Formal response to informal: Fronting the challenges of informal Settlement in Harar city

(A Case Study of, Harari Regional State, Ethiopia)

Department of Urban Planning, School of Geography and Environmental Studies, College of

Social Science and Humanities, Haramaya University, Haramaya, Ethiopia.
Author: ADOLA SHOLANGO
Phone: +251926227533
Email:[email protected]
Postal address: P. O. Box 138
Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT

As result of growth in urbanization and the rural-urban migration into urban centers which results,
the incremental demand for road space is larger than the supply of infrastructure provisions,
which result into traffic congestion. This paper was targeted to assess the main causes of road
traffic congestion, to evaluate the road efficiency, and forward possible transport supply
management solutions for the problem in the study town. In order to carry out effective research
work on the case study road, Google earth satellite image, review of secondary document and
observation were used. As well, the interview was conducted with purposively and conveniently
selected ten government officials and experts, ten drivers and twenty people from public who are
suffering from traffic jam in the study route. The study showed that, the causes for traffic
congestion on the study area were traffic incidents, work zones, inadequate traffic police, and
increasing population, increment in income of urban residents, illegal parking, and lack of proper
city planning. Possible planning solutions were forwarded for to traffic congestion on the case
study.to conclude in the study town there were various reasons responsible for traffic jam and
some planning solutions were recommended to mitigate the problem.

Key words: Road Efficiency; Managing; Transport Supply; Traffic Congestion;

INTRODUCTION
Cities and traffic have developed hand-in-hand since the earliest large human settlements. The
same forces that draw inhabitants to congregate in large urban areas also lead to sometimes
intolerable levels of traffic congestion on urban streets and thoroughfares. Effective urban
governance requires a careful balancing between the benefits of agglomeration and the
disadvantages of excessive congestion. Road traffic congestion poses a challenge for all large and
growing urban areas. Urban traffic congestion is a significant and growing problem in many parts
of the world. Moreover, as congestion continues to increase, the conventional approach of
"building more roads" doesn't always work for a variety of political, financial, and environmental
reasons.( )

Traffic congestion and the cost of providing mobility are compelling issues to planners,
decision makers and members of both the business community and the general public. While new
road construction can temporarily relieve congestion in the longer term it simply encourages
further growth in car traffic through increased travel and a switch away from public transport.
Beside this, suitable corridors in our cities for major roadwork’s is becoming more and more
difficult, and many of the recent major projects involve turrets to minimize environmental
disruption and community opposition, thereby raising costs. ( )

Therefore, this study aims to provide urban planning solutions for road traffic congestion in the
study town. In such a way as to reduce its overall effect to local communities and increased
mobility that in turn, boosts the local economic productivity and protects natural environment.

1.1 Objective
1.1.1 General Objective
The overall objective of the study was to assess the main causes of road traffic congestion and
forward possible planning solution for the problem in the study town.

1.1.2 Specific objectives

To conduct traffic count along the study road.
To identify the main causes of road traffic congestion in the town
To forward possible planning solution for the problem in the study town.
1.1.3 Research Questions
What are the types of modes people using for transportation along the route during peak
hour?
Which course of traffic flow is dominant during peak hour?
What are the major causes for road traffic jam in the study town?
What are the urban planning solution for traffic congestion in the study town?

Review related literature

WHAT IS CONGESTION?
There is no single, broadly accepted definition of traffic congestion. One of the principal reasons
for this lack of consensus is that congestion is both:
• A physical phenomenon relating to the manner in which vehicles impede each others’
progression as demand for limited road space approaches full capacity.
• A relative phenomenon relating to user expectations vis-à-vis road system performance. Both
operational and user perspectives are important in understanding Congestion and its impacts.
This report does not seek to select one approach to defining congestion over the other; they
clearly both have uses when seeking to develop congestion management strategies.
Ideally, urban transport policies should be developed on the basis that congestion is related to
both:
• The behavior of traffic as it nears the physical capacity of the road system.
• The difference between road users’ expectations of the system’s performance and how the
system actually performs.

Urban traffic congestion must be understood in the wider context of city dynamics and
agglomeration benefits. Traffic congestion in urban areas is often the outcome of successful
urban economic development, employment, and housing and cultural, policies that make people
want to live and work relatively close to each other and attract firms to benefit from the gains in
productivity thus derived. There are many indications that, even though they may not be thrilled
by the prospect, urban road users are prepared to live with crowded roads so long as they derive
other benefits from living and working in their cities. Congestion prevents us from moving freely
and it slows and otherwise disrupts the conduct of business within urban areas. However, it is
important to note that unfettered movement is not the primary benefit we derive from living in
urban areas. Cities provide access to a wide range of activities, people, services, goods, markets,
opportunities, ideas and networks.
These benefits can be delivered either through speed or through greater proximity. Congestion
may affect travel speed but in some circumstances, such as dense urban cores, congestion may
both be expected and, to some degree, accepted. In these cases, cities have come to accept a
degree of congestion and continue to get along relatively well as long as overall accessibility is
high.

