~ (~ +! Sin!'!)
E,a'll" a
- (..!...)']~
koa
(7-88)

The exact solution is given in Prob. 4-19 and requires the solution of a
transcendental equation. A comparison of a values obtained (rom Eq.
(7-88) with the exact values for pjk a is shown in Fig. 7-10 for the case
E = 2.451:0.

7-9. Stationary Formulas for Impedance. A formula for impedance

in terms of reaction is given by Eq. (3-41). Such a formula. when con-
strained according to Eq. (7-65), is a stationary formula for impedance.
Figure 7-11 represents a perfectly conducting antenna excited by a
current source. The resultant current on the antenna will distribute
itself so that ta.ngential components of the total electric field vanish on
the conductor. The antenna. terminals are close togetherj so the reaction
of any field with the current source is of the form - VI. If a trial-eurrent
distribution J.- is assumed on the antenna, the formula for input imped·
ance [Eq. (3-41)J is

(7-8lJ)

I Berk. lJp. cU.

 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 349
where I is the input current. The impedance as calcu-
lated by Eq. (7-89) is stationary about the true current,
as we shall now show. On the antenna surface, the tan-
gential components of tbe true field E~ arc zero except at
the input; hence
I
(c,a) lC: - Vel = - PZI • = (a,a)

Also, (c,a) = (a,c) by reciprocity; 50 the constraints of

Eq. (7-65) have been met, and Eq. (7-89) is a stationary
formula.
Equation (7-89) was used to calculate impedance be-
fore its stationary character was noticed.' This method
should not be confused with the induced emf method FIG. 7·11. An
antenna excited
(7-90) by a current
&(lurcc.
which is based on the conservation of complex power.
Equation (7-90) is not stationary unless both the true current and the
trial current are real. When the trial current is MSumed real, we get
tbe same answer from Eqs. (7-89) and (7-90). Hence, the input imped-
ances for waveguide feeds calculated in Sec. 4-10 a.re also variationa.l
solutions to the same problems.
If we have two sets of input terminals, as, for example, in the case of
the two linear antennas shown in Fig. 7-12, the variational formula for
mutual impedance is

(7-91)

where I .. and 16 arc the input currents at terminals a and b, respectively.

The demonstration that the constraints of Eq. (7-65) are met is similar
to that for self-impedance. Note that Eq. (7-91) involves the assump-
tion of currents due to both sources, since E" is the field of J.... The
extension to N sets of terminals is straightforward.
The calculation of mutual impedance is usually simpler than the calcu~
lation of self-impedance because the source and field points are separated.
Let us therefore take a mutual-impedance problem as our first example.
Consider the parallel linear antennas of length >./2 as shown in the insert
of Fig. 7-12. No appreciable error will be incurred by assuming the cur-
rents as filamentary, as long as the antenna diameters are small compared
to wavelength and compared to antenna separation. Let the z axis lie
I P. B. Carter, Circuit Relations iD Radiating Systems and Applications to Antenna.
Problems. PrO(;. IRE, vol. 20, DO. 6, pp. 1004-1041, June, 1932,
350 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

BO

i\
'/l~di
60
\ R.,
40

o
c§ 20
1\
\ / K
-20
o
\ x..

\ \~/
V'----'
/1.0 ""
~.5

-40
1"-./
FlO. 7-12. Mutual impedance Z.. _ R.. + ;X.. between parallel 1+./2 linear anlennu in
free space.

along antenna a, and assume

2", 2",
/- .. I. cos T P - I. cos-
X
(7-92)

Our formula for mutual impedance [Eq. (7-91») become8, in this case,

Zn = - -1//
••
fV'
-),j4
E."I'd,
By the usunl vector-potential method we have

~(:'.
E,' _ }WE v3
+ k') A,'
where, at antenna. b,
I jW4 e-i1v"'+(0-/)'
A .. - - ["(t') dz'
• 4-.. -'A/4. V d' + (z %')2
Substituting for E.- and I' in our expression for Z., we obtain

Z.... -
f '"
-Vol
dz
f)"/4 2rz
_),j" dz' cos "'" cos ~ G(z,z')
1\
2rz'
1\
(7-93)

1 (a. ) e- i1,;'d'+<0-,'jI
where G(.,') - - - - + k' (7-94)
I kjwE az' V d' + (z z')'
 PERTURBATIONAL A.ND VARIATIONAL TECRNlQUES 351
The integrations of Eq. (7-93) can be expressed in terms of sine integrals
and cosine integrals. The details of the integration can be found in the
literature. I Letting
Z.. - R.. +iX..
we obtain for the result

R.. = 4: (2 Ci(kd) - Cilv'(kd)' + .' + .') - Cilv'(kd)' + .' - .'11

X.. = ;"'!2Si(kd) - Silv'(kd)' +.' + .'J - Silv'(kd)' +.' - .'11
(7-95)
where Ci(x) nnd Si(x) are as defined in Prob. 2-44. Figure 7-12 shows 0.
plot of Eqs. (7-95). The mutual impedance between linear antennas of
otber lengths and orientations can be found in the literature.l,s
The evaluation of the self-impedance of a linear antenna is more diffi-
cult because oC the singular integrands encountered. Let us use this
problem to illustrate the use of adjustable parameters in the trial cur-
rent. The geometry of the center-fed linear antenna is shown in the
insert of Fig. 7-13. Let the current on the antenna be represented by
two functions, according to Eq. (7-73). Our trial current is then a sur-
face current of the form
J. - UJ." + VJ." (7-96)

where U and V are adjustable parameters. According to the reaction

concept, the trial functions should look the same to the assumed current
as to the true current; hence we enforce the conditions
(a,u) ~ U(u,u) + V(v,u) - (c,u)
(a,v) - U(u,v) + V(v,v) ~ (c,v)
where (e,u) and (e,v) can be calculated, as we shailialer show. Solving
for U and V, we have in matrix notation

Substituting for U and V into Eq. (7-96) and calculating the self-reaction,
we obtain
(a a) = {(c u) (cu»)
, "(11.,1')
[(U,U) (v,u)]-.
(v,v)
[(C,U)]
(e,v)
(7-98)

I P. S. Camt, Circuit Relations in Radiating Systems and Applications to Antenna

Problems, Proc. IRE, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 1004-104.1, June, 1932.
I G. Brown and R. King, High Frequency Models in Antenna Inveatigations, Proe.

TRE, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 457-480, April, 1934.

352 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

5000 z

4000
f--
f--
T
L . %=0 Lla a:: 22,000

1- +i ~2a

3OO0

J 2000
Lla = 1800

1000
Ah.. Lla"" 150 /
~ V "-~ /"
o
(oj
24oo
rl I
II Lla = 22,000
1600

800
/ '"\

E
V ~Lla = 1800
I#"
~
o
o L/' £V
~ Ljo ~ 150\ '//
I/j, ---
/ 7
-BOO
1// /
IV II
-1600

- 2400
I
V
o 2 4 6 B 10 12
kL
(b)

FlO. 7-13. Variational solution for the input impeda.nce of the symmetrical cylindrical
antenna. (Afttr Y. Y. Hu.) (a) Input resistance; (b) input reactance.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNlQUES 353
Equations (7+97) and (7-98) also apply to the case of N adjustable con-
stants if the various matrices are extended to N rows and/or columns.
Expanding Eq. (7-98), using the reciprocity condition (u,v) = (v,u), we
obtain
( ) (c,u)'(v,v) - 2(c,uXc,vXu,v) + (c,v)'(u,u)
a,a .,. (u,uXv,v) (u,v)t

Now note that n x E· = 0 on the antenna surface except at the feed; 80

(c,x) "'" - VI.!"
(or any z, where VI. is the input voltage and [" is the z current at the
input. Using the above two relationships in Eq. (7-89), we obtain
Z Z t 1.1 (11.,'1') - 21..1.(u,v) + ! ..S(v,v}
I. """ I. (u,v}S (u,u}(v,v)
which can be rearranged to read

(7-99)

where I. and I. are the values of the u and v trial currents at the input.
Let us now look at the form of the reactions. The currents will be
rotationally symmetric %-dircctcd surface currents on the cylinder p = a,
where a is the antenna radius. These currents can be expressed as
1
r." - .a l"(,) u,
-2 (7-100)

where I" is the total current and x .... 11., V. By the potential integral
method we can calculate the field of the current J.s as

E.'" "" - S18

'
1t
( kS
Jwt
+ a2a') ILI2
%-L/2
dz' 10'" dfj/J.rG
0
(7-101)

where (7-102)

The various ren.ctioos of Eq. (7-99) are then given by

(x,y) = L/2 dz 10'" adq,E,"'"J.' (7-103)

I-£/2 0

where Eo'" is given by Eq. (7-101) with p =* a. Note the singular nature
of the Grecn's function [Eq. (7-102») a.t p - a.
A precise evalua.tion of Eq. (7-103) would be difficultj SO the following
approximation is usually used. The field of the current is approximated
by the field of a filamentary current of the same magnitude. This is
354 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

equivalent to replacing Eq. (7-102) for p = a by

(7-104)

For thin antennas, the error introduced by Eq. (7-104) is negligible, as

caD be shown by the following argument. The field of the filament of
current is a source-free field in tbe region external to the linear antenna.
We can therefore assume that this field exists and calculate the equiv-
alent currents on the surface of the antenna. As long as the equivalent
magnetic currents are negligible, as they will be for thin antennas, we can
take the equivalent electric currents for our trial currents. The resultant
current is essentially that of Eq. (7-100). Using the above approxi-
mation for G, we obtain from Eq. (7-103)

(x.y) ~ ,.!; fLI'

"X~JWE -L/2
d' fLI'
-L/2
liz' 1,(,')1-(,) (k' + :',) G
uZ
(7-105)

where G is given by Eq. (7-104). Note that, to this approximation, the

self-reaction is equal to the mutual reaction between two identical anten-
nas fed in phase and separated by a distance B. Hence, Eqs. (7-95) with
d replaced by a give the first-order (one trial function) variational solu-
tion for the input impedance of a >../2 linear antenna. In particular,
note that for very small a = d, Eqs. (7-95) reduce to
R,. = 73.1 X,. = 42.5 (7-106)
as is evident from Fig. 7-12. Resonance (X = 0) occurs for L slightly
less than >../2.
For trial functions in the second~order solution,

I" - Sill k(~ -1'1)

(7-107)
I' - 1 - co, k (~ - 1'1)
have been used in the literature. The evaluation of Eq. (7~105) for
(x,y} = (u,u}, (u,v}, and (v,v) is long and involved, and formulas in terms
of sine integrals and cosine integrals have been given by Storer' and Hu. t
Numerical values of the input impedance are given in Fig. 7-13. The
antenna is said to be resonant when X is zero and kL n'lf, n odd. It is
0:;

said to be antiresonant when X is zero and kL Rl n'll'", n even. Note that.

I J. E. Storer, Variational Solution to the Problem or the Symmetrical Cylindrical

Antenna, Cruft LaO. Rep. TR 101, Cambridge, Mass., 1952.

I Y. Y. Hu, Back-llCa.ttering Cross Sections of a. Center-loaded Cylindrical Antenna,

IRE TraM., vol AP~6, no. I, pp. 140-148, January, 1958.

 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUE8 355
in the vicinity of resonance, R is in- E _ El + E- ~
D
sensitive to antenna thickness. It /
is in these regions that the analysis tSource Obstacle
of Sec. 2-10 gives good results. Both
trial currents of Eqs. (7-107) are zero
at the input for kL = 41r. Hence, FIG. 7-14. Wave seat.t.ering by an 00.-
the input impedance calculated there- st.acle.
from cannot be valid in the vicinity
of kL = 47. Perhaps a better choice for the v current would be

I" - ~ - Izi
which is finite at z = 0 for all L > O. However, calculations have not
been made for this choice.
7·10. Stationary Formulas for Scattering. Let us first treat the ba.ck-
scattering, or radar echo, type of problem by the variational method.
The problem is represented by Fig. 7-14. It consists of a source and one
or more obstacles, and we wish to determine the field scattered back to
the source. For simplicity, the obstacle will be considered a perfect con-
ductor and the source a current element n. The more general case of
dielectric obstacles is considered in Sec. 7-11.
Let the incident field, that is, the free-space field of the source alone,
be denoted by Ei. The total field E with the obstacle present is then the
sum of the incident field Eo plus the scattered field E·. The reaction of
the sca.ttered field on the current element is
(8,i) ~ liE,' ~ -IV' (7-108)
where V· is the scattered voltage appearing across l. Let the echo be
defined as the ratio of E,- to n. Then, using reciprocity, we ha.ve
EI' (S,1) (i,s)
Echo - If - (II)' ~ (II)'

- (I~)' 1P E; . J. d, (7-109)

where J. is the current induced on the perfectly conducting obstacle.

The boundary condition at the obstacle is n X E = 0, or
n X E; - -n X E' on S (7-110)
Hence, Eq. (7-109) ca.n be written as
-1 Af.. (c,c)
Echo - (II)' 'Jr E' . J. d, - - (ll)' (7-111)

where (c,e) stands for the self-reaction of the U correct" currents induced
on the obsta.cle hy the source.
356 TI~RARMONIC ELEC1'ROMAONETIC FIELDS

For a stationary formula, we assume a current J- on S and approximate

(c,c) by (a,a), subject to the constraint
(a,a) - (e,a) - - (i,a) (7-112)
The last equality results from Eq. (7-110). To express tbis constraint in
a form for which (ala) is insensitive to the amplitude of J., we take

(i,a)'
(a,a) - - (
a,a )
and, replacing (c,c) by {a,a} in Eq. (7-111), we have

-(i a)' (1fE" Jo d.)' (7-113)

Ecbo = (Tl) '(a,a) =
(TI)' 1f Eo. JO d.
where E- is the field produced by the assumed currents Ja, This is the
variational formulation of the problem. Note the close similarity of the
echo problem to the impedance problem of the preceding section. The
impedance problem is essentially an echo problem for which the source is
at the obstacle. A more general formulation of the echo problem can be
made by replacing I l with an arbitrary source.
The tensor Green's functions alSee. 3-10 can be used to put Eq. (7-113)
into a more descriptive form. Define [r(r,r')] as the tensor of proper·
tionality between a current element dJe at r' and the field dEe that it
produces at r. that is,
dEo(r) _ (r(r,r») dJo(r)

Then Eq. (7-113) can be written as

Echo """
- [i11f E'(r) . Jo(r) ds
-,,---'7;:-:=-------""--
r
1f d.1f d.' J"(r) . (r(r,r')] Jo(r')

This equation is in a form characteristic of variational solutions in general.

A commonly calculated parameter is the echo area, defined by Eq.
(3-30). For linearly polarized fields, the echo area is given by

(7-114)

If, in Fig. 7-14, we let TZ be z4rected and located on the.:z: axis, and then
let r = ::c: -+ co, we have, in the vicinity of the obstacle,

E' = u. i"ll tJh = u.BoeJb

2~T
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VAlUATIONAL TECHNIQUES 357

2.0
••
1.5 1:, m ( \ Llo - 150

..
-1 1'"'20
"
1.0

r'\
~\Lla - 1600
0.5 ........
~ \
.L: \\: L~o = 2f.OOO
o 2 4 6 8 10 12
1L
Flo. 7-]5. Broad,ide echo .rea A. of .. wire. (Aflu Y. Y. Bu.)

Also, by definition, we have echo = E,'fll; hence from Eq. (7-113)

~E. (1f> u, . J'e d8)' i"
E J• = _--"-il-,, -'-
1'21\r 1f> E' . J'd.
Therefore, by Eq. (7-114), our stationary formula for echo area is
." (1f> J.·oi" d.)' ,
A. = .. - - (7-115)
X 1P E'· J'd.
when the incident plane wave is .-polarized and -x traveling.
As an example, consider the scattering of a plane wave by a thin con-
ducting wire, as represented by the insert of Fig. 7-15. The integral in
the denominator of Eq. (7-115) is just the self-reaction of the assumed cur-
rent on the wire. This is the same type of reaction that we encountered
in the linear-antenna problem, approximated by Eq. (7-105). Defining
A as the self-reaction, we have
A = A E- . J- dB
'it'
= -~- fL/2
<kj"'E - LI2
do fL12L/2 dz' [-(z)1'(zI) (k' + ~)
- a.'
G
(7-116\
358 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

where G is given by Eq. (7-104). For the current on the wire we should
expect a constant current "forced II by the incident field plus a" natural-
mode" sinusoidal current. At the ends of the wire, the current should
be practically zerOj hence we assume for our trial current
L
j- = cos kz - cos k '2 (7-117)

Equation (7-116) can then be evaluated as

Re (A) - ~: (kL + kL cos kL - 2 ,in kL) Si (kL)

+ log 2ykL - Ci (2kL) - 'in' (kL))
(7-118)
1m (A) - ~: 1(kL + kL co, kL -2'in kL) [ Ci (kL) + log ,~n]
+ Si (2kL) - (I + cos kL) ,in kL I
where y ZE 1.781. The integro.l in the numerator of Eq. (7-115) evalu-
ates to

which defines B.
I Ll'
-Ll2
[-(z) dz = -I (2k
k
- - kL cos -kL) - -
sinL

Hencc. the echo area is

2
B
2 k
(7-119)

A. = I~ I:;.1' (7-120)

with A and B given by Eqs. (7-118) and (7-119). This solution gives
good accuracy out to about kL = 8. Figurc.7-15 shows a plot of A./).!
for the second-order solution (two trial functions), as calculated by
Y. Y. Hu. t The results for plane wa.ves incident at an arbitrary angle
are given by Tai.' He also shows the effect of choosing different trial
functions.
In two-dimensional problems, the quantity echo width L. corresponds
to the echo area of the three-dimensional problems. The echo width is
defined as the width of incident wave which carries sufficient power to
produce, by cylindrically omnidirectional ra.diation, the same back-
scattered power density. In equation form, the ceho width is

L. - ,-_ ~')
lim (2ro gl (7-121)

1 Y. Y. Bu, Back..catlering CroM Section of a Center-loaded Cylindrical Antenna,

IRE TraM., vol. AP-6, no. I, pp. 14.0-14.8, January, 1958.
I C. T. Tai, Electromagnetic Back-scatlering [rom Cylindrical Wires, J. Appl. Ph".,

vol. 23, no. 8, pp. 009-916, August, H152.

 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 359
orj for linear polariza.tionj 8
>•
. ( IE'I')
L c = ~~ 2rp E' (7-122) 6
tHi ITI-t'"
E'

where superscripts 8 and i stand for

llscattered U and H incident,lI respec-
7
ti vely. Going through a develop- /
ment similar to that used for Eq. ../
(7-115), except that a line source is
used j we obtain o 0.2 ---
0.4
aI'
0.6 0.8 1.0

L, _.!. • 'f
( J. J
•
"h dl)' ,
(7-123)
FIG. 7-16. Echo width L, of a conduct,..

2X f EtJ,'dl ing ribbon of width 4.

if the incident field is z-polarized and -:J: traveling. SimilarlYj

(f J.,"h dl)' ,
(7-124)
• fE'. J' dl

if the incident field is y-polarized and -x traveling. From symmetry,

J" in Eq. (7-124) should have no z component. In both Eqs. (7-123)
and (7-124), it is assumed that thc scatterers are cylinders generated by
elements parallel to the z axis and the line integrals are in a transverse
(z = constant) plane.
For an example of a two-dimensional problemj consider a z-polarized
plane wave normally incident on a conducting ribbon of width a. This is
illustrated by the insert of Fig. 7-16. Assume that the current induced
on the ribbon is uniform j that is,

J.' = 1 (7-125)
Because the current is real, the integral in the denominator of Eq. (7-123)
is

J'/2 - ../2
E.oJ.fJ dy = J'/2
- ../2
E."J.fJ$ dy = -P

where P is the complex power per unjt length supplied by J .-. But we
have already analyzed the ribbon oC uniform current in Sec. 4-12, the
result being

P =- 1[21Z = at I• Y_~rt
where Y.~rt is plotted in Fig. 4-22. The echo width j according to Eq.
360 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Receiver
./

FIG. 7-17. Differential

scattering.
Transmitter

(7-126)

A plot of this is shown in Fig. 7-16. For large a we can use Eq. (4-107)
and obtain

(7-127)

which is also the physical optics approximation (see Fig. 3-21).

The more general case of differential scattering, or transmission,' is
represented by Fig. 7-17. The problem consists of a transmitter, which
illuminates the obstacle, and a receiver at which we wish to evaluate the
scattered signal. For simplicity, let us consider both the source and
receiver to be unit electric currents. Then, according to Eq. (3-39), the
voltage across the receiving current due to the transmitting current is
(7-128)

where t and r refer to the source or field of the transmitter and receiver,
respectively. The total signal received is the superposition of the inci·
dent field, due to the transmitter alonc. plus the scattered field. due to
the currents c on the obstaclc. Hencc,
(7-129)

where (t,r) is calculated with the obstacle absent and (c,r) involves the
free-space field of the currents on the obstacle. The transmitter and
receiver currents are assumed to be known (they are current clements in
our simplified case); so V r' can, in principle, be ealculatcd exactly. Our
problem is to obtain the variational formula for V r -.
We shaH here consider only the simple case of a pcrfectly conducting
obstacle, the general case being considered in Sec. 7-11. Applying reci-
I A traDsmission problem involves the evaluation of the total field at the receiver,

while a. scattering problem involves the evaluation of only the scattered field.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 361
procity. we have, for the scattered voltage at the receiver,
- V.' ~ (c,r) - (r,c) -1ft (E')-· a,')' tU (7-130)

where 0/)' is the surface current induced on the obstacle by the trans-
mitter and (Ei)r is the field of the receiver current calculated with the
obstacle absent (the incident field). Our boundary conditions on the
various true fields are n X E = 0 at the obstacle boundaryj hence
n X (E~- - -n X (E')'
(7-131)
n X (E')' - -n X (E') ,
where superscripts i and 8 refer to incident and scattered components,
and t and r refer to transmitter and receiver sources. Hence, by Eqs.
(7-130) and (7-131), we have

V.' -1ft (E')-· (J,')' d8 - (c.,c,) (7-132)

where (er,c,) stands for the reaction between the field of the II correct "
currents induced on the obstacle by the receiver and the" correct" cur-
rents induced by the transmitter. For our stationary formula, we
approximate (c"c,) by (a,.,4,), where the a's denote assumed currents on
the obstacle, and constrain the latter according to Eq. (7-65), which is
(a.,..) = (c.,a,) - (..,c,) (7-133)
In the language of t·he reaction concept, Eq. (7-133) says that the assumed
currents look the same to each other as to their respective true currents.
By Eqs. (7-131) and reciprocity, Eqs. (7-133) become
(a"a,) = (Cr,a,) = - (r ,4,)
(7-134)
(a"a,) = (a"c,) = (CI,a,) = -(t,a,.)
Substituting from Eqs. (7-134) into Eq. (7-132), we have for our vari-
ational formula

V ,, = (a r,'
a) -= (r,4,}(t,4,)
(>
Gr,a,
[1ft (E~' . (J,o), d8] [1ft (E')' . a:>- dB]
= (~lM)
1ft (EO)' . a:)' d8
where (Ea)r is the field due to the assumed currents (J~.)", which approxi-
mate the currents induced by the receiver. Note that Eq. (7-135)
involves the assumption of currents on tho obstacle due to sources at
both the transmitter and receiver. Note also that Eq. (7-135) reduces
to the formula for back-scattering [Eq. (7-113)J when the transmitter
and receiver coincide.
362 TIME-HARMONIC ELECl'RQAlAGNETIC FIELDS

7-11. Scattering by Dielectric Obstacles. I The problem of differential

scattering by a. dielectric obstacle is represented by Fig. 7-17 if the
obstacle is now considered a.s a dielectric body. We shall assume it to
be nonmagnetic (}ol = 1£0), but it may be lossy if E is complex. The
extension to magnetic obstacles is given in Prob. 7-42.
When the obstacle is excited by a source, there will be induced in it
polarization currents given by

J' - jw(. - <o)E - .E - .(E' + E') (7-136)

SuperscripUi tor r will be added to the various quantities to indicate that

the exciting source is at the transmitter or receiver, respectively. The
treatment of differential scattering of the preceding section made DO
assumptions about the nature of the obstacle in the derivation of Eq.
(7·130) j hence for unit currents at t and r

- V,, - (r,c) - JJJ (E~'· 0')' dr (7-137)

where the notation is the same as in the preceding section. Using the
relationship E' = E - E' and Eq. (7-136), we can rewrite Eq. (7-137) as

- V,, - JJJ .-'0')" 0')' dT - JJJ (E')', O'}' dT

= F(c"c,) - (c"c,) (7-138)

which defines the functional F. Note that F is symmetrical in Cr and

Cland is actually the reaction between Er and aC)1 with the obstacle
prescnt.
To obtain a stationary formula for the scattered voltage at the receiver,
we approximate the true currents c by trial currents a and set
- Vr ' ~ F(a"a,) - (ar,a,) = G(a,.,al) (7-139)
subject to constraints of the form of Eq. (7-65) applied to G. Such con-
straints are
G(""a,) = G(c"a,) = G(a"c,) (7-140)
and we find
G(c"a,) ~ (r,a,) - JJJ (E~'. 0')' dr (7-141)
G(.. ,c,) ~ (t,..) - JJJ (E')'· 0')' dr
Combining the preceding equations to render Vr ' insensitive to the ampli-
I M. R. Cohen, Application of the Reaction Concept to Scattering ProbJelll8, IRE
TraM., vol. AP-3, no. 4, pp. 193-199, October, 19M.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 363
tudes of the trial functions, we have the variational formula
_ V' _ (r,aj)(t,a.)
• - F(a"a,) (a..,a,)
[fJI (E')'· (J')' dr] [fJI (Ery" (J')' dr]
(7-142)
- III, 'G')" G')' dr - III (E')'· G')' dr
For the lossy case, Ie = ,"WE + fT. For a perfectly conducting obstacle,
t ! - 00 i hence ,e' --+ 0 and Eq. (7-142) reduces to Eq. (7-135).
When the transmitter and receiver are represented by the same source,
we have the back-scattering problem. Using the definition of Eq. (7-109)
for echo, when the source is a unit current, we have

Echo _ - v/ _ «i.a)/l)'
I' F(a.a) (a.a)

GJJJ E'· J'dr)'

(7-143)
= JJJ '-'(J')'dr - JJJ E'·J'dr

The echo area, defined by Eq. (7-114), can be obtained from Eq. (7-143)
by letting the source recede to infinity. The steps parallel those used to
obtain Eq. (7-115). For a z-polarized, -2: traveling incident wave, we
obtain

(7-144)

In two-dimensional problems, the echo width, defined by Eq, (7-122), is

found to be
,
(7-145)
II ,-'(J,')' d. - II ENN.
if the incident wave is -z traveling and z-polarized, and
,
L--
7 "(JJ J,'e/ d.)'h

, - 2X II ,-'(J')' d. - liE" J'd.

(7-146)

if the incident wave is -:t traveling and v-polarized. 'Inc surface inte-
grals in Eqs. (7~145) and (7-146) are over the cross section of the oootacle
in a z = constant plane.
364 TIllE~BAJU.IONIC EL:ECTROlLAGNETIC FIELDS

To illustrate the accuracy that we might expect from the variational

formulas, let us consider a problem for which the exact solution is avail-
able, the circular dielectric cylinder. The incident wave is z.polarized,
and the cylinder is defined by p "'" a = >"0/2, as shown in the insert of
Fig. 7-1.8. For our first approximation, let us take

(7-147)

where k - (oJ V;;; is the wave number of the dielectric. This very crude
assumption yields curve (b) of Fig. 7-18. For a better approximation,
which yields curve (c) of Fig. 7-18, take
(7-148)

where A is a variational parameter to be determined either by the Ritz

procedure or by the reaction concept. While Eq. (7-148) is a better
approximation than Eq. (7-147), it is still crude. The integrations
occurring in the various reactions were accomplished by expressing the
exponentials and Hankel functions as Bessel function series, according to
Sec. 5-8. The resulting series converged fairly rapidly.
An alternative procedure for treating dielectric obstacles can be given

0.00012
~ I
I
, /
hi
,,
i
--
-+l",1+-
~ 0.00008

-, r-, ,
~-- (a) Ie,)
---~ /.

