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Exploring Wind Energy
Student Guide

SECONDARY
 Introduction to Wind
Albedo
What is Wind?
Wind is simply air in motion. It is produced by the uneven heating of Thin clouds
the Earth’s surface by energy from the sun. Since the Earth’s surface 30% to 50%
is made of very different types of land and water, it absorbs the sun’s
radiant energy at different rates. Much of this energy is converted
into heat as it is absorbed by land areas, bodies of water, and the air Thick clouds
over these formations. 70% to 80%

Snow
Physics of Wind Forest
5% to 15%
50% to 90%
Asphalt
The energy in wind comes from the sun. When the sun shines, some 5% to 10%
of its light or radiant energy reaches the Earth’s surface. The Earth
Dark roof
near the Equator receives more of the sun’s energy than the North 10% to 15%
and South Poles.
Some parts of the Earth absorb more radiant energy than others.
Some parts reflect more of the sun’s rays back into the air. The
fraction of light striking a surface that gets reflected is called albedo.
Light roof Water
35% to 50% 5% to 80%
The Beaufort Scale (varies with sun angle)
The Earth’s surface and objects reflect different amounts of
At the age of 12, Francis sunlight.
Beaufort joined the British
Royal Navy. For more than
twenty years, he sailed the BEAUFORT SCALE OF WIND SPEED
oceans and studied the BEAUFORT WIND SPEED
wind, which was the main NAME OF WIND LAND CONDITIONS
NUMBER (MPH)
power source for the Navy’s 0 Calm Smoke rises vertically Less than  1
fleet. In 1805, he created
Direction of wind shown by smoke drift
a scale to rate the power 1 Light air 1-3
but not by wind vanes
of the wind based on
observations of common Wind felt on face, leaves rustle, ordinary
2 Light breeze 4-7
things around him rather wind vane moved by wind
than instruments. Leaves and small twigs in constant
3 Gentle breeze 8 - 12
motion, wind extends light flag
The Beaufort Scale ranks winds from 0–12 based on how
Wind raises dust and loose paper, small
strong they are, with each wind given a name from calm 4 Moderate breeze 13 - 18
branches move
to hurricane. The Beaufort Scale can be used to estimate
the speed of the wind. 5 Fresh breeze Small trees and leaves start to sway 19 - 24
Large branches in motion, whistling in
6 Strong breeze 25 - 31
Some types of land absorb more radiant energy than wires, umbrellas used with difficulty
others. Dark forests and pavement absorb sunlight while Whole trees in motion, inconvenient to
7 Near gale 32 - 38
light desert sands, glaciers, and water reflect it. Land areas walk against wind
usually absorb more solar (radiant) energy than water in 8 Gale Twigs break from trees, difficult to walk 39- 46
lakes and oceans. Slight structural damage occurs,
9 Strong gale 47 - 54
When the Earth’s surface absorbs the sun’s energy, it turns shingles and slates removed from roof
the radiant energy into thermal energy. This thermal Trees uprooted, considerable structural
10 Storm 55 - 63
energy on the Earth’s surface warms the air above it. damage occurs
11 Violent storm Widespread damage 64- 72
12 Hurricane Widespread damage, devastation Greater than 72

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

2 Exploring Wind Energy

 The air over the Equator gets warmer than the air over the poles.
The air over the desert gets warmer than the air in the mountains.
The air over land usually gets warmer than the air over water. As
Warm, Less Dense Air Cool, Dense Air
air warms, it expands. Its molecules get farther apart. The warm air
is less dense than the air around it and rises into the atmosphere.
Cooler, denser air nearby flows in to take its place. This moving air is
what we call wind. It is caused by the uneven heating of the Earth’s
surface.

Global Wind Patterns

The Equator receives the sun’s most direct rays. Here, air is heated
and rises, leaving low-pressure areas. Moving to about 30 degrees
north and south of the Equator, the warm air from the Equator
begins to cool and sink. The trade winds, westerlies, and easterlies
flow around the world and cause many of the Earth’s weather
patterns. ƒƒ Prevailing Westerlies
Between 30 and 60 degrees latitude, the air moving toward the
ƒƒ Trade Winds poles appears to curve to the east. Because winds are named for the
Most of this cooling air moves back toward the Equator. The rest direction from which they blow, these winds are called prevailing
of the air flows toward the North and South Poles. The air streams westerlies. Prevailing westerlies in the Northern Hemisphere cause
moving toward the Equator are called trade winds—warm, steady much of the weather across the United States and Canada. This
breezes that blow almost all the time. The Coriolis Effect, caused means in the U.S., we can look to the weather west of us to see what
by the rotation of the Earth, makes the trade winds appear to be our weather will be like in the coming days.
curving to the west.
ƒƒ Polar Easterlies
ƒƒ Doldrums At about 60 degrees latitude in both hemispheres, the prevailing
The trade winds coming from the south and the north meet near westerlies join with polar easterlies. The polar easterlies form when
the Equator. As the trade winds meet, they turn upward as the air the air over the poles cools. This cool air sinks and spreads over the
warms, so there are no steady surface winds. This area of calm is surface. As the air flows away from the poles, it curves to the west by
called the doldrums. the Coriolis Effect. Because these winds begin in the east, they are
called polar easterlies.

Global Wind Patterns

The arrows in the cells show

Warmer air rises
the direction of air circulation
POLAR EASTERLIES in the atmosphere.

The large arrows show the PREVAILING WESTERLIES

direction of surface wind flow. Cooler air descends

NE TRADE WINDS

Warmer air rises

EQUATOR - DOLDRUMS

SE TRADE WINDS

Cooler air descends

PREVAILING WESTERLIES

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 3
 ƒƒ Jet Streams
The highest winds are the jet streams. They are formed where the Jet Streams
other wind systems meet. The jet streams flow far above the Earth
where there is nothing to block their paths. These fast moving “rivers Polar Jet
of air” pull air around the planet, from west to east, carrying weather
systems with them. Subtropical Jet
These global winds—trade winds, prevailing westerlies, polar Equator
easterlies, and the jet streams—flow around the world and cause
Subtropical Jet
most of the Earth’s weather patterns.
Polar Jet

Local Winds ƒƒ Mountain and Valley Winds

Local winds form when land heats up faster in one place than another.
The wind blows all over the planet, but certain areas have land A mountain slope, for example, might warm up faster than the valley
features that can make the wind blow faster or more frequently or below. The warm air is lighter and rises up the slope. Cold air rushes
slower and less frequently. Some places have great variation in wind in near the base of the mountain, causing wind to sweep through the
from day to night, while other areas have great seasonal variation valley. This is called a valley wind.
from summer to winter. Winds can blow fast and strong across
prairies or on mountains or coasts. Local winds can change direction At night, the wind can change direction. After the sun sets, the
and speed frequently if land surfaces are uneven or if forests or mountain slope cools off quickly. Warm air is pushed out of the way
buildings are in their path. as cool air sinks, causing wind to blow down toward the valley. This is
called a mountain wind, or katabatic winds.