2.2 CAUSES OF CONGESTION AND UNRELIABLE TRAVEL

2.2.1 Background: The Seven Sources of Congestion

Previous work has shown that congestion is the result of seven root causes, often interacting with
one another.5 These "seven sources" can be grouped into three broad categories, as shown below:

Category 1 — Traffic-Influencing Events

1. Traffic Incidents – Are events that disrupt the normal flow of traffic, usually by physical
impedance in the travel lanes. Events such as vehicular crashes, breakdowns, and debris
in travel lanes are the most common form of incidents. In addition to blocking travel
lanes physically, events that occur on the shoulder or roadside can also influence traffic
flow by distracting drivers, leading to changes in driver behavior and ultimately
degrading the quality of traffic flow. Even incidents off of the roadway (a fire in a
 building next to a highway) can be considered traffic incidents if they affect travel in the
travel lanes.
2. Work Zones – Are construction activities on the roadway that result in physical changes
to the highway environment. These changes may include a reduction in the number or
width of travel lanes, lane "shifts," lane diversions, reduction, or elimination of shoulders,
and even temporary roadway closures. Delays caused by work zones have been cited by
travelers as one of the most frustrating conditions they encounter on trips.
3. Weather – Environmental conditions can lead to changes in driver behavior that affect
traffic flow. Due to reduced visibility, drivers will usually lower their speeds and increase
their headways when precipitation, bright sunlight on the horizon, fog, or smoke are
present. Wet, snowy, or icy roadway surface conditions will also lead to the same effect
even after precipitation has ended.

Category 2 — Traffic Demand which were revealed in linear land use development, lack of land use
and transport integrations, building code, road hierarchy, lane provision for different modes,
lack of parking space for different modes and lack of pedestrian walk ways and street trading .

1. Fluctuations in Normal Traffic – Day-to-day variability in demand leads to some days

with higher traffic volumes than others. Varying demand volumes superimposed on a
system with fixed capacity also results in variable (i.e., unreliable) travel times, even
without any Category 1 events occurring.
2. Special Events – Are a special case of demand fluctuations where traffic flow in the
vicinity of the event will be radically different from "typical" patterns. Special events
occasionally cause "surges" in traffic demand that overwhelm the system.

Category 3 — Physical Highway Features

1. Traffic Control Devices – Intermittent disruption of traffic flow by control devices such
as railroad grade crossings and poorly timed signals also contribute to congestion and
travel time variability.
2. Physical Bottlenecks ("Capacity") – Transportation engineers have long studied and
addressed the physical capacity of roadways—the maximum amount of traffic capable of
being handled by a given highway section. Capacity is determined by a number of
factors: the number and width of lanes and shoulders; merge areas at interchanges; and
roadway alignment (grades and curves). Toll booths may also be thought of as a special
case of bottlenecks because they restrict the physical flow of traffic. There is also a wild
card in the mix of what determines capacity—driver behavior. Research has shown that
drivers familiar with routinely congested roadways space themselves closer together than
drivers on less congested roadways. This leads to an increase in the amount of traffic that
can be handled.
Result and Discussion
4. REASONS BEHIND TRAFFIC RCONGESTION
Inadequacy of traffic police

Traffic police in Talegaon Dabhade is inadequate in numbers compared to other mega cities in
Maharashtra. All the cross roads need at least four traffic police at a time whereas in Talegaon it
is seen that the number of traffic police are always short and due to the lacking of proper
instruction the vehicles are getting trapped in traffic. Only two traffic police are working in the
city which is inadequate.
Narrow roads Streets of Talegaon are not that wide spread, due to illegal possession on the road
they are getting narrow and becoming a reason behind traffic jam. So every possibility is there to
expand the road as per their right of way to reduce traffic congestion. Moreover this will be less
expensive and less time consuming due to land acquisition won’t be required in this
process.
Illegal Parking
Illegal parking on the road has been creating congestion every day from petrol pump to Indrayani
College, a distance of around one kilometer. On-road parking of vehicles is one of the main
reasons behind serious traffic congestion on different parts of the Talegaon city.
Increasing number of population
All the areas under Talegaon city are facing an increasing number of population which is a bad
indicator for the traffic management and this could be a vital reason behind traffic.
Higher Purchasing power of the public
Due to the higher purchasing power of the citizen of Talegaon Dabhade city the popularity of
private transportation is increasing and but existing roads and highway are not supportive or
changing according to the increasing number of vehicle. As a result vehicle congestion is
increasing at an alarming rate.
Improper planning of city development
Development Plan has its long term city development planning. But that planning is not proper.
Most of the time it is seen that some illegally ceased roadside land, but due to the vague
development plan these kinds of movements are going in vain.
Improper lane management
Lane management is an important fact in managing the traffic in Talegaon. Many types of the
vehicles try to overtake the vehicles even in the single undivided road. This is the main reason
that the city roads are unequipped with the lane dividers which divide the lane into incoming and
outing traffic.

5. SOLUTION OF TRAFFIC JAM

strict lane management

Different lanes for different types of vehicles should be marked on the roads and law i.e.
financial penalty should be imposed to make the drivers maintain the lane discipline.
Restricting routes for Rickshaw Rickshaw should not be allowed in all the routes of
the city. RTO should take some responsibility to control the increasing number of rickshaws by
imposing registration fee and legal documentation.

