Structural engineering

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Burj Khalifa, in Dubai, the world's tallest building, shown under construction in 2007 (since
completed)

Structural engineering is a field of engineering dealing with the analysis and design of
structures that support or resist loads. Structural engineering is usually considered a specialty
within civil engineering, but it can also be studied in its own right.[1] Structural engineers are
most commonly involved in the design of buildings and large nonbuilding structures[2] but they
can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, vehicles or any item where
structural integrity affects the item's function or safety. Structural engineers must ensure their
designs satisfy given design criteria, predicated on safety (e.g. structures must not collapse
without due warning) or serviceability and performance (e.g. building sway must not cause
discomfort to the occupants). Buildings are made to endure massive loads as well as changing
climate and natural disasters.

Structural engineering theory is based upon physical laws and empirical knowledge of the
structural performance of different landscapes and materials. Structural engineering design
utilises a relatively small number of basic structural elements to build up structural systems that
can be very complex. Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use
of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.[2]

Contents
[hide]

 1 Structural engineer
 2 History of structural engineering
o 2.1 Structural failure
 3 Specializations
o 3.1 Building structures
o 3.2 Earthquake engineering structures
o 3.3 Civil engineering structures
o 3.4 Mechanical structures
 4 Structural elements
o 4.1 Columns
o 4.2 Beams
o 4.3 Struts and ties
o 4.4 Plates
o 4.5 Shells
o 4.6 Arches
o 4.7 Catenaries
 5 Structural engineering theory
 6 Materials
 7 See also
 8 References
 9 External links

[edit] Structural engineer

Main article: Structural engineer

Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and analysis. Entry-level structural
engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, for example the beams,
columns, and floors of a building. More experienced engineers would be responsible for the
structural design and integrity of an entire system, such as a building.

Structural engineers often specialize in particular fields, such as bridge engineering, building
engineering, pipeline engineering, industrial structures, or special mechanical structures such as
vehicles or aircraft.
Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their own structures. It
became a more defined and formalised profession with the emergence of the architecture
profession as distinct from the engineering profession during the industrial revolution in the late
19th Century. Until then, the architect and the structural engineer were usually one and the same
- the master builder. Only with the development of specialised knowledge of structural theories
that emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries did the professional structural engineer
come into existence.

The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and
dynamic loading, and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modern
structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the
structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically
have a four or five year undergraduate degree, followed by a minimum of three years of
professional practice before being considered fully qualified.[3]

Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory
bodies around the world (for example, the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK)[3].
Depending on the degree course they have studied and/or the jurisdiction they are seeking
licensure in, they may be accredited (or licensed) as just structural engineers, or as civil
engineers, or as both civil and structural engineers.

[edit] History of structural engineering

Main article: History of structural engineering

Pont du Gard, France, a Roman era aqueduct circa 19 BC.

Structural engineering dates back to 2700 BC when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was
built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common
major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is
inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms,
which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).[4]

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried
out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. No
theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited,
and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked before'. Knowledge was
retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures were repetitive, and increases
in scale were incremental.[4]

No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behaviour of
structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the
industrial revolution and the re-invention of concrete (see History of concrete). The physical
sciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissance and have
been developing ever since.

[edit] Structural failure

Main articles: Structural failure and List of structural failures and collapses

The history of structural engineering contains many collapses and failures. Sometimes this is due
to obvious negligence, as in the case of the Pétionville school collapse, in which Rev. Fortin
Augustin said that "he constructed the building all by himself, saying he didn't need an engineer
as he had good knowledge of construction" following a partial collapse of the three-story
schoolhouse that sent neighbors fleeing.[5] The final collapse killed at least 94 people, mostly
children.

In other cases structural failures require careful study, and the results of these inquiries have
resulted in improved practices and greater understanding of the science of structural engineering.
Some such studies are the result of Forensic engineering investigations where the original
engineer seems to have done everything in accordance with the state of the profession and
acceptable practice yet a failure still eventuated. A famous case of structural knowledge and
practice being advanced in this manner can be found in a series of failures involving Box girders
which collapsed in Australia during the 1970s.