Average Wind Speed at 80 Meters Altitude

Average Wind Speed at 80 Meters
Faster than 9.5 m/s (faster than 21.3 mph)
7.6 to 9.4 m/s (17 to 21.0 mph)
5.6 to 7.5 m/s (12.5 to 16.8 mph)
0 to 5.5 m/s (0 to 12.3 mph)

Data: NREL

Data: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

4 Exploring Wind Energy
 MOUNTAINS AND VALLEYS MOUNTAIN RIDGE WIND TURBINES

OFFSHORE WIND TURBINES

When katabatic winds blow through narrow valleys between

mountains, the speed of the wind increases. This is called the tunnel
effect. Katabatic winds sometimes have special names throughout
the world. In the United States, there are two—the Chinook is
an easterly wind in the Rocky Mountains and the Santa Ana is an
easterly wind in southern California.

ƒƒ Sea and Land Breezes

During the day along the coast, the land and water absorb radiant
energy from the sun. They do not, however, change temperature at
the same rate because they are made of substances with different
specific heat values. Specific heat is the amount of heat energy
needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one
degree Celsius. Water has the highest specific heat of common Because of the winds associated with mountainous and coastal regions,
substances, which means it takes more energy to increase the wind farms are more economical in those locations.
temperature of water than to raise the temperature of the same
quantity of other substances.
Because of its lower specific heat, land heats faster and cools more Sea Breeze
rapidly than water, and the air over the land also heats more rapidly
than air over the water. The heated air over the land rises, creating an
area of low pressure. The air over the sea is cooler, creating an area of
higher pressure. Winds flow from areas of high pressure to areas of
low pressure, thus the cooler air in the high-pressure area over the
sea moves to the area of low pressure over land. This is called a sea
breeze because the wind is coming from the sea toward the land.
At night, the land cools more rapidly than the water, which means the
sea is now warmer than the shore, and the air over the sea becomes
warmer than the air over the land. The warm, rising sea air creates
an area of low pressure, and the cooler air over the land creates an Land Breeze
area of higher pressure. The air again moves from higher to lower
pressure, from land to sea. This breeze is called a land breeze.

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 5
 Measuring Wind Direction and Speed
ƒƒ Wind Direction WIND VANE ANEMOMETER
A weather vane, or wind vane, is used to show the direction of the
wind. A wind vane points toward the source of the wind. Some
locations such as airports use windsocks to show the direction in
which the wind is blowing.
Wind direction is reported as the direction from which the wind
blows, not the direction toward which the wind moves. A north wind
blows from the north toward the south.

ƒƒ Wind Velocity
Wind speed is important because the amount of electricity that wind
turbines can generate is determined in large part by wind speed, or
velocity.
A doubling of wind velocity from the low range into the optimal
range of a turbine can result in eight times the amount of power
produced. This huge difference helps wind companies decide where
to site wind turbines.
WIND DIRECTION
Wind power, measured in watts, is determined by air density, the
area swept by the turbine blades, and wind velocity, according to the
following formula:

Power = ½ ρAV3

Watts = ½ (kg/m3) x (m2) x (m/s)3

ρ = air density; 1.2 kg/ m3 at r = radius
standard ambient temperature π = 3.1416
and pressure
m = meter
A = swept area (A = πr 2)
s = second
V = velocity

Wind speed can be measured using an instrument called an

anemometer. One type of anemometer is a device with three arms
that spin on top of a shaft.
Each arm has a cup on its end. The cups catch the wind and spin the Wind direction is reported as the direction from which the wind
blows, not the direction toward which the wind moves.
shaft. The harder the wind blows, the faster the shaft spins. A device
inside counts the number of rotations per minute and converts
that figure into miles per hour (mph) or meters per second (m/s). A Larger values of wind shear exist near fronts, cyclones, and jet
display on a recording device called a data logger shows the speed streams. Wind shear in an unstable atmospheric layer can result in
of the wind. There are also digital anemometers that measure wind turbulence.
speed. Turbulence is defined as a variation in the speed and direction of the
wind in very short time periods (1 second) that results in random,
Wind Shear and Turbulence disordered movement of air molecules. It occurs when the flow of
When wind moves across the Earth’s surface, it is slowed by friction wind is disturbed, and the direction or speed is changed. When wind
as it runs into and flows around obstacles on the surface or meets mixes warm and cold air together in the atmosphere, turbulence
other air masses. Friction also affects the direction of the wind. is also created. This turbulence is sometimes felt as a bumpy ride
Higher in the atmosphere, away from the Earth, the wind meets during an airplane flight.
fewer obstacles, and therefore less friction is produced. Winds there Wind shear and turbulence are important factors for wind turbine
are smooth and fast. engineers to study because they can affect the operation and output
Wind shear is defined as a change in wind speed and/or wind of turbines, and even cause them to fail. Studying the wind shear
direction at different heights in the atmosphere or within a short and turbulence in an area often tells engineers more about how
distance. It can be in a horizontal direction, a vertical direction, or high to place the tower of a turbine to get the best wind conditions.
in both directions. Some wind shear is common in the atmosphere.

6 Exploring Wind Energy

 e Energy
What is Energy? ƒƒ Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is motion—the motion of waves, electrons, atoms,
Wind is an energy source, but what exactly is energy? Energy makes molecules, substances, and objects. There are several forms of kinetic
change; it does things for us. We use energy to move cars along the energy, including:
road and boats over the water. We use energy to bake a cake in the
oven and keep ice frozen in the freezer. We need energy to light our ƒ
ƒRadiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse
homes and keep them at a comfortable temperature. Energy helps waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays, and
our bodies grow and allows our minds to think. Scientists define radio waves. Light is one type of radiant energy. Solar energy is an
energy as the ability to do work. example of radiant energy.

Energy is found in different forms, such as light, heat, motion, sound, ƒ

ƒThermal energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substances—
and electricity. There are many forms of energy, but they can all be the vibration and movement of atoms and molecules within
put into two general categories: potential and kinetic. substances. The faster molecules and atoms vibrate and move
within substances, the more energy they possess and the hotter
ƒƒ Potential Energy they become. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.
Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position. There ƒ
ƒMotion energy is the movement of objects and substances from
are several forms of potential energy, including: one place to another. Objects and substances move when a force is
ƒ
ƒChemical energy is energy that is stored in the bonds of atoms and applied according to Newton’s Laws of Motion. Wind is an example
molecules that holds these particles together. Biomass, petroleum, of motion energy.
natural gas, and propane are examples of stored chemical energy. ƒ
ƒSound energy is the movement of energy through substances in
ƒ
ƒNuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. The longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced
energy can be released when the nuclei are combined (fusion) or when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate and the
split apart (fission). In both fission and fusion, mass is converted into energy is transferred through the substance in a wave. Echoes and
energy, according to Einstein’s Theory, E = mc2. music are examples of sound energy.
ƒ
ƒElastic energy is energy stored in objects by the application ƒ
ƒElectrical energy is the movement of electrons. Lightning and
of a force. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are electricity are examples of electrical energy.
examples of elastic energy.
ƒ
ƒGravitational potential energy is the energy of position or place. Conservation of Energy
A rock resting at the top of a hill contains gravitational potential
Conservation of energy is not just saving energy. The Law of
energy. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir behind a dam, is
Conservation of Energy says that energy is neither created nor
an example of gravitational potential energy.
destroyed. When we use energy, it doesn’t disappear. We simply
change it from one form of energy into another. A car engine burns
gasoline, converting the chemical energy in gasoline into motion
energy. Solar cells change radiant energy into electrical energy.
Potential and Kinetic Energy Energy changes form, but the total amount of energy in the universe
stays the same.