Financial penalty to the traffic law breakers

Government can take such strict step like imposing financial penalty on the law disobeying
drivers. They should be made to dissuade the drivers from certain Congestion-causing habit such
as wrong overtaking, one way driving. Mobile court should be introduced to fine the truck
drivers for disobeying traffic law and driving unfit truck. This kind of implication of law
can mitigate the traffic jam in short run, but in long run all the people should be involved to
create awareness and responsible to the society. Otherwise traffic jam solution is impossible.
Supply and demand
Congestion can be reduced by either increasing road capacity (supply) or by reducing traffic
(demand) revealed that road capacity can be increased in a number of ways such as adding more
capacity over the whole of a route or at bottlenecks, creating new routes, and improvements for
traffic management.
Reduction of demand can include, parking restriction, park and ride, congestion pricing, road
space rationing, incentives to use public transport and introduction of e-education, e-shopping
and home based working options will reduce the number of people traveling.
Increasing and developing the manpower (Traffic police)
As the city is running with inadequate amount of traffic police than required, so it is the need of
the hour for the authority to increase the number of traffic police. This step will create some
scope for employment also. Only recruitment is not enough, they should be trained up for the
betterment of the traffic management.
Road widening
Road widening is often advocated as ways to reduce traffic congestion. Roads of the city are
narrow in different places, foe example road square near Hotel Kuldeep and in front of General
Hospital there are several reasons like Hawkers on the footpath and some portion of the and
illegal possession on the road or illegal structures. This kind of unlawful activity has to be
prevented by imposing proper law and city development plan. Several steps of road widening
have been undertaken. However some research indicates that road widening provides only slight
reductions in urban traffic congestion.

6. CONCLUSION

Traffic congestion is a global as well as local problem. All over the world, the prime cause of
traffic congestion is on street parking. In Talegaon, traffic congestion is a common issue like
Mumbai. Different infrastructural and managerial projects are granted for reducing traffic jam.
However in Talegaon this type of policy is not addressed yet. Traffic congestion constraints can
be ameliorated by embarking on various strategies such as road capacity expansion, improved
road infrastructures, restricting routes for Rickshaw, financial penalty to the traffic
law breakers and application of Fly over. Most importantly, proper traffic management system
along with appropriate implementation of traffic rules is necessary to mitigate the problems of
traffic congestion in Talegaon Dabhade.

Methods
Prior to the actual work, preliminary investigation was carried out along the case study road to
determine the best approach to be used in dealing with the research problems. The whole road
was surveyed by the researcher and it was observed that noticeable congestions was along Arba
Minch road. Researcher then restricted investigation to the area described above, which consists
of four noticeable junctions (BaosrunOja, Yanbule, General Gas and Olopo-meji)- all
covers1.55km. Based on the nature of the research work, the researcher employed scope that
consists an experimental investigation and theoretical study. The experimental investigation
involved traffic counting and observation. In this section, researcher examined visible causes of
congestion on the case road, studying traffic stream which involved traffic direction peak period
and other factors that are physically affecting the easy flow of traffic along the study area.
Theoretical aspect of the research work was primarily based on the analysis of the data gathered
through traffic counting and delay survey and translation of this data in relation to the level of
service. as well as to provide flash back to policymakers, town planners and technical staff with
the strategic vision, conceptual frameworks and guidance on some of the practical tools
necessary to manage congestion in such a way as to reduce its overall impact on town.

Fig. 1: Map of Nigeria; Showing Location of the study area (Ibadan, Oyo State)

Traffic Counting

There are various technique and methods used in traffic survey (traffic counting) but for the
purpose of this research work, manual counting was adopted. Preliminary investigation has
incited researchers and thus carried out traffic counting along major junction in the study area.

Manual counting: in this case, an observer will be assigned to a particular station (General gas)
along the case road, record on a sensor sheet the easy passage of traffic according to the
classification. The counting (number of vehicles) was based assessed per hour, all heavy duty
vehicles were converted to passenger car by multiplying them with factor of three (3).
Data sought out at the end of the counting were analyzed using appropriate tools. Manual
counting is usually carried out for a day or week because it is impossible to manually carry out
the counting for a longer period. For the purpose of this research work, counting was carried out
for a week between 7am to 8am daily.

The following data were generated:

Traffic density: This is the number of vehicle in a given length of road at an instantaneous time.
It is measured in vehicles per kilometers.
Traffic flow: This is the quantity of vehicles in space measured in an interval of time. Measured
in vehicle per hour
III. Results and Analysis
The data here shows various results obtained on difference practical test carried out in the field (road). These
include traffic volume (AHV), delay survey and Level of service (LOS).
Traffic Volume:

final report

Traffic Congestion and Reliability:

Trends and Advanced Strategies for
Congestion Mitigation

2.0 The Nature of Traffic Congestion and Reliability:

Causes, How They Are Measured, and Why They Matter
2.1 WHAT IS CONGESTION?

Congestion is relatively easy to recognize—roads filled with cars, trucks, and buses, sidewalks
filled with pedestrians. The definitions of the term congestion mention such words as "clog,"
"impede," and "excessive fullness." For anyone who has ever sat in congested traffic, those
words should sound familiar. In the transportation realm, congestion usually relates to an excess
of vehicles on a portion of roadway at a particular time resulting in speeds that are slower—
sometimes much slower—than normal or "free flow" speeds. Congestion often means stopped or
stop-and-go traffic. The rest of this chapter is devoted to describing congestion and how we
measure it, as well as its causes and consequences.

Highlight Box 1 discusses how the seven sources of congestion are related to the underlying
traffic flow characteristics that create a disruption in traffic. We typically think of a bottleneck as
a physical restriction on capacity (Category 3 above). However, disorderly vehicle maneuvers
caused by events have a similar effect on traffic flow as restricted physical capacity.
Because the traffic flow effects are similar, traffic disruptions of all types can be thought of as
producing losses in highway capacity, at least temporarily. In the past, the primary focus of
congestion responses was oriented to adding more physical capacity: changing highway
alignment, adding more lanes (including turning lanes at signals), and improving merging and
weaving areas at interchanges. But addressing the "temporary losses in capacity" from other
sources is equally important.

Highlight Box 1 – What Causes Breakdowns in Traffic Flow?