V
0.00004

1/
/
'" r--.. .... f-j
1',
~
,(b)

"-

o1.00 / 1.04 1.08 1.12

./.. 1.16 1.20 1.24 1.28

Flo. 7-18. Scat.tering by a dielectric cylinder (0) exact. aolut.ion, (b) Jirsw,rder varia·
~ionalllOlution, and (c) aec:ond..<Jrder variat.iollAl solution. (AfUr' Cokm.)
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECRNlQUES 365
in terms of cQuivalent currents over the surface of the obstacle. I This
method leads t.o more t.han one formula for the desired parameter, and
Rumsey discusses how to choose the best approximation according to
the react.ion concept.
7-12. Transmission through Apertures. The problem of transmission
through apertures in an infinitely thin, perfectly conducting plane is
closely related to the problem of scattering by plane obstacles. The pre-
cise interrelationship is shown by the following extension of Babinet's
principle for optics.
Consider the three cases of a given source (a) radiating in free space,
(b) radiating in the presence of an electrically conducting screen, and (e)
radiating in the presence of a magnetically conducting screen, as shown
in Fig. 7-19. The electric and magnetic screens are said to be eomple-
men/.aTY if the two screens superimposed cover the entire V = 0 plane
with no overlapping. (The apert.ure of one is identical to the obstacle
of the other.) Let the fields V > 0 be designated (EI,H'), (Eo,Ho), and
(E"',H"') for the cases (a), (b), and (e), respectively. Then Babinet'a
principle for complementary screens states that
H' + H" = H' (7-149)
proved as follows. Let S. be the screen surface of Fig. 7-19b, and S. be
the aperture surface of Fig. 7-19b. The total field in each case is the
incident field E' plus the scattered field E' produced by the currents on
the screen. An element of electric current produces no components of
H tangential to any plane containing the element (see Sec. 2-9). The
currents induced on the screen thus produce no tangential H over the
V - 0 plane; hence
n X H- ... n X HI over S.
On the screen itself we havc the boundary condition
n X E- "" 0 over S.
For the complementary magnetic screen, following similar reasoning,
we find
nXE"'=nXEi over S,
n X H- = 0 over S.
By the above four equations, the sum E' + E-, H- + H- satisfies
nx(E'+E-)=nxE' overS.
n X (H' + H-) "" n X Hi over S.
IV. B. Rumsey, The Reaction Concept in Electromagnetic Theory, PAil" Rtl1.,
2 aer.,
vol. 94, no. 6, pp. 148&-1491, June 15, 1954.
366 Tl!ld.E-HARldO~'lC ELECTROMAGNE'l'IC FIELDS

+
Hence, the e m. field has the same n X E as the incident field over part
of the y - 0 plane and the same n X H over the rest of the y .... 0 plane.
These conditions are sufficient to determine E, H in the region y > 0
according to the uniqueness theorem (Sec. 3-3); so Babinet's principle
[Eq. (7-149») follows.
An alternative statement of Babinet's principle can be given in terms
of the dual problem to Fig. 7-19c, shown in Fig. 7-19d. If the original
source is replaced by its dual a
repla.ced by K), the magnetic screen
replaced by an electric screen, and the medium replaced by its "recipro-
cal" (11 by 1/,,), then E will be numerically equal to -H- and H numeri-
cally equal to E'" (see Table 3-2). If the field of this dual problem is

I
I Electric conductor S.
I
I EJ. HI 1JO E-, He, '10
I
I
I
t Source I
I
Is.
I
I
I

~n
I
I
r-+- n
1
,-0 ,~O
(a) (6)

Is. Is.
I I
II EM, Hili. "10 I
I

t Source

II
IS.
~n
S.
Magnetic conductor * Dual source

I
Is.
~n
S.
Electric conductor

I I
,-0 ,-0
(0) (d)
Flo. 7-19. Illustration of Babinet'a principle.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 367

Electric conductor E' E'+&

M,g"t;c cood"to, I
",I,.
Transmitter
,,-1,
Receiver
"I.
Transmitter
1,/
Receiver

(0) (6)

Flo. 7-20. The trnll8mitted field E' of (a) ill equal to the scattered field E' of (b).

denoted by E", R", Babinet'e principle [Eq. (7-149)} becomes

H'" - E" = Hi (7·150)

The problem of Fig. 7-19d is more easily approximated physically than is

the problem of Fig. 7-19c.
The direct application of Babinct's principle to the problems of Fig.
7-20a and b shows that the field transmitted by an aperture in a plane-
conducting screen is equal to thc negative of the field scattered by the
complementary obstacle. Hence, stationary formulas for..the signal at
a receiver on the shadow side of a screen are of the same form as the
stationary formulas for the scattered signal at a receiver in the comple-
mentary problem. In Fig. 7-20b, let the sources at the transmitter and
receiver be magnetic currents across the "terminals" I, and 1.. Then,
dual to Eq. (7-135), we have at the receiver

H- ·1.
[fJ (H')'· (Moo)' dS] [fJ (H')'· (MtV dS] (7-151)
= -
ff (Ho),. (Mt)' ds
where Moll denotes the assumed magnetic current on the obstacle. It
approximates the true magnetic current
M. = (E+ - E-) X n = 2E' X n (7-152)

where E+ and E- denote E in the regions y > 0 and y < 0, respectively,

and n -= U lt• The interrelationships between Fig. 7-20a and b can be
expressed as
368 TDlE-H.A.IU10NIC ELEcraOMAGr.'"ETIC FlELDS

Hence, from Eq. (7-151), we obtain for the aperture problem

H'· t. - -
[JJ
(H~'. (n X Eo), <k] [I1
(H~" (n X Eo)- d. ]
-
II
(Ho),. (n X Eo)' d.
(7-153)

where E- is an assumed field in the aperture and H- is the magnetic field

calculated from the E-. The sources of Hi are magnet.ic current elements
across I, and l~. and, to apply Eq. (7-153), we must assume an n X E in
the aperture due to (H')' alone and due to (H')' alone. If ~ and 1. are
images of each other, as they appear in Fig. 7-20, then the aperture
problem becomes the same as an echo problem, because of the symmetry
of the plane screens about y = o.
Sometimes it is the total power transmitted through the aperture that
is of interest. We define the tranfmission coefficient T of an aperture
as the ratio of the power transmitted through an aperture to tho power
incident on the aperture, that is,

T _
Re If E' X H'··ds
apeR ~,
Re If E' X
(7-154)
~;
0- ds
Hi- • =

Note that T depends on both the nature of the source and the geometry
of the a.perture. Another quantity sometimes defined is the trammisrion
area, which is the transmission coefficient times the area of the aperture.
We shall explicitly consider uniform plane waves normally incident on
an aperture in a plane screen, as shown in Fig. 7-21a. Let the incident

Electric conductor Complete electric

conductor

Incident
plane wave
~
M.

,-0 ,-0
'a) (b)

FIG. 7-21. {a) Transmission through an aperture, and (b) equivalent problem for the
region 'V > o.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARiATIONAL TECHNIQUES 369
wave be specified by
H' = Ue-ih E' = '7H' X UI/ (7-155)
where u is any unit vector orthogonal to "1/' In the proof of Babinet's
principle, we noted that in the aperture
n X H' - n X H' (7-156)
because the currents on the conducting screen produce no tangential
components of H in the y = 0 plane. Equation (7-155) chooses Hi to be
real in the y "'" 0 plane; so by Eq. (7-156) n X Hi is real in the aperture.
Hence,
<l>, = Re ff E' X H'· . ds
.. per~
= Re ff EI X H' • ds
..pen
(7-157)

Now consider the problem of Fig. 7-21b, which for

M.=E'xn (7-158)
is equivalent to Fig. 7-21a in the region y > 0, lIenee, in the equivalent
problem,
<!" ~ - Re II M•. H' . ds ~ Re (c,c) (7-159)

where (c,c) is the self-reaction of the correct magnetic currents radiating

in the presence of an electric conducwr covering the entire y=-O plane.
For a variational formulation, we approximate (c,c) by (a,a) and con-
strain (a,a) according to Eqs. (7-65), that is,
(c,c) ~ (a,a) - (c,a) - (a,c)
where nIl sources radiate in the presence of the conducting plane. We
have (a,c) = (c,a) by reciprocity, and (c,a) can be calculated because we
know n X He o:z n X Hi. Hence, our stationary formula for (c,c) is

(c,a)' _ (fI H'· M.' dS)'

(eel - -
, - (a,a)
--
II H' . M.' ds (7-160)

where H" is the field of the assumed current M.... For the incident field
of Eq. (7-155), we have the power incident on the aperture given by
<!" - .A (7-161)
where A is the area of the aperture. Hence, combining Eqs. (7-154) to
(7-161L we have

T =
17A
"'!-Re[W
ff
u·n XN8)']
H4. n X Eo dB
(7-162)
370 TI1lE-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

2.0 where E· is the assumed tangential

1.5 E,t 1 1 electric field in the aperture and H· is

the magnetic field calculated from E·

h 1.0
\. "'act I by the methods of Sec. 3~.
As an example, let us consider tbe
Variational two-dimensional problem of trans-
0.5 mission through a slot, u.s shown in
the insert of Fig. 7-22. If we assume
E· in the slot to be real, then
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
01" E" X H"* = (E- X H·)*
FIG. 7·22. TransmissiOll coefficient. for and the denominator of Eq. (7-162)
a slot.ted conductor, incident. wave is
polarized traosvcnro to slot. &ll;U!. (Alter
llfiJu.) II HO • n X Eo dB =
(ff Eo X Ho' • ds)'
10 Sec. 4-11 we defined the admittance of an aperture as

y.~.. -I~I' ff EX H' ·ds

and calculated it for a slot for particular assumed E's. Hence, applying
Eq. (7-162) to a unit length of our two-dimensional slot, we have

, I
"a
[U
u·Eo X
'y'
7 - - Re ---r;;r.;;V
I'l-~_ ..
dJ)'] (7-163)

where a is the width of the slot. When the incident wa.ve is polarized
transverse to the slot, we have the case of Fig. 4-22; hence we take
Eo _ I (7-164)

in the slot. Now Eq. (7-163) reduces to

T = ~ He (+) (7-165)
"a y.""••
where Y.""•• = G. + jB" is shown in Fig. 4-22. From Eqs. (4-106) we
have for smaH a
r'
To;:::, kolog ko (7-166)

and from Eqs. (4-107) we have for large a

T_I
..... (7-167)
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 371
This last result is the geometrical optics approximation. The variational
solution is compared to the exact solution, which can be obtained by
solving the wave equation in elliptic coordinates l (Fig. 7-22). The case
of a. plane wave at an arbitrary angle of incidence is considered by Miles. t
If the incident wave is polarized parallel to the axis of the slot, we have
the case of Fig. 4-23; so to make use of the analysis of Sec. 4-11 we would
assume
Ed = cos-
..
a
(7-168)

in the slot. Equa.tion (7-163) then reduces to

T = 4a
1r;"
Re(_1)
Y:... fI
(7-169)

where Y.... ,t = G d + jB.. is shown in Fig. 4-23. From Eqs. (4-115), we

have for small a

T ~ 6.85 (~y (7-170)

For large a we should expect the field in the aperture to be uniform.

Hence, we should not expect the trial field of Eq. (7-168) to give good
results for large a, say a > X. Equation (7-169) actually approaches
0.81 for large a, instead of the expected value 1.

PROBLEMS

7-1. Suppose the cavities of Fig. 7-1 cOlltaiu lossy material characterized by IT, t,
and /l. Show thlLt thc pertllJ'batiolllll formula. corresponding to &t. (7-3) is

jdbH X Eo·ds
~CT~lf~.,- _
"'-"'0·-;
///I.E' E, -.H· Hold.
Note that both wand <.to must be complex. A complex resonaoce ill the low-loss case
can be interprcted according to

whcre .... is the rClll resonant frequency and Q is the qunJity factor (see &e. 8-14).
7-2. Consider the perturbation of a cavity (say Fig. 7~14) from onc having per-
rectly conducting walls to one having a wall impedaoce Z, defined by
nXE-ZHj

I Morsc and Rubenstcin, The Diffraction of Wavcs by Ribbons and Slits, PhYI. J?etJ.,

vol. 54, no. 11, pp. 895-898, December, 1938.

tJ. W. Miles, On the Diffraction of an Elcetromagnetic Wave through a Plane
Screen, J. Appl. Phy., vol. 20, 00. 8, pp. 760-770, August, 1949.
372 TlUli-HAIDJONIC ELEC1'ROlolAGNETIC FIELDS

at the wan.. Show that the exact. perturbational formula is

-j 1ft
'LB. • H. dt
7i'T-.!L------
" - WI -
fff (oE-E.-,H-H.ld.
where the aubecript 0 denotes unperturbed qtw1tities. Note that "'- is real but (If iJ
complex if Z haa a real part..
7-3. Use the resuIt.s of Prob. 7-2 and the approximatioIlll

to show that

Use the relatiollShipa

Z -lSI. +;!J.'.
and show that the perturbational formula gives

Note that the formula for Q is identical to the one that we have been uain& if
(ft -Re ('f), where ., it the intrinsic impedance of the conducting walls.
1-" Use the results of Prob. 7-3, and show Lhat the fractional change in reftOn.nee
duo to metal walls is
"'r -
---- WI 1
- 2Q
••
where "'I is the resonant frequency of the cavity with perfcctly conducting walla.
7-6. Suppose the cavities of Fig. 7-2 &ro chart\Cteri1.ed by IT and <T + t.v in addition
to I, _ and f + 6t, Jl + 6/10. Show that the perturbational formula corresponding to
Eq. (7-10) is then

--.
W ColO
-
JJf -jtM!Col)E·E. - .o.JiB·B.Jdr
[(.0.0

• JJf [Co - j,,/w)E· E. - JiB· H.I dr

Bot.b we and Col are complex if" and IT + 4lr are not identieaUy zero.
'1-6. Use the result of Prob. 7-5 for the ease IT - 0, and let E ... E. - lB.l.
H - Ho - jlH.l. Col - Col, + ;..../2Q. to show that

•• ./K'!f,-'I_B.I_'d.
Q -"
fff "lBoi'd.
and that Eq. (7-ll) still applies witb Col changed to """
 PERTUR.BATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 373
7~7. Suppose that a small sample of 10ll8Y dielectric is introduced into a. clwit.y
whose unperturbed resonant frequency is 101.. Show that.

---2(/---
.'-..
f"
",.-6Or
'"
where l - .. -;." is the complex permiLlivity of the sample and w,. is the perturbed
telIOnant frequency. [f the 101l8ell of the unperturbed cavity are significant, then
1 1 I
Q-Q,-Q,
where Q. and Q. are the Q's of the cavity with and without thc samplo, respectively.
7-8. Considcr a rectangular cavity with a Imall centered dielectric cylinder, &8
,hown in Pir;. 7-230. Show tbat tbe change in the resonant frequency of the domi·
nant mode due to the introduction of the dielect.rie is
Col - "'. 2A (1 )
----;;- - be - ~

wbere A is the crol5lJ-fJC(ltional al'(l& of the cylinder. Use a quasi-atatie approximation.

Area A

I
I I
fo
1
I·
(0) (b)
Flo. 7·23. Rectangular cavity with (0) dielectric cylinder and (b) dielectric sphere.

7-9. Conaider t.he rect:t.ngular cavity with a Imall centered dicleet.ric sphere, as
shown in Fig. 7-23b. Show that tbe cb.a.nge in the re800AIlt frequency of the domi·
nant mode due to "the intro<luctioQ of the dielectric is
d',.-l
---- ----
W-WG

obc,.+2
101
...

where d is the diameter of the sphere. Use a quasi-etatic approximation.

1-10. CollJlider the circular waveguide of Fig. &-2. Suppose the wall is s1ir;btly
fl&tt.ened at the point. _ 90-. Show that the chanr;e in cutoff ffflquency for the
z.-polariJ:ed (E in the center pointe in the % direction) dominant mode is
Aw. _ -O.4IS A1
W. ...0

wbere A ill the erofl8-600tional aroa of the deformation and w. - 1.841/a";;; is the
unperturbed cutoff (requeney. For tbe y-polariloo dominant mode.
&.. A
- - 1.42-
1If. ..-0'
Bence, the mode degeneracy has been removed.
374 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

7-11. Figure 7-240 shows 8. small centered dielectric cylinder in II. rectangular
waveguide. Show that the change in cutoff frequenc)' of the dominant mode from
that for the empty guide is
.....
-~
••
where We _ rlb.y;;. Usc a perturbational method and a quasi-static approximation.

I' b
'I I' b
'I
T 0
0
T
0
~

1 --jd}-
1 ~
-Idl--
(0) (b)
FlO. 7-24. Rectangular waveguide with (4) dielectric cylinder nnd (b) conducting
ridges.

7-12. Consider tho rectangular waveguide with smaJ.1 semicircular ridges, as shown
in Fig. 7-24b. Use a. perturbational method I!l.od a qutuli-s1,atic approximation to show
that the dominant-mode cutoff frequency differs from the TEo! rcetangu1:l.r guide
cutoff, according to
•••
-~
,d'
-2ob
••
where l<l. - ... /6 y";;. Show that the ncxt higher mode (b ~ 2a) cutoff frequency
differs from the TEo, rectangula.r guide cutoff, according to

.610>.
-~-
"d'
"'e 4D.b
where "'. - 2r/b w.
Hence, the mode separat.ion is increased.
7-13. Consider t.he rectangular waveguide with t.he bottom covered by fI, t.hin
dieleetric slab (Fig. 4-6 wit.h d Sa). U8C 8 pert.urba.t.ional method and quasi-stat.ic
approximatiou to show that the phase constant is

where (10 - k, v'l (J.In' is the empty-guide phase constant. Note that this is
the same 88 the first term of an expansion of the exact characteristio equation, sa
given in Prob. 4-14.
1-14. Consider the rectangulnr waveguide with 8. centered dielectric cylinder, all
shown in Fig. 7-240. Use a perturbational method and quasi-6tatic approximation to
show that
(1-fJ. rdle.-l 1
-,-,- ~ 2-00- ,-,-+-, :v'~"l=~(.=.'il.=)'"

where til. can be taken 88 the cutoff frequency of the perturbed guide, given in Frob
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VAIUATIONAL TECHNIQUES 375
7-11, if u il cloac to u 4 • Sbow thA\ at the unpert.urbed TE,u cutoff frequency

/J .. k.

7-16. Suppose t.hat a waveguide ill filled wit.h 108lIY material, and comrider .. pert.\U'-
batKJD of illl pcrfect.ly conducting walls. ReprC8eot the unperturbed 6eldl (lUbecript
OJ and tbe perturbed fiddll (no lubscripto) by
E. - toe....,.~ E - £e,,,.
H. - Alii....,... H _ Ae'"
Note t.he oppoeit.e directions of propagation. Show t.hat the formula corTCllponding
to Eq. (7-29) ia

,,(. 1:o Xft'ndl

'f .c
'Y -.,.. -
II
s'
ct. X 11- 2 xli.) 'u.do
Show that thia reduces to Eq. (7-29) in the lose-free case.
7-16. Consider t.he pert.urbation of material in a lossy waveguide from I, 1/-, , to
I + 111, I/- + 6p, , + two Represent t.he fielda lUI in Prob. 7-15, and show t.hat. t.he
formula corresponding to Eq. (7-30) ia

.fJ(••• -;.. )2, to - ....11 ,11.1 do

.,. -.,.. - -1
IJ (t. X 11- t xli.) 'u.do
Show that. t.his reduees to Eq. (7..:30) in the lOllS-free ease.
7-11. Use the reeults of Prob. 7-16, and let. t.he unperturbed guide be loa-free.
Denote t.he propagation constant. of the pert.urbed guide by .,. - a + j/J, and let
E ... E: and H .. -~. Show that. t.he resultant. approximation for /J is Eq. (7-33)
aod

a " _~IJT"_III...,..I'_d'_
2Refft.x:a:.u.d4
Note that this is an Approximate form of Eq. (2-76).
7-18. Consider the perturbation of the walla of a waveguide from D. perlcet con-
ductor to an impedance sheeL Z. 8uch t.hat.
nXE-Z.H
Represent the unperturbed and perturbed fields a.s in Prob. 7-15, and show that

7-19. Uee lobe reeulta of Prob. 7-18 and let the unperturbed guide be lOllS-free,
110 t.hAt. ,.. - ;/J.. In the pert.urbed guide, let Z - (J( + j~, .,. "'" a + jfJ, E - &:,
376 TIME-HARMONIC ELEGraOMAGNETIC PIELDS

H - - a:, and abow that

f "'19.1'
fJ, ... --17---,---
dl
(J -
JJ t, 2Re Xa:'u.da

f 1ll19.1·
•• ---A,------
dl

2Re / / t. X a: ·u,'"
If Z - 11, the intrinsic impedance of metal walls, the above formula for a is the
approximation that we have been using to calculate attenuation in metal wAveguides.
7-110. Show that

/ / / .-'Iv X EI' d,
.... - ~//"/-.IB-I·d-,-
is a. stationary formula for the resonant frequency of a lOIl-lru cavity, provided
n X E _ 0 on S, but is not stationary if 108!le8 a~ pre&ent.
7-21. Show tluLt. Eq. (7-46) is a stationary formula for ..... 1, with no boundary con-
ditions required on H.
7-22. CoOllider the rectangular cavity (Fig. 2-19) and the stationAry fonnula IEq.
(7-44)). Use a trial field
E - u.. ~z(~ - b)(z - c)
and abow that. F~. (7-4.01) gives
w,. .. Vfij ~Ol + cl
be ..
In the exact 1lO1ution (Eq. (2-95)1, the numerical factor is 1T inatead of V'iO,
7-23. Consider a arnaU ddormation of the walls of a cavity, such all represented by
Fig. 7-1. Tako tho variational formula IEq. (7-45)), which requires no boundary con-
ditions on E, and take the unperturbed cavit.y field E, as a trial field. Show that.
Eq. (7-45) reduces to

/// (,.lll.l· - .IB.I') d,

Wi
-- - -
"':
•:
. -'~''-''77-----
/ / / .IB.I'd,

Show that thia formula is essentially the same as Eq. (7-4).

'1-111, Figure &-31b shows a partially lilled circular cavity. UIMl Eq. (7-46) and ,.
trial field
H- u.,J 1 (2.405~)
to show that the dominant. mode re8On&nce ia

........ 2.405 1 _ ~(, __

.')
a V;;;
Compare with the results of Prob. 6-24.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 377
7·2l5. Consider a waveguide whose cross section is an equilateral triangle of aide
length 11. Use variational formulas to approximate the lowest. cutoff frequency. The

.. ----
exact solution ia
."
3o.y';;
7-26. Considcr the rectangular cavity (Fig. 2-19) and the mhed-field variat.ional
Connula lEq. (7-72)1. Choose a trial ficld
. ... y ....11
E -u~smbsmc

H ·..-y ".r,+A ry.".Z

- U r A ISln1)COS
c u'lcosb'Bln
c
where AI and AI are variational parameters. Determine Al and AI by the Ritz
method, and show that the resultant formula for "', is the exact formula IEq. (2-95)1.
Why do we get an exact solution in thia case?
7-27. In Fig. 7-25, the surface S represents a perfect electric conductor enclosing a
cavity. A variational solution is desired in terms of a trial field aatisfying n X E _ 0

n
I
I (2)
n "'-I
(1) t. s
FlO. 7-25. Trial fields are disconLiJJuous over a.

on Sand n X (p-lV X E) continuous at a, but with n X E discontinuous at a. Show

that the stationary E-ficld formula is

where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to regions] and 2 (Fig. 7-25). Show also that a varia--
tional solution in terms of trial fields satisfying n X E - 0 on Sand n X E continuous
at a, but with n X (,l.I-IV X E) discontinuous at 8, is given by Eq. (7-44).
7-28. Show that the variational H-field formula. for Prob. 7-27 is of the same form
9.8 the above E-Beld formula, given by replacing E by H, • by ,l.I, and ,l.I by t. Show
tbat no boundary conditions e.t S are required in the H-ficld formula.
7-29. Consider a perturbation of material in a cavity, auch as represented by Fig.
7-2. Take the mixed-Bcld variational formula fEq. (7-72)], a.nd take t.he unperturbed
cavity field Eo, H o as a trial field. Sbow that Eq. (7-72) then reduces to Eq. (7-11).
7-30. Repeat Prob. 7-26, using the reaction concept of Sec. 7-7.
7-31. Consider the partially filled rectangular waveguide of Fig. 4-&. Use the
E-ficld variational formula [Eq, (7-8)1, and the trial field

E . '"
-u.SID'B
378 TWE-BARMONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

and show that

Col. _ !
a
[1 + ~ (!! - ..!.. Bin 2lt'd)J-~
flo2ra

Compare BOrne calculated points with the exact eolution (Fig. 4-9).
7-82. Use the reaction concept to derive the mixed-field variational formula ror
waveguide phase constants

which corresponds to Eq. (7-85) if n X E _ 0 on C. No boundary conditions are

required in the above formula.
7-53. Consider the variational formula of Prob. 7-3'2 and II perturbation of wave-
guide walls, &8 illustrated by Fig. 7-5« and b. Use the unperturbed field E.. H. as a
trial field, and ahow that the formula of Prob. 7-32 reducetl to Eq. (7--32).
7-34. Consider the variational formula of Eq. (7-85) and a perturbation of matter
in a waveguide. represented by Fig. 7-00 and c. Use the unperturbed field E" H. lUI
a trial field, and show that Eq. (1-85) reduces to Eq. (7-33).
7-3li. Figure 7-26 shows a coaxial stub to parnllcl·plat.e waveguide feed 8yst.em.
Aasume II « "- eo that fL rensonablo trial current is a uniform current. Show by the
variational method that. the impedance !een by t.he coax is

•
Z _ -ka (1 .2
-,-log -7,",)
4 ... 4
where l' - 1.781.

____---=j=.I o-d
matched

~Ioad---'1111
~!
;
FlO. 7-26. Coax to parallel-plate feed.
matched
load

- p

7-36. In Prob. 7-35. remove the restriction on II and assume a trial current on the
.tub
I - COli 1:(11 - z)
Obtain the input impedance secn by the coax by the variational method.
7-37. Repeat Prob. 7-36 for the sccond-order variationalllOlution, assuming trial
currents
/- - cos 1(4 - :I) /- - 1

Note that only one new reaction is needed in addition to those obtained in Probl.
7-35 and 7-36. Speeialhie the result to II _ "-/4.
T-38. Consider tho two-dimensional problem of planc.wave scattering by a con-
ducting ribbon, shown in the insert of Fig. 7-16, but with the opposite polariZl\tion.
 PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TEClL.'ilQ1JE8 379
'In other words, Hi ia pa.rallel to the aria of tho ribbon. Ulle the trial current

] ... u~ cos 'Z

and .how that the variational solution ia
L
•
32"1 "Y...", I'
r~
1
_

where" Y.pu~ ia given in Fig. 4-23. Show that lLS la - ... this answer reduces to
0.66 times t.he physical optics solution. Why should we expect the above formula
to be inaccurate for large ka1
1·59. Consider plane-wave scattering by a wire, represented by Fig. 7-15. At the
first resonnnce (L ., )./2), the current ilJ
1- .. cO.! b
and we know that. (lJOO Fig. 2-24)
(0,0) ., 73

The imaginary put of (0,0) is BelO becaWle the length is adjUllt.cd for naonanee.
Using Eq. (1-115), show that. at resonance the echo area is
A• .. 0.86).1
This is relatively inaensitive to the diameter of the win.
7-tO, Figure 7-27 represents a re8Onaot length of wire illuminated by a uniform
plnne wave at the angle 8, polarized in the r-z plane. Using the approximations of
Prob. 7-39, show that the back-ecattcring area is

A • ., 0.86).' [ ~,,)']'
ooa !co. ~

Apin this is relatively inaeollitive to the diameter of the wire.

zl r (to receiver)
~'"
L., r"(to transmitter)
I
T
L
1
Flo. 7-27. Scattering by a resonant wire (L .. )./2).