[edit] Specializations
[edit] Building structures

See also: Building engineering

Sydney Opera House, designed by Ove Arup & Partners, with the architect Jørn Utzon
Millennium Dome in London, UK, by Buro Happold and Richard Rogers

Structural building engineering includes all structural engineering related to the design of
buildings. It is the branch of structural engineering that is close to architecture.

Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and
forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end which fulfills its
functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could
reasonably be expected to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is
driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture and
light to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional and often artistic.

The architect is usually the lead designer on buildings, with a structural engineer employed as a
sub-consultant. The degree to which each discipline actually leads the design depends heavily on
the type of structure. Many structures are structurally simple and led by architecture, such as
multi-storey office buildings and housing, while other structures, such as tensile structures, shells
and gridshells are heavily dependent on their form for their strength, and the engineer may have
a more significant influence on the form, and hence much of the aesthetic, than the architect.

The structural design for a building must ensure that the building is able to stand up safely, able
to function without excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural
elements, cracking or failure of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for occupants. It
must account for movements and forces due to temperature, creep, cracking and imposed loads.
It must also ensure that the design is practically buildable within acceptable manufacturing
tolerances of the materials. It must allow the architecture to work, and the building services to fit
within the building and function (air conditioning, ventilation, smoke extract, electrics, lighting
etc.). The structural design of a modern building can be extremely complex, and often requires a
large team to complete.

Structural engineering specialties for buildings include:

 Earthquake engineering
 Façade engineering
 Fire engineering
 Roof engineering
 Tower engineering
 Wind engineering

[edit] Earthquake engineering structures

Main article: Earthquake engineering structures

Earthquake engineering structures are those engineered to withstand various types of

hazardous earthquake exposures at the sites of their particular location.

Earthquake-proof and massive pyramid El Castillo, Chichen Itza

Earthquake engineering is treating its subject structures like defensive fortifications in military
engineering but for the warfare on earthquakes. Both earthquake and military general design
principles are similar: be ready to slow down or mitigate the advance of a possible attacker.

The main objectives of earthquake engineering are:

Snapshot from shake-table video [1] of testing base-isolated (right) and regular (left) building
model

 Understand interaction of structures with the shaky ground.

 Foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes.

 Design and construct the structures to perform while being exposed to an earthquake.

Earthquake engineering or earthquake-proof structure does not, necessarily, means

extremely strong and expensive one like El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza shown above.
Now, the most powerful and budgetary tool of the earthquake engineering is base isolation which
pertains to the passive structural vibration control technologies.

[edit] Civil engineering structures

Civil structural engineering includes all structural engineering related to the built environment. It
includes:

 Bridges  Power stations

 Dams  Railways
 Earthworks  Retaining
 Foundations structures and
 Offshore walls
structures  Roads
 Pipelines  Tunnels
 Waterways
 Water and
wastewater
infrastructure

The structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures, and often the sole designer. In the
design of structures such as these, structural safety is of paramount importance (in the UK,
designs for dams, nuclear power stations and bridges must be signed off by a chartered
engineer).

Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces, such as large variations
in temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or
compressed gases. They are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in
industrial facilities or below ground.

[edit] Mechanical structures

An Airbus A380, the world's largest passenger airliner

Principals of structural engineering are applied to variety of mechanical (moveable) structures.

The design of static structures assumes they always have the same geometry (in fact, so-called
static structures can move significantly, and structural engineering design must take this into
account where necessary), but the design of moveable or moving structures must account for
fatigue, variation in the method in which load is resisted and significant deflections of structures.

The forces which parts of a machine are subjected to can vary significantly, and can do so at a
great rate. The forces which a boat or aircraft are subjected to vary enormously and will do so
thousands of times over the structure's lifetime. The structural design must ensure that such
structures are able to endure such loading for their entire design life without failing.

These works can require mechanical structural engineering:

 Airframes and fuselages

 Boilers and pressure vessels
 Coachworks and carriages
 Cranes
 Elevators
 Escalators
 Marine vessels and hulls

[edit] Structural elements

A statically determinate simply supported beam, bending under an evenly distributed load.