What causes traffic flow to break down to stop-and-go conditions? The layman's definition of
congestion as "too many cars trying to use a highway at the same time" is essentially correct.
Transportation engineers formalize this idea as capacity—the ability to move vehicles past a
point over a given span of time. When the capacity of a highway section is exceeded, traffic
flow breaks down, speeds drop, and vehicles crowd together. These actions cause traffic to back
up behind the disruption. So, what situations would cause the overload that leads to traffic
backups?

Basically, there are three types of traffic flow behavior that will cause traffic flow to break
down:

1. "Bunching" of vehicles as a result of reduced speed. As vehicles are forced to get closer
and closer together, abrupt speed changes can cause shock waves to form in the traffic
stream, rippling backward and causing even more vehicles to slow down. Several things
can cause vehicles to slow down while traveling in their intended lanes:
o Visual Effects on Drivers. Driver behavior is a very important part of traffic
flow. When traffic volume is high and vehicles are moving at relatively high
speeds, it may take only the sudden slowing down of one driver to disrupt traffic
flow. Driver behavior in this case is influenced by some sort of a visual cue and
can include:
1. Roadside distractions – unusual or atypical events that cause drivers to
become distracted from driving.
2. Limited lateral clearance – drivers will usually slow down in areas where
barriers get too close to travel lanes or if a vehicle has broken down on
the shoulder.
3. Traffic incident "rubbernecking" – call it morbid curiosity, but most
drivers will slow down just to get a glimpse of a crash scene, even when
the crash has occurred in the opposite direction of travel or there is plenty
of clearance with the travel lane.
4. Inclement weather – poor visibility and slippery road surfaces cause
drivers to slow down.
o Abrupt Changes in Highway Alignment. Sharp curves and hills can cause drivers
to slow down either because of safety concerns or because their vehicles cannot
maintain speed on upgrades. Another example of this type of bottleneck is in
work zones where lanes may be redirected or "shifted" during construction.
 2. Intended Interruption to Traffic Flow. "Bottlenecks on purpose" are sometimes
necessary in order to manage flow. Traffic signals, freeway ramp meters, and tollbooths
are all examples of this type of bottleneck.
3. Vehicle Merging Maneuvers. This form of traffic disruption has the most severe effect
on traffic flow, with the exception of really bad weather (snow, ice, dense fog). These
disruptions in traffic flow are caused by some sort of physical restriction or blockage of
the road, which in turn causes vehicles to merge into other lanes of traffic. How severely
this type of disruption influences traffic flow is related to how many vehicles must merge
in a given space over a given time. These disruptions include:
o Areas where one or more traffic lanes are lost – a "lane-drop" which sometimes
occurs at bridge crossings and in work zones.
o Lane-blocking traffic incidents.
o Areas where traffic must merge across several lanes to access entry and exit
points (called "weaving areas").
o Freeway on-ramps – merging areas where traffic from local streets can join a
freeway.
o Freeway-to-freeway interchanges – a special case of on-ramps where flow from
one freeway is directed to another. These are typically the most severe form of
physical bottlenecks because of the high traffic volumes involved.

Influencing all of these disruptions in traffic flow is the level of traffic that attempts to use the
roadway. High demand for highway use—such as that caused by special events—can
compound the problems caused by disruptions to traffic flow.

2.2.2 How the Seven Sources Cause Congestion

Congestion results from one—or the interaction of several—of the seven sources on the highway
system. The interaction can be complex and varies greatly from day-to-day and highway-to-
highway. The problem is that with the exception of the physical bottlenecks, the sources of
congestion occur with maddening irregularity—nothing is ever the same from one day to the
next! One day commuters might face low traffic volumes, no traffic incidents, and good weather;
the next day traffic might be heavier than normal, it might be raining, and a severe crash may
occur that blocks traffic lanes. An analysis of how the combination of these events conspires to
make congestion was done in Washington, D.C. (Table 2.1). The worst traffic days experienced
in Washington can be explained by the occurrence and combination of different events.

Another example of the irregularity in event occurrence can be seen in the frequency and
duration of traffic incidents. Figure 2.1 shows how traffic incidents occurred on a 14-mile stretch
of Interstate 405 in Seattle, Washington during peak travel periods for the first four months of
2003. Some days are relatively incident-free while others have numerous traffic incidents.
Interestingly, at least one traffic incident occurred every day during the peaks on this highway.
So, while some days are better than others, traffic incidents are an unavoidable fact on crowded
urban freeways.

Another source of variability is traffic demand, which is rarely the same from day-to-day. On
routes heavily used for commuting, weekday traffic is typically much higher than weekend
traffic. (On routes in recreational, tourist, or shopping-dominated areas, weekend traffic higher.)
Figure 2.2 shows this variability in dramatic fashion for Detroit freeways. It also shows that there
is some variability on weekdays: Thursdays and Fridays are typically the highest traffic days for
this period.

The congestion and travel time variability caused by planned special events are becoming a
major concern for transportation agencies. In a recent survey of state Departments of
Transportation (DOTs) by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials and the American Highway Users Alliance, special events were cited as significant
contributors to noncommuter congestion. These events may be categorized as:

 Major Sporting Events – This includes sports events within cities (e.g., major league
baseball, professional football games) and college sporting events in relatively small
university towns, especially college football. In fact, many college football games are
attended by 100,000 spectators or more, and the associated congestion in towns and small
cities (e.g., Ann Arbor, Michigan; Knoxville, Tennessee; and Lincoln, Nebraska) can
overwhelm the local highway system on game days. The only saving grace is that usually
there are no more than seven home games per year; nonetheless, congestion is significant
on these days, requiring a lot of planning and active management by transportation and
enforcement personnel.