1-4.1, Repeat Prob. 7-40 for the ease of differential ecattering, showing that the
differential echo area ia

'o, (~ao,,) ao, (~ao, ")]'

A• .. 0.86).1 [ "
SID
'
lIln
"

whl!re .d. ill defined by Eq, (7-114) with E' evaluated in the I' direction.
380 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

7-i2. Consider differential scattering by a magnetic obsf.aele (Fig. 7-17) and define

Show tbat, instead of Eq. (7.143), we have

Echo _ «i,a}jl)1
F(a,a) - (a,a)
where (',a) - JJJ (E;· J' - H' . M') d.
FCa,a) - JJJ (,.-'(J')' - '. -'(M')') d.
(a,a) .... JfJ (E·' 1'> - KG. M") dr

In the above formulas, EI, H' is the incident. field, Jft and M· are the assumed electric
and magnetic polarization currents on the obstacle, and E", H" is the field from J", MG,
7-43. Figure 7-2& represents a metlLl. antenna cut from a plane conductor and fed
across the slot abo Figure 7-28b represents tho aperture formed by the remainder of
the metal plane left lLftcr the metal antenna was cut. The aperture antenna, fed

,
,
(a) (b)

FlO. 7-28. (a) A sheet-metal antenna. and (b) its complementary aperture antenna.

across cd, is said to be complementary to the metal a.ntenna. Let Z", be the input
impedance or the mctalllntenna and Y. be the input admittance to the slot antenna,
and show that

Hint: Consider line integmls of E BOd H from a to band c to a, and use duality.
7-'U" Consider a narrow resonant slot of approximate length "'/2 in a conducting
8creen. Show that the transmission coefficicnt ill

T "" 0.52-
,
w

where to is the width of the slot. Hinl.: Use the result of Prob. 7-43 and IUIsumptioD8
similar to those or Prob. 7-39.
 CHAPTER 8
MICROWAVE NETWORKS

8 -1. Cylindrical Waveguides. Several y

special cases of the cylindrical waveguide, n
such as the rectangular and circular guides,
already have been considered. We now wish
to give a general treatment of cylindrical x
(cross section independent of z) waveguides
s
'---------'c
consisting of a homogeneous isotropic dielec-
tric bounded by a perfect electric conductor. FIG. 8-1. Cross section of a
cylindrical waveguide.
Figure 8-1 represents the cross section of one
such waveguide. Our formula.tion of the problem will be similar to that
given by Marcuvitz. 1
A1J shown in Sec. 3-12, general solutions for the field in a homogeneous
region can be constructed from solutions to the Helmholtz equation
(8-1)
In cylindrical coordinates, this equation can be partially separated by
taking
'" - i'(x,y)Z(z) (8-2)

The resultant pair of equations are

+ k. ' '!' ... 0
'v'.t'!' (8-3)
dtZ + k tZ = 0 (8-4)
dz t •

where the separation constants k. and k. arc related by

ke t + k.' = kt (8-5)

and 'Vr is the two-dimensional (transverse to z) del operator

l",-l"-u-
a (8-6)
,az
IN. Marcuvitz, "Waveguide Handbook," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol.
10, sec. 1-2, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Ino., New York, 1951.
381
382 TJi\lE-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Solutions to Eq. (8-4) are of the general form

Z(z) - Ae-f',- + BeI',- (8-7)
which, for k. real, is a superposition of +z and -z traveling waves. The
k. are determined from Eq. (8-5) aIter the k e (cutoff wave numbers) are
found by solving the boundary-value problem.
For TE modes, we take F = u•.p (superscript 6 denotes TE) and
determine
(8-8)

The component of E tangential to the waveguide boundary C is

E 1" = 1· (u. X VI'!") = (n . V,'1")Z'
where 1is the unit tangent to C and n is the unit normal to C (sec Fig. 8-1).
The boundary is perfectly conducting; hence E l = 0 on C and
a",' _ 0
on C (8-9)
an
The associated magnetic field is given by

H" = - -.-1 v x E' = -.-1 (a'f- a'","

-- + u -
u. iJxiJz - + u.k.~1f·)
JWp. JW~ ayazW

For morc concise notation, we define a tran8verse field vector as

H, = H - u.II. (8-10)
and rewrite the above as
I dZ-
H,' = -.- (V,i") -d (8-11)
JWIJ Z

It is evident from Eqs. (8-8) and (8-11) that lines of 8 and :Je, are every-
where perpendicular to each other.
For TM modes, we take A = u,'Jt'" (superscript m denotes TM) and,
dual to Eq. (8-8), we determine
(8-12)
Defining the transverse electric field vector E, by Eq. (8-10) with H
replaced by E, we have, dual to Eq. (8-11),
1 dZ'
E,'" = -.- (V1'I'''') -d (8-13)
JWE Z

From the second of these equations, it is evident that for E. to vanish on

C we must meet the boundary condition
on C (8-14)
 MJCROWAVE NETWORKS 383
provided Icc ':F O. Note that EQ. (8-14) also satisfies the condition
1 . E. = 0 on C. When the waveguide cross section is multiply con-
nected, such as in coaxial lines, it is possible to have k. = O. In this case,
the necessary boundary condition is '1'- - constant on each conductor.
The corresponding ficld is TEM to z and is a transmission-line mode.
It should be kept in mind that Eq. (8-3) subject to boundary conditions
is an eigenvalue problem, giving rise to a discrete set of mades. These
modes can be suitably ordered, and the various equations of this section
then apply to each mode. It is convenient to introduce mode !urn;tions
e(x,y) and h(x,y), mode voltages V(z), and mode currents I(z) according to
E' = eoVo
(8-15)
H," =- hOI"
Comparing Eqs. (8-15) with Eqs. (8-8) and (8-11), we see that we may
choose
eo "" u. X V.i" = h' X u. Vo ... z.
]. I_dZ· (8-16)
JWIt dz

foc TE modes. and, comparing Eqs. (8-15) with Eqs. (8-12) and (8-13),
1 dZ-
e- - -V,i'- = b- X u. v-= -jwt
- -
dz (8-17)
h-- -u.XV,i'--u.Xe- 1-. = z-
for TM modes. :Furthermore, we normalize the mode veetors according
to
II (o')' d. - II (h')' d. - I
(8-18)
II (,-)'d, - II (h-)'d. - I

where the integration extends over the guide cross section. Hence, all
amplitude factors are included in the V's and l's.
We shall now show that all eigenvalues aTe real. Consider the tW(r
dimensional divergence theorem

II V,·Ad. - ~A.ndl
and let A - i'·v,\{I. Then,
v,· A "'"' V,'I'·· V.V + i'·Vli' "'" Iv,'!'11 - k/j"irl l
and the divergence theorem becomes

ff (IV,'I'I' - k.'I'I'I') d. - ~ '1" : : dl

384 TIllE-HARMONIC ELECTROi\(AGNETIC FIELDS

But the boundary conditions on the eigenfunction "if are either Ilf =- 0 or
(Jllfjan = 0 on C. Hence, the right-hand term vanishes a.nd

!! IM'I'd.
k' - '-',-,--- (8-19)
, !!I<-I'ds
The eigenvalue kef is therefore positive real. There is also no loss of
generality if we take all eigenfunctions ..y to be real. To justify this state-
ment, suppose ir is not real, and let '1t = u + jv. Then the Helmholtz
equation is
V, 2'1' + kc 2'l' "'" Vb' + kctu + j(V,tv + k/v) = 0

which, since kc l is real, represents two Helmholtz equations for the real
functions 'U and v. The boundary conditions, either
'I'=u+ju-O onC

or a'1' = oU+j{Jv_ O on C
an an an
are satisfied independently by 'U and v; so u and v arc solutions to the same
boundary-value problem. Hence, u and v for a particular k. caD differ
only by a cODstant, and '1' is in phase over a. guide cross section. We caD
take it to be real and include any phase in the V and I functions.
Let us now look at the propagation constant 'Y = jk.. For f and J.l
real, we have a cutoff wavelength
~, -t (8-20)
and a cutoff frequency
i - k, (8-21)
1-21l"Vf~
Then, from Eq. (8-5), we have the propagation constant given by

j > j,
(8-22)
j < j,
These are, of course, just the relationships that we previously established
for the rectangular and circular waveguides. Figure 2-18 illustrates the
behavior of a and {:J versus f. When the mode is propagating (f > fo),
the concepts of guide wavelength,
2. ~
~ - - (8-23)
• - P -- ---r,=iTjj'<i
VI (Mf)'
 JoLICROWAVE NETWORKS 385
where X is the intrinsic wavelength in the dielectric, and guide phau
velocity,
W _,

v, "'" - - (8-24)
P Vi (f./fl'
where tI, is the intrinsic phase velocity, are useful. These parameters
are discussed in Sec. 2-7.
Turning now to the mode voltagea and currents, we see from their
definitions IEqs. (8-16) nnd (8-17)] that V and I satisfy Eq. (8-4).
Hence, in general they are of the form of Eq. (8-7), or
V(z) "'" V+e- Y ' + V-e Y '
(8-25)
1(z) .,. J+e-r· + I-eY '
where superscripts + and - denote positively Bod negatively traveling
(or attenuating) wave components. Also, from Eqs. (8-4), (8-16), and
(8-17) it i.s apparent that
V+ V-
[+ =0 Zo 1-'" -Z. (8-26)

where the cMraderidic impedance Zo is, for TE modes,

Z.' _ jw.
y
-l w; - Vi
JW~

Q" - k. VI
•U./fl'
JW~

(fIf.),
f > f.

f < f.
(8-27)

and, for TM modes,

Zo- - :L
JW'
-1 ~. -·~I
.;2.. _
(J)'
k. /1 _ L)'
-
f > f.

f < f.
(8-28)

JWE V
JWE Ie
Note that these are just the characteristic wave impedances that we pre-
viously defined for rectangular and circular waveguides. Figure 4-3
illustrates the behavior of the Za'S versus frequency. Finally, from Eqs.
(8-4), (8-16), and (8-17), we can show that V and 1 also satisfy the tram-
missWlIrlim eqootiom

(8-29)

where Yo=- 1/Zo is the charaderi'lic admittance. Hence, the analogy

386 TIKF;-UAJUlONIC E.LECTROYAGNETIC FIELDS
I
joI'
I
I
i- VI;'
I
I

I- dz
(0)
-I

---~
I
I
jOJI£
~/jOH

I 1----
I
I
I
I
I
I
i-I I
I
I
I
I I
I' dz
(b)
·1
FlO. 8-2. Equivalent. transmission lines Cor waveguide modes (IICries element. labeled
in ohms, 'bunt elements in mhos). (0) TE modes, (6) TM modes.
with transmission lines is complete, and all of the techniques for analyzing
transmission lines caD be applied to each waveguide mode. l
We may define an equivaknt trammiuion lim for each waveguide mode
as one (or which.., and Zo are t.he same as those of the waveguide mode.
Such an equivalent circuit may help us to visualize waveguide behavior
by presenting it in terms of the more familiar transmission-line behavior.
For a dissipationless transmission line, we have
/Z IX
Zo = VY = VB
~ - v'ZY
-jyXB
(see Sec. 2-6). Equating the above Zo and 'Y to those of a TE waveguide
mode, we obtain
jX "" jWIJ ) 'B .
=)~
+ -.-
k.' (8-30)
JW~

Thus, the transmission line equivalent to a TE mode is as shown in Fig.

&-2a. Similarly, for a TM mode we obtain
. . k~'
]X=]Wp+-.- jB = jWt (8-31)
1""
I For u&mple, see Wilbur LePage and Samuel Seely, "General Network Analysis,"

Chape.9 and 10, McGraw_Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
 YICROWAVE NETWORKS 387
The transmission line equivalent to a. TM mode is therefore 88 shown in
Fig. 8-2b. H the dielectric is lossy, the equivalent transmission will also
have resistances, obtained by replo.cing jWE by (1 + jWf. in Eqs. (8-30) and
(8-31). In the light of filter theory, we can recognize the equivalent
t.ransmission lines as high-pass filters.
The power transmitted along tlie wavcguide is, of course, obtained by
integrating the Poynting vector over the guide cross section. Hence, for
the +z direction,

p, = JJ E X H··uld, - VI· JJ e X h··ulda

= Vl· IJ e'da = VI- (8-32)

and the time-average power transmitted is

/P. - Re (V[') (8-33)

Hence, in terDl5 of the mode voltage and current, power is calculated by

the usual circuit-theory formulas.
It is also worthwhile to note that the modc patterns, that is, pictures
of lines of Sand :JC at some instant, can be obtained directly from the
-v's. For TE modes, H, is proportional to v.'I", and E is perpendicular
to H,. Hence. lines 0/ constant '1" are auo linea of instantaneous S. Lines
of instantaneous :re, are everywhere perpendicular to lines of instantane-
ous 8. Similarly, for TM modcs. lines of constant 'It. aTe aUo linea of
instanlaneoua :re, and lines of instantaneous 8. are everywhere perpendic-
ular to lines of instantaneous:JC. It is therefore quite easy to sketch the
mode patterns directly [rom the eigenfunctions 'It.
Recognizing that the gcneral exposition of cylindrical waveguides has
been quite lengthy, let us summarize the results. Table 8-1 lists the
more important relationships that we have derived. Those equations
common to both TE and TM modes are written centered in the table.
Keep in mind that all of the equations apply to each mode and tha.t many
modes may exist simultaneously in any given waveguide.
Finally, for future reference, let us tabulate the normalized eigen-
functions for the special cases already treated. For the rectangular
waveguide of Fig. 2-16. we can pick the w's from Eqs. (4-19) and (4-21)
and normalize them according to Eq. (8-18). The result is

'l'••C = _1
T
ab,_,.
(mb)l+ (na)' cos a x cos (nT)
(rnT) bY
(8-34)
_,.2/ ab _(rnT)_(nT)
= ; V(mb)' + (nap SID a:Z: SID bY
't" .......

where m, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (m = n = 0 excepted). SimilarLy. for the

388 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

TABLE 8-1. Smoo.RY OF EQUATION15 "OR TUE CTLINDBlCAL WAVEGtllDZ

(TEM MODES NOT INCLUDED)

TE modes
I TM modes

Transverse Helmholtz equation Vt 1 '1' + k c i1t -0

1

a,,'
Boundary relations -an -0 on C qi''' - 0 00 C

Mode vectors
e' - u. X'Vt'lt·
h' - -'Vj'l" ." -
h" -
-'Vt'l'''
-u. X'V,'I:'-

e-hXu.
h - u. X e

Normalization JJ ,'do - JJ "do-l

Propagation constant ,.-jk.- I j~ -jkVl - U,If)'

a - k, Vi UII,)'
I> I,
I <I,
,
Characteristic Z and Y
jfoli'
Z," - -,. - Y,'
-
1
Z." -- --
j-
1
Y."

dV
dz + ,.Z,l -0
Transmission-line equations
-dl + . . Y,V-O
liz
- V _ V+e-'Y' + V-e'Y'
Mode voltage and current 1
_ - (V+e-l" - V-e7')
I
Z,

E, - eV
Transverse field
1!,-h1

Longitudinal field H..

k,'
- -.- 't'V' E,"
k,'
- -.- +-r-
)W_ ~

z~ect.ed power P. - vr-

 MICROWAVE NETWORKS 389
circula-r waveguide of Fig. 5-2, we can pick the if's from Eqs. (5-23) and
(5-27) and normalize them. The result is
':lr'
..p
I
= "'Ir[(x~p)2
t..
n']
J .. (x~pp/a)
J .. (x~,)
J sin n~ I
1cos n¢ (8-35)
'!' • _
"p
g
V-;'
J.(•• ,p/a)
X ... J .. +l(x..,)
(sin
cos
n~l
n¢
where n .,. 0, I, 2, . . . , and p 1,2, 3, . . .. The X. p are given by
co;

Table 5-2, and the x~J> arc given by Table 5-3. Normalized eigenfunc-
tions for the parallel-plate guide are given in Prob. 8-1. Normalized
eigenfunctions for the coaxial and elliptic waveguides arc given by
Marcuvitz. 1
8-2. Modal Expansions in Waveguides. An arbitrary field inside a
section of waveguide can be expanded as a sum 'over all possible modes.
This concept was used in Sec. 4-4 for the special case of the rectangular
wa.veguide. We now wish to consider such expansions for cylindrical
waveguides in general. The equations in Sec. 8-1 apply to each mode.
Henceforth, to identify a particular mode, we shall use the subscript i to
denote the mode number.
Let us first show that each mode vector e; is orthogonal to all other
mode vectors. For this, we shall use the divergence theorem in two
dimensions,

Green's first identity in two dimensions,

ff (v,~ - v,~ + ~VN) ds - ¢ ~ :: dl

and Green's second identity in two dimensions,

If (~VN - ~VN) ds ~ ¢ (~:: - ~ :~) dl

First, consider two TE modes and form the product
et· et = hi" hi" = V1W," V1wt
Letting If = '1',' and ¢ = iI!,' in Green's first identity, we obtain

II _t- _;,d, - -(k,;,)' IJ '!'t'!';'ds

Using the same substitution in Green's second identity, we have
[(k.:)' - (k.')'1 IJ'!'t'!';' d, ~ 0
IN. Marcuvitz, "Waveguide Handbook," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol.
10, chap. 2, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Illc., New York, 1951.
390 'l'IME-HARi\IONIC ELECTRO&IACNETlC FIELDS

Rence, if kd ' ¢ k~t. the integral must vanish, and the preceding equation
becomes'
If et· ej'ds = 0 (8-36)

A dual analysis applies to the TM modes, and we have

If c;",·e/"ds=O i¢j (8-37)

Finally, we must consider the TE-TM cross products

et· er = h:· hI" = - (u. X Vl'lt,") . VI 'It/"

If we let A = 'It/'u. X VI'!': in the divergence theorem, the contour

integral vanishes because of the boundary conditions, and we obtain

If V,'lt/,,' u. X V/I'tds =0

Comparing the preceding two equations, we see that

II e,··erd, - 0 for all i, j (8-38)

The orthogonality relationships (Eqs. (8-36) to (8-38)} also arc valid for
the c's replaced by the h's.
At any cross section along a cylindrical waveguide, the field can be
expressed as a summation over all possi ble modes:

E, = L, ei'Yt + e..-V,-
(8-39)
HI = L, btl..' + h.-I....
Because of the orthogonality of the mode vectors, we can determine the
mode voltages and/or mode currents at any cross section by multiplying
each side of Eqs. (8-39) by an arbitrary mode vector and integrating over
the guide cross section, Noting that the mode vectors are normalized,
we obtain
II eiPdsEl , = ViP
(8-40)
ff Hjoh;pds= liP
where p = e or m. Since there are two independent constants in V and I
for each mode, as shown by Eqs. (8-25) and (8-26), we need two u crOS8-
I A discrete spectrum of eigenvalues i8 a88umOO. However, orthogonal sets of mode
functions for degenerate case8 can also be found.
 JdlCROWAVE NETWORKS 391
sectional" boundary conditions. These may be (1) matched waveguide
and E , over one cross section, (2) matched waveguide and H, over one
cross section, (3) E , over two cross sections, (4) H, over two cross sections,
and (5) E , over one cross section and H, over another eross section. The
solutions of Sec. 4-9 are examples of case (1). Furthermore, when we
have currents in a waveguide, we can obtain additional cases involving
discontinuities in E, and/or H, over waveguide cross sections. The solu-
tions of Sec. 4-10 are examples of this situation.
It is also of interest to note that, when many modes exist simultane-
ously in a cylindrical waveguide, each nwde propagates energy as if it exi813
alone. Hence, the equivalent circuit of a section of waveguide in which
N modes exist is N separate transmission lines of the form of Fig. 8-2.
To show this power orthogonality, we calculate the z-directed complex
power

P. - II E X H'-.,ds - IIO:e,V,)
. . 2: V;1j II ei·ei ds -
ij
L
i
V;1f (8-41)

which is a summation of the powers carried by each mode. (We have

used the indices i and j to order both TE and 1'1\1 modes in the above
proof.) The energy stored per unit length in a waveguide is also the
8um of the energies stored in each mode (see Prob. 8-3).
8-3. The Network Concept. In Sec. 3-8, we saw that, given N sets
of "circuit" terminals, the voltages at the terminals werc related to the
currents by an impedance matrix. This impeda.nce matrix was shown to
be symmetrical, that is, t-he usual circuit-theory reciprocity applied if the
medium was isotropic. We shall now show that the same network
formulation applies if, instead of circuit voltages and current.s, the modal
voltages and currents of waveguide "ports" a.re used.
Let Fig. 8-3 represent a genero.l U microwave network," that is, a system
for which a closed surface separating the network from the rest of space
can be found such that n X E = 0 on the surface except over one or
more waveguide cross sections. Suppose that only one mode propagates

PIO. 8-3. A microwave

network.
(1)
392 TIM&-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

in each wa.veguide,1 Then, assuming we are far enough along each wave-
guide for higher-order modes to die out, only the dominant mode exists in
each guide. A knowledge of the mode V or I in the guide is equivalent to
a. knowledge of E t or H" respectively, since the mode vectors depend only
on the geometry. Hence, according to the uniqueness concepts of Sec.
3-3, a knowledge of V (or I) in all guides is sufficient to determine I
(or V) in all guides. Furthermore, the relationship must be linear if the
medium is linear, and an impedance matrix [z] is defined by

V,] [zu Zn zn]

[V,Va Zu Zu Zu
= Z21 Zn Zu
[I,][2 (8-42)
I.
where V .. and In are the mode voltage and current in the nth waveguide.
The inverse relationship to EQ. (8-42) defines an admittance matrix (y]
according to

I,] [YU Yn yu][V,]

[I a Un Un Yu Va
I, = Y21 Yn Yn V, (8-43)

Equations (8-42) and (8-43) have been written explicitly for. the three-
port network of Fig. 8-3 but, of course, can be similarly written for any
N-port network. Now that we have established these linear sets of
equations, we can use all the usual techniques for solving linear equations.
The electrical engineer knows these techniques by the name of U network
theory."2
It is also of interest to show that, for isotropic media,
%;J = %j; Yij = Yj; (8-44)
that is, microwave networks arc reciprocal in the same sense as are the
usuallumped-element networks. To prove this, let us apply the Lorentz
reciprocity theorem [Eq. (3-34)]. It states that

<ffi E" X a·· ds "'" <ffi E6 X a"· ds

for two fields E", a" and E6, H· in linear, isotropic media. We visualize
a surface surrounding an N-port microwave network such that E I = 0 on
S except ovor the waveguide cross sections, where
(E.). - •• V. (H,). - h.[.
II{ N modes propagate in a single waveguide, then that guide will be represented by
N porn on the equivalent network.
I For example, see C. D. Montgomery, R. H. Dicke, and E. M. Purcell (eds.l,

"Principles of Microwave Circuits," Chap. 4, MIT Radiation Laboratory Serics, vol. 8,

McGraw-Hill Book C<Jmpany, Inc., New York, 1948.
 MICROWAVE NETWORKS 393
(The n here refers to the nth waveguide, not the nth mode.) Hence, the
desired surface integrals become
N N
cj>E-X H'·ds =
._1~ V.-I.'cj>e"Xh"'ds= .-1I V,,"I.'
and the Lorentz reciprocity theorem reduces to
N N
L: V.·I.' - L: V.'I.·
Il_l ._1
(8-45)

To show that Eq. (8-45) is equivalent to Eqs. (8-44), it is merely necessary

to consider the special CMes (1) all f." = 0 except It and (2) all f,,' = 0
except 11. Then Vt = zJ;Jt and Vf ... %tifl, and Eq. (8-45) reduces to
'Z(j = zJi. Similarly, taking all V,," = 0 except VI", and all V,,, - 0
except V tin Eq. (8-45) establisbes y" ~ Yii.
8-4. One-port Networks. A one-port network is characterized by a
single impedance or admittance element. Visualize a surface enclosing
the network such that the field is zero on the surface exccpt where it
crosses the input guide, as shown in Fig. 8-4. We then have

P l" = -effiE X H··ds = -VI*1Pe X h·ds - Vf*

where Vand f are the mode voltage and current !lot the II reference plane,"
that is, at the cross section cut by the surface enclosing the network.
Because of the conservation of complex power [Eq. (1-62)], we have
V 1° - p •• - i!', + j2",(W. - 'N.) (8-46)
where ~~ is the power dissipated, OW. is the magnetic encrgy stored, and
w. is the electric energy stored in the network. The input impedance to
the network is therefore

z- Gf. = dr [i!', + j2w(W. - W.)J (8-47)

which is well known for lumped-element network theory. Similarly, the

FIG. 8-4. A one-port net.-

work and a. surface en·

~s
closing it.
394 TtM.&HARMOl\'1C ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

input admittance is

Y - !Vi' - rvr1 (<I', -

p~
1'2",('». - '»,)] (8-48)

As usual. we define the real and imaginary parts of Z to be resistance and

reactance, and the real and imaginary parts of Y to be conductance and
susceptance, respectively.
z~ R +1'X Y - G +1'B (8-49)

From Eqs. (8-47) to (8-49) we can draw the following conclusions.

(1) A dissipationless network has R - G - O. (2) The Rand G cannot
be negative in the lossy case. (3) At resonance (X = B = 0) the electric
and magnetic energies arc equal. (4) The Z and Y satisfy

z·(-"') - Z("') Y'( -"') ~ Y(",)

and hence nand G Brc even functions of wand X and B are odd functions
of w.
In the losslcss case, V 1* is imaginary, and hence V must be 900 out of
phase with I. We shall now show that everywhere within the network E
is in phase with V and B is in phase with I. Hence, E is 900 out of phase
with H. Suppose we choose our reference plane such that V is real.
Then n X E is rcal over the reference cross section of the input guide and
zero over the rest of the enclosing surface (sec Fig. 8-4). These boundary
conditions, as well as the field equations
v X E = -jwpoH VXH=jWfE (8-50)

can be satisfied by assuming E rcal and H imaginary. This is therefore

a possible solution, a.nd, assuming uniqueness, I it must be the only
solution.
Let us now considcr the effect of a change in frequency. The fre-
quency derivatives of Eqs. (8-50) are
oE "H" oH
V X ow = -JJl - JWJl aw
(8-.11)
oH "E+"JWE oE
VXaw=J(
aw
If we scalarly multiply the first of these by H* and the conjugate of the
1 It. may be recalled that the uniqueDel!Ill theorem of See. 3-3 required some di!sipa..
tion for ita proof. Bence, our eonclusxms apply only if we visualize some slight loa
However, eve.n in the loss-free ease, any field baving n X E - 0 over the entire bound-
ary would be uncoupled to the input ports, and would have no influence on the external
behavior of tbe network.
 M1CROWAVE NETWORKS 395
second of Eqs. (8-50) by dE/ow, and subtract, we obtain

v . (aE X H.) = -jpIHI" _ jwp aH. H. + jw.J,•. aE

~ ~ ~

Similarly, if we scalarly multiply the second of Eqs. (8-51) by E· and

the conjugate of the first of Eqs. (8-50) by aH/aw, and BuLtract, we obtain

v. (oR X E.)
aw
= jelEI" + jWf: aE.
aw
E. _ jw,JI•• iJH
aw
We now subtract the above equation from the preceding one and obtain

V. (aE
ow
X H' _ aH
iJw
X E') ~ -j"IHI' - j,IEI' (8-52)

Finally, this equation is integrated throughout a region of space, and the

divergence theorem applied to the left-hand term.

effi(~~ X H' - ~~ X E')'dS - - j fff ("IHI'+'IEI')dT (8-53)

Note that the right-hand side is proportional to the total electromagnetic

~nergy contained within tbe region.
Equation (8-53) is now applied to the one-port network (Fig. 8-4).
The field vanishes over the enclosing surface except where it crosses the
input port, and the lefL-hand side of Eq. (8-53) becomes

11 (avow T' + alaw v.) e X h. ds ~ _ (I' av

aw
+ v. al)
ow
",here V and I are the mode voltage and current at the input reference
?lane. Hence. we can write Eq. (8-53) as

l ' : : + V· :~ - j fff (MI' + ,lEI') dT

- 2j(~. + ~.) (8-54)
rhe input reactance X and susceptance B are given by

jX- f = _.1
B

fheir frequency derivatives are therefore

dX_ javi
ck" - - 7 aw l-e.a:a\

dB j aI
dw ... - V ow
I
VCOIlltu>\
(8-55)
396 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTnOMAGNETIC FIELDS

Hence, from Eq. (8-54), it follows that

dX 2
dw - [If' (w. + w.)
(8-56)
dB 2
dw - fiil' (w. + w.)
Equations (8-56) state that the slope oj lM reactam:e or su.sceptance for a
l08s-fru one-port network is always pontive. This is known as Foster's
reactance thtwrem. From Eqa. (8-47) and (8-48) we also have for loss-
free networks
2w
X - [If' (w. - w.)
(8-.\7)
2w
B - fiil' (''''. - <».)
Solving Eqs. (8-56) and (8-57) for the energies, we obtain

(8-56)

Because the energies are positive, it follows that

dX X dB B
-
dw> -
w
->-
dw w
(8-.\9)

that is, the slope of the reactance or susceptance is always greater than
the slope of a straight line from the origin to the point of consideration.
IWlationships (8-.\6) to (8-59) were first establisbed in lumped-elemenl
network theory. I
An important consequence of Eqs. (8-56) and (8-57) is that all polu
and zeros of the reactance or 8U8Ceptance function for a lon-free one-porl
network are simple. To prove this, suppose X vanishes at a resonant
frequency WOo The Ta.ylor series about w,
is then
X(w) -= al(w - w,) + a2(w - w,)' + ...
and X'(wo) = ai, which must be positive hy Foster's reactance theorem,
Hence, X has a simple zero at Wo and B "'" l/X bas a simple pole at '4
Similar reasoning shows that the zeros of B are simple; hence the poles
of X are simple. Furthermore, the poles and zeros for the rea.ctance or
susceptance function of a loss-free one-port network must alternate along
I R. M. Foster, A Reactance Theorem, BdZ Svdem Tw., J" vol. 3, pp. 259-267,
April, 1924.
 MICROWAVE NETWORKS 397
x
0'
B

(0)

---~
o
(b) (0)

Flo. 8-.5. (a) Typical reactance or susceptance function, (b) a Foster equivalent ne~
work of the first type, and (e) a Foeler equivale.nlo network of the eecond type.

the w axis; else X'(w) will not. always be greater than zero. Figure g·5a
illustrates the general behavior of a reactance or susceptance function.
Equivalent circuits for reactance functions of the Foster typel arc illus~
tratcd by Fig. g..5b and c. Other equivalent circuits of the Cauer type, I
or of mixed Foster-Cauer type, can be found. An important difference
between microwave networks (distributed elements) and lumped--element
networks is that the former have infinitely many resonances, while the
latter have a finite number of resonances.
The loss-free network is, of course, only an approximation to physical
networks. It is therefore desirable to know how the behavior of net-
works with small losses differs from the behavior of loss-free networks.
It is known from the usual network theory that a slight amount of dissi-
pation shifts the poles and zeros of the impedance function from the
Co) axis to points above it. Hence, the reactance (imaginary part of Z)
of a slightly dissipative network would not become infinite for any real Co)
but would be somewhat like that shown in Fig. 8-6. Also, since Z(w) is
an analytic function of WJ the resistance (real part of Z) is not independent
of X. A study of the resistance corresponding to the reactance of Fig.
8-6 reveals that it would behave somewhat like the dashed curve of Fig.
8-6. An exa.mple of a lossy one-port network is the linear antenna. of
Fig. 7-13, for which the power ulossJl is actually radiated power. The
effect of small losses cnn be shown in the equiva.lent circuits by adding
I For 8luunple, see M. Van Valkenburg, "Network Anal)'si5," Chap. 12, ~Dtico­
Hall, Inc., Englewood Clift's, N.J., 1956.
398 Tum-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGSETlC J'IELDS

large resistances in parallel with the

R ",
••, , ,, LC resonators of Fig. 8-.5b aDd by
,, ,, , ,
adding small resistances in series
with the LC resonators of Fig. 8-5c.
• 8-5. Two-port Networks. The
primary uses of two-port networks in
microwave theory are (1) transmis-
sion of energy from one place to
FlO. 8-6. The effect. of small losses on the another and (2) filtering of signals
impedance or tl. microwave network.
from one another. While much of
the theory can be presented in terms of the impedance matrix [%1, de-
fined by

(8-60)

or in terms of tbe admittance matrix

(8-(H)
it is often more convenient to use other matrices which emphasize the
waveguide character of the ports. The port voltages and currents can be
considered to be tbe superposition of incident and reflected components.
Hence, {or port 1,
VI = V1 '+ VI'
II = II' + I{:E _1_ (V.i - V{) (8-62)
Z..
and similar equations apply to port 2. Figure 8-7 suggests this travcling-
wave concept. Mathematica.lly, Eqs. (8-62) are merely a linear traM-
formation from the two quantities VI, [1 to VI', V {, and it is apparent
that ZOl can be arbitrarily chosen. However, it is usually convenient to
make the natural choice that Zlll is the characteristic impedance of the
waveguide connected to port 1. Another choice, convenient from a
mathematical viewpoint, is to normalize the characteristic impedance by
choosing all Zo's equal to unity. We shall make the former choice.
From the traveling-wave viewpoint, a possible matrix for describing

+It-:,.. _1,
7.0, ()l Network (2) z.,

FlO. ~7. Tra.veling waves for a two-port network.

