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Module 13: Nervous System Organization

This module introduces the organization of the nervous system, as well as nervous tissues, and neurophysiology.

Introduction & Learning Outcomes

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Module 13: Nervous System Organization & Tissue

Introduction

Have you ever wondered how all the trillions of cells in your body communicate with one another so that they can all work
together to do everything from breathing to laughing to living? The nervous system is the brains of the body, literally. It sends out
commands through long, thin cells called neurons. Like electricity through wires in our homes, electrical impulses spark through
neurons to muscles and glands and cause them to contract or secrete. In this module we will introduce the nervous system, its
organization, and nervous tissues. We will also look at neurophysiology – how neurons conduct electrical impulses, followed by
some different types of synapses, and functional differences of neurons. As usual, be sure to download the module’s study guide
(located under “Assignments”) and answer the questions as you read through the material. When you finish reading the module
and answering the study guide questions, take the online quiz to assess your understanding of the material. Let’s generate a little
electricity studying the nervous system!

Student Learning Outcomes

When you finish this module, you should be able to:

- Explain the overall organization of the nervous system.

- List the types of cells that compose nervous tissue, and describe their structures and functions.
- Describe the structure of a neuron, and explain the sequence of molecular events involved in a nerve impulse (action potential).
- Describe the structure of a synapse, and explain the sequence of molecular events involved in synaptic transmission.
- Name the two main types of synapses, their neurotransmitters, and the enzymes that degrade the neurotransmitters.
- Describe the five functional differences among neurons.
- Define a reflex arc, and list the components involved in a reflex arc.

Introduction to the Nervous System

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Introduction to the Nervous System

Two body systems are primarily responsible for controlling most body functions and maintaining bodily homeostasis – the nervous
and endocrine systems. These two systems work together so closely that they are often called the neuroendocrine system. The
nervous system reacts via rapid nerve impulses, and has three main functions: sensory input, integration, and motor output.
Sensory input occurs as sense receptors on or near the body’s surface respond to stimuli and send nerve impulses to the central
nervous system (CNS). Integration takes place as the CNS receives, processes, and interprets the sensory input, then decides
what to do about it. Motor output is the response as the CNS sends nerve impulses out to effector organs, such as muscles and
glands, in response to the sensory input. As an example, let’s say you see a glass of water on the table. Your eyes send that
message to your brain. Your brain would process the incoming information, maybe thinking “I am thirsty,” and send a response
down your spinal cord and out to the muscles of your arm, causing them to contract to lift the glass of water to your mouth. The
nervous system functions are illustrated in the diagram below.
The endocrine system reacts more slowly than the nervous system by secreting chemical messengers called hormones into the
bloodstream. Hormones travel to their target organs in the body and cause a response in those organs. The nervous system can
stimulate glands to secrete hormones, and some endocrine hormones can induce a nervous system response. Neurology is the
study of nervous system functions and disorders.
Organization of the Nervous System

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Organization of the Nervous System

The two main divisions of the nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Most nerve impulses that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the CNS, which consists of the brain and
spinal cord. The PNS lies outside the CNS, and is composed of cranial nerves and spinal nerves. Cranial nerves carry messages
to and from the brain, whereas spinal nerves carry signals to and from the spinal cord. The diagram below shows the
components of the CNS and PNS.
Cranial and spinal nerves contain both sensory and motor neurons. Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit nerve impulses from the
PNS to the CNS, and have their cell bodies near the CNS. Conversely, motor (efferent) neurons have their cell bodies in the
CNS, and relay nerve impulses from the CNS to muscles and glands. The diagram below illustrates some types of sensory and
motor neurons.

The PNS can be subdivided into two functional divisions – the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems. We can voluntarily
control the somatic nervous system (SNS). The SNS consists of both sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons conduct
impulses from the skin and internal sense receptors to the CNS. Motor neurons of the SNS conduct impulses from the CNS to
skeletal muscles, causing them to contract.