Table 2.1 Factors Contributing to Extreme Congestion

Ten Worst Days of Washington, D.C. Traffic
Source: Vasudevan, Meenakshy; Wunderlich, Karl E., Shah, Vaisshali; and Larkin, James,
Effectiveness of Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) Under Extreme Congestion:
Findings from a Washington, D.C., Case Study, proceedings of ITS America, 2004.

The events that impede traffic flow and cause travel to be unreliable often occur in combination.
This diagram shows the number of days when different combinations of events occurred during
the study period. For example, there were three days when incidents occurred—on two of these
days only incidents occurred and on one day, incidents occurred in combination with high
demand and bad weather. As most commuters know, "some days are worse than others." Pile
high demand (say, a Friday before a three-day weekend) on top of heavy rain and a lane-
blocking crash, and you've got the ingredients for severe congestion.

Figure 2.1 The Number and Duration of Incidents Varies Greatly from Day to Day
I-405 Southbound, Seattle, Washington
Note: Data shown are for the morning and afternoon peak periods (7:00-10:00 a.m. and 4:00-
7:00 p.m.) for the period from January 1, 2003 to April 30, 2003. Traffic incidents occur in a
fairly erratic pattern from day-to-day. Also, how long they last and how many lanes they block
are fairly unpredictable. This erratic behavior contributes significantly to making travel
unreliable for travelers.

Figure 2.2 Traffic Levels Vary Substantially over the Course of a Week
Detroit Freeways, 3/11/2001 - 4/7/2001
Note: VMT (or "vehicle-miles of travel") is a common measure of highway usage. It is
calculated as the number of vehicles using the system times the distance they travel. For the time
period displayed, Sundays are the low points on the graph. Weekday travel can be more than 60
percent higher than Sunday travel. On weekdays, the trend toward highway travel later in the
week (Thursdays and Fridays) is common in most urban areas. While commuting trips are
relatively stable throughout the week, discretionary trips are higher as the weekend approaches.

 Auto and Horse Races – The rise in the popularity of NASCAR has led to increased
congestion around race events.
 University "Move-in Day" – Several DOTs indicated that the start of fall term on
college campuses create a surge in traffic for two to three days. This seems to be a
problem in the smaller towns and cities with large universities, where the local highway
network is not well suited to handling large volumes during off-peak periods.
 Festivals, State Fairs, and Major Concerts – Many rural areas sponsor these types of
events lasting one or more weekends throughout the year. For example, the Bonaroo pop
music festival in central Tennessee draws close to 100,000 people one weekend per year.
These festival-goers cram onto highways not meant for such traffic, and many arrive
several days early and stay a few days late.
 Seasonal Shopping – Holiday shopping around major mall areas was indicated as
another source of noncommuting congestion, particularly on weekends between
Thanksgiving and Christmas.

As if the congestion picture was not complicated enough, consider further that some events can
cause others to occur. For example:
  The presence of severe congestion can reduce demand by shifting traffic to other
highways or cause travelers to leave later. High congestion levels can also lead to an
increase in traffic incidents due to closer vehicle spacing and overheating of vehicles
during summer months.
 Bad weather can lead to crashes due to poor visibility and slippery road surfaces.
 The traffic turbulence and distraction to drivers caused by an initial crash can lead to
other crashes.6 They can also lead to overheating, running out of gas and other
mechanical failures resulting from begin stuck behind another incident.

All of this suggests the rather complex model of congestion shown in Figures 2.3a and 2.3b.
From a practical standpoint, what is important to take away from this model are two notions: 1)
the sources of congestion can be tightly interconnected, and 2) because of the
interconnectedness, significant payoffs can be expected by treating the sources. That is, by
treating one source, you can reduce the impact of that source on congestion plus have a
partial impact on others.

The exact causal relationships among the sources of congestion are not yet well known, but
consider the data shown in Figure 2.4. Displayed in this figure is the relationship between delay
(both bottleneck- and incident-related) and traffic intensity. Several observations can be made
from these data:

 For a roadway with fixed physical capacity, traffic must build sufficiently before either
bottleneck delay or traffic incident delay occurs. That this is the case for bottleneck delay
is obvious. However, for traffic incidents it does show that at low congestion levels,
enough excess capacity exists to absorb the effect of most traffic incidents. (During the
course of time, a few traffic incidents will block all traffic lanes causing substantial delay,
but over a long history, these effects are washed out.)
 At the traffic intensity level where congestion begins (AADT7-to-capacity ratio range of
8 to 10), incident-related congestion is a substantial part of total congestion. As the traffic
grows on a roadway with fixed capacity, bottleneck-related congestion becomes
increasingly dominant.

Figure 2.3 Anatomy of Congestion

Figure 2.3a Part 1 - Traffic Volumes Interact with Physical Capacity to Produce "Base Delay"
 = Source of Congestion

Note: The starting point for congestion on most days is the amount of traffic and the physical
restrictions on the highway (bottlenecks). Traffic varies from day-to-day throughout the year and
special events may cause surges in traffic at unexpected times. See Figure 2.2 as an example of
how much traffic varies even over as short a period as a month.