Potential Kinetic Energy Transformations

Energy Energy

HILL Chemical Motion Chemical Motion

Radiant Chemical Electrical Heat

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 7
 Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency is the amount of useful energy you get from a Efficiency of a Thermal Power Plant
system compared to the energy input. A perfect, energy-efficient Most thermal power plants are about 35 percent efficient. Of the 100 units of energy
machine would change all the energy put in it into useful work—an that go into a plant, 65 units are lost as one form of energy is converted to other forms.
impossible dream. Converting one form of energy into another form The remaining 35 units of energy leave the plant to do usable work.
always involves a loss of usable energy, often as waste heat. ELECTRICITY
THERMAL ENERGY TRANSMISSION
Most energy transformations are not very efficient. The human body FUEL BURNING
is a good example. Your body is like a machine, and the fuel for your ELECTRICAL
FUEL SUPPLY ELECTRICITY GENERATION ENERGY
machine is food. Food gives you the energy to move, breathe, and 3 STEAM LINE
GENERATOR
think. Your body is very inefficient at converting food into useful 100 units of BOILER
energy go in TURBINE SWITCHYARD
work. Most energy in your body is released as wasted heat. 2 5 6
4
CHEMICAL
ENERGY
Sources of Energy 1
FEED
WATER CONDENSER 35 units of
energy
We use many different sources to meet our energy needs every MOTION ENERGY come out
day. They are usually classified into two groups—renewable and Fuel Sources
nonrenewable.
Wind is energy in motion—kinetic energy—and it is a renewable
energy source. Along with wind, renewable energy sources include Petroleum Coal Natural Gas Biomass Uranium
biomass, geothermal energy, hydropower, and solar energy. They are How a Thermal Power Plant Works
called renewable sources because they are replenished in a short
1. Fuel is fed into a boiler, where it is burned (except for uranium which is
time. Day after day, the sun shines, the wind blows, and the rivers fissioned) to release thermal energy.
flow. Renewable sources only make up about nine percent of the
2. Water is piped into the boiler and heated, turning it into steam.
United States’ energy portfolio. We mainly use renewable energy
sources to make electricity. 3. The steam travels at high pressure through a steam line.
In the United States, more than 90 percent of our energy comes 4. The high pressure steam turns a turbine, which spins a shaft.
from nonrenewable energy sources. Coal, petroleum, natural 5. Inside the generator, the shaft spins a ring of magnets inside coils of copper wire.
gas, propane, and uranium are nonrenewable energy sources. They This creates an electric field, producing electricity.
are used to make electricity, heat our homes, move our cars, and 6. Electricity is sent to a switchyard, where a transformer increases the voltage,
manufacture all kinds of products. They are called nonrenewable allowing it to travel through the electric grid.
because their supplies are limited. Petroleum, or crude oil, for
example, was formed hundreds of millions of years ago from the
remains of ancient sea plants and animals. We cannot make more
crude oil in a short time.

U.S. Consumption of Energy by Source, 2015

Nonrenewable Sources 90.07%

Renewable Sources
0% 10%
9.73%
20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
PERCENTAGE OF UNITED STATES ENERGY USE

Nonrenewable Energy Sources and Percentage of Total Energy Consumption

*Propane consumption
is included in petroleum
and natural gas figures.

PETROLEUM 36.57% NATURAL GAS 28.97% COAL 15.97% URANIUM 8.56% PROPANE
Uses: transportation, Uses: heating, Uses: electricity, Uses: electricity Uses: heating,
manufacturing manufacturing, electricity manufacturing manufacturing
- Includes propane - Includes propane

Renewable Energy Sources and Percentage of Total Energy Consumption

BIOMASS 4.86% HYDROPOWER 2.38% WIND 1.83% SOLAR 0.44% GEOTHERMAL 0.22%
Uses: heating, electricity, Uses: electricity Uses: electricity Uses: heating, electricity Uses: heating, electricity
transportation
Data: Energy Information Administration
*Total does not add to 100% due to independent rounding.

8 Exploring Wind Energy

 Electricity
Electricity is a secondary energy source. We use primary energy
sources, including coal, natural gas, petroleum, uranium, solar, wind,
biomass, and hydropower, to convert chemical, nuclear, radiant,
U.S. Electricity Net Generation, 2015
and motion energy into electrical energy. In the United States, coal Coal 33.08%
generates 33.08 percent of our electricity. Just over two decades ago,
wind contributed less than one-tenth of a percent to the electricity Natural Gas 32.57%
portfolio. Wind is still a small percentage of electrical power Uranium 19.45%
generation; however, it is the fastest-growing source of electricity. NONRENEWABLE
Since 2010, wind energy capacity in the United States has grown by Petroleum 0.70%
over 80 percent and capacity continues to increase. Other 0.64%
Most people do not usually think of how electricity is generated. We
cannot see electricity like we see the sun. We cannot hold it like we
Hydropower 6.00%
hold coal. We know when it is working, but it is hard to know exactly Wind 4.66%
what it is. Before we can understand electricity, we need to learn
Biomass 1.57% RENEWABLE
about atoms.
Solar 0.94%
Atomic Structure Geothermal 0.41%
Atoms are composed of three particles, protons, neutrons, and
*Total does not equal 100% due to independent rounding.
electrons. Protons and neutrons occupy a small space at the center ** Other: non-biogenic waste, fossil fuel gases.
of an atom called the nucleus, which contains most of the mass of Data: Energy Information Administration
the atom. The electrons surround the nucleus in clouds whose shapes
depend upon the type of atom present. Protons and neutrons are
about equal in mass. The mass of a single proton is 1.67 x 10-24 grams.
This may seem small but the mass of an electron is 9.1 x 10-28 grams or Atom
1/1836 that of the proton. If the nucleus were the size of a tennis ball,
the atom would be several kilometers in size. This means that atoms PROTON
are mostly empty space.
Atoms are held together by two forces. Electrons are held in place by NUCLEUS
an attractive electrical force. The positively charged protons in the NEUTRON
nucleus and negatively charged electrons are attracted to each other
ELECTRON
by electrical forces. Within the nucleus, a much stronger nuclear force
of attraction holds the protons and neutrons together. This strong
nuclear force overcomes the electrical force of repulsion between
protons. A neutral atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons.
The neutrons carry no charge, and their number can vary. An atom
has a delicate balance of forces among the particles to keep it stable.