 MlCROWAVE NETWORKS 399

Flo. &.8. N two-port networks cascaded.

two-port microwave networks is the transmission matrix (T], defined by

[~::] - [~:: ~::][ t::] (8-63)

This matrix is particularly convenient when microwave networks are

cascaded, as illustrated by Fig. 8-8. The incident and reflected waves
at the input of network 7t + 1 are the reflected and incident waves,
respectively, at the output of network n. Hence, the T matrix of the
over-all network is the product of the T matrices of the individual net-
works, that is,
(8-64)
Another matrix commonly used to describe microwave networks is the
scattering matrix [8] defined by

[V,-]
V,r
_[S" S,,] [Vi]
8 21 Sn V,l
(8-65)

This matrix is convenient for considerations of jmpedance matching. It

can also be easily extended to the case of multiport networks. Note
that SII is the reflection coefficient seen at port 1 when port 2 is matched
and Sn is the reflection coefficient seen at port 2 when port 1 is matched.
The various matrices defined for a two-port network are, of course,
related to one another. For example, [yJ is the inverse of (z], as stated
by Eq. (8-61). The relationship of fSJ to IzJ is more compUcated.
Defining the matrix

["~I - [go> ~.J

we have [S] ~ [z - '.1I' + ',J-' (8-66)
Similarly, the transmission matrix is related to the scattering matrix by

su _ SuE" su]
[T) = Sa Sa (8-67)
[ - Sa S121
Sl1

The derivation of Eqs. (8-66) and (8-67), along with other relationships
among the various matrices, can be found in vol. 8 of the Radiation
400 TDlE-IlA.R),[ONIC ELEcrRO»AGNETIC FIELDS

Laboratory Series. I For networks constructed of linear isotropic matter,

the reciprocity relationships (Eqs. (8-44») apply. From Eq. (8-00), it is
evident that reciprocity requires
(lHl8)
in the scattering matrix. From Eq. (8-67), it follows that reciprocity
fp.quires
TuTu - TuTu = zZ" (S-ll9)
"
in the transmission matrix. Equations (8-66) and (8-68) also apply to
multipart networks.
There are realizability conditions imposed on the matrices by the con~
servation of energy theorem. These conditions can be obtained from
the corresponding one-port conditions by terminating the two-port net-
work in various ways to form a one-port. For example, if port 2 is open-
circuited (II - 0), then til is the input impedance. Similarly, whon
port 1 is opco-i:ircuit-ed, Zu is the input impedance looking from port 2.
Hence, by Eq. (8-47) we know
Re (zu) ~ 0 Re (z,,) ~ 0 (8-70)
Similarly, using the y matrix and short circuits on the ports, we obtain
from Eq. (8-48) that
Re (Yu) ~ 0 Re (y,,) ~ 0 (8-71)
More generally, since Eqs. (8-47) and (8-48) must be valid for any
passive termination, we can show that
Re (Zl1) Re (zu) - Re (za) Re (Ztl) ~ 0
(8-72)
Re (VII) Re (Yn) - Re (Ya) Re (Y21) ~ 0

Finally, when the network is loss-frec, the clements of the impedance and
admittance matrices become imaginary, and restrictions on them can be
obtained from the corresponding restrictions in the one-port case. Such
considerations are particularly useful in the theory of filters. l
Our principal concern for thc remainder of this chapter win be to
obtain equivalent circuits for microwave networks. For any particular
network, an infinite number of equivalent circuits will exist. One of oW'
tasks will be to choose a .. natural" equivalent circuit, that is, one which
suggests the physical nature of the network. For example, a section of
I C. D. Montgomery, R. H. Dieke, and E. M. PuN:cll (eda.), "Principles or Micro-

wave Circuita," Chap." MIT Radiat.ion Laboratory Series, vol. 8, McGraw-BiD Book
Company, IDe., New York, 1945.
• M. Van Valkenburg, "Network ADalYliJI," Chap. ]3, Prentice-Ball, lne., Engle-
wood CIiBI, N.J., 19M.
 WCROWAVE NETWORKS 401

FIo_ 8-9. A typical equivalent cireuit tOt a 1000·tree t.wo-port mierowave network.
waveguide would not be represented by an equivalent tee or pi circuit,
since t.his would hide the transmission-line character of the guide. For
loss-free networks, we shall use the symbolism of Table 8-2 in equivalent
circuits. It should be emphasized that it is only the 8ign of a reactance
or susceptance that dictates whet.her an inductor or capaoitor is ohosen.
The reactance or susceptance does not, in general, have the simple fre-
quency dependence of a lumped-element inductor or capacitor. Figure
8-9 illustrates a t.ypical equivalent circuit for a loss-free two-port network.
TABU; 8-2. SUlllOLl&W: USED IN EQutVAL£ST C1RCutTS or Lo&&-FREE NETWOU8

Element. Symbol Represents

.n
jX P08iLivc reactance

Inductor

---, .. , jB Negative S1.l8Ccptance

---4~ Negative reactance

Capacitor

---4ri!!- Positive lJusceptal)ce

n:l

~C
Ideal transformer Change in impedance level

Z,
Transmission line , Waveguidc section
~l-----l
402 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

T T T
Z. Z.

~ (0)
Z.

(b)
Zo

FIG. 8-10. (a) A 8ymmetrical obstacle in a cylindrical waveguide, and (b) an equivalent
circuit.

In the case of dissipative networks, resistors in series with X or in

parallel with B can be used to represent the losses. Similarly, the char-
acteristic impedances and propagation constants of the equivnlent trans·
mission lines can be assumed complex to account for losses. Most of the
networks used in microwave practice are DIlly slightly lossy, and the
small losses introduce only second-order corrections to the reactances
calculated on a loss-free basis.
8-6. Obstacles in Waveguides. An object in a cylindrical waveguide
can be represented as a two-port network. Figure 8-lOa shows an
obstacle, symmetric about the cross section T, in a waveguide. Figure
8-lOb shows a possible equivalent circuit. In the more general case of an
unsymmetrical object, the two Z6'S would probably be different from each
other, and it might even be desirable to choose two reference planes T.
In the loss-free case, the Z's will all be jX's.
Before considering the obstacle problem, let us consider "dominant-
mode sources" in cylindrical waveguides. Figure 8-11 shows the electric
source ]. in a waveguide terminated at z = 0 by a magnetic conductor
and matched as z -+ - 00. The method of treating this problem is that
used in Sec. 3-1 for rectangular guides, as, for example, Fig. 3-2. Let
superscripts (I) denote the region -I < z < 0, and superscripts (2)
denote the region z < -l. Then in region 1 there will be an incident
wave plus a reflected wave such that HI = 0 at z. = O. Hencc,
Ej(l) -= A (e- il" + 61")e = 2A cos (fJz) e l
A 2A ') (8-73)
Hll) ... - (e- I,. - ei,s')b =- -,- sin (ftz) b
Z, JZ,
where e and h are the mode vectors, fJ is the phase constant, and Zo is the
characteristic impedance, all of the dominant mode (see Table 8-1). In
region (2) there will be only a wave in the -z. direction; hence
Elm = Be;'~e
HI(I) _
-8 el" h
--
Z.
Continuity of E l at z ".. -I requires that
2A cos fJl =- Be- uJi
 I.flCROWAVE NETWORKS 403
which determines B in terms of A. The boundary condition on H at
-l is
t: "'"
uJ X tRw - H(ll] = J.

which leads to J. - - ~~ ej~le

A quantity of interest to us is the self-reaction of the current sheet

(8,.) ~
If E . J. d. - -
2A'
Z, (1 + &~')
We shall use dominant-mode current sheets as mathematical II waveguide
(8-74)

probes" to determine the equivalent circuit im"pedances.

Now return to the original problem, Fig. 8-10a. We define even excita-
tion of the waveguide as the case of equal incident waves from both z < 0
and z > 0, phased so that E , is maximum and H, is zero at z = O. By
symmetry arguments, the H, scattered by the obstacle will also be zero in
the z = 0 cross section i so a magnetic conductor can be placed over the
z = 0 plane without changing the field. This divides the problem into
two isolated parts, one of which is shown in Fig. 8-12a. The excitation is
provided by the dominant-mode source J., which we have just analyzed.
The equivalent circuit of Fig. 8-12a is shown in Fig. 8-12b. (The mag-
netic conductor is equivalent to an open circuit, and the J. is equivalent
to a shunt current source I.)
We now further restrict the problem to the loss-free case. Then the
dominant mode will be a pure standing wave in the region - l < z < 0 of
Fig.8-12a. If J. is located where E , = 0, then by the usual tro.nsmission-
line formulas
Z
Zo =
Z. +Zo2Z. = -jtanpl (8-75)

~'or the source of arbitrary l, the total reaction on J. is

Reaction - ff E . J. do = ff (E' + E') . J. d.

- (".) + (c,.)
where E' is the field of J. alone, and E' is the field of the current on the

~ Matched guide Magnetic conductor

J·r
-----IIi:.==-;:,==l.17
Fto. S.11. A domiuant-mode source in a waveguide terminated by a magnetio
conductor.
404 TIME-IIARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

T T T T
Matched Mag.
~
guide
-----.;-------'..-
z
t1-1.-,--.1
J
•
condo I

1----,-_.1
Za

(a) (b)

V T T
T T

Matched
~
guide 1I. M•
- - - - - . ; - - - - - - - ' +-
,-_.1
Elect.
condo

z
Za

1+1,--1--'<
(e) (d)

Flo. 8-12. Even excitation of Fig. 8-IOa is represented by (a), which bas an CqUivlllCll~
network (6). Odd excitation of Fig. 8-100 is rcpre8entcd by (e), which bu an equiva-
Icnt network (d).
obstacle alone, both radiating in the waveguide terminated by the mag-
netic conductor at z = O. H l is adjusted to a cross section for which
E, .= 0, then the reaction vanishes and the above equation becomes
2A'
(C,8) - -(8,8) - Z, (1 + -"")
where the last equality is Eq. (8-74). Taking A as real, we have
2A'
Re (C,8) - Z, (1 + cos 2~1)
2A'
1m (c,.) - Z. (.in 2~1)

and, using the identity

(I sin a
tan 2 = 1 + COS a
Eq. (8-75) becomes
+ 2X.
X.
Z, - (8-76)

We have replnced the Z.. and Z. by jX. andjX. because only the loss-free
case is being considered. By reciprocity,

(C,.) - (s,c) -
...J, E'· dJ'

where E· is the incident field, given by Eq. (8-73), and J'" is the current OD
(8-77)
 MlCnOWAVE NETWORKS 405
the obstacle.' Note that the problem is now identical to the echo prob-
lems of Sees. 7-10 and 7-11, except that all currents radiate in the environ-
ment of the waveguide plus the magnetic conductor.
For the case of a perfectly conducting object, the obstacle current is eo
surface current J.\ and n X E = 0 on its boundary. Hence,
n X E' = -0 X E"
and (s,c) - -(c,c) - - ffE" r.' ds (8-78)

where (c,e) represents the self-reaction of the currents induced on the

obstacle. By Eqs, (8-76) to (8-78), we therefore have
Xb + 2X" 1m (c,c)
Z. - - Re (c,') (8-79)

Our problem is now one of finding the self-reaction of the currents induced
by the incident field of Eq. (8-73) with A real.
For a stationary formula, we assume currents J." on the obstacle and
calculate (a,a) subject to the constraints
(a,a) - (c,a) - (a,c)
(see Sec. 7-7). The last equality is met by reciprocity, and, since
n X E' = - 0 X E~ on the obstacle surface,
(c,a) - -(s,a)
Hence, our stationary formula for (c,c) is
(s a)'
(cc)""
, - '-
(a,a) (8-80)

This, coupled with Eq. (8-79), represents the variational solution to the
problem. If the trial current is taken as real, then (s,a) is real because
E' is real. Equation (8-80) can then be written as

(c,c) I I'
~ ~~,~ (a,a)'
and Eq. (8-79) becomes
X. + 2X. ~
1m (a,a) (8-81)
Zo Re (a,a)
This formula applies only when J." is real, which is usually the case. The
change of sign in going from Eq. (8-79) to Eq. (8-81) can be explained by
noting that J.~ is not real for the given E', but is usually at some constant
phase.
I The obstacle may be a conductor, a nonmagnetic dielectric, or a magnetic dielec-

tric (,. ~ "0). In the hUer case the term - fH"' dM< must be added to the right-
hand 8ide of Eq. (~77).
406 TIME--HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

We define odd excitation of the waveguide (Fig. 8-lOa) as the case of

equal incident waves from both z < 0 and z > 0, phased so that E l = 0
and H j is maximum at z = O. By symmetry, the E l scattered by the
obstacle must also be zero in the z = 0 cross section, and so an electric
conductor caD be placed over the z = 0 plane without changing the field.
This divides the problem into two isolated parts, one of which is shown in
Fig. 8-12c. The excitation is provided by a dominant-mode magnetic
source M., which, together with the electric conductor covering the
z = 0 plane, is dual to Fig. 8-IL The equivalent circuit of Fig. 8-12c is
shown in Fig. 8-12d. (The electric conductor at z = 0 is equivalent to a
short circuit, and the M. is equivalent to a series voltage source V.)
The analysis of Fig. 8-12c is dual to that used for Fig. 8-12a. Hence,
dual to Eqs. (8-73), in the region - l < z < 0 we have a source field
Hi - 2C cos (~z) h
El' = - ~C
jY,
sin «(3z) e
(8-82)

where Yo = I/Z o is the characteristic admittance of the dominant mode.

Dual to Eq. (8-79) we have
j 1 1m (c,c)
(8-83)
YoZ, - YoX, - Re (c,c)
where {c,c} is the self-reaction of the obstacle currents radiating in the
presence of an electric conductor over thc z = 0 cross section (sec Fig.
8-12c). Finally, for a variational solution, curt:ents J," are assumed on
the obstacle, and their self-reaction {a,a} is calculated. If the J." is real,
then dual to Eq. (8-81) we have
1 1m (0,0)
--~ (8-84)
YoX, Rc (0,0)
where (a,a) is calculated with an electric conductor over the z = 0 plane.
8-7. Posts in Waveguides. Some variational solutions for circular
posts in rectangular waveguides can be carried out relatively simply.
Figure 8-13 illustrates three classes of obstacles: (1) those cylindrical to y,

(a)
FIG. 8-13. Posts in
and (c) otherwise.
II.
--
LlIL..-........I X
(~ --
X
00 -X

rectangular waveguide, (a) cylindrical to y, (b) cylindrical to %,

 ),(lCROWAVE NETWORKS 407

-J, J, -J, - J, J, -J,

o o o o o O-X

FlO. g..14. Image system for the circular post in a rectangular waveguide.

(2) those cylindrical to x, and (3) all other eases. [The c)·tinders are not
necessarily eircular, and case (1) is different from case (2) only because of
the excitation.] It is assumed that the incident wave in each C3.SC is the
dominant mode with E parallel to y and HI parallel to x. Then the field
of case (1) will be TM to y, expressible in terms of a single wave function
Ail ",. '" (see Sec. 4-4). The field of case (2) will be TE to x, expressible in
terms of a single wave function F" ",. ljI. Type (3) problems require two
scalar wave functions to express the field (see Sec. 3-12).
We shall consider only the centered circular post, as shown in the insert
of Fig. 8-15. For even excitation (Fig. 8-124), assume a constant current
on the post
e _ U _I
] , r 1fd (8-85)

The field produced by J.- in the waveguide closed by the magnetic con-
ductor will be the same as the free-space field from the image system of
Fig. 8-14. Hence, we can write

where the first term is the free-space field of J.- and the second term is
the frcc-space field from all its images. The self-reaction of J,- in the
waveguide with magnetic conductor is one-half that for the complete
post in a waveguide; hence
1 (. ("d
(.,,) - 2}0 dy}o 2 d~ (J,E,)
. f ("
= 41r}o (Ev""" + E.l_) drp (1l-ll6)
408 TUlfr.ElARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Now the upost" term is independent of 4> since the I." is independent of
¢. The "image " term is a source-iree field in the vicinity of the post and
can therefore be expressed as
.
ElIlm.... = l A ..J.. (kp)e f ...
"--00
(see Sec. 5.-8). Thus,

r E.'·..·d¢ - 2< A oJ'(k;) - 2rJ. (k;) E,'·..··I,.o

and Eq. (8-86) reduces to

(a,a) - at [ Er L~ + J. (k;) E,'..... Lo] (8-87)

The field of a. single cylinder of constant current was calculated in Sec. 5-6.
Abstra.cting Crom Eq. (5-92), we have

E II I1OH"", - ~kIJo(k~)Ho(2)(kp) p ~~
The field from each image is also of the above form, with p replaced by the
distance to the image. Hence, Eq. (8-87) becomes
•
(a,a) - K [ H 0'" (k ;) + J. (k;) 2 L:..
,
(-I)"H,"'(nkb)] (8-88)

where K= - §ka[!Jo(k~)
is an unimportant constant. Equation (8-88) is an exact evaluation of
(a,a) for the assumed current of Eq. (8--85).
Unfortunately, the Hankel function summation in Eq. (8--88) converges
slowly and is not. convenient for computation. However, we shall now
show that it can be transformed to
..
\ ' (-I)'H,'''(nkb) ~~[ 1
,-.
~ ~ ~(2b/X)' 1 4

+iG10g2r
b
-I +8)] (8-89)

where"Y "'" 1.781 and S is the rapidly convergent summation

1(2b/X)' I] n
(8-90)
 MICROWAVE NETWORKS 409
The free-spacc field of a fllament of current is given by Eq. (5-84).
Hence, the left-hand side of Eq. (8-89) is the E" from all images of the
filament
-2
1--
,k
across the center of the original waveguide. ~This problem is Fig. 8-14
with J." replaced by the above f.) Then, by the method of Sec. 4-10,
we can find the total field in the z = 0 cross section due to the above f.
It is
•
E ow ~ ~ [ (n/b) sin +. \' sin
(n./2) (nn/b)] (8-91) sin
, • V(2b/X)' IlL. Vn' (2b/X)'
•• 2

where only the first term is real bccause it is assumed that 1 < (2b/X) < 2.
For large 11., the above summation has terms equal to those of
• •
2:~sin(';)sinH;+ I)] - 2: C05no
n
... ) .. _1.3.5....
•
_ Re . \'
4
(e")" _ Re
11.
(!2 log 1I + eei,') _ Re (!2 log I j sincosoI )
1
..... 1.3.5, ...
1 j) _ I
- Re ( 2 10g tan (1/2) - - 2 log tan 2
I

Hence, letting x = (b/2) + p in Eq. (8-91) and 8 = 7rp/b in the above

identity, we can add and subtract the latter from the former and obtain

E "
00' _
_0 r
~[ 1
V(2b/X)' 1
+j (!2 log 2b _ 1 + S)]
rp

The free-space Ell from the same filament I is

When this is subtracted from the total Ell, and p set equal to zero, we
have the right-hand side of Eq. (8-89).
Returning now to the self-reaction, wc substitute Eq. (8-89) into Eq.
(8-88) and obtain
2 X
Re(aa}-C -C-'
, V (2b/X)' 1 b
(8-92)
.N,(kd/2) 2,b ]
1m (a,a) = C [ - 2J ,(kd/2) + log T - 2 + 2S
410 TIME-HARMONIC ELECI'ROMAGNETIC FiELDS

where C is the unimportant constant,

C__ .ka l'J"(k~)

4r 2

Equation (8-92) is still exact for the current assumed in Eq. (8-85).
However, because of the crudeness of OUf initial trial current, we caD
expect our result to be valid onll:. for small d/>.. Hence, we use small-
argument formulas for the Bessel functions and obtain

1m (a,a) ~ C (lOg ;~ - 2 + 28) (8-93)

Now, substituting from Eqs. (8-92) and (8-93) into Eq. (8-81), we ha.ve

X. +Zo2X. ~ ~).,....d
[lOg 46 _ 2 + 28 (~)]
).
(8-94)

where S is given by Eq. (8-90).

For odd excitation (Fig. 8-12c), we llSSume a current
J.- "'" u"sin ~ (8-95)
induced on the post. The appropriate variational formula is Eq. (8-84),

12 -
- T -lot-
1.0
X';',/Zob I Top view
IB.ld
.l ,
End view

~
0.8
L.j 'f-l
7> jXII jX.
l'-.. Zo
~
'X
J • Zo
0.6
"lb=2.0 R::: ~I.O
Equivalent circuit
0.4
1.4 - ~ ~ I'-....
......
1.2-
"'" '" "R g;; ~
.-
O. 2

-- L-- ~ :::::
11
- J4>,/Zoh

I
o 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
dth
FlO. 8-15. The centered circular inductive poet. in a rectAngular waveguide. (Afkr
Mamaih.)
 !lucnoWAVE NETWORKS 411
the exact evaluation of which follows steps
similar to those used to derive Eq. (8-94). ---f---
The result is 6
(8-96)
I
FlO. S-16. A small obstacle
Figure 8-15 shows X .. and X& as calculated in a waveguide.
from a second-order variational solution. 1
Our solution [Eqs. (8-94) and (8-96)] is accurate for small d/b, the error
being of the order of 10 per cent for d/b = 0.15. Formulas and calcula-
tions for off-centered posts are also available. I A solution for the circular
ca.pacitive post (Fig. 8-13b) is given in Prob. 8-12.
8-8. Small Obstacles in Waveguides. Figure 8-16 represents a small
obstacle in a waveguide of arbitrary cross section. If the obstacle is
symmetrical about a transverse plane, the equivalent circuit is as shown
in Fig. 8-lOb. If the obstacle is loss-free, the Z's arejX's. The formula-
tion of the problem for a conducting obstacle is that of Sec. 8-6. An
approximate evaluation of tho reactions, made possible because the
obstacles are small and not too near the guide walls, will now be discussed.
Consider even excitation of the guide (Fig. 8-12a). The effect of a
small obstacle is small; hence Z& is small and Z.. is large. Equation (8-81)
is then
X.. 1 1m (a,a)
(8-97)
Zo = 2 Re (a,a)
where (a,a) is the self-reaction of the assumed currents in the waveguide.
Let us first make some qualitative observations. In a rectangular
waveguide, the reaction (a,a) is the free-space self-reaction of the obstacle
plus the mutual reaction with all its images. For real current, the imagi-
nary part of the free-space self-reaction becomes extremely large as the
obstacle becomes smaU. Hence, for sufficiently small obstacles, we can let
1m (a,a) "'" 1m (a,a)/reo ..._ (8-98)

In contrast to this, the real part oC the Cree-space reaction approaches a

constant, independent of the size of the obstacle, as the obstacle becomes
small. The mutual reaction between the obstacle and its images there-
fore cannot be neglected. However, because the real part of the reaction
is independent of the size and shape of the obstacle, we can calculate the
dipole moment Il of the free-space obstacle and let
Re (a,a) = Re (Il,Il) (8-99)

IN. Marcuvitz, "Waveguide Handbook," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 10,
pp. 257-263, McGraw-Bill Book Company. Inc., New York, 1951.
412 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

xt 4-- b----j
J... T~
to
----'-----
Side view
- z
L~~
End view
FIG. 8-17. A small conducting sphere centered in!L rectangular waveguide.

The right-hand term represents the self-reaction of a current element Il in

the waveguide.
As a.n example, consider the small sphere of radius c in the ccnter of a
rectangular waveguide, as shown in Fig. 8-17. As our trial current,
assume J." is that which produces the dipole field external to the sphere.
This current, even though we shall not need it explicitly, is approximately
II .
J." = -U'-228m 8 (8-100)
~c

where (J is measured from the x direction. Because the above current

produces the same field as an x-directed element of moment Il, the
ima.ginary part of the free-space self-reaction is the imaginary part of
Eq. (2-115) evaluated at r = c. Hence,

1m (a,a)f'" ...- = -." 23~ (~l)' (L)'

1\ /Ii(;

Equation (8-98) is therefore

.~(Il)'
1m (a,a) "'" 12rJ c (8-101)
'
For the real part of (a,a), we can use the analysis of Sec. 4-10 for a
current sheet

J.-Il+-~),(y-n
Because the current is real, we can set Re (!l,ll) ... - Re (P) of Eq, (4-87)
and obtain
Re (Il,If) -
where, from Eq. (4-86),
2
Jo 1 =-Il
ab
Hence, Eq. (8-99) becomes
Re (a a) ~ - Z.
, ab
(If)' = - .~. (II)'
ab).
(8-102)
 MICROWAVE NETWOR.KS 413

Sub,tituting from Eq,. (8-101) aod (8-102) into Eq. (8-97), we bave
x. Atab
Z. ~ - 24~'l.,c' (8-103)
This is the8ma1l~bst.acle approximation Cor a centered sphere in 8. rec-
tangular waveguide. Our free-space reaction is the Rayleigh approxi·
mation (Eq. (6-106)], which is valid for c/). < 0.1. Hence, we should
expact Eq. (8-103) to be accurate wheo c/~ < 0.1 and c« a/2.
Now consider odd excitation of the guide (Fig. 8-12c). The evaluation
of X. can then be made according to Eq. (8-84). Taking the current as
real, we evaluate the imaginary part of (a,a) according to the free-space
approximation [Eq. (8-98)]. However, because of the symmetry of the
obstacle and of the excitation, there can be no net electric dipole moment,
and Eq. (8-99) does Dot apply. There will be a magnetic moment KI
(unless the obstacle has zero axial thickness), which can be calculated
from the MSumed current. Then, analogous to Eq. (8-99), we use the
approximation
Re (a,a) ~ Re (KI,Kf) (8-104)
where the right-hand term represents the self reaction of a magnetic
current element Kl in the waveguide.
Return now to the specific problem of a conducting sphere in a rectan-
gular guide (Fig. 8-17). It is evident from symmetry that, for odd
exeitation, the resultant magnetic dipole will be y--directcd. For the
trial current. assume that which produces the magnetic dipole field
external to the sphere. The free-spaee sclf~rcaction of this current is then
just the dual of that for the electric dipole. given by Eq. (8-101). Hence.
~(Kl)'
1m (a,a) 1':: 1m {a,a)I ... 01'_ =
12 2 I (8-105)
"re
For the real part of (a,a), we evaluate the right-hand side of Eq. (8-104)
by methods dual to those used to establish Eq. (8-102). For the centered
y-directed magnetic current element iu tbe rectangular guide, we obtain
Y, ~
Re (a,a) ~ Re (KI,KI) - ab (Kf)' - ab.'. (Kl)'
Substituting from this and from Eq. (8-105) into Eq. (8-84), we have
Zo ahA,
X, ",. - 12..-2e' (S.106)
The accuracy of this formula is at least as good as that of Eq. (8-103).
The evaluation of ot-her small-obstacle equivalent circuits can be found in
the literature. I
I A. A. Oliner, Equivalent Circuits for Small Symmetrical Longitudinal ApertW1!l
aDd Obstacles, IRE TraM., vol. MTT-8, no. 1, January, 1960.
414 TlME-HAlUIONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

----['------ T T

---------..!..
(a)
~ (b)

FIG. 8-18. (0) A diaphragm in a waveguide, and (6) an equivalent circuit..