Figure 2.3 Anatomy of Congestion (continued)

Figure 2.3b Part 2 - Roadway Events Reduce Available Capacity and Add Extra Delay to the
System
 = Source of Congestion

Note: Just as traffic varies across time periods, so does physical capacity. The operation of traffic
signals changes capacity, often minute-to-minute. When roadway events occur, they also cause
the physical capacity of the roadway to be lowered. (Traffic incidents and work zones can "steal"
lanes, and bad weather causes drivers to space themselves out more.) Base-level congestion
caused by bottlenecks can lead to increased traffic incidents due to tighter vehicle spacing and
vehicles overheating in summer. Finally, the existence of extreme congestion can cause some
drivers to change their routes or to forego trips altogether. Understanding how all these factors
interact is the subject of ongoing research.
 Figure 2.4 Relationship of Incident and Bottleneck Delay to Traffic Intensity

Note: The AADT/C level is a general indicator of the "intensity" of traffic trying to use a
highway with fixed capacity. AADT is Annual Average Daily Traffic (vehicles per day) and C is
the two-way capacity of the roadway (vehicles per hour). Bottleneck and traffic incident delay
occur differently: bottlenecks cause delay at specific points while traffic incidents may occur
anywhere along a highway segment. This is the reason for using 5- and 10-mile segments for the
traffic incident delay above. The analysis shows that as traffic grows on a roadway with fixed
capacity, traffic incident delay is initially higher than bottleneck delay. As traffic grows,
bottleneck delay overtakes traffic incident delay, because it happens fairly regularly while traffic
incidents vary in occurrence and characteristics.

This analysis also shows the interrelationship between the sources of delay identified in Figures
2.3a and 2.3b. Even with no changes in traffic incident characteristics, traffic incident delay
grows as more traffic is added to a roadway. In other words, as the traffic level grows on a base
of fixed capacity, the roadway is more vulnerable to disruptions caused by traffic incidents, or
any other traffic-influencing event for that matter.
The exponential growth in bottleneck delay after the onset of congestion is a major reason why it
is so difficult for agencies to keep up with congestion: once it starts, things get bad quickly.
Introducing an extra vehicle to congested conditions means not only does that vehicle get
delayed, it also adds extra delay to any other vehicles that join after it.

 At higher base congestion levels, bottleneck-related congestion grows at an increasingly

faster rate. Researchers have long noted that delay increases exponentially (i.e., it goes
"ballistic") with traffic level on a fixed capacity base. Why is this? Once a queue has
formed and an additional vehicle joins at the back of the queue, you get a double
whammy: not only is that vehicle delayed, but the queue is now longer and any new
vehicles that join in will also be delayed by the now longer queue. The growth in delay
for traffic incidents is more of a straight line, the results of the irregular occurrence of
traffic incidents—they do not happen consistently like bottleneck delay does.

The fact that both bottleneck- and incident-related delay increase with base congestion level
indicates that if physical capacity is increased, congestion for both sources would be decreased.
In other words, Facilities with greater base capacity are less vulnerable to disruptions: a traffic
incident that blocks a single lane has a greater impact on a highway with two travel lanes than a
highway with three travel lanes. This feature highlights the interdependence of the sources
mentioned above. It also reinforces the notion that adding physical capacity is a viable option for
improving congestion, especially when made in conjunction with other strategies.

2.3 TRACKING CONGESTION

2.3.1 Why Monitor Congestion?

Monitoring congestion is just one of the several aspects of transportation system performance
that leads to more effective investment decisions for transportation improvements. Safety,
physical condition, environmental quality, economic development, quality of life, and customer
satisfaction are among the aspects of performance that also require monitoring.10 Congestion is
intertwined with all of these other categories since higher congestion levels have been associated
with their degradation.

In addition to facilitating better investments, improved monitoring of congestion can lead to

several positive outcomes:

 Improved Performance –The information from operating systems can be used by the
operating agencies to alter hours or methods of operation to improve the system.
Performance measures can target, for example, before/ after effects of recent programs or
the amount of productivity lost from congested conditions.
 Improved Communication – Performance measures that include travel time, delay, or
other easily understood concepts can provide better ways to communicate system
conditions.
 Program Justification – Performance measures and a before/after data collection
program can be very effective at identifying the effect of a range of freeway and arterial
management actions. Many of these actions cannot be easily assessed using models.
  Funding Enhancements – In most recent campaigns for funding increases, pricing
projects or increased funding flexibility, performance measures have played two key
roles. They can be used to demonstrate improved conditions or use of existing funds to
show that current agency actions are appropriate and beneficial. The measures and data
also can be used in public accountability pledges to demonstrate the effect of the
proposed programs.

2.3.2 Congestion Performance Measures

Travel Time as the Basis for Congestion Performance Measures

The performance of the highway system in terms of how efficiently users can traverse it may be
described in three basic terms: congestion, mobility, and accessibility. While researchers have
different definitions of these terms, we have found it useful to define them as follows:

 Congestion – Describes the travel conditions on facilities;

 Mobility – Describes how well users can complete entire trips; and
 Accessibility – Describes how close opportunities (e.g., jobs, shopping) are spaced in
terms of the user's ability to access them through the transportation system.

Congestion and mobility are very closely related and the same metrics and concepts can be used
to monitor both. Accessibility is a relatively new concept and requires a different set of metrics.
Most the data that are currently available describe facility performance, not trip performance,
although new technologies are emerging that will allow for direct monitoring of entire trips.

One of the principles that FHWA has established for monitoring congestion as part of its annual
performance plan is that meaningful congestion performance measures must be based on the
measurement of travel time. Travel times are easily understood by practitioners and the public,
and are applicable to both the user and facility perspectives of performance.