Elements
An element is a substance in which all of the atoms are identical.
The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of atom or
which element it is. A stable atom of hydrogen, for example, usually
contains one proton and one electron with no neutrons. Every
stable atom of carbon has six protons, six electrons, and typically six
neutrons.

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 9
 Electrons
Electrons are located in areas of probability sometimes called energy
levels. The energy level closest to the nucleus can hold up to two Turbine Generator
electrons. The next energy level can hold up to eight. Additional
energy levels can hold up to 32 electrons.
TURBINE
The electrons in the energy levels closest to the nucleus have a strong
force of attraction to the protons. Sometimes, the electrons in the TURBINE SPINS SHAFT
outermost energy level—the valence energy level—do not. In this
case, these electrons (the valence electrons) easily leave their energy
levels. At other times, there is a strong attraction between valence Spinning Coil of Wire
electrons and the protons. Extra electrons from outside the atom
can be attracted and enter a valence energy level. If an atom loses
electrons it becomes a positively charged ion or cation. If the atom

MAGNET
MAGNET
gains electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion or anion.

Magnets
In most objects, the molecules are arranged randomly. They are
North South
scattered evenly throughout the object. Magnets are different— Pole Pole
they are made of molecules that have north- and south-seeking
DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
poles. Each molecule is really a tiny magnet. The molecules in a
magnet are arranged so that most of the north-seeking poles point in
TO TRANSMISSION LINES
one direction and most of the south-seeking poles point in the other.
This creates a magnetic field around a magnet—an imbalance in the
forces between the ends of a magnet. A magnet is labeled with north
(N) and south (S) poles. The magnetic field in a magnet flows from the TURBINE GENERATOR
north pole to the south pole.

Electromagnetism
A magnetic field can produce electricity. In fact, magnetism and
electricity are really two inseparable aspects of one phenomenon
called electromagnetism. Every time there is a change in a magnetic
field, an electric field is produced. Every time there is a change in an
electric field, a magnetic field is produced.
We can use this relationship to produce electricity. Some metals, like
copper, have electrons that are loosely held. They can be pushed
from their shells by moving magnets. If a coil of copper wire is moved
in a magnetic field, or if magnets are moved around a coil of copper
wire, an electric current is generated in the wire.
Electric current can also be used to produce magnets. Around every
current-carrying wire is a magnetic field, created by the uniform
Image courtesy of Siemens
motion of electrons in the wire.

Producing Electricity
Power plants use huge turbine generators to generate the electricity
that we use in our homes and businesses. Power plants use many
fuels to spin a turbine. They can burn coal, oil, natural gas, or biomass
to make steam to spin a turbine. They can split atoms of uranium to
heat water into steam. They can also use the power of rushing water
from a dam or the energy in the wind to spin the turbine.

10 Exploring Wind Energy

 The Grid
Once electricity is produced, it is distributed to consumers through
the electric grid. The grid consists of power generators, powerlines
To overcome the challenge of distributing electricity quickly and
that transmit electricity, and the components that make it all work,
efficiently, not only for renewable energy sources, but also for
including substations, meters, homes, and businesses.
nonrenewable sources, steps are being taken to upgrade the U.S.
In the United States, there are nearly 160,000 miles of high-voltage electricity grid to a “smart grid.” Using new technology the smart
electric transmission lines. They take electricity produced at power grid will help to save money, operate reliably, reduce its impact on
plants to transformers that step up the voltage so that it can travel the environment, and handle the growing power needs of today and
more efficiently along the grid. Before entering your home, another tomorrow.
transformer steps down the voltage so that it can be used to operate
your lights, appliances, and other electrical needs.
One challenge facing renewable energy sources, including wind, is Transporting
Transporting WindWind Energy
Electricity
that the most efficient spots for producing electricity are often in
Transmission line
secluded or rural areas. Most traditional power plants are built near carries electricity
long distances Distribution line
population centers and the fuel source is transported to the plant. carries electricity
This allows the electricity produced to be quickly and economically to house

transmitted to consumers. In order to distribute the energy

produced from some renewable sources, the electricity must travel
farther distances. The longer the electricity has to travel the more Transformer Neighborhood Transformer on pole
steps up voltage transformer steps down voltage
transmission lines are needed and the more energy is lost (as heat) for transmission steps down voltage before entering house
Wind generates
along the way. electricity

The Continental U.S. Electric Grid

High-Voltage Transmission Lines

Data: Federal Emergency Management Agency

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 11
 Harnessing the Wind’s Energy
Evolution of the Windmill POSTMILL SMOCKMILL
Before we understood electricity, people were capturing the wind
to do work. A mill is a machine used to shape materials or perform
other mechanical operations. For many years, wind was the power
source for mills of all kinds. The earliest European windmills, built
in the 1200s, were called postmills. Their purpose was to grind
grain between millstones. This is how windmills got their name.
Millwrights built postmills out of wood. The entire windmill could
be rotated when the wind changed directions. It was the miller’s job
to rotate the postmill.
In the 1300s, smockmills were invented. The sails are attached to the
cap (the top of the windmill) and that is the only part that rotates. TOWER WINDMILL DRAINAGE WINDMILL
The miller still had to physically rotate the cap into the wind when
it changed directions. These mills were bigger, heavier, and stronger
since the building didn’t move. In the 1500s, tower windmills
were built in Spain, Greece, and the Mediterranean Islands. Tower
windmills were small and made out of stone. They had many small,
lightweight sails, which worked well in the lighter winds of southern
Europe. They were used to pump water and grind grain. The Dutch
began to use drainage windmills in the 1600s to pump water that
flooded the land below sea level. Using windmills to dry out the
land, they doubled the size of their country.
Windmills made work easier and faster. In addition to grinding grain,
windmills in the 1700s were used to grind cocoa, gunpowder, and vital in the railroad industry to provide water at railroad stations. A
mustard. Hulling mills removed the outer layer of rice and barley large windmill could lift water 150 feet. It worked in wind speeds
kernels. Oil mills pressed oil from seeds. Glue mills processed as low as six miles per hour. Farmers built homemade windmills or
cowhides and animal bones. Fulling mills pounded wool into felt. purchased them from traveling salesmen. These windmills provided
Paint mills ground pigments for paint as well as herbs and chemicals enough water for homes and small vegetable gardens. Ranchers
for medicines and poisons. used windmills to pump water for their livestock to drink. In addition
to pumping water, windmills in the American West performed many
Windmills were used for other work, too. Miners used windmills to tasks and made life easier. Windmills were used to saw lumber, run
blow fresh air into deep mine shafts. Windmills provided power to the cotton gin, hoist grain into silos, grind cattle feed, shell corn,
saw logs at sawmills and create paper at papermills. Wind power crush ore, and even run a printing press.
was an important part of the first Industrial Revolution in Europe.
In the 1890s, Poul LaCour, an inventor in Denmark, invented a wind
turbine generator with large wooden sails that could generate
American Windmills electricity. At this time, lights and small appliances were available
As Europeans came to America in the mid-1600s, they brought their in America, but there were no power lines in the West to transmit
windmill designs with them and windmills were a common sight in electricity. Small-scale windmills became popular in rural areas as
the colonies. In the 1800s, settlers began to explore the West. While people connected their windmills to generators to produce small
there was plenty of space, they soon discovered that the land was amounts of electricity for their farm or ranch. They could power
too dry for farming. A new style of windmill, one that pumped water, lights, the radio, and charge batteries.
was invented. Wind power became less popular as power plants and transmission
In 1854, a mechanic, Daniel Halladay, designed the first windmill lines were built across America. By the 1940s, fossil fuels became
specifically for life in the West. The Halladay Windmill, which is still in an inexpensive source of power generation. Using wind power to
use today, sits on a tall wooden tower, has more than a dozen thin generate electricity was almost abandoned. After the oil crisis of the
wooden blades, and turns itself into the wind. This American-style 1970s, however, the use of wind power began to increase. Scientists
windmill is less powerful than the old European models, but is built and engineers designed new wind machines that could harness
to pump water, not grind grain. the energy in the wind more efficiently and economically than
early models. Today, wind is one of the fastest growing sources of
As the West was settled, railroads were built across the Great Plains. electricity in the world—increasing in capacity by 358 percent since
Steam locomotives burned coal for fuel. They needed thousands of 2008.
gallons of water to produce steam to run the engines. Windmills were
12 Exploring Wind Energy
 Modern Wind Machines
Today, wind is harnessed and converted into electricity using
Wind Turbine Diagram
machines called wind turbines. The amount of electricity that a