8-9. Diaphragms in Waveguides. Figure 8-184 represents a cylindri-

cal waveguide of arbitrary cross section with an infinitely thin electric
conductor covering part of the z - 0 plane. This conductor is csJled a
diaphragm, and the opening in it is called a. window. The diaphragm pill!
the window cover the entire: = 0 cross section. The exact equivalent
circuit is just a shunt element, as shown in Fig. 8-1&. Depending upon
the shape of the diaphragm or window, the susceptance may be p<l6itive
(capacitive), negative (inductive), or change from positive to negative 88
the frequency is varied (resonant when B "'" 0).
To evaluate the shunt susceptance, we can use the method of Sec. 8-7.
Taking the case of even excitation (Fig. 8-12a), the diaphragm problem
reduces to Fig. 8-19a. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 8-19b.
The appropriate stationary formula is EQ. (8-81), which reduces to
2Y, 1m (a,a)
-~- (&-107)
B Re (a,a)
where (a,a) is the self-reaction of the assumed current J.- on the dia--

B/2¢
Diaphragm
~Matched
guide
IJ·
I. I
Mag.
condo

+-
.1 z
$ PI I. I .1
(a) (b)

Matched
~guide Mag. condo
~+. B/2¢
M·t Elect. condo -+-
I. I .1 z I. I .1
(0) (d)

FlO. 8-19. Symmetrical excitation of Fig. 8-IOa is represented by (a), which h.. all
equivalent circuit (6). Symmetrical excitation of Fig. ~lOa ill also represented by
(e), which has an equivalent circuit (d).
 MICROWAVE NETWORKS 415
phragm. We can think of Fig. 8-19a as being constructed by placing
pieces of electric conductor on top of a magnetic conductor.
Because the diaphragm problem is self-dual, we have the alternative
representat.ion of Fig. 8-19c. This can be viewed as a const.ruct.ion of
the window by placing pieces of magnetic conductor on top of an electric
conductor. The source has been changed to a magnet.ic current sheet,
instead of the electric current sheet of Fig. 8-19a, so that complete duality
is preserved. Then, dual to Eq. (8-107), we have
B 1m (a,a).
(8-108)
2Y, """ Re {a,a)..

where the subscripts m are added to emphasize that (a,a)", is the self-
reaction of assumed magnetic currents M,o on the window, that is,

(a,a). - - ff H'· M,' d. (8-109)

Because the M,o is related to the tangential E in the window of the

original problem according to
M.' ~ u. X E (8-110)

Eq. (8-108) is known as an aperture-field formulation of the problem.

This is in contrast to Eq. (8-107) which is an obslade-currentformulalion.
Note that Eq. (8-108) can also he viewed as a specialization of Eq. (8-84).
To illustrate the theory, consider a capacitive diaphragm in a rectangu-
lar waveguide (Fig. 8-20). (Note that it must be capacitive, because it is
a special case of Fig. 8-l3b.) Take the E-field formula {Eq. (8-108)] and,
noto that

(a,a). - - ff H' . M,' ds - - ff E X H . u, d.

- (- ff E X H'· d8)' - p' U,

because E is real. Hence, the problem is the same as tbrnsc treated in

--,-- T T yt a ·1 T
a
T
a

Side view
b

1
(0)
I~x End view ~
y,
0
Is y,
r'
(b)
0

FlO. 8-20. (a) Capacitive diaphragm, and (b) an equivalent circuit.

416 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Sec. 4-9. In particular, if we assume

. ~x
<c
Ell'
I.-0 { = sma
0
Y
y>c
(8-111)

in t.he window, we then have precisely t.he problem of Fig. 4-17. Hence,
from Eq. (4-77), we have

(a,a). - P' - IVI'Y. ~ lVI' (Y. ;b + jB.)

where Y. is the aperture admittance. Finally, substituting from the
above into Eq. (8-108), we obtain
.!!.
Yo
~ 4b
a Yo
B. = 8bX, (~.B.)
2aY o
(8-112)

where the quantity in parentheses is plotted in Fig. 4-17.

A more general treatment of the problem proceeds as follows. We
know from the discussion of F'ig. 8-13b that the ficld must be TE to x, and
so the most general form for the tangential field in the window is

E:l _ , .. 0
r
{f(Y)'in :
0
Y <c (8-113)
y> c
Then, by the methods of Sec. 4-9, we calculate
•
ab \ ' 1
(a,a). - P' ~ "2 1.; ;: (Y,h.IE,.I'
.-0
where, by Eq. (4-73), the Fourier coefficients E I .. are

E,. = t )0[e fey) cos Ii""

f n1rY
dy

and the characteristic admittances of the TEXt" modes are

(Y) j2bY, (8-114)
o 1.. = X, V nt (2bjX,p
The Yo and X, pertain to the dominant mode, which is the only mode
having real characteristic impedance, because of our assumption that only
the dominant mode propagates. Hence, Eq. (8-108) becomes
•
lIY.h.IE,.I'
B ,. ... 1
2-Y-, ~ ="'2"Y'."IE",',I"'-
 WCROWAVE NETWORKS 417
which, upon substitution from the preceding equations, becomes

•
B 8b f1. =-V7n:C'C=;'("'2b"'/"'~.T.),
\' 1
J. /(y) cos nTl/]'
[ «
b dy
-Yo ~ >., =---7[l'.><J-(Y-)-dY~]"'---- (8-115)

Equation (8-112) represents the special case fey) = 1. Better approxi-

mations to B/Yo can be obtained by using a better choice for fey), or by
applying the Ritz procedure.
The stationary formula. in terms of obstacle current [Eq. (8-107)] is
specialized to the capacitive diaphragm as follows. The field is TE to x,
given by Eqa. (4-32) witb
•
!J' = sin ~ \ ' A cos nry e''''~
aLi" .-0 b

where

The current on a diaphragm backed by a magnctic conductor (Fig. 8-194)

is then
•
J.""'HlIl.-0 _abjrtwp cos~\'
a '-'
nA"sin
nry
b
•• 0

J" - -H.
I _.0
=
(T/a)' -
.
JWP
k' sin ""
-
a
2:
•
A" cos n-'
_"_V
b
.-0

Hence, the current has both x and y componenta, but the A" can be deter-
mined from the y component alone. The x component then adjusts
itself to make the field TE to x. If we assume a current

J,. "" g(y) sin ~

a
(8-116)

and define Fourier coefficienta

(8-117)

then
418 TIME-BAnMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

5 Also, at z = O. the tangential electric

,.
(b~/ intensity is given by E" = 0, and
•
4 ,,
~
. rx \ '
a ..~, ""A" cos nry
-- - ~~

../ CO)
Ell = - sm -b-

--- -- --- ' Cd)- Hcnce, in the same manner as Eq.

(4-74) was derived, we find the sclf-
reaction of J." as
•
ab \ ' 1
1 (a,a) ~
..,
"2 L.; '. (Z,).J.'

where the characteristic impedances

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 (Zo)" are the reciprocals of Eqs.
b/'A, (8-114). Because only the dominant
Flo. 8-21. The capacitive dia.phragm mode propagates, only the n = 0
with c - 2b. (a) Exact solution, (b) term of the summation is real, and
crude aperture-field variational solu-
tion, (e) crude obstAcle-currcnt varia-
Eq. (8-107) reduces to
tional solution, and (d) crude qU8lli- •
static solution. L:
(Z,).J.'
2Y, ,.~.~1=~~_
B"" 2ZJo"
Substituting for In from Eq. (8-117) and for (Zo) .. = l/(Ya)l.. from Eq.
(8-114), we finally have

(8-118)

This is the stationary formula in terms of obstacle current for the capaci-
tive diaphragm of Fig. 8-20.
Figure 8-21 compares various solutions to the capacitive diaphragm
problem for the case of a diaphragm covering half the guide cross section.
Curve (0) is called the exact solution because the estimated error is less
than the accuracy of the graph. This solution is obtained by finding"
quasi-static field and then using it in the variational formula, Eq.
(8-115).1 Curve (b) is the crude aperture-field variational solution, Eq.
(8-112), which is also Eq. (8-115) with f(y) ~ 1. Cu'v. (e) is • crud.
I N. Marcuvit.r:, "Waveguide Handbook," MlT Radiation Laboratory Scries, vol. 10,
secs. 3-5 and 5-1, McGraw-Hill Book Company, [nc., New York, 1951.
 MICROWAVE NETWORKS 419
obstacle-current variational solution, Eq. (8-118), with
. 'K(y - c)
g(y) - ,m 2(b _ c) (8-119)

(If the case g = 1 is tried, the solution diverges, because the boundary
condition that the current vanishes at 11 = c is violated.) Curve (d) is
a. first-order quasi-static solution to the problem 1
B 8b 'KC
- """ -logcsc- (8-120)
Yo X Q 2b
In practice, waveguides are usually operated with b/XQ < 0.25; so this
last solution is a good approximation for most purposes.
Note that the aperture-field variational solution, curve (b), is above the
true solution, and the obstacle-current variational solution, curve (c), is
below the true solution. That this is so for any trial functions /(y) and
g(y) follows from the fact that Eqs. (8-115) and (8-118) are positive
definite and hence are an absolute minimum for the true fields. Since
Eq. (8-115) gives B/Yo and Eq. (8-118) gives Yo/B, the former yields
upper bounds and the latter yields lower bounds to the true B/Yo. The
existence of variational formulas for both upper and lower bounds is not
very common and is a consequence of the self-duality of the problem plus
the positive-definite nature of the resulting variational formulaa.
Our crude variational solutions give an error of the order of 20 per cent,
but it is remarkable that they are as close n.s that. A quasi-sLatic solution
to the problem is
f( ) _ co, (Ty(2b) (8-121)
y ""in' (Tc(2b) 'in' ("Y(2b)
which actually has a singularity at y = c. Hence, our approximation
[(V) = 1 was an exceedingly crude choice, yet it led to usable results.
Our approximation to g(y) [Eq. (8-119)] is equally crude. If we were to
use Eq. (8-121) in Eq. (8-115), the result would be very close to the true
solution.
It is interesting to note that the three diaphragms shown in Fig. 8-22
all have the same equivalent circuits. This is evident, because the image
systems for all three cases are identical.
The treatment of the inductive diaphragm (Fig. 8-23) is similar to that
of the capacitive diaphragm. The general variational formulas for upper
and lower bounds are given in Probs. 8-14 and 8-15. For a crude aper-
ture-field solution, we ~an assume Eq. (4-75) for E,t in tbe aperture.
I W. R. Smythe, "Static and Dynamic Electricity," 2d ed., Sec. 15-10, McGraw·
Hill Book Company, lne., New York, 1950.
420 TDlE-HARAlONJC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Ir--iI (aJ (6)

L.-_ _--l..!.
(c)
,

Flo. 8-22. These three diaphragms give rise to the same shunt. capacitance.

_ _ _T'---_ _ xt-- 6 --f

I T T

1T y,
Jl
jB Y,

Stde view
(a)
End view -
Y

FIo. &-23. (0) Induct.ive diaphragm, a.nd Cb) an equivalent circuit..

(6)

This procedure gives

~ ~ _X.a [~ 1- (c/a)']' (,6 B) (8-122)

Yo 5m (7fe/a)
C X 1I

where B. is the aperture susceptance plotted in Fig. 4-19. The values of

-BIY. calculated from Eq. (8-122) will be higher tban the true values
(of the order of 20 per cent higher). The problem can also be treated by
quasi-static methods) a first-order solution being!

B t::>< _ ~) cot' 'Ire

Xlai' (1 + esc' 2a (8-123)
Yo 2a

A combination of the quasi-static and variational methods can be used to

obtain solutions of high accurney.'
8-10. Waveguide Junctions. We shall now consider waveguide junc-
tions formed by butting two cylindrical guides together, possibly with a
diaphragm covering part of the:;:: = 0 cross section. Figure 8-24 repre-
sents the general problem. No longer is there symmetry about the:;:: = 0
cross section; 60 the methods of Sec. &-6 do not apply directly. We there-
1 W. R. Smyt.he, "Statie and Dynamic Electricity," 2d cd., p. 555, McGraw-HiU

Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.

IN. Mareuvitz, "Waveguide Handbook," M1T Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 10.
!leC. &-2, McGraw-Bill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
 MIcaOWAVE NE'TWORXB 421
(ore take the more fundamental a.pproach of const.ructing complete solu-
tions in each region and enforcing

.If E+ X H+· ds -.£1 E- X H- . ds (8-124)

where superscripts + and - refer to regions z > 0 and z < 0, respec-

tively. In terms of the reaction concept, we caD think of Eq. (8-124) as
stating that the reaction is conserved at the junction.
An equivalent network for the junction is shown in Fig. 8-24b. It is
evident that only a shunt element is required to represent the junction,
because an electric conductor placed across the entire z = 0 cross section
presents a short circuit to both waveguides. The characteristic admit-
tances of the equivalent transmission lines are taken to be the character-
istic wave admittances of the guides, and the ideal transformer represents
the change in admittance level. If the characteristic admittance of the
right-band transmission line were chosen as n t times the characteristic
wave admittance of the guide, then the transformer would not be needed.
We shall usc Eq. (8-124) to obtain stationary formulas for Band n t •
It is assumed that the excitation is at z = - gQ ; hence in the region
, <0

E,- - (...~" + ref'") 1 :. r ., + LV...,".,

H ,- - y.-(e-i~~ - rei·''') 1 ~. rho - L:, YIV.-e""'~h;: (8-125)

where ei, h; are the mode vectors, a. are the cutoff mode-attenuation con-
stants, Y; are the characteristic admittances, and r is the reflection
coefficient for the dominant mode. The subscripts 0 denote dominant-
mode parameters. Matched conditions are assumed at z = gQ i hence in

-I T l:n T

__1--
Side view End view
Y~C:
(a) (b)
FIG. &-24. (0) A waveguide junction, and (b) an equivalcnt. circuit.
422 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROYAGNETIC }O'l.ELDS

the region z > 0

E,+ = ~oe-i~zeo + l: ~;~r-"I'ei

;

+ 2:
(8-126)
H,+ "'" Y o+9"oe-i8 'h, f;9".e-';'·b.;
;

where the carets distinguish the various parameters from their z < 0
counterparts. The applicat.ion of Eq. (8-124) to the above field expres-
SiODS yields

Yo+9'o' + I 1",9",1 .. ~ ~ ~
•
Yo-V,t - L:
i
Y,V;% (8-127)

Now the relative admittance seen from the left-hand guide is

l-r Y G . B
1 r + - Y,- ~ Y,- + J Y,- (8-128)

Remembering that the Yo aTC real and the Yi, i ~ OJ are imaginary, for
real Vi and 1'"; we have

l: Y;V,' + l: 1',1'"
jB _ -'-;_~~~_ (8-129)
Y.- Yo ¥o'
G Y o+9',t
Y.- = Yo-Yo'
From OUT equivalent circuit, with matched conditions at Z ::I <Xl, it is
evident that

hence (8-130)

Finally, to obtain the Vi and 9'" we need only specialize Eqs. (8-125) and
(8-126) to z .. 0 and, using the methods of Sec. 8-2, obtain

Vi
.....JJ
= E, · c, dB
(8-131)
1'; - !!
..... E, .•; d•

Note that the integration extends only over the aperture, because Ee - 0
on the conductor. EquatioDs (8-129) and (8-130), with Vi and 1". given
by Eq. (8-131), arc formulas stationary with respect to small variations
 HIcnOWAVE NETWORKS 423
in the aperture E j about the correct field. Alternative stationary for-
mulas in terms of current on the conducting wall at % =- 0 can also be
obtained (see Prob. 8-18). Note that Eq. (8-129) specialized to the case
of two identical guides is the diaphragm solution of the preceding section.
To illustrate the theory, consider the rectangular waveguide junctions
of Sec. 4-9. For the capacitive junction (Fig. 4-16), the dominant-mode
vectors are

e. - Uif
ac
. ""a
..ff<-sln-
Hence, regardless of our assumed tangential E in the aperture

E,d _ ulff(y) sin ~ (8-132)

a
we bave by Eqs. (8-130) and (8-131)

(8-133)

This is therefore the exact transformation ratio of the ideal transformer.

In Sec. 4-9, we calculated the aperture susceptance corresponding to the
crude choice 1(Y) - 1. The first summation in the numerator of Eq.
(8-129) then vanishes, and the second summation is related to the
aperture susceptance of Eq. (4-78) by

ll',~.'
, -
ilVl'B. - ie'B.

But, for I(y) c: I, we have V.t "" ac/2j hence, by Eq. (8-129),

.!! =
Yo
t
2c B. =
acYo
4cX, ("'o2aZO B") (8-134)

where the quantity in parentheses is plotted in Fig. 4-17. The general

expression IEq. (8-129)] is positive definite in our particular casej so
Eq. (8-134) gives values of B/Y 0 higher than the true values. However,
because the field in the aperture is less singular at the edge of a step than
at a knife edge, we should expect the 868umption /(V) = 1 to give better
results in the junction problem than in the corresponding diaphragm
problem. Our approximate answer (Eq. (8-134)] gives an accuracy of
the order of 10 per cent, as illustrated by Table 8-3. This can be com-
pared to the 20 per cent accuracy in the corresponding diaphragm prolr
lern, illustrated by Fig. 8-21.
The inductive junction of Fig. 4-18 is treated in a similar manner. In
general, the field in the aperture is of the form E, "'" /(x), and for the
424 TIME-HARMONIC ELECI'ROMAGNETIC FIELDS

TABLE 8-3. CoMPARISON OP EQ. (8-134) 'to THE ExACT SoLUTION I FOR THE CAeE
c/b - 0.5

Exact Approximate

o 1.57 1.63
0.' 1.69 1.84
0.3 1.93 2.10
0.4 2.44 2.67

t N. Marcuvib:, "Waveguide Handbook," MIT RncliationLaboratory Series, vol. to,

sec. 5-24, McGraw-Bill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
solution of Sec. 4-9 we assumed

E,G = u~f(%) = Uwsin ~ (8-135)

c
By Eq. (8-130), we then find the transformation ratio of the ideal trans-
former as
n, ~-
-ic
'/r'a
[Bin (7fe/a) ]'
1 - (cia)'
(8-136)

a.nd, by Eq. (8-129), the normalized shunt susceptance as

Yo-
~
J!...-
C
_2X,(_ s)
.b
A"
(8-137)

where the quantity in parentheses is plotted in Fig. 4-19. Note that,

in contrast to Eq. (8-133), the transformation ratio [Eq. (8-136») depends
on the assumed aperture field and is therefore approximate. Note also
that the characteristic wave impedances of thc two guides, z < 0 and
z > 0, are now differentj so the superscript - has been retained on Y o- in
Eq. (8-137). Finally, the value of -B/Y o- obtained from Eq. (8~137)
will be larger than the true solution, because of the positive definiteness
of the variational formula.
The alternative equivalent circuit of Fig. 8-25 illustrates a very useful
way of viewing the waveguide junction
T 1 :n T
of Fig. 8-24a. We bave separated the

:IDCl:
FIG. 8-25. Alternative equivalent
circuit lor Fig. 8-24a.
shunt susceptanee into two parts, which,
by Eq. (8-129), can be identified as

jn-
Yo- =
LY.V.'
-,,~~~
Yo-Vo t
jB+
Y o+ =
 MICROWAVE NETWORKS 425
T T n : 1 T

Yo, Yo,

r
II
Side view
r
End \liN
(0) (b)
Fla. 8-26. (a) A thin coax.to-waveguide feed, and (b) an equivalent circuit.

where the Vi and V"i are given by Eq. (8-131). Note that B- depends
only on guide z < 0, and in particular is one-half tbe shunt susceptance
of a diaphragm, assuming E t in the aperture is unchanged. This assump-
tion is, of course, incorrect, but. our formulas are stationary; so B- in the
junction problem is approximately B/2 in the corresponding diaphragm
problem. Similarly, B+ is approximately B/2 for the diaphragm prob-
lem corresponding to the guide z > O. Hence, by defining a.perture sus-
ceptances according to Eqs. (8-138), we effectively divide the problem
into two parts, each part relatively insensitive to the other. An aperture
susceptance calculated for the aperture and ODe guide, such as Figs. 4-17
and 4-19, thereby becomes useful for a wide variety of problems.
8-11. Waveguide Feeds. We shall DOW consider thin coax-to-wave-
guide feeds, as illustrated by Fig. 8-260. By thin, we meaD that the
dimension in the axjal (z) direction is small. The analysis will be exact
only for zero-thickness junctions. An equivalent circuit when only one
mode propagates is shown in Fig. 8-26b. When morc than one mode
propagates, Bay N modes, there will be N ideal transformers in series,
each coupling to one mode. The justification for this equivalent circuit
will be found in the analysis.
Let the feed be viewed as l\ sheet of current J. in the z = 0 cross sec-
tion. (This neglects the effeet of the gap. which is usually small.) Then,
in the region z > 0, we have

(8-139)

where r,+ is the +z reflection coefficient of the ith mode referred to

426 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Z - O. Similarly, for z < 0,

(8-140)

where rr is the -z reflection coefficient of the ith mode referred to

z = O. We have ensured continuity of E, at z = 0 by choosing coeflia
cients Vi the same in both Eqs. (8-139) and (8-140). The boundary con~
dition on H at z = 0 is
J. = u. X (H,+ - H ,-) 1.... 0

-2:, v.. Y.. (~ ~ ~:= + ~ ~ ~::) u. X h .. (8-141)

Multiplying each side bye, and integrating over the guide cross section,
we have

v,y, G~ ~:= + : ~ ~::) - - II J. - e, d8 (8-142)

The field is then completely determined if the r's and J. are known.
We now use the stationary formula of Eq. (7..s9) to determine the
impedance seen by the coax. This formula is

ZOo ~ - I~.' II E-J.d.

where the integration extends over the z = 0 guide cross section and
II.. is the current at the reference plane T'. Using the first of Eqs.
(8-139) for E, and Eq. (8-141) for ]., we obtain

1 '\' • (1 - r,- 1 - r.+)

ZI.. = II"s ~ V, Y i 1 + r,- + 1 + r..+
•
Finally, substituting for Vi from Eq. (8-142), we have

1 '\' z. (ff J•. e, d.)'

Z,. - I,.' L, (1 - r, )(1 + r,-)-' + (1 r,+)(l + r,+)-' (8-143)

where Z, is the characteristic impedance of the ith mode. This is a sta.-

tionary formula for the input impedance of a zero-thickness COQx-to-wave-
guide feed. We can put it into a slightly different form by noting that
 ?tfiCROWAVE NETWORKS 427
the wave impedance of an ith mode referred to z = 0 is
~. ~ Zl
b, • 1_
+ r,r, (8-144)

Hence, Eq. (8-143) can also be written as

(8-145)

This shows that the guides z > 0 and z < 0 appear in parallel for each
mode. Nonpropagating modes decay exponentially from the junction
and their r. may be taken as zero unless some obstacle is close to the feed.
If we assume that only one mode propagates, then all Z. are imaginary
°
except i = 0, and all r. = except i = 0, provided the terminations are
not too close to the feed. Equation (8-143) or (8-145) can then be
written as

(8-146)

where (8-147)

(8-148)

Equation (8-146) is, of course, just that for the equivalent circuit of
Fig.8-26b.
As an example, consider a probe in a rectangular guide (Fig. 8-27).
Assume
J. - 1~. sin ked - x) '(y - c) x<d (8-149)
x>d
where k = 2r/X is the wave number of free space. The dominant-mode
vector is

eo = u., Vab sm
/2 . "11
b
Equation (8-147) is therefore

~ foci dx 10 ?
6
n "'" dy sin ked - x) a(y - c) sin

giving n' - - 2 .SlOt

k'ab
TC - tan t k-
b 2
(d)
(8-150)

The summation for X [Eq. (8-148)] divergcs, because the current was
 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

taken as filamentary. If the probe is

taken as circular in cross section, the
reactance can be evaluated by methods
similar to those used in Sec. 8-7. How~
ever, if the probe is very thick, we shall
have to modify the equivalent circuit
of Fig. 8-2Gb. The reactance of a short
probe can be estimated by the small-
FlO. 6-27. Probe in fl, rectangular
wAveguide. obstacle approximation of Sec. 8-8. It
is evident from the sn;u:t.ll-obstacleanaly-
sis that X is capacitive (negative) for a short probe and is of the order of
magnitude of X for a probe over a conducting ground plane.
Note that our present solution [Eqs. (8-146) to (8-148)], specialized to
a rectangular waveguide matched in both directions, is the same problem
treated in Sec. 4-10. From our equivalent circuit (Fig. 8-26), it. is evi-
dent that the coax sees
R ,. = n! ~o
2

under matched conditions. Hence,

! 2R I •
n -- (8-151)
Z.
where R l • is the quantity calculated in Sec. 4-10. For example, when
the probe is connected to the opposite wall of the waveguide, as in Fig.
4-20, we have from Eq. (4-91)

,
n=b~
2. (tan lea)! . ~ 'll"C
SInb" (8-152)

Other possible feeds are shown in Fig. 4-28.

8-12. Excitation of Apertures. We now wish to consider conducting
bodies containing apertures excited by waveguides. The general prob-
lem is represented by Fig. 8-28a. As far as the waveguide is concerned,
the aperture appcars simply as a load across the reference plane T. A
variational solution to the problem can be obtained by assuming tangen-
tial E in the aperture, calculating the resultant fields on each side of the
aperture, and then conserving the flux of reaction by

II (E X H . ds)... ~ II (E X H . ds),••
..pen .. pe~t
(8-153)

This is the same approach that we took in Sec. 8-10 for the waveguide
junction. Indeed, we can think of our present problem as a junction
between the waveguide and external space.
 )(ICROWAVE NETWORKS

Once the tangential E in the aperture is assumed, the problem separates

into two parts, external and internal. We have anticipated this separa-
tion by taking the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 8-28b, where jB
represents the internal susceptance of the diaphragm and Yap••, the
external admittance of the aperture. The ideal transformer accounts
for possible differences of impedance reference in the internal and external
problems. The internal problem is identical to one-half of the wave-
guide-junction problem. Let us therefore abstract from Eq. (8-138)

LY,V,'
jB , (8-154)
Y ..... Y.V.I

where V, -

-
JJ Eo' . e, d&
These formulas give the internal shunt susceptance B in terms of an
8.S8umed E,& in the aperture. For tbe external problem, we dofine an
(8-155)

aperture admittance as

Y.~.. ~ ~, ff
.,."
E,' X H'· d. (8-156)

where V is some reference voltage and H- is the external magnetic field

calculated from the assumed E 1-. Examples of some aperture-admit-
tance calculatioll8 are given in Sec. 4-11. (These calculations were made
on a conservation of power basis, but, beeause E- was assumed real, they
"I
are the same as variational solutions.) To determine we note that the
dominant-mode voltage coupled to the aperture is V.. but we have
referred the aperture admittance to V j hence

n'- -VV',, (8-157)

where V, is given by Eq. (8-155) applied to the dominant mode.