Any structure is essentially made up of only a small number of different types of elements:

 Columns
 Beams
 Plates
 Arches
 Shells
 Catenaries

Many of these elements can be classified according to form (straight, plane / curve) and
dimensionality (one-dimensional / two-dimensional):

One-dimensional Two-dimensional
straight curve plane curve
 plate, concrete
(predominantly) bending beam continuous arch lamina, dome
slab
(predominant) tensile
rope Catenary shell
stress
(predominant) compression pier, column Load-bearing wall

[edit] Columns

Main article: Column

Columns are elements that carry only axial force - either tension or compression - or both axial
force and bending (which is technically called a beam-column but practically, just a column).
The design of a column must check the axial capacity of the element, and the buckling capacity.

The buckling capacity is the capacity of the element to withstand the propensity to buckle. Its
capacity depends upon its geometry, material, and the effective length of the column, which
depends upon the restraint conditions at the top and bottom of the column. The effective length is
K * l where l is the real length of the column.

The capacity of a column to carry axial load depends on the degree of bending it is subjected to,
and vice versa. This is represented on an interaction chart and is a complex non-linear
relationship.

[edit] Beams

Main article: Beam

A beam may be defined as an element in which one dimemsion is much greater than the other
two and the applied loads are usually normal to the main axis of the element. Beams and
columns are called line elements and are often represented by simple lines in structural
modeling.

 cantilevered (supported at one end only with a fixed connection)

 simply supported (supported vertically at each end; horizontally on only one to withstand
friction, and able to rotate at the supports)
 continuous (supported by three or more supports)
 a combination of the above (ex. supported at one end and in the middle)

Beams are elements which carry pure bending only. Bending causes one part of the section of a
beam (divided along its length) to go into compression and the other part into tension. The
compression part must be designed to resist buckling and crushing, while the tension part must
be able to adequately resist the tension.

[edit] Struts and ties

Main article: Truss

Little Belt: a truss bridge in Denmark

The McDonnell Planetarium by Gyo Obata in St Louis, Missouri, USA, a concrete shell structure

A masonry arch
1. Keystone 2. Voussoir 3. Extrados 4. Impost 5. Intrados 6. Rise 7. Clear span 8. Abutment

A truss is a structure comprising two types of structural elements; compression members and
tension members (i.e. struts and ties). Most trusses use gusset plates to connect intersecting
elements. Gusset plates are relatively flexible and minimize bending moments at the connections,
thus allowing the truss members to carry primarily tension or compression.

Trusses are usually utilised in span large distances, where it would be uneconomical to use solid
beams.
[edit] Plates

Plates carry bending in two directions. A concrete flat slab is an example of a plate. Plates are
understood by using continuum mechanics, but due to the complexity involved they are most
often designed using a codified empirical approach, or computer analysis.

They can also be designed with yield line theory, where an assumed collapse mechanism is
analysed to give an upper bound on the collapse load (see Plasticity). This is rarely used in
practice.

[edit] Shells

Main article: Thin-shell structure

See also: Gridshell

Shells derive their strength from their form, and carry forces in compression in two directions. A
dome is an example of a shell. They can be designed by making a hanging-chain model, which
will act as a catenary in pure tension, and inverting the form to achieve pure compression.

[edit] Arches

Main article: Arch

Arches carry forces in compression in one direction only, which is why it is appropriate to build
arches out of masonry. They are designed by ensuring that the line of thrust of the force remains
within the depth of the arch.

[edit] Catenaries

Main article: Tensile structure

Catenaries derive their strength from their form, and carry transverse forces in pure tension by
deflecting (just as a tightrope will sag when someone walks on it). They are almost always cable
or fabric structures. A fabric structure acts as a catenary in two directions.

[edit] Structural engineering theory

Main article: Structural engineering theory
Figure of a bolt in shear stress. Top figure illustrates single shear, bottom figure illustrates
double shear.

Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of loads, physics and materials to
understand and predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads. To
apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer will need a detailed knowledge of
mathematics and of relevant empirical and theoretical design codes. He will also need to know
about the corrosion resistance of the materials and structures, especially when those structures
are exposed to the external environment.