The autonomic nervous system (ANS), on the other hand, is composed of motor neurons that transmit nerve impulses to smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands, resulting in muscle contraction or glandular secretion. You might think of the autonomic NS
as the “automatic” NS, because it is involuntary – we don’t control it, responses occur automatically. The ANS can be further
subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Think of the sympathetic NS as the “fight or flight” division. It
springs into action when we are faced with a dangerous or threatening situation, like an Anatomy exam, and prepares our bodies
to either fight it off, or run from it. The parasympathetic NS, on the other hand, is often called the “rest and digest” division of
the ANS. This division is the one in control most of the time, maintaining normal functions of our circulatory system, as well as
our urinary, respiratory, and digestive tracts when we are relaxed. The overall organization of the nervous system is illustrated in
the flow chart below.
Nervous Histology: Neuroglia

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Nervous System Histology: Neuroglia

Two major types of cells are found in the nervous system – neurons and neuroglial cells. Neuroglia (glia) are small cells that make
up about 50% of the CNS. Neuroglia serve to support, nourish, and protect the larger neurons. Occasionally glial cells begin to
divide rapidly in the brain, and glioma brain tumors are formed. Four main types of glial cells are seen in the CNS, including
astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes.

Astrocytes are star-shaped cells with many processes extending from their cell bodies. These cells have several functions in the
CNS. First, astrocytes wrap their processes around capillaries and neuronal processes to form a structural support between the
capillaries and neurons. Second, astrocytes take up and release ions around neurons. Later on, we’ll see that ions are very
important in nerve impulse transmission. Third, astrocytes help to establish the blood-brain barrier, which prevents toxic
substances from entering the brain.

Microglia are small, phagocytic cells that originate from special white blood cells called monocytes. These protective cells are
poised to attack and engulf any foreign substance that might try to enter the CNS. Think of microglia as the guardians of the CNS.

Ependymal cells are ciliated epithelial cells associated with capillaries that line brain ventricles and the spinal cord central canal.
Their main function is to produce and help circulate the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that circulates in and around the brain and spinal
cord. Recent research has revealed that ependymal cells may also be a source of neuron stem cells in the brain. This is an exciting
prospect because it used to be thought that once we became adults, our neurons gradually died and were not replaced.

Oligodendrocytes are the most common type of glial cell in the CNS. They resemble astrocytes, but have fewer and shorter
processes. Oligodendrocytes are important in early development, because they guide the formation of neurons in the CNS. They
also produce a vital substance in the CNS – the myelin sheath around neuron axons. Myelin is composed of lipids and proteins,
and forms a fatty covering around CNS neuron axons, which insulates the axons, increasing speed of nerve impulse conduction. In
the disease multiple sclerosis, the body’s own immune system attacks the myelin sheath and causes a progressive deterioration of
the myelin, which disrupts nerve function. The diagram below shows the neuroglial cells in the CNS.
 In addition to the neuroglia in the CNS, a couple other types of glial cells are found in the PNS – Schwann cells and satellite cells.
Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) are flattened cells arranged in series like little hot dog buns around neuron axons or dendrites.
Just as oligodendrocytes produce the myelin sheath around CNS neuron axons, Schwann cells have the same function in the PNS.
Early in neuron development, Schwann cells begin wrapping themselves tightly around and around neuron axons. As a result, most
of the Schwann cell’s cytoplasm and the nucleus ends up in the outermost layer of the cell – a region called the neurilemma.
Between the Schwann cells around the axon are tiny gaps called the nodes of Ranvier (neurofibral nodes). The neuron axon in
these regions is highly permeable to sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions, which allows very rapid conduction of nerve impulses,
called salutatory (leaping) conduction. The diagram below illustrates how a Schwann cell forms the myelin sheath around a neuron
axon.