T l' n
Conductor
I I
,-
, ,--.,
,: ,
---- jS y.. Aperture

I I
Side view End view
Ca) (b)

FlO. S-28. (a) An aperture excited by a waveguide, and (6) an equivalent circuit..
430 TIME-HARMONIC ELEC'l'ROMAGNETIC FIELD8

0.004
I
~G
alb 1-.,.
0.002
/ 'V -;:;'Ib - k.25

o 0.2 ,-
---- - 1/
0;6
-];:JL
0;8 .J 1.0
C /i'-- alb - I'
, , a/~~
/
-0.002
I I

-0.004
"
,~I
CEJI
I-a-ol

-0.006
" , , , ,
FIG. g..29. Aperture admittance for rectangular apertures in ground planes, referred
to the dominant-mode voltage of a rectangula.r waveguide of the same dimcDsiona.
(Ailer Cohen, Crowley, and Levi,.)
An aperture of practical importance is the recta.ngula.r aperture in a
conducting ground plane, as shown in the insert of Fig. 8-29. The aper-
ture admittance has been calculated for the assumed field

E •• = 7'
.
U 1I 810- (8-158)
a
in the aperture, referred to the voltage

v=jJ (8-159)

which is the dominant-mode voltage for a. waveguide of the same dimen-

sions as the aperture. Hence, when the aperture is simply the flanged
open end of a rectangular waveguide, then n - 1. The field due to E,·
in the aperture can be found by the methods of Sec. 3-6, and the aperture
admittance calculated by Eq. (8-156). The mathematical details are
tedious but can be found in the literature.! Figure 8-29 shows the aper-
ture admittances for a square aperture and for a rectangular aperture
with Bides in the ratio 1 to 1 and 2.25 to 1. 1
1 Cohen, Crowley, and Levis, The Aperture Admittance of a Rectangular Waveguide
Radiating into Half-6paee, Qhw Stal~ UnilJ. Anten1UJ Lab. Rept. ac 21114 SR no. 22,
H153.
, Additional calculations have been made hy R. J. Tector, The Cavity-backed Slot
Antenna, Univ. IUiMi4 Antenna Lab. &pt. 26, 1957.
 !,(JCROWAVE NETWORKS 431
As an example, suppose we have a square waveguide of height and
width 0 feeding 8. rectangular aperture with sides in the ratio alb - 2.25,
as shown in Fig. 8-30. The waveguide is excited in the dominant y-polar-
ized mode, for which

V2
eo = u, - . ""
sm -
• •
Hence, by Eqs. (8-155) and (8-158), we have

V o ... 01" a 0
dz 1~ dy sin' ~
0 0
= _b_
V2
and eo, hy Eqa. (8-157) and (8-159),

n' IC1
•
b - 2.25
The shunt susceptance B is one-half that for the diaphragm of Fig. 8-22b.
An approximation to B is therefore given by Eq. (8-120) with B replaced
by B/2, b by 012, and c by b/2, giving
B Sa rb a
- R:: -Iogcsc- = 3.54-
Y,).. 2a X.
Hence, the terminating admittance seen by the waveguide is

y ~ j3.54 :. + 2.25Y...,.
where Y.,.•• is given hy the alb""" 2.25 curves of Fig. 8-29.
8-13. Modal Expansions in Cavities. Consider a cavity formed by a
perfect conductor enclosing a dielectric medium. Each mode must

Side view End view

Fla. 8-30. A square waveguide £eediDg a reeuDgula.r aperture in & ground plane.
432 TIME-HARMONIC ELEC'1'ROMAGNETIC FIELDS

satisfy the field equations

V X Eo' "'" - jWiJlH.. (8-160)
where i is a mode index. Either Eo or Hi may be eliminated {rom the
above pair of equations, giving the wave equations
V X (1l- 1V X E,:> - ",-'"E. = 0
(8-161)
V X (elv X Hi) - w,IJlH; - 0

valid even if E and p are functions of position. Each of these wave equa--
tions, coupled with the boundary condition
n X E, - n X (c'v X H,) ~ 0 on S ,<8-162)
where n is the unit normal directed outward from the cavity boundary S,
is an eigenvalue problem in the classical sense. l Hencc, for f and Jl real
(no dissipation), the eigenvalues Wi (resonant frequencies) are real, and
the eigenfunctions Eo, Hi form a complete orthogonal set in the Hermitian
sense. Furthermore, we wish to normalize the mode vectors, so that the
orthogonality relationships are
ir&j
(8-163)
i = j

which can be derived from Eqs. (8-160) in the usual ma.nner. Normal-
ization of the E, also normalizes the Hi, because

tha.t is, the time-a.verage electric and magnetic energies are equal.
Hence, the orthogonality relationships for the H, corresponding to the
orthonormal Ei are
i¢j
(8-164)
i=j

We have alrea.dy shown in Sec. 8-4 that if E; is chosen real, then the cor·
responding Hi is imaginary, and vice versa..
Now suppose that electric sources exist within the cavity, as suggested
by Fig. 8-31a. The field equa.tions are then
v X E = -jwpH v XH ~jw.E+J

and the wave equation is

V X (p-lV X E) - w'EE "'" -jwJ (8-165)
I Philip M. Morse and Herman Feshbach, "Methods of Theoretical Physica,"
chap. 6, part I, McGraw-Hili Book Company, New York, 1953.
 HICROWAVE NETWORKS 433

D
Flo. 8-31. A cavity con-
taining (a) electric sources,
and (b) magnetic sources.
(0) (h)

Because the E; are a complete set, we can let

(8-166)

SUbstituting this into Eq. (8-165), we h&ve

~ A;[V X (.-'V X E;) - w',E;] - -jwJ

;

which, by Eq. (8-161), caD be written as

L;
A;(w;2 - W
2
)fE; = -jwJ

If each side is now multiplied Bcalarly by Ej and integrated over the

volume of the cavity, &11 terms except i = j va.nish beca.use of orthogo-
nality [Eq. (8-163)], and we have

(w,' - w')A; - -jw fff J. E~ dT (8-167)

which determines the A" Hence, Eq. (8-166) becomes

(8-168)

and the corresponding H, obtained from the field equations, is

(8-169)

Note that the field becomes extremely large as W a.pproaches Bome

resonant frequency. In fact, the field becomes infinite at a resonant fre-
quency in the loss-free case, which is to be expected. Actually, in any
physical problem there will always be some dissipation; so the Wi are com-
plex. Hence, the field is large, but finite, at all real resonant frequencies.
The dual problem is that oC magnetic sources in a cavity, represented
by Fig. 8-3Ib. In this case, the wave equation in H is
(8-170)
434 TIME-B.ARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlELOS

\Ve then expand H in terms of the orthonormal mode vectors a as

(8-171)

where, dual to Eq. (8-167), the B; are given by

(w;' - ( 1 )B; = -jw Iff M· Ht d.,. (8-172)

Hence, the expansion of H due to magnetic currents M is l

H _ '\' jwH,
Lt, w' ",,' Jll
rrr M.H~dT (8-173)

and the corresponding E field is

E- '\'
i..J
jw,E, rrr M.H~dT
Jll (8-174)
, W' w;t

If both electric and magnetic sources exist within the cavity, we can
superimpose Eqs. (8-168) and (8-174) for a solution.
8-14. Probes in Cavities. Mathema.tically, we cnn represent a probe
in a cavity in terms of electric currents in the cavity, as shown in Fig.
8-31a. The impedance seen at the input terminals to the probe can then
be calculated by the varia.tional formula

(8-175)

where J. is the assumed current distribution on the probe, and 1 is the

corresponding input current. All mode vectors E, will be chosen realj
80 the field produced hy JO is given hy Eq. (8-168) with the' dropped.
Substituting this equation into Eq. (8-175), we obtain

(8-176)

where (8-177)

The analysis neglects the effect of the aperture through which the probe
is fed. This effect is usually negligible and can be taken into account by
the methods of the next section.
AB long as there is no dissipation, the input impedance will be purely
reactive. However, if t.he cavity is lossy but high Q, the effect of dissipa-
I The eigenvalue Wf - 0 must be included in both EqIJ. (~168) and (8-173). The
modee a.ssociated with Coli - 0 account for the irrotlltional parte of E and H. See, for
example, Teichmann and Wigner, J. Appl. Phll., vol. 24, March, lOSt
 raaCROWAVB NETWORKS 435
tion can be taken into account by
letting the resonant frequencies be
complex, according to l

w,' ~ W.'(l +~) (8-178)

FIG. 8-32. An equivalent circuit ror a
where Q is the quality factor. In the probe-red cavity in the vicinity or
vicinity of a resonant frequency, say resonance.
Wo (not necessarily the dominant reso-
nant frequency), we can approximate Eq. (8-176) by
jw(ao/ f)'
ZIII "'" jX - w2 wo 2(1 + j/Q) (8-179)

where X is the reactance due to all modes except the i = 0 mode

(8-180)

The effect of dissipation in modes not near resonance is negligiblej hence,

it is not included in Eq. (8-180). An equivalent circuit which represents
Eq. (8-179) is shown in Fig. 8-32. To determine the values of R, L, and
C, we need only compare the formula for the impedance of the parallel
RLC circuit
I
jW/C wo! = LC
wo'(1 + j/Q) Q--~-
R R
wL woL
with the last term of Eq. (8-179). It is then evident that
R _ Q
wo
(afo)' L _ (.!1.!.)'
fwo C= U.)' (8-181)

where ao is obtained from Eq. (8-177).

To illustrate the theory, consider a probe in a rectangular cavity
(Fig. 8-33). The normalized mode vector of the dominant mode is
2.1I'y.1fz
Eo = U", --= Sin - Sill - (8-182)
VEabc b c
where the normalization factor was obtained from Eq. (2-97). For the
current on the probe, we assume
I sin k(d - x)!( _ b')!( _ c') x<d
J",o= smkd Y y (8-183)
{
o x>d
I M. E. Van Valkenberg, "Network Analysis," p. 364, Prentice-Hall, lne., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., 1955.
436 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

ty
r----I+---,,-i~T

Z
TO
b'
I
1 x
-11=,~,;==:=l.1 -'----'

tx
.-----iT
,. J"
.!-L-__--, Ir oL
"---'

II
FlO. &-33. Probe in a rectangular cavity.

Then, by Eq. (8-177), we have

-
a,=
I
2
kYtabc
tan (kV'(b)'("')
-slnw--sm-
2 b c
(8-184)

The other parameters needed to evaluate R, L, and C are the resonant

frequency fr = wo/2r, given by Eq, (2-95), and the Quality factor Q, given
by Eq. (2-101). The evaluation of the series reactance X is a much morc
difficult problem. We cannot, of course, use the filamentary current of
Eq. (8-183) to evaluate X, since the resulting reactance would be infinite.
The actual diameter of the stub must be considered. To a very rough
approximation, X will be of the same order of magnitude as for a stub
over a ground plane. Hence, for short stubs, the reactance is capacitive.
When the stub is bent into a small loop and joined to the cavity walll
the system is often called a loop feed. The treatment or loops in cavities
is essentially the same as the treatment of stubs, once a current is assumed
on the loop. The series reactance X for small loops is inductive l in can·
trast to the small-stub case, for which it is capacitive. Some explicit
loop feeds are considered in Probs. 8-24 and 8-26.
8-15. Aperture Coupling to Cavities. The general problem of coupling
a cavity to a waveguide through an aperture is represented by Fig. 8-34a.
For a variational treatm~nt or the probleml we assume an aperture field
E," and conserve reaction according to

.rf (E," X H"· ds)..". - ff (E,· X H"· ds)...

apert apert
u. (8-185)
 IOCROWAVE NETWORKS 437
For a given E,-, each side of t.his equation can be considered separately,
which amounts to dividing the original problem int.o t.wo parts, as shown
in Fig. 8-34b and c. The equivalent current
M.-=nxE,- (8-186)
in the cavity part is the negative of the terminating current in the wave-
guide part. The waveguide part of the problem is identical to the prob-
lems treated in Secs. 8-10 and 8-11, and is therefore of the form

JJ (E,' X H··ds) ••,•• =

_pert.
-YVo' + l
.... 0
Y.V.'

where the V II are the various mode voltagcs, the Y II are the mode-charac-
teristic admittances, and Y is the admittance seen by the dominant mode.
Hence, we can rewrite :Eq. (8-185) as

~o = jB, - Y.~ot
.- Jf (E l- X H- . dS).. ri'7

where Yo is the characteristic admittance of the dominant mode and

(8-187)

.L:
B, = -1 Y. -
-
Y.
(v.)'
Vo
(8-188)
•••
..._---...;1.
T

(a) (6)

T 1 :n R

~ r----~""N'C.........,L
(el (d)
FIo_ 8-34. (a) Aperture coupling from a wavelUidt! to a cavity caD be divided into two
p&rts, (b) the cavity, And (e) the waveguide. An equivalent. circuit in tbo vicinity
of re8Clnanee is Abown in (d).
438 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTRO~tAGNETIC FIELDS

is the shunt susceptance introduced by the waveguide pa.rt of the prob-

lem. The.calculation of B, was treated in Sec. 8-10.
For the cavity part of the problem, we caD determine the field by Eq,
(8-173) with the current given by Eq. (8-186). Taking the mode vectors
Hi as real, we obtain

The right-hand side of Eq. (8-185) is then given by

1f \'
(E ," X HG • ds)..... ,t.. = '-'
jwb.'
w2 W;2 (8-189)
.pet~ .:

where b. - If Eo" X H.ods (8-l90)

In the vicinity of a. resonant frequency, we again take losses into account

by Eq. (8-178), and Eq. (8-187) can be written as

The first term in the brackets represents the susceptance due to all non-
resona.nt modes in the cavity, and the second term gives the resonant;..
mode effect. The above equation caD therefore be written as
y oS + n' [oS jw(bo/V)'] (8-191)
Yo ~J II Yo J 0 - w1 wo'(1 +ilQ)
where the .susceptance due to nonresonant cavity modes is

S--~~
c - V' w' b;' Wi! (8-192)
••
and, to account for an arbitrary reference-voltage V, we have introduced
the ideal transformer

n' - (:,y (8-193)

Finally, we can represont the last term of Eq. (8-191) as a series RLC
circuit, as shown in Fig. 8-34d. The formula for admittance of a series
RLC circuit is
1
Wa' = LC
y = -,,-_--;Jr.;;°w"'/L:;-,=
w' wo'(1 + j/Q) 1 1
Q = -wC-R- = w-.-C-R
 MICROWAVE NETWORKS 439
Comparing thi:5 with the last term of Eq. (8-191), we see that

.!. ~
R
Q
"'0
(bVo)' c - (~)'
Vwo L ~ (:.y (8-194)

where bo is obtained from Eq, (8-190).

Let us illustra.te the above theory by a. treatment of the rectangular
waveguide to rectangular cavity junction, shown in Fig. 8-35. The wave-
guide part of the problem is identical to problems previously considered.
In particular, B, will be approximately one-half of Eq. (8-120) with the
appropriate interchange of symbols, or
B, 4a' 1l'd
-~-Iogesc­ (8-195)
Yo A, 2a'
For the cavity part of the problem, let us make our often-used assumption
. ry
Et = U.,SlD1J (8-196)

in the aperture. Also, let us refer the eavity admittances to

v-.f; (8-197)

which is the waveguide dominant-mode voltage that would be excited by

Eq. (8-196) if the waveguide were the same height as the aperture (n 1
would be 1 in that case). In OUf pa.rticular problem, the waveguide
dominant-mode voltage is V o = v'ba'/2; hence
d
n1 =- (8-198)
a'
Rather than calculating Eq. (8-192) directly, let us view the aperture as
the junction between two waveguides of height a' and a. The susccpt-

Waveguide Cavity
T
b
~
FIG. 8-35. Aperture cou-
piing from a rectangular ~ , ·1
waveguide to & rectangu- Top view
lar cavity.

~ •
-±-Id

Side view
II
440 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

ance Be referred to the mode voltage of a waveguide of height a could

then be approximated by Eq. (8-195) with af replaced by B. But we
wish to refer it to the V of Eq. (8-197); so we should multiply by d/a
and obtain
4d .d
B~ R: X. log esc 2a (1)-199)

Finally, to determine the R, L, and C, we need the normalized dominant-

mode vector, which is

Ho = 2 . •y . .
( u~sln-bcos--u.ccoo-b6In-
.y. ") (8-200)
vi J1abc(b 2 + 0 1) C C

Hence, from EqB. (8-190), (8-196), and (8-197), we obtain

(b.), 2d
V ~ .ac(1 + c/b)'
(1)-201)

The resonant frequency f~ = wo/21r is given by Eq. (2-95) and the quality
factor Q by Eq. (2-101). Hence, all parameters of the equivalent circuit
(Fig. 8-34d) have been evaluated.

PROBLEMS

8-1. Consider the parallel.platc waveguide formed by eonductors covering the

1J - 0 and y - b planes. Show that the eigenfunctions, normalited on a per unit
width basis, arc
+,. _ ..L
Vb
v'2b . nw-y
+... - --,m-
n< b
V2b nrll
+.' = --'0'-
n< b
where 1, 2, 3, . . . .
11. ..
8-2. Consider an 2:·directed current element II at the point z', y', z' in II. rec-
tangular waveguide (Fig. 2-16). Show that the field is given by formulas of Table
8-1 where 'It's are given by Eqa. (8--34) and, for 11., m 'po! 0,

v....... - ~f•• v....• - - ..Jif.. .

where
v(mbP + (nap cos m..x' sin flry' -7_10-.'1
f ... _ [1(Z)
0 ... fllb'+na' abe
and, for m - 0,
 MICROWAVE NETWORKS 441
8-S. For the general cylindrical waveguide (Fig. 8-1), show that the titne-average
electric energy per unit length of guide is

and the time-average magnetic energy per unit length of guide is

Note that these are just the sum of the energies in each mode alone.
8-4. Let the T equivalent circuit of Fig. 8-1Ob represent a section of waveguide of
length I, propagation constantjJ3, and characteristic impedance Zoo Show that

Z. - -jZo esc fJl

z. - jZ. tan 81/2
8-15. Using the usual perturbational method, show tbat, for general cylindrical wave-
guidCil, the attenuation constant due to eonduct<lr 10Sll is

m.
1'" k ¢('''-)'
2"fl" 'an
t -- dl

for TM modes, and

1 III ~ [,{.
a.'" 2';i; j ('''')'
iff dt + "'. ,{. (+"Pdt ]
flt "y

for TE modes. <JI. denotes inVin.sic resistance of tbe metal walls, "intrinsic impedance
of the dieleetric, and the other symbols correspond to their usage in Table 8-1.
8-6. Use the above formulas to determine the attenuation in rectangular waveguides
(Prob. 4-4) and-in circular waveguides (prob. 5-9).
8-7. Consider a one-port network, and dc6.ne the reflection coefficient r - V~/Vf.
Show that, for Z. real,
80.. - (1 - lrtt)IVflt/Z.
1
and ~ .. - 'W. - _lV l 1m (r)/z.f t
•
Bence, in a BOurce-free network, Wit S 1, and, at resonance, r is real.
8-8. Derive Eqs. (8-72).
8-9. Let the characteristic impedances of ports (1) and (2) of Fig. 8-7 bo normal-
ized to unity. Show that the transmission matrix IT] is related to the impedance
matrix [zl by

2T Il - 1111 + -I (1 - ,III)(:U - 1)
'" I
2T 1t - -Zu + - (1 + ZII)(ZU - 1)

1 '"
2Tu - 1Iu + - (1 - Z")(:II + 1)
'"
2T.. - -Zll + -I (1 + + 1) ZU)(:II

'"
Show that in the loss-free case Til - T:~ and Tit - 7';'1'
442 TIJdE-liARMONlC ELECI'ROHAQNETlC FIELDS

8-10. Add a magnetic current. .beet M. coineident. with the electric current. sheet.].
of Fig. 8-11. Det.ennioe M. and ]. such t.hat. they are & uni~t.ional dominan~
mode lIOurce, sending waves in the +~ direction only. Determine the Idf-reaetioa
of this source in the presenu. of the magnetic conductor terminatioa t.he euide.
8-11. Derive Eq. (8-96).
8-12. Consider the centered capacitive poet in a rectangular w&velUide. llhown in
Fig. 8-36. Show that t.he equivalent. nctwork parameters &nl
B. Y, ..fdl
Y, .. 14 - 2011.,

The approximations are good for die < 0.3 And at>.. < 0.2.

,
T

f,
Side view End view Equivalent circuit
Flo. 8-36. Centered capacitive post in a rectangular waveguide.

8-13. Conaidu the inductive diaphragm of Fi&. 8-23. Approrimating B, in the

aperture by

ehow that Eq. (8-122) is a crude variationallOlution (or the shunt IU8Oeptance.
8-If. The inductive diaphragm (Fig. 8-23) baa boundaries cylindrical to r. The
incident. mode ill TM to 1/; hence, the entire field must be TM to Jj'. Expreee t.he 6eId
aa H - V X uri- where
•
tj;-
'\'
L
.-1
A .IID
a '''··
. .""

In the aperture, tangential E must be of the form

Show that

is a variational (onnu1& (Of the ahunt IU8Ceptance. Note that it gives upper bouads
to -B/Y.. Problem 8-J3 is the special cu.ej(%) - sin (77./e).
8-16. Consider the indlJt:t.ive diaphragm (Fig. 8-23) and the variational fonnulaill
terms of obstacle current {Eq. (8-107»). On the diaphragm, the t:urrent is of tbeform
]. -... (.)
 ltIICROW AVE NETWORKS 443
Show that

Y. a
•
/:12 v(n/2)'1
'I;' [!.c
(4/X)'
0 •
,,(x) sm
n.z
4 en
J'
- 11 - 2>. [!.,. a d:l:
c g(x) Sin
TZ ]'

is the variationallormulo.lor lower bounds to -B/Y•.

8·16. Show that the shunt susceptance of the capacitive diaphragm of Fig. 8-37 is
given by the same formula 88 applies to Fig. 8-228.

FIG. 8-37. A capacitive

diaphragm (metaJ shown
dashed).

8-17. Consider the capacitive junction of Fig. 8-38. Show that the parameters of
the equivalent circuit are
B+ 4b+ ...c
- - -log CIlC-
Yo ~ 2b+
B-
Yo
-
4b-
--I,.,~­
""'
...c
2b-
l
b-
n - b'
-

Use the approximation of Eq. (8-120).

-1-- {~;;I---- --j

Side view End view Equivalent circuit
FlO. 8-38. A capacitive junction.

8·18. Considc{ the waveguide junction of Fig. 8-24a and the equivalcnt circuit of
Fig. 8-25. Show that, Analogous t-o Eqs. (8-138),

Y,-
jB-

and n l - 101/1,t. The mode current.e arc given by

1, - ff H," !i,do
where H,+ and H,- denote tangential H on the +z and -z sides of the junction,
retlpcct.ively. Variational formul!l8 are obtained by M5uming H.+ IUld H,- subject to
the restriction H, + - H,- in the aperture.
444 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

8-19. Let 0#(Z,1I) - !(P,.) be a 8OIution to the two-dimensional source-free Helm-

holtz equation p < a. Prove that

where ,i..e is an operator defined by

. D ,. 1 •
Sin -..,.....- COllD-..,....--
}k ax }k ax

and ,i.D.J-(O) means e'·D.p(z,y) evaluated at :t - 0, II - O. This is a. kind of mean-

value theorem.
8-20. Consider the eoa'll: to waveguide feed of Fig. 4-ZO. Let d denote the diameter
of the coa.xialstub, and let a «>.. Show that, for the equivalent cireuit of Fig. 8-26b,

1 2a
"r<:
n""l),nn"b
a
X AI -,,-)og-"l'kd
• 2
where 'Y ... 1.781.
8-21. Let the rcctangular aperture of Fig. 8-29 be thin (b« A) and of resonant
lengt.h (0 ... ),,/2). Show that

Him: Usc the duality concept of Prob. 7-43 and the approximat.ioD8 of Prob. 7-39.
Note that the aperture radiates only into half-space.
8-22. Figure 8-39 represents a parallel-plate transmi$8ion line radiating through &
slot into balf.space. Let Fig. 8-28b represent the equivalent circuit, and evaluate the
parameters, using the aperture admit.tance of Fig. 4-22.

FlO. 8-39. A parallel.