[edit] Materials
Main article: Structural material

The 630 foot (192 m) high, stainless-clad (type 304) Gateway Arch in Saint Louis, Missouri
Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties, in order to
understand how different materials support and resist loads.

Common structural materials are:

 Iron:

 Wrought iron
 Cast iron
 Steel
 Stainless steel

 Concrete:

 Reinforced concrete
 Prestressed concrete

 Aluminium
 Composites
 Alloy
 Masonry
 Timber
 Other structural materials:

 Adobe
 Bamboo
 Carbon fibre
 Fiber reinforced plastic
 Mudbrick
 Roofing materials

[edit] References
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has
insufficient inline citations.
Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (February 2009)

1. ^ "History of Structural Engineering". University of San Diego.

http://structures.ucsd.edu/index.php?page=structural_engineering/about_us/history.
Retrieved 2007-12-02.
2. ^ a b "What is a structural engineer". Institution of Structural Engineers.
http://www.istructe.org/structuralengineers/db/35.asp. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
3. ^ a b "Routes to membership". Institution of Structural Engineers.
http://www.istructe.org/membership/routes.asp. Retrieved 2007-12-25.[dead link]
 4. ^ a b Victor E. Saouma. "Lecture notes in Structural Engineering". University of
Colorado. http://ceae.colorado.edu/~saouma/Lecture-Notes/se.pdf. Retrieved 2007-11-02.
5. ^ "Haiti school owner in custody". macaunews.net. 2008-11-11.
http://www.macaunews.net/story/427823.

 Blank, Alan; McEvoy, Michael; Plank, Roger (1993). Architecture and Construction in
Steel. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0419176608.
 Bradley, Robert E.; Sandifer, Charles Edward (2007). Leonhard Euler: Life, Work and
Legacy. Elsevier. ISBN 0444527281.
 Chapman, Allan. (2005). England's Leornardo: Robert Hooke and the Seventeenth
Century's Scientific Revolution. CRC Press. ISBN 0750309873.
 Dugas, René (1988). A History of Mechanics. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN
0486656322.
 Feld, Jacob; Carper, Kenneth L. (1997). Construction Failure. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN
0471574775.
 Galilei, Galileo. (translators: Crew, Henry; de Salvio, Alfonso) (1954). Dialogues
Concerning Two New Sciences. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0486600998
 Hewson, Nigel R. (2003). Prestressed Concrete Bridges: Design and Construction.
Thomas Telford. ISBN 0727727745.
 Heyman, Jacques (1998). Structural Analysis: A Historical Approach. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0521622492.
 Heyman, Jacques (1999). The Science of Structural Engineering. Imperial College Press.
ISBN 1860941893.
 Hosford, William F. (2005). Mechanical Behavior of Materials. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0521846706.
 Hoogenboom, P.C.J. . Historical Overview of Concrete Modelling.
 Kirby, Richard Shelton (1990). Engineering in History. Courier Dover Publications.
ISBN 0486264122.
 Labrum, E.A. (1994). Civil Engineering Heritage. Thomas Telford. ISBN 072771970X.
 Lewis, Peter R. (2004). Beautiful Bridge of the Silvery Tay. Tempus.

 Mir, Ali (2001). Art of the Skyscraper: the Genius of Fazlur Khan. Rizzoli International
Publications. ISBN 0847823709.
 Nedwell, P.J.; Swamy, R.N.(ed) (1994). Ferrocement:Proceedings of the Fifth
International Symposium. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0419197001.
 Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). "Statics" in Morelon, Régis & Rashed,
Roshdi (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 2-3, Routledge. ISBN
0415020638
 Whitbeck, Caroline (1998). Ethics in Engineering Practice and Research. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0521479444.