Schwann cells can also do something that oligodendrocytes cannot – they can repair damaged neuron axons. If an axon is severed,
the Schwann cell wrapped around it guides the two severed ends back together again, and nerve function is restored. This is how a
severed finger can be reattached and the finger will work again after it heals. Unfortunately, oligodendrocytes cannot repair
damaged neuron axons in the CNS, which is why someone with an injured spinal cord becomes a paraplegic or quadriplegic. If
researchers could discover how to stimulate oligodendrocytes to work like Schwann cells, spinal cord injuries could be repaired!

Satellite cells are another type of glial cell in the PNS. These cells support neurons in ganglia, which are groups of neuron cell
bodies in the PNS.
Nervous Histology: Neurons

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Nervous System Histology: Neurons

Aside from neuroglial cells, the other major cell type in the nervous system is a neuron. Neurons are nerve cells that can conduct
nerve impulses at up to 280 mph. Lengths of neurons range from 1 mm to longest cells in body (about 3 m, from hip to toes).
Neurons are long lived, have a high metabolic rate, and do not divide to form new neurons when mature. Before we describe the
structure of a neuron, we need to define a few terms related to neurons.

A nerve fiber is a neuron axon, whereas a nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers in the PNS. Most nerves include both sensory and
motor fibers, and are encapsulated in layers of dense fibrous connective tissue. These layers of CT are similar to those we saw in
muscle tissue. Rather than endomysium, nerve fibers are wrapped in a layer of endoneurium, which insulates the nerve fibers
from each other. A bundle of nerve fibers (fascicle) within a nerve is surrounded by a layer of perineurium, similar to the
perimysium around a muscle fascicle. Finally, the epineurium surrounds the entire nerve and contains blood vessels and adipose
cells that protect and insulate the nerve.

A ganglion (pl. ganglia) is a group of neuron cell bodies in the PNS, whereas a nucleus (pl. nuclei) is a collection of neuron cell
bodies in the CNS. Just as a nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers in the PNS, a tract is a bundle of myelinated nerve fibers in the
CNS. Tracts interconnect brain regions with each other, as well as regions in the brain with the spinal cord.

The central nervous system consists of two types of tissue – white matter and gray matter. Gray matter contains neuron cell
bodies, dendrites, and axon terminals or bundles of unmyelinated axons and neuroglia. Gray matter covers the brain (hence the
term “gray matter” pertaining to the brain) and forms H-shaped inner core of the spinal cord. White matter is a collection of
myelinated neuron processes (i.e., tracts), and is found within the brain and around the H-shaped inner core of the spinal cord. The
diagram below illustrates where many of these nervous system components are found.

Neurons are composed of three main regions – a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The central cell body (soma or perikaryon)
contains most of the organelles, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, lysosomes, mitochondria, and golgi bodies. In addition, a couple
of specialized organelles are seen. Nissl bodies are the neuronal rough endoplasmic reticulum involved in protein synthesis.
Neurofibrils are intermediate filaments that act as “railroad tracks” for the movement of materials within the neuron.

Dendrites are tree-like branches that extend outward from the neuron cell body. These branches receive incoming nerve impulses
from sensory receptors or other neurons and transmit them to the cell body.

An axon is a single, long process extending from cell body that conducts the nerve impulse from the neuron cell body to the
dendrites or cell body of another neuron, or to an effector (muscle or gland). The initial cone-shaped part of the axon, where it
exits the cell body, is called the axon hillock. It is also referred to as the “trigger zone” because it is the region where an action
potential is generated, as we’ll see in a moment. Some axons have branches called axon collaterals. At the ends of the axon
collaterals and axons are the axon terminals, which contain synaptic vesicles inside which are neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that influence other neuron, muscle, or gland activities. Identify the neuron structures
mentioned on the diagram below.
Neurophysiology: Action Potential

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Neurophysiology

Let’s begin with an overview of neuron function before we get into the details. First, neurons are irritable, meaning they are
responsive to stimuli. When stimulated sufficiently, a neuron sends an electrical impulse, called an action potential, down its axon
to the axon terminal. An action potential involves the exchange of Na+ and K+ ions across the neuron’s plasma membrane via ion
channels, sometimes called “gates.” After the action potential ends, the original Na+ and K+ balance is restored by the
sodium/potassium pump, an active transport process.