b • -. plate t.ransmi88ion line
radiating into half~pace.
----'----,~
 MICROWAVE NETWORKS 445
8-23. Figure 8-40 represents a rectangular waveguide having aides a, b radiating
into half-apace through a narrow resonant slot. Uaing the results of Frob. 8-21,
show that reflectionless tranamisaioD through the slot occurs when
4 0.54 coa' (..-A/4b)
;; ~ HI - (~)']jl
When blA < 0.7, the above formul& can be approximated by

~~~..)l-(~)·
)" 3 2b

The waveguide is excited in the dominant mode.

FIG. 8-40. A rectangular r-- b

rr------..,'I
waveguide radiating into
t1 I I ! I
half·space through a reso-
nant slot.
U .. J

8-24. Considcr the loop-fed rectangular cavity of Fig. 8-41. AMlumc that the loop
is arnall, 80 that the current on it may be flS8umed constant. Show that the eJements
of the equivalent circuit (Fig. 8-32) are given hy Eqs. (8-181) where

a, - .v;a:bC
T 2• SiD
. (b').(")
b sm ..- c
..-

Whcn c' «c, this reduces to

ao 2...A SID
. ( b')
-/ ... _r=c "-b
cv~c

where A - c'd is the area of the loop.

FlO. 8-41. A loop-fed

rectangular cavity.
446 TUtE-HARMONIC ELECTROJl,lAGNETIC FJELDS

8-26. Show that the normalized mode vector for the dominant mode of the circular
cavity (Fig. s..42) ill

where ZOI - 2.405.

(bl
FlO. 8-42. A circular cavity with (4) probe feed, and (6) loop feed.
8-26. Figure 8-42a represents a probe-fed circular cavity. AMume sinusoidal de.
tribution of current on the probe, and show tha.t the elements of the equivalent circuit
(Fig. 8--32) are given by Eqa. (8-181) where

~_
I
1
ka y;;:b 1 1 (%01)
tan(k~)J,(zo,~)
2 a
and Xu - 2.405.
8-27. Figure 8-42b represents a loop-fed circular cavity. Assume unifonn CUm!llt
on the loop. and show that the e1ementll of the equivalent circuit (Fig. 8-32) are given
by Eq8. (8-181) where
7- - a v;;bd1,(ZOI) J o (ZIIE)
a
Show that, when c "" a, this reduces to

-a. ~
A:tol
1 al~

where A - (4 - c)d is the area of the loop.

8-28. Recollllider Fig. 8-41 for the case of a Bmallioop. Represent the loop by •
magnctic-currcnt element Ki, according to Fig. 3-3, aDd evaluate
R- _Re{a,a} .. Kl·B
[I [I

The result i.e. the asme as the small·loop answer in Prob. 8-24.
8-29. Reconsider Fig. 8-42b by the method outlined in Frob. 8-28. Show that the
result is the 8I1me 1UJ the small-loop answer of Prob. 8-26.
8~SO. Show that the normalized H mode vector for the dominant mode of the
spherical cavity (Fig. 6-2) is

H - U+ O:fJ~ J, (2.744!) Bin 8

'-va,. a
 APPENDIX A.

VEcrOR ANALYSIS

We shall normally orient rectangular (:r;,'Y,z), cylindrical (p,<p,z), and

spherical (r,8,<p) coordinates as shown in Fig. A-l. Coordinate trans-
formations are then given by

x=peos<p-rsin6cos<p
'Y ". P sin tP -. r !!lin 6 sin <p
z-=-rcos6
p "'"y:r;1 +
tit _ rsin 8
(A-I)
tP z: tan- t 1!
r _ y:r;'
•
+ tit + z' - vpt + z!
8 """ tan-I Vx + 1/ _
t t
tan-1 e
• •
Transformations of the coordinate components or a vector among the
three coordinate systems are given by

A. - A" cos tP - A. sin tP

- Arsln8 cos tP + A,eos8c08tP- A.sintP
A,l =0:0 All SiD tP + A. cos q,
"'" Arsin 8 SiD tP + A,cos8sin tP + A. cos q,
A, "'" A r cos 8 - A, sin 8
A" "'" A.C08¢+ A,sin¢ =0:0 A,sin8+A,eos8 (A-2)
A. =- - A. sin tP + A, cos cfJ
A. = A.sin 8eGS ¢ +
A,lain 8ain tP + A,cosS
- All sin 8 + A. cos B
A, - A. cos 8 cos tP + A. cos 8 sin tP - A, sin 6
"'" A" cos 8 - A, sin 8

The coordina~unitvectors in the three systems are denoted by (u.,u.,u.),

(u",u.,u.), aDd (ur,u"u.). Differential elements or volume are

d, - dzdytb - pdpd~dz - "siD qd,dqd~ (A-3)

447
 TIJLE.-ElARMONIC ELECTRO~QNET1C FIELDS

z
z
...........................
r Flo. A-I. Nomul coordi-
nate orientation.

y
I /'
Pl..../
X -
z -------

differential elements of vector area. are

ds - u.dydz + u.dzdz + u.dzdy
- u.P d~ dz + u. dp dz + u.p dp d~ (A-4)
- uyr sin e de dt/J + u,r sin 6 dr d4> + U ..1' dr de
t

and differential elements of vector length are

d1 = u.dz + u,dy + u.dz
= u.dp + ..pd~ + u.dz (A-5)
= u.,.. dr + u,r de + u,.r sin e d,p
The elementary algebraic operations are the same in all right-handed
orthogonal coordinate systems. Letting (Ut,Ut,u,) denote the unit
vectors and (AI,At,At) the corresponding vector components, we have
addition defined by
A +B = u.{A. + B.) + u,{A, + B,) + u,(A. + B.) (A-6)
scalar multiplication defined by
A· B = A IB I + AtB t + AlB, (A-7)
and vector multiplication defined by

(A-8)

The above formula is a determinant, to be expanded in the usual manner.

The differential operators that we have occasion to use are the gradient
(vw), divergence (V· A), curl (V X A), and Laplacian (Vito). In
rectangular coordinates we can think of del (v) as the vector operator

(A-g)
 ¥ECI'OR ANALYSIS 449
and the various operations are

U. Ur u.
(A-lO)
VXA=!.. d d
()xay iiz
A. A. A.
V'w ~ d'w + d'w + d'w
ax l alii az l
In cylindrical coordinates we have

In spherical coordinates we have

iiw
law I aw
vw = + U.--
u.-
iir r ao
+ ur.SID
- .0-a¢
-

• +-.--
la (r S A)
v, A =-- 1 a (A ,smO
. ) +-.--
1 dA.
T10T T SID 0 00 r 510 0 o¢

VXA=u.-.- -
r 8m e ae
1 [d ( . ) dA.]
A.sm8 - -
of/>
+ U,-T1 [ - - - -a (rA.) ]
dA.
I. - (A-l2)
8m8 o¢ ar

+u.-r1 [a-iJr( r A . )aA.]

--
a8
.!:. ~ (TS ()w) 1 ~ (Sin 0 iJw) + l 1 l alvJ
Vlw ==
,1 ar ar + ,1 sin 0 as ao r sin 0 a¢1

A number of useful vector identities, which are independent of the

choice of coordinate system, are as follows. For addition and multiplica-
450 TIM&-HA1UtONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlELDS

tiOD we have
A' - A· A
IAI' = A·A'
A+B=B+A
A·B - B·A
A x B ~ -B x A (A-13)
(A + B) . C = A· C + B . C
(A + B) X C ~ A x C + B X C
A·BxC=B·CXA-C·AxB
A X (B X C) = (A· C)B - (A· B)C
For differentiation we have
V(. + w) ~ V. + Vw
V . (A + B) = V • A + V . B
V X (A + B) = V X A + V X B
v(vw) - • Vw + w v.
V· (wA) = wV . A + A· Vw
V X (wA) - wV X A - A X Vw (A-14)
V . (A X B) - B . V X A - A . V X B
V'A ~ V(V· A) - V X V X A
v X (v Vto) "'" Vv X Vw
v X Vw = 0
V·VxA-O
For integration we have

JJJ V·Ad< - effi A . ds

JJ V X A·ds - ¢A.dl
JJJ V X A dr - - effi A X ds (A-IS)

JJJ Vwdr = effiwds

JJ n X vwd. = ¢wdl
Finally, we have the Helmholtz identity

4rA - -V
'fJ.(y Irv'·Arl dr' +V X
f'(yv' X A
J. 1r r[dr' (A-16)

valid if A is well-behaved in all space and vanishes at least as rapidly as

,.-1 at infinity.
 APPENDIX B

COMPLEX PERMITTlVITIES

The following is a. table of relative a-c capacitivities E~ and relative

dielectric loss factors E~' where
"~ . E"
~,
"
= -
EO
= -EOE' - J-
Eo
= E,, . 11
- JE,

is the relative complex permittivity. The measurements, along with

many others, were reported in II Tables of Dielectric Materials" (vol.
IV, Mass. Inst. Technol., Research Lab. Insulation, Tech. Rept.). They
also appear in Part V of U Dielectric Materials and Applications,"
Technology Press, M.LT., Cambridge, Mass., 1954.
 Frequency, cycles per second
Material TOO
10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10' a x 10' 3 X 10' tOtO
,
Amber (fOSflil resin) ............ 25
" 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.65 2.65 .... 2.0 2.6
10";' 34 49 84 116 148 180 .... 223 234
,
Bakelite (no filler) ............. 24
" 8.2 7.15 6.5 5.9 5.4 4.9 4.4 .... 3.64 3.52
lO'e:.' 1100 585 410 330 320 360 340 .... 190 130
,
Beeswax (white) ......... _..... 23
" 2.65 2.63 2.56 2.48 2.43 2.41 2.39 .... 2.35 2.35
10'f;' 360 310 680 470 205 165 145 .... 120 113
-
Carbon tetrachloride . .......... 25 ,,
2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.1?'
~ 10";' 130 17 0.9 1 1 6 0 3 8 35
::;
,
Clay soil (dry) ................ 25 4.73 3.94 3.27 2.79 2.57 2.44 .... 2.38 2.27 2.16
"
lO'e:.' 570 470 390 280 170 98 .... 48 34 28
,
Ethyl alcohol (absolute) ...... .. 25 ... . . ... ... . .... 24.5 24.1 23.7 22.3 6.5 1.7
"
lO'f~' ... . .... .... . ... 220 80 150 600 165 10

Fibergla.a BK 174 (laminated) . . 24 ,, 14.2 9.8 7.2 5.9 5.3 5.0 4.8 4.M 4.40 4.37
lOtf~' 365 255 115 52 24 17 12.5 10 13 16
-,,-
Glass, pho8phate .. ............ 25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.24 6.23 6.17 5.00
(2 per cent iron oxide) 10j~' 115 95 85 80 75 85 105 130 240 210

Glass, lead~barium ............. 25 ,, 6.78 6.77 6.76 6.75 6.73 6.72 6.70 6.69 .... 6.64
lO'f~' 160 120 100 65 85 95 115 130 .... 470
, ,
 Gut.ta-.percha . ................ 25 ,, 2.61 2.60 2.58 2.55 2.53 2.50 2.47
300
2.45
270
2.40
145
2.38
120
10·':" 13 10 23 s< 105 200

Loamy soil (dry) ... ........... 25 ,, 3.06 2.83 2.69 2.60 2.53 2.48 ....
....
2.47
160
2.44
27
2.44
34
104t~' 2100 1400 950 760 460 360

Lucite RM-1l9 ................

- 23 ,, 3.20 2.84 2.75 2.68 2.63 2.60 2.58 .... 2.57 2.57
10"-:' 2000 1250 865 .so 360 260 175 .... 126 82
, , ... . ... .... 7.12
Myca.lex 400 (micA, gl!U1S) . ..... 25 7.47 7.45 7.42 7.40 7.39 7.38
"
10'':'' 220 140 120 105 95 95 ... . .... . .. . 235
, 4.5 4.24 4.00 4.00
Neoprene compound .......... 24 6.70 6.60 6.54 6.47 6.26 5.54
(38 per cent ON) "
10'':' 1070 730 750 970 2400 6600 4050 2700 1350 1050

Nylon 66 .....................
, 3.33 3.24 3.16 .... 3.03
25 3.88 3.75 3.60 3.45
~ "
10":' 560 725 840 880 860 700 660 .... 300

Paper {Royalgrcy) .... ........

, 2.99 2.86 2.77 2.75 2.70 2.62
25 3.30 3.29 3.22 3.10
"
10";' 100 250 360 620 1150 1600 1600 1600 1500 1050

Paraffin 132 0 ASTM ........... 25 ,

,
lOt,;'
2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.~5 2.25
6
....
....
2.25
4.5
2.24
5
5 5 5 5 5 6
, .... . ... 2.00
81 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02
"
lOt,;' 10 2.4 1 4 4 6 ... . .... lOA

Plexiglas . ....................
, 2.84 2.76 2.71 .... 2.66 2.60 2.59
27 3.40 3.12 2.95
"
10·~' 2050 1450 885 570 385 270 .. , . 165 150 175

Polyethylene (pure) ........ .... 24 ,, 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 .. , . .... 2.25 2.25
10'~' 11 7 7 11
• 7 ... . .... 7 9
 Frequency, cyclee per lCCond
Material T'O
10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10' 10' ax ID- a x 10' 10 1t
--
Polystyrene Cahoot 8tock) ....... 25 • 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.55 2." 2." 2.fi4.
"
10<.:' 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.8 5 3 9 8.5 11

Porcelain, "'et process .......... 25 • 6.47 e.24 6.08 6.98 5.87 6.82 5.80 6.75 .... 5.51
"
10'':' 1800 1100 800 630 530 670 780 805 .... 850

Porcelain, dry process .......... 25 • 5.50 5.36 5.23 5.14 5.08 1i-04 5,04. 5.02 .. , . 4.74
"
10'';' 1200 750 550 440 380 350 390 .... 740

~
Pyranol 1478..........•....... 26 ,•
10 1,:'
....
G80
'.53
64
4.53
9
'.53
23
'.53
9
'.53
55
....
....
'90

'.50
1700
3.80
8800

QuartJ, ruled .........•....... 25 ,• 3.78 3.78 3.78 S.78 8.78 3.78 3.78 .... 3.78 3.78
lO'~' 32 28 23 15 7.5 • • .... 2.3 •
Rcaio No. 90S................. 25 ,• 3.25 2.94 2.80 2.72 2.64 2.61 2.58 .... 2.54 2.53
10'; 3500 1450 770 .50 300 240 215 .... 160 145

Rubber, pale crepe (Revea) .... 25 ,• 2.4 2.4 2.' 2.' 2.' 2.4 2.' , ... 2.15
10'';' 67 43 34 34 43 77 120 0 ••• 65

Sandy soil (dry) ............... 25 ,, 3.42 2.91 2.75 2.65 2.59 2." .... 2." 2. .55 2.53
10'';' 6700 2300 940 530 440 410 .... 250 160 92

Sealing w~ (Red Empress).. .. 25 ,• 3.68 3.62 3.40 3.32 3.29 3.27 3.2 .... 3.0<1
101~:' ....
- •
920
,
530 340
,
260
•
260 330
•
380 380
 Shellac, natural XL" .......... 28 ,, 3.86 3.81 3.76 3,66 3.47 3.26 3.10 ' .... 2.86
(3.6 per cent wax) 10'';' 200 280 480 82. 1I00 1I50 930 .... 730

70 ,, 6.50 6,65 tLIO 4.60 4.33 4.00 3.80 .... 3.45

IO'.~' 6800 4850 3300 2100 1700 2200 2700 .... 2500

,,
Styrofoam 103.7 ............... 25
10',:'
1.03
2
1.03
1
1.03
1
1.03
1
1.03
2
1.03
2
....
· - ..
. ...
.. , .
1.03
1 ...
1.03

Sulfur, lublimed ............ , .. 25 ,, 3.69 3.69 3.69 3.69 3.69 3.69 .... . ... 3.62 3,58
lO'f~ 1I 8 8 8 8 8 .... .... 1.5 6,5

Tellon ........... , ... , ........ 22 ,, 2.1 2,1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2,1 2.1 2,1 2,1 2,08
lO'f~' 11 7 7 7 4 4 4 3 3 8

Vaaelioe ..................... 25 ,, 2.16 2.16 2.16 2.16 2.16 2.16 2.16 .... 2.16 2.18
I: 10'.:' 6,' 4,3 4 2 2 7 9 .... 14 22

80 ,, 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 .... ·- .. '" . 2.10 2.10

10'.:' 34 7.6 2 2 2 .... .... .... 19 46

Wflter ...•.......•....•....... 1.5 ,, ... . .... .... 87.0 87.0 87 87 86.6 80.6 38
10 1.:' ... . .... .... 1650 16. 17 61 280 2500 3000
,
25
" . ..
, .... .... 78.2 78.2 78.2 78 77.r; 76.1 55
101.:' .... .... .... 3100 310 36 39 .25 1200 3000

55 ,, .. , . .... .... .., . 68.2 . ... ·... 68 67.6 60

10 t:'
f
... . .... .... .... 490 .... .... 63 600 2200

85 ,,
10 t:'
f
....
'" .
.... I.... I I I
•.•• ....
58
7200
58
720
58
73
58
18
57
42
66.5
310
04
1400
 APPENDIX C

FOURIER SERIES AND INTEGRALS

A periodic function f(x) with period a and aatisfying the Dirichlet

conditions can be expanded in a Fourier series
•
f(x) ... ~o +
..2:, [a. e:1l" x)
cos + b" sin (0-1) e:1l" x)]
where a" = ~ ~G f(x) cos
J,
(2:'" x) d. (0-2)
b.. = ~ foG f(x) sin (2:'" x) dx
Such a. series converges to f(x) at ench point of continuity and to the
mid-point of each discontinuity. Also, a finite Fourier series (n ~ N)
is a least-mean-square error approximation to l(x). Alternatively, the
Fourier series can be writ.ten as
•
fCZ) = L: C..ei(Z.... /G)~ (C-3)
" .. -.
where e.. ",. -1fo" f(x)e-i(2....
a ,
'.)~ dx (0-4)

A comparison of Eq. (C-l) with Eq. (e-3) reveals that

2c. = a.. - jb.. (Q.,I)
Equation (C-1) is called the trigonometric form, and Eq. (0-3) the expo-
nential farm of the Fourier series.
Now consider a nonperiodic function, as represented by Fig. 0-1a. In
a given interval, say 0 < x < a, the fUDction caD be represented by Eq.
(e-l). However, outside the given interval, the series does not equal
f(x) , but instead the series gives a periodic extension of l(x) , as repre-
sented by Fig. e-lb. Moreover, we can represent f(x) in the interval
o < x < a in terms of a Fourier series of arbitrary period b ~ a, but the
series will not be unique until we specify the manner of extending the
function beyond x = a. In particularJ if we choose a period 2a and take
456
 FOURIER SERIES AND INTEGRALS 457

-. o •
-.....
2•

- (Ol

--. (d)
~-_. 2• •

Flo_ C-1. (0) A function can be repreeented in the interval 0 < :I: < 0 hy (b) a "com·
plete Fourier &eries, (e) a Fourier cosine series, a.nd (d) &. Fourier sine aeries.
It

the even extension of f(x) from a to 2a, as shown in Fig. C-lc, we have the
Fourier cosine series
•
f(.) - ~. + L:
.-,
A. cos (':>) (C-6)

where A. = ~ foil f(x) cos (n; x) lb; (C-7)

Similarly, if we choose n. peciod 2a and take the odd extension of f(x) from
a to 2a, as shown in Fig. C-ld, we have the Fourier sine series

..L:,
•
f(.) ~ B. sin (n; .) (C-6)

where B. =
1 [. f(x)
a}o sin (nra ) Z dz (0-9)
458 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

The representation of Eq. (C-6) converges to f(x) on the closed interval

o ::5 x
::5 a, while Eq. (C-8) converges to f(x) on the open interval
o < x < a. At x = 0 and x = a, Eq. (C-8) converges to zero, which is
the mid-point of the discontinuity in the extended function (see Fig.
O-Id).
A function f(x) can also be represented as a superposition of sinusoidal
functions in an infinite interval, say - OQ < X < 00. In this case, the
summation must be replnccd by an integration, and we have

f(x) - 2-
1r f-
_.
l(w),;" dw (0-10)

where lew) - f- f(x),-;" dx (0-11)

The J(w) is called the Fourier tram/arm of f(x). Equation (C-ll) is

called the direct transformation, and Eq. (C-1O) is called the inverse
trans/ormation. Sufficient conditions on I(x) for lew) to exist arc

f_-_lf(x)ldx <~ (C-12)

and f(x) satisfies the Dirichlet conditions. The inversion {Eq. (C-IO}J
then converges to I(x) at all points of continuity and to the mid-point of
points of discontinuity. Fourier integrals corresponding to the trigo--
Dometrio series of Eq. (C-l) also exist, but we shall not consider them here.
A useful relationship between the Fourier coefficients all, bll , 0" and the
integral of If(xW over its period, known as Parseval's theorem, is
•
1 (0 1 '\'
aJ, If(x)I'dx - la.I' + 2 L..; (la.I' + Ib.I')
.-, (0-13)

This is readily proved by substituting for f(x) in tbe left-hand term from
Eq. (C-l) or (C-3) and interchanging summation and integration. All
cross-product terms drop out because of orthogonality. Similarly, for
the Fourier integral, we have a Parseval theorem

f__- If(x)I'dx - 2r f-__ II(w)I'dw

1 (0-14)

or, more generally.

-
f_.!(x)g'(x) 1 f-
dx - 2r _.!(wW(w) dw (0-15)
 FOURIER SERIES AND INTEGRALS 459
The proof of Eq. (0-15) is summarized as follows

f. f(x)u*(x) dx = f. [2~ f. J(w)e;·· dX] U*(x) dx

= .!. f·
2... [f·
_. J(w) _. u*(x)e;·· dX] dw
A similar generalization of Eq. (C-13) can also be given.
Finally, the impulse function (delta function) is useful in Fourier
analysis. By definition, the impulse function ~(x) satisfies the integral
equation

J: f(x) o(x - x') dx I

= ~(X') a < x' < b
x'<aorx'>b
for all f(x). It is evident that ~(x) is not a function in the usual sense,
but its use can be justified by rigorous means.' It is helpful to visualize
the impulse function as
c c
--<x<-
2 2
c
Ixl > 2
where c is an appropriately small number. Such a picture gives an
intuitive justification of Eq. (0-16). From Eqs. (0-11) and (0-16), it
follows that

a(w) = 1--. o(x)e-;·· dx = 1

that is, the transform of the 6 function contains all frequencies in equal
amounts. The inverse of Eq. (0-18) is

-1
211" f· _.
elv'dw = o(x) (C-19)

which is a particularly simple and useful result. Our use of ~(x) will be
primarily as shorthand notation for Eq. (0-17).
1 L. Schwart.z, j'TMorie deB dist.ribut.ions,'· Actualitie' ,cienti~uelJ et indu,tritlk,.

nos. 1091 and 1122, Hermano' & Cie., Paris, 1950-1951.

 APPENDIX D

BESSEL FUNcrroNs

Bessel's equation of order v is

y
ax + (x
x .!!- (x a ) v')y (D-I)
2 - = 0
ax
Solutions may be obtained by the method of Frobenius, the result being
•
'\' (-I)-(x)'-"
J.(x) "'" Lt m!(m + v)! 2 ",+.
_.0
2

(D-2)

where ml = rem + 1) in general. As long as v ia not nn integer, these

are two independent solutions to Bessel's equation. However, when
v = n is an integer, we have
(D-3)

and Eqs. (D-2) a.re no longer two independent solutions. In this case a
second solution may be obtained by a limiting procedure. It is conven-
tional to define another solution to Bessel's equation as
J.(x) co, "" - J_.(x)
N •()
x ""' . (D-4)
am V1r
where, for integral v "" n,
N.(x) - lim N.(x) (D-5)
~.

This limit exists and esta.blishes a second solution to Bessel's equation of

integra.lorder. The J.(x) are called Bessel functions of the first kind of
order v, and the N.(x) are called Bessel functions of the second kind of
order v.
460
 BESSEL FUNCTIONS 461
Of particular interest are integral orders of Bessel functions. From
Eq. (D-2) and (D-5), one can determine
•
~ (-1)- (z)'-
J,(z) - ~ (ml)' 2
.-. 'z •
(z)'
(0-6)
2
+;;2 ~
~
(-I)-H
2 " ~(m)
N .(z) - ;; log "2 J .(z)

for the zero-order functions, and

.-. (ml)'

.
J.(z) =
~ (-1)-
~ m!(m + 10)1
(z)'-"
2
•••
12:
_-l

N .() J .()
x=-og- x-- 21 '"2
...

1 ~
•
'II"
.- . (X)'+'-
ml
(2)--'-
(10 - m - I)! -
x
(0-7)

for n > 0, where

.-.
log
(-1)-
- ;; ~ m!(m + 10) I

'Y = 0.5772
2 [~(m) +
(Euler's constant)
~(m + 10)]

, - 1.781 (0-8)
~(m) - 1 + M + M + ... +.!.
m

The Bessel functions have been tabulated over an extensive range of

orders and arguments, and tables are available. Figure D-l shows
1.0
,\j.
0.8
J,
0.6
0.4
V\ i')/r-..- J,

02 / / / 1\ 1\ 1'\ 1/ h
o
1/ ./ K \ I 1/ ~ "\ 1/ l\- I>< / K I/<
lX.. )< V 1"- 17 !'J f' 17 rs:;
1/
-0. 2
\ !--
-0. 4
I\. ) ~ l'-

-0.6
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Flo. 0-1. Bes8eJ fUDctioDl of the firtt kind.
462 TIlLE-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FI.ELDS

0.6
0.4
No ~ N, ~, N,

02
/ \ J\ /'
---- ., h ~

o 1/ X
X. \
/ 1\ 1\ )\ V IV
'" / '\. ;X
''j'\,
V
'" / )< ~
/ '\. ')<
-0.2
/ / I t----' "- ./ ~

-0.4

-0.6
1/
-0.8
/
-1.0
/ 1/
-1.2
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Fto. 0..2. Bes8el functiona of the llCCond kind.

curves for the lowesk>rder functions of the first kind, and Fig. D-2 shows
those for the second kind. For small arguments, we have from the series
Jo(x) __ 1
_0
2 'Y" (D-9)
No{:z:) - - -log-2
_0 r

and, (or v > 0, J.(x) -;::t ~ (~y

(D-lO)
N.(x) --+ _ (v - 1)1 (~)'
_0 'Ir :z:

provided He (tI) > O. For large arguments, asymptotic series exist, the
leading terms of which are

J.(x) --+ cos (x _!4 _ or)

/2x
_. '\j... 2
(D-ll)
N.(x) _ . [2 ,in (x _! _ or)
_.. v;Z 4 2

provided Iphase (x)1 < r.

For the expression of wave phenomena, it is convenient to define linear
combinations of the Bessel functions
H.Ol(X) ~ J.(x) jN.(x) + (D-12)
H.Ol(X) - J.(x) - jN.(x)
called Hankel functions of the first and second kinds. Small-argument
 BESSEL FUNCI10NS 463

and large-argument fonnulas are obtained from those for J. and N.. In
particular, the large-argument formulas become

(D-Ia)

whicb place into evidence the wave character of the Hankel functions.
Derivative formulas and recurrence formulas can be obtained by differ-
entiation of Eqs. (0-2). Letting B.(x) denote an arbitrary solution to
Bessel's equation, we have

B;(x) = B_ 1 - ! B•
• (D-14)
8;(x) .... -8-+ 1 +! B•
•
which, in the special case v .., 0, become
B;(.) - -B,(.) (D-IS)
The difference of Eqs. (0-14) yields the recurrence formula
2(, - I)
B.(x) "'" 8._ 1 - B._ 2 (D-16)
•
which is useful for calculating 8 ..(x), n > I, from a knowledge of Bo(x)
and 8 1(x). The Wronskian of Bessel's equation is often encountered in
problem solving. This is

(D-17)

from which Wronskians for other pairs of solutions cnn be easily obtained.
When x = ju is imaginary, modi.fied Bessel functions of the first and
second kind can be defined M
I.(u) ~ j'J.(-ju)
(D-IS)
K.(u) - ; (-J)o+'H."'( -ju)

These are real functions for real u. General formulas for I. and K. can
be obtained from the' corresponding formulas for J. and H.(2). Figure
0-3 shows curves of the zero- and 6rst-order modified Bessel functions.
The large-argument formulas, obtained from Eqa. (D-11) and (D-12),

I.(u)~ _,_
e"
........ V 2'11"'U
(D-19)
K.(u) ~ /72 . -
--V2U
T
464 TUlE-BARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC PlELDS

, illustrate the evanescent character of the

modified Bessel functions. Derivative
/ fonnulas and recurrence formulas ca.n be
• 'I readily obtained {rom Eq., (D-i4) to
• .\-K. ,;/ " (D-t6),
Bessel functions of order n + J.i' are used
2
\'''' V /
in the solution of the Helmholtz equation
in spherical coordinates. In scalar-wave
I~ <:-
problems, it is conventional to define
o
• 2
• spherical Bessel functions as
Fro. 0-3. Modified Bessel
functions. (D-20)

The b. are given the Damc and letter as the corresponding B..+ H . (For
example, j .. is the spherical Bessel function oC the first kind, h,.ll) is the
spherical Hankel function of the second kind, etc.) In a-c electromag-
netic field problems, it is convenient to define the alternative spherical
Bessel functions

(O-2i)

where 8. is given the same name and symbol as the corresponding B-+ K .
The various fonnulas (or b. and B. can be obtained from the correspond-
ing formulas for B..+~. or particular interest is the fact that asymptotic
expansions for B..Hi become exact, giving

j .(x) _ C.(x) sin (x - n;) + D.(x) cos (x _ n;)

$ .(x) - D.(x) sin (x - n;) _ C.(x) co. (x _ n;) (D-22)

n.",(x) - j-·ID.(x) - jC.(x)]"·

n.,n(x) - j·ID.(x) + jC.(x)jr'·
:-s:..
C ( ) '\' (-i)o(n + 2m)!
where
• x - '-<
0-0
(2m) I(n 2m) !(2x)"
(D-23)

D.(x) -
'02:<'-' (-i)o(n +
2m i)!+
0-0
(2m + i) I(n 2m 1) 1(2:<)·.... •

Note tbat (D-24)

which is of interest in radiation problems.

 APPENDIX E

LEGENDRE FUNCTIONS

The associated Legendre equation is

Si~ O:O(siO O~~) + [V(V + I) - Si:: 0] y - 0 (E-I)

This can be put into another common (orm by using the substitution
u =- cosS (E-2)
in Eq. (E-l). The result is

(I - u.) d'y _ 2u dy + [.(V + 1) _ m' ] y _ 0 (E-3)

du' du 1 u'
When m =- 0, the associated Legendre equation reduces to the ordinary
Legendre equation
(I - u.) d'y _ 2u dy
du' du
+ 0(0 + I)y ~ 0 (E-4)

We shall first consider solutions to this special case and later generalize
to the associated Legendre equation.
In the spherical coordinate system, 0 s:
s ~ 1r; so we shall be interested
in solutions over the range -1 ~ u. S 1. Inparticu]ar,forI1- ul < 2,
the Legendre function of the first kind caD be expressed as
N

P ( ) _ " (-1)'(v
•u L. (m!)'(v
+ m)1 (I
m)!
-
2
u)'
,-0
•
_ si~.. ~
•
(m - 1-(m!)'
v)!(". + v)! (I -2 u)' (E-5)
.... +1
where N is the nearest integer N ~ v. As long as v is not an integer,
P.(u) and P.( -1£) are two independent solutions to Legendre's equation
[Eq. (E-4)]. If. - n is ao inuge" Eq. (E-5) becomes a liniu series
called the Legtndre polynomial of degree n. In t-his case,
P.(-u) - (-I)·P.(u)
... ~)
466 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAONE'l'IC FIELDS

and we no longer have two independent solutions. Another solution,

called the Legendre function of the second kind, is defined as

= !p,(U) cos", - P.(-U)

Q, (u ) 2 . (E-7)
sm '"
When v = n is an integer, the limit
Q.(u) ~ Hm Q.(u) (E-S)
~.

exists and defines a second solution to Legendre's equation.

The Legendre polynomials arc of particular interest, because these are
the only solutions finite over the entire range 0 ~ 0 ::s:; 'If. In this case,
only the first summa.tion in Eq. (E-5) remains, which caD be rearranged to
M

p u) -
.( - l:
moO
(-I)-(2n - 2m)!
2'm!(n m)!(n 2m)!
U ..- 2M (E-9)

where M = n/2 or (11. - 1)/2, whichever is an integer, An alternative,

and sometimes more convenient, expression for the Legendre polynomials
is given by Rodrigues' formula

I d'
P (u) - - - (u' - I)' (E-IO)
" 2"n! du"

Some of the lower-degree polynomials are

P,(u) - I P,(u) - u P,(u) - }<i(3u' - 1)