Blade
turbine produces depends on its size and speed of the wind. Most
large wind turbines have the same basic parts: blades, a tower, and
a gear box. These parts work together to convert the wind’s kinetic
energy into motion energy that generates electricity. The process Rotor Hub Low-speed shaft
Low-sp
works like this:
Gear box
1. The moving air is caught by the blades and spins the rotor.
High-speed shaft
2. The rotor is connected to a low-speed shaft. When the rotor
spins, the shaft turns.
3. The low-speed shaft is connected to a gear box. Inside the gear
box, a large slow-moving gear turns a small gear quickly.
Nacelle

de
Bla
4. The small gear turns another shaft at high speed.
5. The high-speed shaft is connected to a generator. As the high- Tower
speed shaft turns the generator, it produces electricity. Generator
Gene
Generaato
t r
6. The electric current is sent through cables down the turbine
tower to a transformer that changes the voltage of the current
before it is sent out on transmission lines.
Wind turbines are most efficient when they are built in an area where
winds blow consistently at a minimum of 8-16 miles per hour (3.5-
7 meters per second). Faster winds generate more electricity. High
above ground, winds are stronger and steadier.
There are many different types of wind turbines with different tower
and hub heights, as well as varying blade designs and lengths. Wind
turbines can be designed to optimize output for specific ranges of
wind speed. Turbines typically can generate electricity when winds
are between 7 and 55 mph (3-25 m/s). They operate most efficiently,
however, when wind speeds fall between 18-31 mph (8-14 m/s).
Wind turbines also come in different sizes, based on the amount of
electric power they can generate. Small turbines may produce only
enough electricity to power a few appliances in one home. Large
turbines are often called utility-scale because they generate enough
power for utilities, or electric companies, to sell. Most utility-scale
turbines installed in the U.S. produce one to three megawatts of
electricity, enough to power 300 to 900 homes. Large turbines are
grouped together into wind farms, which provide bulk power to
the electric grid.

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 13
 Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine Blades

Why Turbine Blades Move Understanding Wind

There are two important reasons why wind turbine blades are able Wind turbine blades must be optimized to efficiently convert
to spin in the wind: Newton’s Third Law and the Bernoulli Effect. oncoming winds into motion energy to rotate the main driveshaft.
But when designing turbine blades, the real wind is only one part of
Newton’s Third Law states that for every action, there is an equal and a larger equation. Good blades must also account for the apparent
opposite reaction. In the case of a wind turbine blade, the action wind that is experienced as the blade passes through the air.
of the wind pushing air against the blade causes the reaction of Imagine riding your bike on a day with a fresh breeze at your side.
the blade being deflected, or pushed. If the blade has no pitch (or As you begin to ride and pick up speed, you feel this wind from
angle), the blade will simply be pushed backwards (downhill). But the side, but also wind pushing back at you from the direction you
since wind turbine blades are set at an angle, the wind is deflected are moving. When you stop riding, there is just the wind from the
at an opposite angle, pushing the blades away from the deflected side again. This wind that is “created” as you are moving is known as
wind. This phenomenon can be viewed on a simple, flat blade set at headwind. The headwind, combined with the real wind, is known
an angle. If you push the blade with your finger from the direction as apparent wind. A wind turbine blade experiences apparent wind
of the oncoming wind, the blade will deflect away from your finger. as it passes through the air. This apparent wind is from a different
direction than the “real” wind that has caused the blade to begin
Bernoulli’s Principle, or the Bernoulli Effect, tells us that faster
moving. Since the tips of large turbine blades may be moving
moving air has lower pressure. Wind turbine blades are shaped so
through the air at speeds up to 322 km/h (200 mph), this apparent
that the air molecules moving around the blade travel faster on the
wind can be very significant!
downwind side of the blade than those moving across the upwind
side of the blade. This shape, known as an airfoil, is like an uneven APPARENT WIND
teardrop. The downwind side of the blade has a large curve, while
the upwind side is relatively flat. Since the air is moving faster on
the curved, downwind side of the blade, there is low pressure on
Real wind (R)
this side of the blade. This difference in pressure on the opposite
sides of the blade causes the blade to be “lifted” towards the curve + Headwind (H)
of the airfoil.
(A) = Apparent wind (A)
AIRFOIL SHAPE: A CROSS-SECTION
(H)

(A)
Faster air (R)

Aerodynamics
Slower air Efficient blades are a key part of generating power from a wind
turbine. The efficiency of a wind turbine blade depends on the drag,
lift, and torque produced by the blade. These factors are affected by
the size and shape of the blades, the number of blades, and the
blade pitch.

Drag
Drag is defined as the force on an object that resists its motion
through a fluid. When the fluid is a gas such as air, the force is called
aerodynamic drag, or air resistance. Drag is a force that is working
Text and graphics adapted and used with permission from against the blades, causing them to slow down. Drag is always
KidWind Project, Inc. For more information related to this important when an object moves rapidly through the air or water.
topic, visit http://learn.kidwind.org. Airplanes, race cars, rockets, submarines, and wind turbine blades
are all designed to have as little drag as possible.