[edit] External links

 IABSE (International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering)
 Institution of Structural Engineers (IStructE)
  Structural Engineering Association - International
 National Council of Structural Engineers Associations
 Structural Engineering Institute, an institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers
 The Structural Engineer - A Center for Information Dissemination on Structural
Engineering
 StructuralWiki.org - wiki for structural engineering
 Structuremag The Definition of Structural Engineering
 Structurae database of structures

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Structural engineer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Structural engineers analyze, design, plan, and research structural components and structural
systems to achieve design goals and ensure the safety and comfort of users or occupants. Their
work takes account mainly of safety, technical, economic and environmental concerns, but they
may also consider aesthetic and social factors.

Structural engineering is usually considered a specialty discipline within civil engineering, but it
can also be studied in its own right. In the US, most practicing structural engineers are currently
licensed as civil engineers, but the situation varies from state to state. In the UK, most structural
engineers in the building industry are members of the Institution of Structural Engineers rather
than the Institution of Civil Engineers.

Typical structures designed by a structural engineer include buildings, towers, stadia and bridges.
Other structures such as oil rigs, space satellites, aircraft and ships may also be designed by a
structural engineer. [1] Most structural engineers are employed in the construction industry,
however there are also structural engineers in the aerospace, automobile and shipbuilding
industries. In the construction industry, they work closely with architects, civil engineers,
mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, quantity surveyors, and construction managers.

Structural engineers ensure that buildings and bridges are built to be strong enough and stable
enough to resist all appropriate structural loads (e.g., gravity, wind, snow, rain, seismic
(earthquake), earth pressure, temperature, and traffic) in order to prevent or reduce loss of life or
injury. They also design structures to be stiff enough to not deflect or vibrate beyond acceptable
limits. Fatigue may be an important consideration for bridges and for aircraft design, or for other
structures which experience a large number of stress cycles over their lifetime. Consideration is
also given to durability of materials against possible deterioration which may impair
performance over the design lifetime.

Contents
[hide]
  1 Education
 2 Licensing or chartered status
 3 See also
 4 References
 5 External links

[edit] Education
The education of structural engineers is usually through a civil engineering bachelor's degree,
and often a master's degree specializing in structural engineering. The fundamental core subjects
for structural engineering are strength of materials or solid mechanics, statics, dynamics, material
science, numerical analysis and conceptual structural design. Reinforced concrete, composite
structure, timber, masonry and structural steel designs are the general structural design courses
that will be introduced in the next level of the education of structural engineering. The structural
analysis courses which include structural mechanics, structural dynamics and structural failure
analyses are designed to build up the fundamental analyses skills and theories for structural
engineering students. At the senior year level or in graduate programs, prestressed concrete
design, space frame design for building and aircraft, bridge engineering, civil and aerospace
structure rehabilitation and other advanced structural engineering specializations are usually
introduced.

Recently in the United States, there have been discussions in the structural engineering
community about the knowledge base of structural engineering graduates. Some have called for a
master's degree to be the minimum standard for professional licensing as a civil engineer[2].
There is a separate structural engineering undergraduate degree at the University of California,
San Diego. Many students who later become structural engineers major in civil, mechanical, or
aerospace engineering degree programs, with emphasis in structural engineering. Architectural
engineering programs do offer structural emphases, and are often in combined academic
departments with civil engineering.

[edit] Licensing or chartered status

In the United States, persons practicing structural engineering must be licensed in the state(s) in
which they practice as a Civil Engineer. The qualifications for licensure typically include a
specified minimum level of practicing experience, as well as the successful completion of a
nationally administered exam, and possibly a state-specific exam. For instance, California
requires that candidates pass a national exam, written by the National Council of Examiners for
Engineers and Surveyors (NCEES)[3], as well as a state-specific exam which includes a seismic
portion and a surveying portion. Most states do not have a separate structural engineering
license. In California, Washington, Oregon, Nevada, Illinois and other states, there is an
additional license or authority for Structural Engineering, obtained after the engineer has
obtained a Civil Engineering license and practiced an additional amount of time with the Civil
Engineering license. The scope of what may be designed by a Structural Engineer but not by a
Civil Engineer without the S.E. license is very limited.

The United Kingdom has one of the oldest professional institutions for structural engineers[4].
Originally founded as the Concrete Institute in 1908, it was renamed the Institution of Structural
Engineers (IStructE) in 1922. It now has 22,000 members with branches in 32 countries.