(E-II)
P,(u) ~ }<i(5u' - 3u) P,(u) - }<i(35u' - 30.' 3) +
or, in terms of 6,
Po(cos 8) - 1 Pl(COS 6) = cos 6
P,(cos 8) ~ ~(3 cos 28 I) + (E-12)
P,(cos 8) - )i(5 cos 38 + 3 cos 8)
P ,(cos 8) - )i4(35 cos 48 +
20 cos 28 + 9)
Figure E-1 shows curves of the Legendre polynomials plotted against 8.
The Legendre functions of the second kind for integral II "" n are infinite
at 8 - 0 and 8 = r, or at u - ± 1. They can be expressed as

Q.(u) - P.(u) [ }<i log ; ~~- ¢(n)]

•
+ \' (-I)-(n + m)! ¢(m) (I - u)- (E-13)
'-<
m_' (m!)'(n m)! 2
 LEGENDRE FUNCTIONS 467

~~
1.0

0.8
n-O 1/7
0.6
\\ ~ / 1/
0.4
.\ 2
1\ 'r-.
~\3\ j V \/ /
0.2

o
4
'\ 1\ /\ /
- 0.2
\ \I 1 \ 1\/
_/2
' -
i\ \ 1\V 11\ 1 \
- 0.4

- 0.6
"J '-... V \ \
- 0.8 1""-
~~
- 1.0
Fla. E-l. Legendre functions of the first kind, P.(cos 6).

where ~(m) is defined by Eq. (D-8). Some of the lower-order functions

are
l+u 1.£ l+u
Q.(u) - ~ log - - Q.(u) - -log - - - 1
1-1.£ 2 1-1.£
t (E-14)
Qt(u) = 3u - I log 1 + u _ 3u
4 1- u 2
or, in terms of 8,
9 9
Qo(C08 8) "'" log cot '2 Q1(C08 8) "" cos 8 log cot '2 - 1
(E-15)
9
Q,(cos 9) - ~(3 co,, 9 - I) log cot 2 - % cos 9

Figure B-2 shows curves of these functions plotted against 8.

Now consider the associated Legendre equation, Eq. (E-3). For
simplicity, we first take 111. to be an integer. If Eq. (E-4) is differentiated
111. times, there results

[ (I - u')..'!.. - 2u(m + 1).'£ + (n - m)(n + m + I)] d"'Y - 0

du' du du"
t
Letting w = (1 - U) ..l J d-y/du" in the above equation, we obtain Eq.
(E-3) with y replaced by w. Hence, solutions to the associated Legendre
equation are 1
I Smythe and others omit the factor (-1)- on the right-hand side of these definitioD.l.
468 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

P.-(u) _ (-1)-(1 _ u')-" d.%:~u)

(E-16)
Q.-(u) ~ (-1)-(1 - u')-" d.J:~U)
Note that aU p ..... (u) ... 0 for m > n. Some of the lower-ordcr associated
Legendre polynomials afC
P,'(u) - -(1 - u')~ P,'(u) - %(1 - u')~(1 - 5u')
P,'(u) - -3(1 - u')~ P,'(u) - 15(1 - u')u (E-17)
P,'(u) - 3(1 - u') P,'(u) - -15(1 - u')~
while the P"O(u) = p .. (u) are given by Eq. (E-ll). Some of the lowcr-
order associated Legendre functions of the second kind aTC

Q11= -(1-U2)~(HI0g~+:+1 u u')

Q,' _ -(1 _ u')~ (%U log 1 + u + 3u' - 2) (E-18)
1- u 1 - u'
Q2' _ (1 _ 'U
[u
')~ n Iog 11 + u
_ 'U
+ 5u -
(l _
3U']
u'p
while the Q.'(u) - Q.(u) are given by Eq. (E-14).
When m is not an integer, the situation becomes even more compli-
cated. A standard formula. for Legendre functions of the first kind,

2
\\
\\ ~n_O /
1 ......
'\ !'-1 r--. '/y N
i' I'---. V ...... t--.. V 1\' •
f"." \
-2

-3
1\
-4
-5
FIG. E-2. Legendre functioIl9 of the second kind, Q~(C08 f).
 LEGENDRE FUNCTIONS 469
valid for 11 - ul < 2, is then

•
sin"",
p"(u)---(w-I)I
'II"
-+-
'u-l
(u I)"" ( F u) (E-19)
-vv+ll-w--
"'·2
I-
where F is the hypergeometric function
"
(~- 1)1 '\' (a + m)!(~ + m)! _H
(E-20)
F(a,~,~,,) - 1+ (a I)!(P 1)1 L. m!(~ + m)! '
_-0
For real 11., the associa.ted Legendre function of the second kind is defined
as
Q "(u) _ ! p,"(u) cos (0 + w)~ - p,"( -u) (E-21)
, 2 sin (v + w)~
The solutions P ."'(11.) and P."'( -u) arc linearly independent, except when
u + w is an integer. In this latter case, the limit of Eq. (E-21) provides
a second solution.
Perhaps the simplest way to calculate the Legendre functions is through
the recurrcnce formulas. Letting L..... (u) denote an arbitrary solution to
the associated Legendre equation, we have
(m - n - I)L:., + (2n + l)uL,- - (m + n)L:-, ~ 0 (E-22)
A recurrence formula. in m also exists and is

L.. ",+1 + (1 2m:tp~ L",· + (m + n)(n - m + t)J..,,,,"'~1 "'" 0 (E-23)

for the range 111.1 < 1. Ma.ny formulas for derivatives also exist, some of
which arc
I
L.....'(u) = '1---''-u''2 I-nuL..... + (n + m)L:... 1]

I
- I u' (n + l)uL,- - (n - m + I)L:..]
(E-24)
= ~ L _ + (n + m)(n - m + I) L _.
1 - 11. 2 .. (1 - utpi ..
mu L"'- 1 L"'+t
1 ut '" (l u2»)4i"

If m = 0 in the last formula, we have

L,'(u) - -(I - u')>>L;(u) (E-25)
which is a useful special case.
Finally, some specializations of the argument will be of interest to us.
470 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

At 8 = 0, that is, at u = 1, the Qnm functions are infinite and

m = 0
(E-26)
m>O
At 8 = 1r/2, that is, at u = 0,

(_I)(n+m>l2 1 . 3 . 5 (n +m - 1)
n + meven
P nm(O) = 0 2 .4 .6 (n - m)
{
n + m odd
n + m even
Qnm(O) = {~_1)(n+m+ll/£2'14·6
.3.5
(n +m -
(n - m)
1)
n + m odd
(E-27)
Some specializations involving derivatives are

(E-28)
 BWLlOGRAPHY

A. Clauical Books
1. Abraha.m, A'I and R. Becker: "The Classical Theory of Electricity," Blackie
&; Son, Ltd., Glasgow, 1932.
2. Heaviside, 0.: "Electromagnetic Theory," Dover Publications, New York,
1950 (reprint).
3. Jeans, J.: "Electric and Magnetic Fields," Cambridge University Press,
London, 1933.
4. Maxwell, J. C.:" A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism," Dover Publica-
tions, New York, 1954 (reprint).
B. lnlrodudory Book8
1. Attwood, S.: "Electric and Magnetic Fields," 3d ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, 1949.
2. Booker, H. G.: uAn Approach to Electrical Science," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1959.
3. Harrington, R. F.: "Introduction to Electromagnetic Engineering," Me-
Graw.Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1958.
4. Hayt, W. H.: "Engineering Electromagnetics," McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New York, 1958.
5. Kraus, J. D.: "Electromagnetics," McGraw-Hili Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1953.
6. Neal, J. P.: "Electrical Engineering Fundamentals," McGraw-Hill Dook
Company, Inc., New York, 1960.
7. Page, L., and N. Adams: "Principles of Electricity," D. Van Nostrand Com-
pany, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1931.
8. Peck, E. R.: "Electricity and Magnetism," MeGraw~HilI Dook Company,
Inc., New York, 1953.
9. Rogers, W. E.: "Introduction to Electric Fields," McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New York, 1954.
10. Sears, F. W.: "Electricity and Magnetism," Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Reading, Mass., 1946.
11. Seely, S.: "Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1958.
12. Shedd, P. C.: "Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Waves," Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1955.
13. Skilling, H. H.: "Fundamentals of Electric Waves," 2d ed., John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1948.
14. Spence, D., and R. Galbraith: "Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering,"
The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1955.
15. Ware, L. A.: "Elements of Electromagnetic Waves," Pitman Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1949.
16. Weber, E.: "Electromagnetic Fields," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1950.
4"
472 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

C. lnUr'mtdiate and Advanced Boo~

1. Jordan, E.: "Electromagnetic Waves and Radia.ting Systems," Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood CliiTs, N.J., 1950.
2. King, R. W. P.: "Electromagnetic Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New York, 1953.
3. Mason, M., and W. Weaver: "The Electromagnetic Field," Univenity of
Chicago Press, Chicago, 1929.
4. Ramo, S., and J. R. Whinnery: "Fields and Waves in Modern Radio," 2d ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1953.
5. Scbelkunoff, S. A.: "Electromagnetic Waves," D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1943.
6. Smythe, W. R.: "Static and Dynamic Electricity," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
7. Strat.ton, J. A.: "Electromagnetic Theory," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1941.
D. Books on Special Topics
1. Aharoni, J.: HAntennae," Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1946.
2. Bronwell, A., and R. E. Beam: /fTheory and Application of Microwaves,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947.
3. Kraus, J. D.: "Antennas," McGraw-HiU Book Company, Inc., New York,
1950.
4. Lewin, L.: IIAdvanced Theory of Waveguides," Illiffc and Sons, London,
1951.
5. Marcuvitz, N.: "Waveguide Handbook'" MIT Radiation Laboratory Series,
vol. 10, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
6. Mentzer, J. ft.: "Scattering and Diffraction of Radio Waves," Pergamon
Press, New York, 1955.
7. Montgomery, C. G., R. H. Dicke, and E. M. Purcell (eds.): "Principles of
Microwave Circuits," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 8, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1948.
8. Moreno, T.: HMicrowave Transmission Design Data," Dover Publications,
New York, 1958 (reprint).
9. Reich, H. J. (ed.): "Very High Frequency Techniques," Radio Research
Laboratory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947.
10. Schclkunoff and Friis: l<Antennas, Theory and Practice," John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1952.
11. Silver, S.: uMicrowave Antenna Theory and Design," Radiation Laboratory
Series, vol. 12, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
12. Slater, J. C.: "Microwave Electronics," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
Princeton, N.J., 1950.
13. Watkins, D.: /fTopics in Electromagnetic Theory," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1958.
14. Wait, J. R.: fI Electromagnetic Radiation From Cylindrical Structures."
Pergamon Press, New York, 1959.
 INDEX

Boldface numbers in parenthcsC8 refer to problems

A-e phenomena, 1 Bessel functions, spherical, 265, 268,

Addition theorems, 232, 292 464
Admittance matrix, 119, 392 zeros of, 205, 270
Admittivity, 10,23-26 Bibliography, 471-472
Ampl!ro's law, 4 BiconicnJ cavity, 284-28.6
Antenna concepte, 81-85 BiconicnJ wa.veguide, 281-283, 313(13)
Antenna gain, 83 Bierens de Haan, D., 194
maximum, 307-311 Boundary conditions, 34, 55
Apertures, 11 Boundary-value problems, 103
admittance of, 173, 428-431 Bounds, upper and lower, 335
in cavities, 436--440 Brewster angle, 59
in conell, 306 Browo, G" 351
in plane conductors, 11, 138(17),
139(18, 19), I&H86, 366-371,
42S-431,444(21-23) Capacitivity, 5
in spheres, 301-303 a-e, 24
transmission through, 366-371 relative, 6
in waveguides, 174, 176 Capacitor, 13, 30
in wedges, 250-254 Carter, P. S., 349, 351
Associated Legendre functions, 265, Cavities (set Resonators)
468--470 Characteristic impedance, 62, 65
Attenuation constant, 48, 66, 73, 86 of waveguides, 69, 152, 154, 385
of biconical guides, 313(13) Characteristic values, 67, 144
of ciroular-gttides, 255(9) Chu, L, J" 278
of guides in general, 376(19), 441(6) Churchill, R. V., 231
intrinsic, 48 Circuit elements, 13, 29
of parallel~plate guides, 91(80) Circuit quantities, 3
of rectangular guides, 86, 189(') Circular cavity, 213-216
of tranamission lines, 90(24) plUtially filled, 258(23, Z')
with wedge, 259(26)
Circular polarization. 46, 88(8)
Babinet's principle, 365-367 Circular waveguides. 204-208, 389
Bailin, L. L' J 249, 303, 306 with bafBe, 208, 255(6, 8)
Belk, A. D., 346, 348 plUtially filled, 220, 257(20), 321, 331
Bessel functions, 199-203, 4~64 Circulating waves, 208. 256(10)
modified, 201, 463 Circulator. 26
473
474 TIUE-BARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Closed contour, 2 Corrugated conductor, 170, 193(26)

Closed surface, 2 circular, 223
Coated conductor, 168,219 radial,219
Coaxial line, 65 Critical angle, 60
junction, with cavity, 434-436, Crowley, T., 430
445(24-27) Current, 1, 7,.27, 34
with waveguide, 179, 195(~, 34), in cavities, 431-434
425-428, 444(20) conduction, 6, 27
opening onto plane conductor, III near cones, 303, 316(30)
spherical, 281 near cylinders, 262(39-41)
waveguide modes of, 254(5) displacement, 7, 27
Cohen, M. H" 362, 364, 430 elements, 78-81, 287
Cohn, S. B., 328 filament (set Filament of current)
Complementary antennas, 380(43) near half-plane, 263(42, 43)
Complementary solutions, 131 impressed, 7, 27
Complementary structures, 136(7), 365- loops, 93(41,42), 100, 315(28)
Complex quantities, 13 near planes, 103, 136(12-14)
constitutive relationships, 18 reactive, 27, 28
pcrmittivities, 18, 451-455 ribbon of, 188, 260(31)
power, 19-23 sheets, 34
Poynting vector, 20 source, 95, 118
Concentric spheres, 321(6, 6) near spheres, 298, 315(26, 27),
Conducting cone, 279 316(29)
spera-tures in, 306 surface, 33
current element on, 316(30) in waveguides, 97, 106,134(1-4),
88 waveguide, 279-281 177-179,194(31,32),425-428,
Conducting cylinder, 232-238 440(2)
and current elements, 262(39-43) near wedges, 263(")
Conducting sphere, 292-297 Cutler, C. C., 171
apertures in, 301-303 Cutoff frequency, 68, 150, 166, 169,
and current element, 298-301, 206,384
315(26) Cutoff wavelength, 68, 150, 206, 384
and current loop, 316(29) Cylinder of currents, 227, 260(30)
with dielectric coating, 315(26) Cylindrical coordinates, 198, 447
Conduction current, 6, 27 Cylindrical waveguides, 381-391
Conductivity, 6 Cylindrical waves, 85
complex, 18
Conductors, 6
perfect, 34 Degenerate modes, 48, 150, 390
Conical cavity, 284, 314(18) Delta function, 179, 459
Conical waveguide, 279-281 Depth of penetration, 53
Conjugate problems, 64 Diamagnetism, 6
Conservation, of charge, 2, 4 Diaphragms, 414-420, 442(13-16)
of complex power, 21 Dicke, R. H., 392, 400
of energy, 10, 11 Dielectric, 6, 24, 451-455
Constitutive relationships,S Dielectric cylinders, 220, 261 (34, 36)
complex, 18 DieJeetric loss angle, 24
 INDEX 475
Dielectric obstacles, 362-365 Equivalent circuit, of obstacles in
Dielectric rod guide, 221, 257(21) waveguides, 402
Dielectric slab guide, 163-168, 192(22), of resonant cavities, 435, 437
219 of spherical w&ves, 279
Dielectric spheres, 297 of transmission lines, 62
Differential scattering, 360 of waveguides, 386
Dipole, 78 Erdclyi, A., 245
antenna, 81-85 Ether, 26
in conducting wedge, 105 Euler's identity, 15
ncar ground plane, 104 Evanescent field, 50, 147
magnetic, 259(26, 27) Evanescent mode, 68
two-dimensional, 225
Directional coupler, 135(3)
Displacement current, 7, 27 Faraday's law, 4
Dissipated power, 11 Ferromagnctism, 6, 25
Dissipative current, 27 Feshbach, H., 337, 432
Dominant mode, 69, 75 Field coordinates, 80
Dominant-mode source, 402 Field quantities, 3
Duality, 98--100 Filament of current, 34, 81, 223, 243
near cylinder, 236-238
near haU·plane, 241-242
Echo, 355, 363 near wedges, 238--242
Echo area, 116, 128, 357 Foster's reactance theorem, 396
Echo width, 358, 359, 364 Fourier series, 456-458
Effective value, 15 Fourier transforms, 145, 180, 458-459
Eigeniunctions, 144,384 Fourier·Legendre series, 275
Eigenvalues, 67, 144, 383 Frank, N. H., 163
Electric quantities, charge, 1, 3 Free space, 5
current, 3, 7, 15,27 Fundamental units, 1
dipole, 78
flux, 1, 3
intensity, I, 15 Gain, 83
scalar potential, 77 antenna, maximum, 307-311
vector potential, 99, 129 normal,309
Elementary wave functions, 144, 200, of dipole near ground plane, 104,
266 137(12-14)
Elliptical polarization, 46 of dipoles, 84
Emde, F., 272 supergain, 309
Energy, 9, 10, 21, 23 Gauss' law, 4
conservation of, 10, 11 Good dielectric, 24
velocity of, 42 Goubau, G., 223
Equation of continuity, 2 Gray, M. C., 222
Equiphase surfaces, 39, 85 Grecn's functions, 120-123
Equivalence principle, 106-110 tensor, 123-125
Equivalent circuit, 62 Greeo's identities, 120
of coax-to-waveguide feeds, 425 modified vector analogue, 141(28)
of microwave networks, 401 in two dimensions, 389
476 TIME-HARM,ONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Green's identities, vector analogue, 121 Instantaneous quantity, 15

Guide phase velocity, 68, 385 Inaulatof'li, 6
Guide wavelength, 68, 384 Integral equations, 125-128, 317
Intrinsic parameters, 39, 40, 48, 87
Isolator, 26
Hall effect, 35(2) Isotropic matter, 37
Hankel functions, 199-203, 462
spherical, 266, 464
Harmonic functions, 144, 199 Jahnke, E., 272
Harrington, R. F., 34, 128,309 Junctions, coax-to-eavity, 434-436,
Helmholtz equation, 38 445(24-27)
in cylindrical coordinates, 198 coax·to-waveguide, 179, 195(33,34),
in rectangular coordinates, 77 425-428, 444(20)
in spherical coordinates, 264 waveguide-.to-eavity, 436-440
Helmholtz identity, 450 waveguidc-to-waveguide, 172-177,
Hemispherical cavity, 284 193(27-29), 42lH25, 443(17,18)
Hildebrand, F. B., 332
HOgflD, C. L,t 26
Homogeneous matter, 37 King, R., 351
Hu, Y. Y., 352, 354, 358 Kirchhoff's laws, 4, 12
Hybrid modes, 154, 158

Legendre functions, 265, 465--470

1m operator, 15 associated, 265, 468-470
Impedance, of apertures, 428--431 LePage, W. R., 386
characteristic, 62, 65, 69, 152, 154, Levine, H., 113
385 Levis, C. A., 430
of circuit elements, 29 Linear antenna, 81-85, 94(0U--46), 349-
of current loop, 93(42) 355
input, 84 Linear matter, 6, 18
intrinsic, 39, 48, 87 Linear polarization, 39, 45
of linear antenna., 82, 94(44-46), 352 Loop of current, 93(41, 42),100
matrix, 119, 392, 398 in cavity, 445(24), 446(27-29)
surface, 53, 371(2), 375(18) near conducting cone, 303-306
wave, 39, 55, 69, 86, 152 near conducting sphere, 315(28, 29)
Impedivity, 19, 23-25 Loosely bound wave, 170
Impressed current, 7, 27 Lorentz reciprocity tbeorem, 111
Impulse function, 179, 459 Loss angle, of capacitor, 30
Incident field, 113 of dielectric, 24
Index of refraction, 58 of inductor, 32
Induced emf metbod, 349 magnetic, 25
Induction field, 79 Lossy dielectric, 24
Induction theorem, 113-115
Inductivity, 5, 6, 25
Inductor, 13, 31 Maeroscopic standpoint, 1
Input impedance, 84 Magnetic quantities, conductor, 34
Instantaneous phase, 85 current, 7, 27
 INDEX 477
Magnetic quantities, dipole, 100 Oliner, A. A., 413
flux, I, 3 Orthogonality, 273, 390, 432
intensity, I, 15
1068 angle, 25
vector potential, 77, 129 Papas, C. H., 113
Magnetomotive foree, 3 Parallel·plate waveguide, 90(28),
Magnitude, 85 189(6, 7), 440(1)
Marcuvits, N., 381, 389, 410, 411, 418, and coaxial feed, 378(36-37)
420,424 opening onto ground plane, 181-186
Matrix impedance, 119 p.,ti.lIy filled, 190(12, 13), 257(18)
Maxwell's equations, 2, 18 md;ally, 209, 256(13)
Mentzer, J. R., 122,306 Paramagnetism, 6
Microwave networks, 39l-402 Parseval's theorem, 182, 458
Mksc unit8, 1 Partfally filled cavities, circular,
Modal expansions, 171-177,389-391 258(23, 2')
in cavitics, 431-434 perturbational formulas for, 321-326,
Mode, 63, 68, 69, 75 371-373
Mode current, 72, 383 rectangular, 191(16-18), 325
~{odefunction,383 spherical, 313(7, 8), 326
Mode patterns, 70 variational formulas (or, 331--345,
for circular cavity, 215 376-377
for circular guide, 2fYl Partially 6lIed waveguides, circular,
for coated conductor, 169 220,257(20),321,331
for free space, 277 perturbational formulas for, 326-331,
in general, 387 374-375
for rectangular cavity, 75, 157 rectangular, 158-163, 191(1~16),
for rectangular guide, 70, 151, 155 345,348
for slab waveguide, 168 variational formulas for, 345-348,
for spherical, cavity, 272 377-378
Mode voltage, 72, 383 Particular solution, 131
Modified Bessel functioJ1!, 201, 463 Pattern, mode, 70
Monopole antenna, 138(15) radiation field, 83
Montgomery, C. G., 392, 400 receiving, 119
Morse, P. M., 337, 371, 432 stl1nding.wave, 44
Multipoles, cylindrical, 226, 259(29) Perfect conductor, 34
spherical, 28&-289, 314(19) Perfect dielectric, 24
Permeability, 5, 6, 18
Permittivity, 5, 18
Neumann's number, 172 Perturbational methoda, 73, 76, 317-
Nonpropagating mode, 68 331, 371-377
Normal gain, 309 Phase, 85
Normalization, 383, 432 Phase constant, 48, 85
Notation, 16 Phase velocity, 39, 40, 68, 86, 385
Phasor, 15
Physical optics method, 127
Obstacles in waveguides, 402-418 Pincherle, L., 158
Ohm's law, 13 Plano waves, 39, 85, 143, 145-148
~78 TIME-HARMONIC ELEcrROMAONETIC FIELDS

Polarization. of matter. 27 Rayleigh-Ritz procedure, 339

of waves, 39, 45, 88(8) Re operator, IS, 16
Polarizing angle, 59 Reaction, 118, 340
Porta, 391 Rcacti ve currcn4 27, 28
Posts in waveguides, 406-411, 442(1~) Reactive power, 22
Potentials, 77, 99, 129 Realiz.ability conditions, 4()()
Power, 9, 19,22 Receiving pattern, 119
Poynting vector, 10, 20 Reciprocity, 116-120
Probes, in cavities, 434-436, 446(26) (or antennas, 120
in waveguides, 178, 425-428 for circuits, 119
Propagating mode, 68 for microwave networks, 392
Propagation constant, 62, 68, 86, 384 Rectangular cavity, 74-76, 155-157
stationary formulas for, 346-348, partially filled, 191(16-18),325,373
378(32) Rectangular waveguide, 66--74, 148-
Purcell, E. M., 202, 400 155,387
partially filled, 158-163, 191(14-16),
192(19), 348, 374
Q (au Quality factor) Reference conventions, 3
Quadrupole, cylindrical, 226, 259(28) Re8ection of waves, 54-61
8pherical, 288, 314(20) Reflection coefficient, 55, 421
Quality factor, of biconical cavity, 285 Resonance, 74
of cavities in general, 372(3, " 6, 7) Resonant antennas, 94(4.6, 4.6)
of circular cavit.y, 216, 257(16) Resonant slots, 444(21), 445(23)
dielectric, 28 Resonaklrs, circular cavity, 213-216
of hemispherical cavity, 285 concentric sphercs, 284
of loss-free antenna, 309 one-dimcnsional, 44
magnetic, 29 rectangular cavity, 74, 155
minimum antenna Q, 310, 316(31) sources in, 431434
of rectangular cavity, 76, 190(10) spherical cavity, 269-272
of spherical cavity, 272, 312(4) spherical secklr, 284
of spherical waves, 279 Ribbon of current, 188, 260(31)
Quasi-stntic, definitions, 79, 298, 419, Ridge waveguide, 327, 374(12)
420 Rightrhand rule, 2
Ritz procedure, 338, 344
Rodrigucs' formula, 466
Radar cross section, 116 Rubenstein, P. J., 371
Radar echo, 115, 355 Rumsey, V. H., 118, 340, 365
Radial waveguides, 208-213, 216--219,
279-283
~ation, 77-81, 242-245 Saddle point, 335
two-dimensional, 228-230 Saunders, W. K., 245
Radiation condoctance, 112 Scattered field, 113
Radiation field, 79, 81, 132-134 reciprocity for, 141(24.)
R&diation resistance, 82, 93(42, 44), Scattering, by conducting plate, 115,
94(46) 128, 140(20,21)
Ramo, S., 309 by conducklrs, 355-361
Rayleigh scattering, 295 by cylinders, 232-236, 261 (34., 36), 364
 INDEX 479
Scattering, by dielectrics, 362-365 Stationary formulaa, 317, 34.1
differential, 360 for aperture admitlance, 428-431
by haIr-planes, 241-242, 261(37, for cavities, 331-345
88) for cavity feeds, 434-440
by magnetic obstacles, 380(22) for impedance, 348--355
by ribbons, 350, 378(88) for obstacles in waveguides, 402-406
by spheres, 292-298 for scattering, 355-365
stationary formulas for, 355-365 for transmission, 365--371
by wedges, 238-242 for waveguide feeds, 425-428
by wires, 357, 379(39-41) for waveguide junctions, 420-425
Scattering matrix, 399 for waveguides, 345-348
SehelkunofI, S. A., 222, 268, 286 Storer, J. E., 354
Schwa.rtz, L., 459 Stratton, J. A., 121, 324
Secondary units, 1 Supcrgnin antennas, 309
Secklral horn, 213 Surface of constant phase, 85
8«>ly, S., 386 Surface currents, 33
Segmental cavity, 284 Surface guided waves, 168-171,219
Seidel, H., 222 Surface impedance, 53,371(2),375(18)
SeIr·reaction, liS
Separation of variables, 143, 198, 264,
381 Tai, C. T., 358
Silver, S., 245, 303, 306 TE, TM, TEM, 63, 67, 130, 202, 267,
Simple matter, 6, 18 382
Singular 6eld, 32 Tector, R. J., 430
Skin depth, 53 Teichmann, T., 434
Slot in ground plane, 138(17, 18), 181- Tensor Green's functions, 123-125,356
186,261(32),370,430,444(21,22), Tesseral harmonics, 273
445(23) Tightly bound wave, 170
Slotted cone, 306 Total reflection, 59
Slotted cylinder, 238 Transmission, 360
Slotted sphere, 302 Transmission area, 368
Smythe, W. R., 324, 419, 420, 467 Transmission coefficient, 55, 368
Sneddon, 1. N., 252 Transmission lincs, 61-66
Snell's l3W, 58 biconical, 284-286, 313(13)
Source coordinatcs, 80 equivalent, 386
Source-free regions, 37 modC8,63
Sources, 7, 12,19,95,96 parallel·plate, 90(28), 01 (31),
Spherical Bessel functions, 265, 268, 189(6, 7), 440(1)
464 radial, 211
Spherical cavity, 269-273 twin-slot, 135(7)
partiaUy-611ed, 313(7, 8), 326 wedge, 212
Spherical coordinates, 265, 447 Transmission matrix, 399
Spherical waves, 79, 85, 276, 286-289 Transverse 6eld vector, 382
Standing wave, 42-47, 69 Transvcrse fields, 63, 67. 130, 202
Standing-wave pattcrn, 44 Traveling waves, 39
Standing·wave ratio, 45, 55 Trial field, 332
Static mode, 338 Twin-51ot line, 135(,>
480 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Uniform plane wave, 39, 147 Waveguide junctions, 172-177, 193

Uniform waves, 85 (27-29), 420-425, 443(17, 18)
Uniqueness, 100-103 Waveguides, 66
Units, 1 biconical, 284-286, 313(13)
circular (see Circular waveguides)
Van Valkenburg, M. E., 397, 400, 435 corrugsted conduclor, 170, 193(25)
Variation, 332 corrugated wire, 223
Variational methods, 317, 331-380 dielectric slab, 163, 192(22)
Vector analysis, 447-450 in general, 381-391
Vector Green's theorems, 121, 141(28) psrallel-plate (see Parallel-plate
Veclor potential, 77, 99 waveguide)
Velocity, of energy, 42 posts in, 406-411, 442(12)
of light, 5 probes in, 178, 425-428, 446(26)
of phase, 39, 40, 88, 86, 385 radial, 208, 279
Voltage, 3, 15 partially filled, 216
Voltage source, 96, 118 rectangular (see Rectangular wave-
Von Hipple, A" 23 guide)
Wavelength, 40
Wait, J. R., 240, 242 cutoff, 88, 150,206,384
Wall impedance, 371(2, 3), 375(18) guide, 68, 384
Wave equation, 37 intrinsic, 40
for inhomogeneous matter, 88(2) Waves, in dielectrics, 41-48
Wave functions, 85 in general, 85-87
cylindrical, 199-204 in lossy matter, 51-54
plane, 143-145 Wedge cavity, 284
spherical, 264-269 waveguide, 208, 255(7), 256(14)
Wave impeda.nce, 39, 55, 86 Whinnery, J. R, 309
characteristic, 69, 152 Wigner, E, P" 434
Wave number, 37 Windows, 414
Wave potentials, 77, 129
Wave transformations, 230-232, 289-
292 Zeros, or Bessel functions, 205
Waveguide feeds, 179, 195(33,34),425- or spherical Bessel functions, 270
428, 444(20) Zonal harmonics, 273