Temporal Aspects of Congestion: Measuring congestion by times of the day and day of week has
a long history in transportation. A relatively new twist on this is the definition of a weekday
"peak period"—multiple hours rather than the traditional peak hour. In many metropolitan areas,
particularly the larger ones, congestion now lasts three or more hours each weekday morning and
evening. In other words, over time, congestion has spread into more hours of the day as
commuters leave earlier or later to avoid the traditional rush hour. Definition of peak periods is
critical in performing comparisons. For example, consider a three-hour peak period. In smaller
cities, congestion may usually only last for one hour—better conditions in the remaining two
hours will "dilute" the metrics. One way around this is not to establish a fixed time period in
which to measure congestion, but rather determine how long congestion exists (e.g., percent of
time where operating conditions are below a threshold.)

Spatial Aspects of Congestion: Congestion spreads not only in time but in space as well. Queues
from physical bottlenecks and major traffic-influencing events (like traffic incidents) can extend
for many miles. Congestion measures need to be sensitive to this by tracking congestion over
facilities or corridors, rather than just short highway segments.
Table 2.2 presents a small sample of congestion performance measures (metrics) that can be used
by agencies to monitor trends.

Table 2.2 Example Congestion Performance Metrics

Performance Metric Definition/Comments
Throughput
Vehicle-Miles of Travel
Vehicle-miles of travel are the number of vehicles on the system
Truck Vehicle-Miles of
times the length of highway they travel. Person-miles of travel is used
Travel
to adjust for the fact that some vehicles carry more than a driver.
Person-Miles of Travel
Average Congestion
Conditions
Average Travel Speed The average speed of vehicles measured between two points.
The time it takes for vehicles to travel between two points. Both travel
Travel Time time and average travel speed are good measures for specific trips or
within a corridor.
Number and percent of
trips with travel times >
(1.5 * average travel
time)
Thresholds of 1.5 and 2.0 times the average may be adjusted to local
conditions; additional thresholds may also be defined.
Number and percent of
trips with travel times >
(2.0 * average travel
time)
Ratio of actual travel time to an ideal (free-flow) travel time. Free-
Travel Time Index
flow conditions on freeways are travel times at a speed of 60 mph.
Total Delay (vehicle-
hours and person-hours)

Bottleneck ("Recurring")
Delay is the number of hours spent in traffic beyond what would
Delay (vehicle-hours)
normally occur if travel could be done at the ideal speed.
Traffic incident Delay
(vehicle-hours)
Determining delay by "source of congestion" requires detailed
information on the nature and extent of events (incidents, weather,
Work Zone Delay
and work zones) as well as measured travel conditions.
(vehicle-hours)
Delay per person and delay per vehicle require knowledge of how
Weather Delay (vehicle-
many vehicles and persons are using the roadway.
hours)

Ramp delay (vehicle-

hours and person-hours;
where ramp metering
exists)

Delay per Person

Delay per Vehicle

Percent of VMT with
Average Speeds < 45
mph
VMT is vehicle-miles of travel, a common measure of highway usage.
Percent of VMT with
Average Speeds < 30
mph
Percent of Day with
Average Speeds < 45
mph
These measures capture the duration of congestion.
Percent of Day with
Average Speeds < 30
mph
Reliability
The 95th percentile of a distribution is the number above which only 5
Planning Time
percent of the total distribution remains. That is, only 5 percent of the
(computed for actual
observations exceed the 95th percentile. For commuters, this means
travel time and the
that for 19 out of 20 workdays in a month, their trips will take no
Travel Time Index)
more than the Planning Time.
Planning Time Index
Ratio of the 95th percentile ("Planning Time") to the "ideal" or "free
(computed for actual
flow" travel time (the travel time that occurs when very light traffic is
travel time and the
present, about 60 mph on most freeways).
Travel Time Index)
Represents the extra time (buffer) most travelers add to their average
Buffer Index
travel time when planning trips.
For a specific road
section and time period:
95th percentile travel time (minutes) - average travel time (minutes)
Buffer Index (%) = average travel time (minutes)

2.3.3 Methods Used to Develop Congestion Performance Measures

Figure 2.9 shows how travel times can be developed from data, analytic methods, or a
combination. Clearly, the best methods are based on direct measurement of travel times, either
through probe vehicles or the more traditional "floating car" method, in which data collectors
drive specific routes. However, both of these have drawbacks: probe vehicles currently are not
widely deployed and the floating car method suffers from extremely small samples because it is
expensive and time consuming. Further, since many performance measures require traffic
volumes as well, additional collection effort is required to develop the full suite of performance
measures. Use of ITS roadway equipment addresses these issues, but this equipment does not
measure travel time directly; ITS spot speeds must be converted to travel times first. (The
Appendix provides a description of the equipment used to collect these data.) Other indirect
methods of travel time estimation use traffic volumes as a basis, either those that are directly
measured or developed with travel demand forecasting models. Two examples of how FHWA is
developing travel times with these methods follow.

Figure 2.9 Measuring Travel Time Is the Basis for Congestion Measures

Monthly Urban Congestion Report

Since 2000, FHWA has been assembling volume and speed data from urban traffic management
centers. These data are primarily from ITS roadway equipment, although some cities are
exploring the use of probe vehicles to capture travel time. Data from 29 cities are currently
obtained annually from participating traffic management centers. Some of these cities are now
providing data on a monthly basis, and these monthly data are used to track citywide trends
month-by-month. Figure 2.10 shows an example of how these data are presented. As more cities
participate—and as surveillance coverage increases in existing cities—these data will provide a
way for FHWA to monitor monthly changes in congestion. (Section 3.0 presents additional
analysis of the data used in this program.)