14 Exploring Wind Energy

 Imagine riding your bike down a big hill. To go faster, you might tuck
Speed
your body to expose as little of it to the apparent wind as possible.
This is a trick to reduce drag. Now imagine you have a big parachute Remember that the speed of air passing around the blade is a
strapped to your back when you ride down the hill. The parachute combination of the real wind and the headwind as the blade
increases the drag significantly and this drag force slows you down. moves. The faster the blade is moving, the more drag/headwind it
experiences, but the lift force will also increase as the blades move
Drag increases with the area facing the wind. A large truck has a
faster.
lot more drag than a motorcycle moving at the same speed. Wind
turbine blades have to be streamlined so they can efficiently pass The tips of wind turbine blades travel much further with each
through the air. Changing the angle of the blades will change the rotation of the blades, and therefore move through the air much
area facing the apparent wind. This is why blade pitch angles of 10- faster than the roots of the blades. Since they are traveling the
20 degrees tend to have much less drag than greater angles. furthest distance with each rotation (distance/time = speed), the
tips of turbine blades experience more headwind. The roots, or
Drag also increases with wind speed. The faster an object moves
base, of the blades do not experience as much headwind since they
through the air, the more drag it experiences. This is especially
are passing through the air much more slowly.
important for wind turbine blades, since the blade tips are moving
through the air much faster than the base of the blade. The shape The faster the air molecules are passing over a blade or wing,
and angle of wind turbine blades changes along the length of the the more lift can be generated. So the tips of real turbine blades
blade to reduce drag at the blade tips. generate much more lift than the roots. Some large wind turbines
have blade tip speeds over 322 km/h (200 mph).

Reducing Drag on Wind Turbine Blades: LIFT

1. Change the pitch—the angle of the blades dramatically affects
the amount of drag.
2. Use fewer blades—each blade is affected by drag.
3. Use light-weight materials—reduce the mass of the blades by
using less material or lighter material.
4. Use smooth surfaces—rough surfaces, especially on the edges,
can increase drag.
5. Optimize blade shape—the tip of a blade moves faster than
the base. Wide, heavy tips increase drag.

Lift
Lift is the aerodynamic force that allows airplanes and helicopters
to fly. The same force applies to the blades of wind turbines as they
rotate through the air. Lift opposes the force of drag, helping a AIRFOIL SHAPES
turbine blade pass efficiently through air molecules. The main goal
of a well-designed wind turbine blade is to generate as much lift as
possible while minimizing drag.
The amount of lift a blade or wing can generate is determined
by several factors—the shape of the blade, the speed of the air
passing around the blade, and the angle of the blade relative to the
apparent wind.

Shape
The airfoil shape of the blade helps to generate lift by taking
advantage of the Bernoulli Effect. Wind turbine blade designers
have experimented with many different airfoil shapes over the
years in an effort to find the perfect shape that will perform well
in a range of wind speeds. Even minor changes in this blade shape
can dramatically affect the power output and noise produced by a
wind turbine.
The airfoil profile (shape) of a turbine blade will actually change as
you move down the length of the blade, generally getting flatter
and narrower toward the tips of the blades. This is to optimize the
lift and minimize drag.

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 15
 Angle BLADE PITCH
The angle of the blades also greatly impacts how much lift is
generated. On large wind turbines, the blade angle is constantly
adjusted to give the blades the optimal angle into the apparent
wind. The angle of the blade relative to the plane of rotation is LOWER PITCH
known as the pitch angle. The angle of the blade relative to the NEAR TIP
apparent wind is called the angle of attack. The angle of attack is
very important, but also complicated since it will change as the 0°
real wind speed changes and the speed of the blade (headwind)
changes. On most airfoil blade shapes, an angle of attack of 10-15
degrees creates the most lift with the least drag.
5°
Real wind turbine blades typically have a twisted pitch — meaning
the blade angle is steeper at the root of the blade and flatter further
away from the hub. Once again, this is due to the fact that the tips HIGHER PITCH
move so much faster through the air. By twisting the pitch, the NEAR ROOT 10°
blades are able to take advantage of a more ideal angle of attack
down the length of each blade. The tips of a real turbine blade may
have close to a 0 degree pitch angle, but this section of the blade
generates a great deal of lift.
15°
Torque
Torque is a force that turns or rotates something. When you use
a wrench on a bolt or twist a screw loose with a screwdriver, you
are generating torque. Torque is a lot like leverage. If you are trying TORQUE
to turn a wrench, sometimes you need a lot of leverage to loosen
a tight bolt. Wind turbine blades are like big levers, but instead of
your muscle turning them they use the force of the wind.
Torque is equal to the force multiplied by distance. This means that
the longer your blades are, the more torque you can generate. For LESS TORQUE
example, imagine someone trying to loosen a tight bolt. Pushing
with all his might, he can exert 100 pounds of force. If his wrench
was 1 foot long, he would be exerting 100 foot-pounds of torque.
If he applied the same force to a 2 foot long wrench, he would be
exerting 200 foot-pounds of torque on the bolt. This additional
leverage makes it much easier to loosen the bolt.

MORE TORQUE

Text and graphics adapted and used with permission from

KidWind Project, Inc. For more information related to this
topic, visit http://learn.kidwind.org.

16 Exploring Wind Energy

 Gearing Up For More Power
On a real wind turbine, the long blades give the turbine a lot of
leverage to provide power to the generator. Utility scale large
turbines often have large gear boxes that increase the revolutions
per minute of the rotor by 80 or 100 times. This big gear reduction
demands a lot of leverage from the blades. Think about riding your
bicycle—when you shift into high gear it may be harder to pedal. A
higher gear demands more torque.
Power output is directly related to the speed of the spinning drive
shaft (revolutions per minute or rpm) and how forcefully it turns.
A large wind turbine has a rotor with blades, a gear box, and a
generator. As the blades spin, the rotor rotates slowly with heavy
torque. The generator has to spin much faster to generate power,
but it cannot use all the turning force, or torque, that is on the main
shaft. This is why a large wind turbine has a gear box. MORE TORQUE LESS TORQUE
Inside the gear box, there is at least one pair of gears, one large
and one small. The large gear, attached to the main shaft, rotates at
about 20 revolutions per minute with a lot of torque. This large gear
spins a smaller gear, with less torque, at about 1,500 revolutions
per minute. The small gear is attached to a small shaft that spins
the generator at high speed, generating power. The relationship
between the large and small gears is called the gear ratio. The gear
ratio between a 1,500 rpm gear and a 20 rpm gear is 75:1.