The IStructE is one of several UK professional bodies empowered to grant the title of Chartered
Engineer; its members are granted the title of Chartered Structural Engineer. The overall
process to become chartered begins after graduation from a UK MEng degree, or a BEng with an
MSc degree. To qualify as a chartered structural engineer, a graduate needs to go through four
years of Initial Professional Development followed by a professional review interview. After
passing the interview, the candidate sits an eight hour professional review examination. The
election to chartered membership (MIStructE) depends on the examination result. The candidate
can register at the Engineering Council UK as a Chartered Structural Engineer once he or she has
been elected as a Chartered Member. Legally it is not necessary to be a member of the IStructE
when working on structures in the UK, however industry practice, insurance and liabilities
dictate that an appropriately qualified engineer be responsible for such work.

[edit] See also

 Architects
 Architectural engineering
 Building officials
 Civil engineering
 Earthquake engineering
 International Building Code
 List of structural engineers
 Structural engineering
 Structural failure

[edit] References
1. ^ Institution of Structural Engineer, What do they do?, viewed on 22 May 2007
2. ^ [1]
3. ^ National Council of Examiners for Engineers and Surveyors
4. ^ IstructE Centenary 1908-2008)

[edit] External links

 A day in the life of a structural engineer
 IABSE (International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineer"

Categories: Structural engineers | Building engineering | Engineering occupations

Superman may be able to leap tall buildings with a single bound, but the tall buildings wouldn't
be there—or still be standing after he leaps over them—if it weren't for structural engineers.

Structural engineering is a branch of civil engineering, and its applications are extremely diverse.
A great deal of what structural engineers do involves designing things to be built, and then
helping to build them: buildings, bridges, tunnels, towers. "Probably 75% of our clients are
architects," says Scott McConnell, project manager at the engineering firm of Schoor DePalma in
Manalapan, N.J. "Most of what I do is building design. The architect comes up with a building
design, and then it's the structural engineer's responsibility to fit the structure to the architecture,
and decide on what structural system is best suited to that particular building. We design the
beams, the columns, the basic members to make the building stand up."

But a structural engineer might also be involved in the demolition or dismantling of a structure,
either permanently or in order to repair it. For both of these processes, they need to know about
the forces that act on structures—the stresses put on a bridge by heavy traffic or on a high
building by strong winds, or on any structure by seasonal temperature changes or earthquakes.

Structural engineers also inspect buildings, both during and after construction, and oversee the
use of the concrete, steel and timber of which they are made. They must also be aware of both
obvious and inobvious uses for the structures and how these uses affect its design. "For example,
if they're putting in sensitive computer equipment or doing pharmaceutical work, you have to use
a floor system that's very stiff and doesn't move much," explains McConnell.

Like all engineers whose work may affect life, health or property, new structural engineers go
through a rigorous training process during their first few years of work. This training involves
several years of work experience under the supervision of experienced engineers and one or
more state examinations, and results in a license as a Professional Engineer (P.E.). This is one
profession where an advanced degree is more of a necessity than an option.

"My advice to students is that if they're really committed to structural engineering, they should
get their master's degree in structural engineering or civil engineering as quickly as possible,"
says Terry Blackburn, Ph.D., senior vice president and head of the structural department at
Schoor DePalma. "The basic courses at the undergraduate level just can't touch on all the
necessary aspects of structural engineering. Your advance in the profession is greatly impaired
by not having a master's degree."

Along with technical know-how, a structural engineer needs a host of other skills to be able to
interact with professional and nonprofessional co-workers and clients. "Sales ability, public
speaking and time management are very important when we have to make contact with clients,"
says Blackburn. "And problem resolution is a skill that isn't typically taught in engineering
schools. But when there's an enormous amount of work that costs a lot of money, that is going on
very rapidly, and there are problems, then the problems have to be resolved as quickly as
possible."