Now let’s look at the sequence of events in the generation of an action potential in more detail. A resting (unstimulated) neuron is
polarized, meaning it has more Na+ ions outside the neuron and more negative ions (mostly negatively charged proteins) inside the
neuron. This creates a difference in charge (more positive outside and more negative inside), called the resting membrane
potential (RMP), on both sides of the cell membrane. The average RMP is about -70 millivolts (-70 mV). The diagram below
shows how the membrane potential is measured in a neuron.

When the neuron is stimulated to the threshold voltage of about -55 mV, the axon becomes depolarized (to about +30 mV) as
sodium channels in the axon hillock open to allow Na+ ions to move into the neuron. An action potential is then generated along
the entire length of the axon as Na+ channels open up sequentially along the entire length of the axon, allowing Na+ to flood into
the axon.

After depolarization, repolarization occurs as Na+ channels close and K+ channels open. Potassium (K+) is in higher
concentration inside the neuron than outside. So when K+ channels open, K+ diffuses out of the axon, causing the membrane
voltage to become more negative again. The K+ channels generally stay open long enough for the membrane potential to go a bit
below the original RMP, which is called hyperpolarization. Now there is more K+ outside the neuron and more Na+ inside the
neuron. How can the original ion concentrations be restored? The sodium/potassium pump in the cell membrane moves K+ back
into the neuron and Na+ out, restoring the resting membrane potential. The diagram below illustrates the phases of an action
potential.

Keep in mind that an action potential is all or none. If a neuron receives a strong enough stimulus to reach the threshold voltage,
it will generate an action potential. If the incoming stimulus does not reach threshold, no action potential occurs.

Neurophysiology: Synaptic Transmission

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Neurophysiology: Synaptic Transmission

So what happens when the action potential reaches the axon terminal? The electrical impulse stimulates the release of a chemical
message, called a neurotransmitter, that crosses a synapse. A synapse is the junction between an axon terminal and an effector,
such as another neuron, muscle, or gland. The diagram below illustrates the structure of a synapse.
For this illustration, we will use two neurons. The neuron on the sending side of the synapse is called the presynaptic neuron.
The neuron on the receiving side of the synapse is the postsynaptic neuron. The sequence of events that occur in synaptic
transmission is as follows. When the action potential reaches the presynaptic neuron’s axon terminal, it triggers the opening of
calcium (Ca2+) channels in the cell membrane. The influx of Ca2+ into the axon terminal causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with
the plasma membrane. Synaptic vesicles then release their neurotransmitters via exocytosis into the synaptic cleft. The
neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic neuron’s plasma membrane. At this
point, an action potential is either stimulated or inhibited in the postsynaptic neuron, depending on the type of neurotransmitter
present. The steps in synaptic transmission are shown below.

Stimulatory neurotransmitters stimulate an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. Think of these as “on” switches for
neuron transmission. Glutamate is the main stimulatory neurotransmitter in CNS neurons. Inhibitory neurotransmitters prevent
the generation of an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. Think of these as “off” switches for neuron transmission. GABA
(gamma aminobutyric acid) is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS neurons.

Once a postsynaptic neuron is stimulated to produce an action potential, how is the stimulation ended? The neurotransmitter must
be removed from the synapse. This is accomplished in a couple of different ways. Enzymes can degrade the neurotransmitter in
the synaptic cleft. We saw an example of this in skeletal muscle transmission, where the neurotransmitter ACh was degraded by
AChE. Some neurotransmitters are taken back up into the axon terminal via endocytosis. Norephinephrine (NE) is an example
of a neurotransmitter that is endocytosed when its work is done.