Putting It All Together

Increasing the torque generated by the blades often increases the
drag they experience as they rotate. For example, longer blades will
generate more torque and more drag. Increasing the blade pitch
will generally increase the torque and increase the drag. Increasing
the number of blades will generally give you more torque and more
drag. For this reason, it is important to design blades to match
the load application. If you are using a windmill to lift a bucket of
weights, a slowly spinning rotor that generates lots of torque will be
best. If you are using a turbine to light a string of LED bulbs wired
in series, you will need a rotor that spins very rapidly with very little
drag.
MORE DRAG LESS DRAG

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 17
 Wind Turbine Efficiency—Betz Limit Top Wind States (Net Electricity Generation),
Wind turbines must convert as much of the available wind energy
into electricity as possible to be efficient and economical. As turbines 2015
capture energy from the wind, the resultant wind has less energy
and moves more slowly. If the blades were 100 percent efficient,
they would extract all of the wind’s energy and the wind would
be stopped. The maximum theoretical percentage of wind that
can be captured has been calculated to be about 59 percent. This 2
value is called the Betz Limit and modern turbines are designed to IOWA
approach that efficiency. Most turbines today reach efficiencies of 4 5
CALIFORNIA KANSAS
25-45 percent. 3
OKLAHOMA

Wind Farms 1
TEXAS
Wind power plants, or wind farms, are clusters of wind turbines
grouped together to produce large amounts of electricity. These
power plants are usually not owned by a public utility like other
kinds of power plants are. Most wind farms are owned by private Data: Energy Information Administration
companies and they sell the electricity to electric utility companies.
Currently, the wind farm that generates the most electricity in the
U.S. is Alta Wind Energy Center in Tehachapi, California. The farm’s There are other things to consider when siting a wind farm, such
390 wind turbines produce 1,020 megawatts of electricity, which is as: What is the weather like? Do tornadoes, hurricanes, or ice
enough to power more than 300,000 homes. Roscoe Wind Farm in storms affect the area? Any of these weather conditions may cause
Texas is also one of the country’s largest wind farms. It houses over expensive damage to the wind turbines and associated equipment.
620 turbines, but has a smaller generating capacity of just over 780 Is the area accessible for workers? Will new roads need to be built?
MW. These two American wind farms are among the world’s largest. New roads are expensive. Can the site be connected to the power
grid? It is expensive to lay long-distance transmission lines to get
Choosing the location of a wind farm is known as siting a wind farm. electricity to where people live, so wind farms should be located
To build a wind farm, wind speed and direction must be studied to near transmission lines with available capacity. Will the wind farm
determine where to put the turbines. As a rule, wind speed increases impact wildlife in the area? Developers building a wind farm need to
with height and over open areas with no windbreaks. The site must get permission from the local community and government before
have strong, steady winds. Scientists measure the wind in an area building. There are strict building regulations to follow.
for one to three years before choosing a site. Measuring the wind
and obtaining construction permits requires the most time when
building a wind farm. Energy on Public Lands
The best sites for wind farms are on hilltops, the open plains, Finding open lands for wind farms is important for the future of wind
through mountain passes, and near the coasts of oceans or large energy. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) controls some of
lakes. Turbines are usually built in rows facing into the prevailing the U.S. lands with the best wind potential. About 917 megawatts
wind. Placing turbines too far apart wastes space. If turbines are too of installed wind capacity in the U.S. is on public lands. BLM works
close together, they block each other’s wind. with companies to find sites for wind farms and ensure the turbines
WIND FARM do not disturb the land, wildlife, or people. Once wind turbines are
installed, and the companies are generating electricity, BLM collects
royalties on the sales.
Wind farm companies pay farmers and ranchers for the wind rights
on their land. Wind turbines have a small impact on farming or
ranching. Crops will grow around the turbines; cattle and sheep can
graze under the turbines. Farmers and ranchers receive a share of
the wind farm’s earnings as extra income.
Texas produces the most electricity from wind energy in the United
States, followed by Iowa and Oklahoma. Combined, these three
states produce just over 40 percent of the nation’s total electricity
from wind energy.

Land around a wind farm can continue to be used for growing crops or
grazing for animals.

18 Exploring Wind Energy

 Offshore Wind Farms
BLOCK ISLAND WIND FARM, RHODE ISLAND
Because cool air from the water is always moving inland to take the
place of warm air that has risen, the wind blows stronger and steadier
over water than over land. There are no obstacles on the water to
block the wind. There is a lot of wind energy available offshore.
Offshore wind farms are built in the shallow waters off the coast of
major lakes and oceans. Offshore turbines produce more electricity
than turbines on land, but they cost more to build and operate. Some
challenges for offshore wind farms include the costs and difficulties
involved with water-based construction and maintenance of parts.
Europe is currently leading the offshore wind industry with over 90%
of global offshore wind installation. The United Kingdom, Denmark,
China, Belgium, Sweden, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway,
Japan, and Ireland all have offshore wind turbines.
The first offshore wind farm in the United States, the Deepwater
Wind project, southeast of Block Island in Rhode Island, began
construction in 2015 and was completed in 2016. The five turbine,
30-megawatt wind farm was brought online late in 2016, and has Image courtesy of Deepwater Wind
the ability to power roughly 17,000 homes per year, reducing the
reliance on diesel-fired electricity generation and improving air SMALL WIND SYSTEM
quality for residents.
The Cape Wind project on Nantucket Sound, off the coast of
Massachusetts, is another offshore wind project in the works for
the U.S. The Cape Wind project was proposed to consist of 130
wind turbines with a capacity to produce 420 MW of electricity. The
project, however, has stalled after a decade of legal and logistical
concerns. Cape Wind still controls the leased area, but is required by
the U.S. Courts to undergo further study of the offshore area before
allowing construction to begin.

Small Wind Systems

Wind turbines are not only on wind farms or offshore, they can also
be found on the property of private residences, small businesses,
and schools. A typical home uses approximately 911 kilowatt-hours
(kWh) of electricity each month. Many people are choosing to install
small wind turbines to lower or eliminate their electricity bills.
Siting a small wind turbine is similar to siting a large wind turbine.
Potential small wind users need to make sure that there is plenty
of unobstructed wind. The tip of the turbine blades should be at
least nine meters (30 feet) higher than the tallest wind obstacle.
Sometimes this can be a little challenging for installing a residential
wind turbine if local zoning laws have height limitations. The turbine
also requires open land between the turbine and the highest
obstacle. Depending on the size of the turbine, this may require a 70-
150 meter (250–500 foot) radius. Specific siting recommendations
can be obtained from the turbine manufacturer.

A Valuable Resource
Today, people use wind energy to make electricity. Wind is a One of the problems with wind energy is that it is dependent on the
renewable energy source because the wind will blow as long as weather. When there is not enough, or too much wind, the turbines
the sun shines. Wind is a clean source of energy that causes no do not produce much electricity. In some areas, people are concerned
air or water pollution and wind is free. The Energy Information that birds and bats might be injured flying into wind turbines. Some
Administration forecasts that wind will be generating much more of people do not like the sound made by spinning turbines and some
the nation’s electricity in 2035. Wind has the potential to provide up to think turbines affect their view of the landscape. Wind power is not
20 percent of U.S. electricity. the total answer to global energy needs, but it is a valuable part of
the energy portfolio.
© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 19
 Wind Energy Timeline