Structural engineers, like other civil engineers, frequently hold the lives of others in their hands,
a point that Blackburn says should be explained early and often to would-be structural engineers.
"I know I was very surprised at the amount of responsibility that is piled on an engineer," he
says. "It's enormous. You hear about things like the Kansas City skyway collapse. Someone is
still personally blaming himself today for that. He has to live with that... It's almost heart-
stopping when you get a telephone call from a job and something's gone wrong. I think that at
some point in the career of most engineers, it just dawns on them, all the responsibility they've
assumed over the years—not just the professional responsibility, but the personal liability, too."

NAME: PETER JOSEPH TARDY

Title: Senior Structural Engineer

Company: French & Parrello Associates
Education: B. S., civil engineering, Rutgers University, M. S., civil engineering with emphasis in
structures, Rutgers University

Job Description:

 New bridge construction

 Bridge renovation
 Building design, construction and renovation
 Structure analysis for placement of communications equipment

Current Projects: Preliminary design phase for replacement of a three-span bridge

Why I Took the Job: "Previously I had been working for a firm that dealt only with bridges. I
felt the opportunity to work at a firm with a wider range of projects would give me a better base
for a structural engineering background, so I would be able to handle more phases of different
kinds of projects."

How My Degree Helped Prepare Me: "By the time you've gotten out of college, you've
decided which branch of civil engineering you'd like to go into. Then once you go out and get
your first job, hopefully you have the chance to work with a firm that allows you to do many
types of structural engineering, working with bridges and buildings... From there, you can focus
even further, to bridge or building design or tower analysis for lattice towers, monopoles or
transmission towers."

Non-Technical Skills Needed to Succeed: "The biggest thing is communication. That helps the
engineers to be able to ask the questions they need to ask, and to be able to understand the
answers that they receive. Often, when you get out of college, it's hard to explain yourself or the
question you're trying to ask, and then it's difficult to understand the answer that you're getting
because you don't have as much knowledge as the person you're working with. Things get busy
on the job, so communications allow you to know when and how assignments should be
completed."

Advice to Future Structural Engineers: "Always ask questions. Be persistent in trying to learn
new ideas. The information is not always as readily available to you as it was in school, so you
have to search it out. When you have the opportunity to work on a project and you're asking
questions, be persistent enough to get all the information, so that the next time you can complete
that assignment on your own."

What the Future Might Hold for Me: "First, I plan to get my Professional Engineering license
and further my experience in the field. I think there will be opportunities for me later on to
concentrate more in the bridge engineering field, to allow me eventually to take bridge jobs from
start to finish."

NAME: SCOTT MCCONNELL

Title: Project Manager

Company: Schoor DePalma
Education: B.S., civil and environmental engineering, Clarkson University, M. S., civil
engineering, Clarkson University

Job Description:

 Building design
 Oversight of three engineers and three drafters
 Maintenance of project budgets and schedules

How I Knew This Was the Field for Me: "My father was a general contractor, so I used to
work during the summer for him. Just by being around the building industry, I've always had a
lot of satisfaction from seeing a building start from scratch and then go completely up. It's been a
very gratifying experience seeing that."

How My Degree Helped Prepare Me: "A lot of the fundamental courses that you take in the
civil engineering curriculum are required for structural engineering. Plus I think any engineering
school, even more important than teaching you the fundamentals, teaches you how to think and
how to solve problems. That's what engineering is about, solving projects and learning to use
resources and call on other people if you don't know something, so you can learn how to get the
job done."

Advice to Future Structural Engineers: "Make sure you know what you're getting into. I think
structural engineering is a lot more technical in nature than civil engineering in general, or than
most other engineering fields. Make sure you know the basics."

Biggest Job Surprise: "One of the big surprises going into the field was that even though there
is oversight for our calculations, a good portion of the work goes unchecked. You need to have a
fair degree of competence in what you're doing. You have to be very technically sharp."

Non-technical Skills Needed to Succeed: "You need a lot of organizational skills, and both
verbal and written communications skills on a daily basis. You also need to have strong
negotiation skills and leadership skills."

What the Future Might Hold: "I've just recently stepped into this project manager position, and
I think upper management is where I'm heading. I think I have more opportunity going in that
direction than in pursuing it from the technical end or from the field."

Valerie Anderson is the Senior Editor of Graduating Engineer & Computer Careers magazine.