Figure 2.10 Example of the Newly Designed Urban Congestion Report Used by FHWA to
Track Monthly Changes in Congestion
Freight Performance Measurement Initiative

The tracking of congestion within cities is dependent on having an intensive system of

surveillance to collect vehicle speeds (through roadway detectors) or travel times (using toll-
tagged probe vehicles) at closely spaced points on the roadway. Outside of major metropolitan
areas, such surveillance does not exist. To complement urban congestion measures and get a
better picture of total system performance, FHWA is developing a system to monitor truck travel
on intercity corridors that have significant freight volumes. FHWA is partnering with the
American Transportation Research Institute and the trucking industry to use existing satellite-
based systems that track truck movement for freight and fleet management purposes to support
transport system performance measurement. Additionally, FHWA is exploring using similar
methods to measure delay at major international border crossings. Figure 2.11 shows an example
of how this system has been applied to develop travel times on 10-mile stretches of Interstate 5.

Figure 2.11 Interstate 5 Average Travel Rate for Trucks: 10-Mile Segments
April-June 2004, 3:00-7:00 p.m.
2.4 CONGESTION'S CONSEQUENCES

The nation's local, regional, and national transportation systems play a vital role in creating
access to goods and services which sustain and grow our nation's economy. Planners and
economic development experts recognize that congestion is an economic development issue
because it thwarts business attraction and expansion, and reduces the quality of life for residents.

Transportation system users have developed strategies to deal with increased congestion and
reduced reliability. In the short term, we might change our mode or time of travel. Over the
longer run, congestion might influence our decisions about where we live and work. The same
holds true for businesses. These types of adjustments might reduce the impacts of congestion to
us, but they still do not entirely eliminate the economic consequences for a region.

Trucking Impacts. Congestion means longer travel times and less reliable pick-up and delivery
times for truck operators. To compensate, motor carriers typically add vehicles and drivers and
extend their hours of operation, eventually passing the extra costs along to shippers and
consumers. Research on the trucking industry has shown that shippers and carriers value transit
time in the range of $25 to $200 per hour, depending on the product being carried. The cost of
unexpected delay can add another 20 percent to 250 percent.11

Impacts on Businesses. Congestion increases the costs of delivering goods and services,
because of the increased travel times and operating costs incurred on the transportation system.
Less obviously, there may be are other costs, such as:

 The costs of remaining open for longer hours to process late deliveries;
 Penalties or lost business revenue associated with missed schedules;
 Costs of spoilage for time-sensitive, perishable deliveries;
 Costs of maintaining greater inventory to cover the undependability of deliveries;
 Costs of reverting to less efficient production scheduling processes; and
 The additional costs incurred because of access to reduced markets for labor, customer,
and delivery areas.

The business value of time delay and market access act together to affect the profitability and
revenue potential associated with doing business in a state or region. When one area is affected
by congestion more than others, the relative competitiveness of these areas also shifts. The result,
then, is that businesses tend to stagnate or move out of areas with high operating costs and
limited markets, while they locate and expand in areas with lower operating costs and broader
market connections. The magnitude of these changes varies by industry, based on how strongly
the industry's total operating cost is affected by transportation factors. The evidence seems to
indicate that regional economies that are fostered by clusters or "agglomerations" of many
interrelated firms are better positioned to counter the higher operating costs due to congestion
than economies that are not.

Household Impacts. Households have both financial budgets and what is termed "time budgets"
that are both impacted by congestion. Households plan their activities around the available time
budget as well as around their financial budgets. As vehicle operating and maintenance costs
increase with rising congestion, the budget for some types of activities or expenditures decreases.
The perceived "quality of life" of a neighborhood is diminished as well, when the safety,
reliability and the convenience of the transportation system decreases.
Regional Impacts. Regional economies are affected by these household and business-specific
impacts. Diminished cost competitiveness and market growth opportunities are tantamount to a
reduced ability to retain, grow, and attract businesses. Additionally, the redistribution of business
and household activity to outlying areas and the direct delay for trips that are not diverted or
otherwise changed both lead to decreases in air quality, increases in public infrastructure
investment requirements, and potential impacts on health and quality of life factors.12

5. Providing a Highway System with Reliable Travel Times, Future Strategic Highway
Research Plan Area 3, Transportation Research Board, September 2003,
http://www4.trb.org/ trb/newshrp.nsf/web/progress_reports?OpenDocument.
6. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as "secondary crashes"—crashes that would
not have occurred unless an earlier one in close proximity occurred. Possible causes of
secondary crashes include rapidly growing queues caused by the first crash and
rubbernecking by motorists.
7. Average Annual Daily Traffic – the amount of traffic that moves on the average day.
Computed as simple average of all 24-hour traffic throughout the year. The AADT-to-
capacity ratio is similar to the volume-to-capacity used in many transportation analyses,
except the former uses 24-hour total traffic while the later uses hourly traffic.
8. Cohen, Harry, and Southworth, Frank, On the Measurement and Valuation of Travel
Time Variability Due to Incidents on Freeways, Journal of Transportation Statistics,
Volume 2, Number 2, December 1999, http://www.bts.gov/jts/V2N2/vol2_n2_toc.html.
9. http://traffic.houstontranstar.org/layers/.
10. More detail on monitoring comprehensive transportation system performance may be
found in: A Guidebook for Performance-Based Transportation Planning, NCHRP Report
446, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 2000.
11. Federal Highway Administration, Freight Transportation: Improvements and the
Economy; http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freight/freight_analysis/improve_econ/.
12. Weisbrod, Glen, Vary, Don, and Treyz, George, Economic Implications of Congestion,
NCHRP Report 463, Transportation research Board, 2001.

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