Types of Synapses
Two major types of synapses are cholinergic and adrenergic synapses. Cholinergic synapses release acetylcholine (ACh). Recall
that ACh is an excitatory neurotransmitter in skeletal muscle and neurons – it propagates action potentials. Acetylcholinesterase
(AChE) is the enzyme that breaks down ACh and ends the stimulation. Adrenergic synapses release monoamines, such as
norepinephrine (NE), a neurotransmitter similar to epinephrine, also known as adrenaline. Epinephrine and NE are excitatory in
cardiac muscle, but may be excitatory or inhibitory in smooth muscles and glands, depending on the type of receptor in the organs.
Norepinephrine is degraded by another enzyme called monoamine oxidase (MAO).

Neuron Functional Differences

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Functional Differences of Neurons

Earlier in this module we talked about the difference between sensory and motor neurons. Recall that sensory neurons transmit
impulses from the PNS to the CNS. Two functionally different sensory neurons are the somatic and visceral sensory neurons.
Somatic sensory neurons in skin, muscles, joints, eyes, and ears, transmit impulses for pain, pressure, touch, temp., sight, and
hearing via spinal nerves and cranial nerves. Visceral sensory neurons in internal organs, blood vessels, tongue and nose transmit
impulses for chemical conditions (e.g., taste and smell) and organ distension (e.g., stomach expansion) via spinal and cranial
nerves.

Motor neurons transmit impulses from the CNS to the PNS. Two functionally different motor neurons are somatic and autonomic
motor neurons. Somatic motor neurons transmit impulses via spinal and cranial nerves to skeletal muscles, causing them to
contract. Autonomic motor neurons relay impulses via cranial and spinal nerves to smooth and cardiac muscles, as well as
glands. The diagram below illustrates the functional differences in the neurons.

Association neurons (interneurons) are neither sensory nor motor neurons. Interneurons are found exclusively in the CNS, and
actually comprise about 90% of CNS neurons. They function primarily to relay nerve impulses from one neuron to another. For
example, a sensory neuron sends an impulse to an interneuron in the spinal cord, which in turn relays the impulse to a motor
neuron exiting the spinal cord.

Reflexes

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Reflexes & Reflex Arcs

A reflex arc is an automatic, unconscious, protective response that attempts to maintain homeostasis. Reflex arcs have seven
components. First, is a stimulus, which could be pain, pressure, temperature, stretch, etc. Second, is a receptor for the stimulus,
such as a pain receptor, pressure receptor, etc. Third is a sensory neuron that relays an impulse to the CNS. Fourth is an
integration center located in the CNS and usually involves an interneuron. From this center impulses are sent through synapses to
other parts of the body. Fifth is a motor neuron that conducts impulses away from the CNS. Sixth is the effector, usually a
muscle or a gland, that the motor neuron sends its impulse to. And finally is the response, which is the muscle contraction or
glandular secretion. The diagram below shows the components of a reflex arc.
 Reflexes may involve the somatic or autonomic nervous systems. A withdrawal reflex is a simple somatic reflex. A stimulus,
such as touching hot stove, stimulates a pain receptor. A sensory neuron then relays an impulse to an interneuron in the spinal
cord, which in turn relays the impulse to motor neuron. The motor neuron sends the impulse to a skeletal muscle, which contracts
the muscle, pulling the hand away from the stove. Thus, homeostasis is restored. The diagram below shows the withdrawal reflex.

Reflexes protect our bodies from serious harm. Just think about what might happen if we didn’t have pain receptors. Such a
situation occurs in people with Hansen’s disease, also known as leprosy. This disease deadens the pain receptors in the skin. As a
result people who lived in unsanitary leper colonies long ago would go to sleep at night and wake in the morning to find that rats
had chewed off their fingers or toes. They had no sensation of pain to allow them to withdraw from the painful stimulus. So even
though pain is not a pleasant experience, it serves that purpose of protecting us from more serious injury.

In our next module, we’ll take a look at the most amazing organ in the body – the brain.