5000 BCE Early Egyptians use wind to sail boats on the Nile River.
0 The Chinese fly kites during battle to signal their troops.
500-900 AD The first windmills are developed in Persia (present day Iran). The windmills look like modern day revolving doors,
enclosed on two sides to increase the tunnel effect. These windmills grind grain and pump water.
700s People living in Sri Lanka use wind to smelt (separate) metal from rock ore. They would dig large, crescent-shaped
furnaces near the top of steep mountainsides. In summer, monsoon winds would blow up the mountain slopes and
into a furnace to create a mini-tornado. Charcoal fires inside the furnace could reach 1200°C (2200°F). Archaeologists
believe the furnaces enabled Sri Lankans to make iron and steel for weapons and farming tools.
1200s Europeans begin to build windmills to grind grain.
The Mongolian armies of Genghis Khan capture Persian windmill builders and take them to China to build irrigation
windmills. Persian-style windmills are built in the Middle East. In Egypt, windmills grind sugar cane. Europeans built
the first postmills out of wood.
1300s The Dutch invent the smockmill. The smockmill consists of a wooden tower with six or eight sides. The roof on top
rotates to keep the sails in the wind.
1500s The tower windmill is developed in Spain, Greece, southern Europe, and France.
1600s The Dutch began to use drainage windmills to pump water. The windmills dried out flooded land below sea level,
doubling the size of the country. European settlers begin building windmills in North America.
1700s By the early 1700s, both the Netherlands and England have over 10,000 windmills.
As a boy, Benjamin Franklin experiments with kites. One day, he floats on his back while a kite pulls him more than a
mile across a lake.
1854 Daniel Halladay builds and sells the Halladay Windmill, which is the first windmill designed specifically for the West. It
has thin wooden blades and turns itself into the wind.
1888 Charles F. Brush, a wealthy inventor and manufacturer of electrical equipment in Cleveland, OH, builds a giant windmill
on his property. The windmill generates power for 350 incandescent lights in his mansion. In the basement, a battery
room stores 408 battery cells (glass jars) filled with chemicals that store the electricity generated by the windmill. In
later years, General Electric acquires Brush’s company, Brush Electric Co.
Late 1880s The development of steel blades makes windmills more efficient. Six million windmills spring up across America as
settlers move west. These windmills pump water to irrigate crops and provide water for steam locomotives.
1892 Danish inventor Poul LaCour invents a Dutch-style windmill with large wooden sails that generates electricity. He
discovers that fast-turning rotors with few blades generate more electricity than slow-turning rotors with many
blades. By 1908, Denmark has 72 windmills providing low-cost electricity to farms and villages.
1898-1933 The U.S. Weather Service sends kites aloft to record temperature, humidity, and wind speed.
1900s Wilbur and Orville Wright design and fly giant box kites. These experiments lead them to invent the first successful
airplane in 1903.
1920s G.J.M. Darrieus, a French inventor, designs the first vertical-axis wind turbine.
1934-1943 In 1934, engineer Palmer Putman puts together a team of experts in electricity, aerodynamics, engineering, and
weather to find a cheaper way to generate electric power on a large scale. In 1941, the first large-scale turbine in the
United States begins operating.
In 1941, the Smith-Putnam wind turbine is installed on Grandpa’s Knob, a hilltop in Rutland, VT. The turbine weighs
250 tons. Its blades measure 175 feet in diameter. It supplies power to the local community for eighteen months until
a bearing fails and the machine is shut down in 1943.
1945-1950s After World War II ends in 1945, engineers decide to start the Smith-Putnam turbine up again, even though it has
formed cracks on the blades. Three weeks later, one of the blades breaks off and crashes to the ground. Without
money to continue his wind experiments, Putman abandons the turbine. By the 1950s, most American windmill
companies go out of business.
1971 The first offshore wind farm operates off Denmark’s coast.

20 Exploring Wind Energy

 1973 The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) oil embargo causes the price of oil to rise sharply. High oil
prices increase interest in other energy sources, such as wind energy.
1974 In response to the oil crisis, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) develops a two-bladed wind
turbine at the Lewis Research Center in Cleveland, OH. Unfortunately, the design does not include a “teetering hub”—a
feature very important for a two-bladed turbine to function properly.
1978 The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) requires utility companies to buy a percentage of their electricity
from non-utility power producers. PURPA is an effective way of encouraging the use of renewable energy.
1980 The Crude Oil Windfall Profits Tax Act further increases tax credits for businesses using renewable energy. The federal
tax credit for wind energy reaches 25 percent and rewards businesses choosing to use renewable energy.
1980s The first wind farms are built in California, as well as Denmark, Germany, and other European countries. Many wind
turbines are installed in California in the early 1980s to help meet growing electricity needs and take advantage of
incentives.
1983 Because of a need for more electricity, California utilities contract with facilities that qualified under PURPA to generate
electricity independently. The price set in these contracts is based on the costs saved by not building planned coal
plants.
1984 A large vertical axis turbine, Project École, is built in Quebec, Canada. It is 110 meters high (360 ft.).
1985 By 1985, California wind capacity exceeds 1,000 megawatts, enough power to supply 250,000 homes. These wind
turbines are very inefficient.
1988 Many of the hastily installed turbines of the early 1980s are removed and later replaced with more reliable models.
1989 Throughout the 1980s, Department of Energy funding for wind power research and development declines, reaching
its lowest point in fiscal year 1989. More than 2,200 megawatts of wind energy capacity are installed in California—
more than half of the world’s capacity at the time.
1992 The Energy Policy Act reforms the Public Utility Holding Company Act and many other laws dealing with the electric
utility industry. It also authorizes a production tax credit of 1.5 cents per kilowatt-hour for wind-generated electricity
delivered to the grid.
U.S. Windpower develops one of the first commercially available variable-speed wind turbines, over a period of 5
years. The final prototype tests are completed in 1992. The $20 million project is funded mostly by U.S. Windpower,
but also involves Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Pacific Gas & Electric, and Niagara Mohawk Power Company.
1994 Cowley Ridge in Alberta, Canada becomes the first utility-grade wind farm in Canada.
1999-2000 Installed capacity of wind-powered electricity generating equipment exceeds 2,500 megawatts. Contracts for new
wind farms continue to be signed.
2003 North Hoyle, the largest offshore wind farm in the United Kingdom at that time, is built.
2005 The Energy Policy Act of 2005 strengthens incentives for wind and other renewable energy sources.
The Jersey-Atlantic wind farm off the coast of Atlantic City, NJ, begins operating in December. It is the United States’
first coastal wind farm.
2006 The second phase of Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center is completed, making it the largest wind farm in the world at
that time. It has a 735.5 megawatt capacity and is located across 47,000 acres of land in Taylor and Nolan Counties in
Texas.
2008 The U.S. Department of Energy releases the 20% Wind Energy by 2030 report detailing the challenges and steps to
having 20 percent of U.S. electricity produced by wind by the year 2030.
The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 provides a 30 percent tax credit to individuals installing small wind
systems. The tax credit will be available through December 31, 2016.
2009 The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement is given responsibility to establish a program
to grant leases, easements, and rights-of-way for the development of offshore wind farms on the Outer Continental
Shelf.
2010 Cape Wind on Nantucket Sound, MA receives final approval to build an offshore wind farm. Construction is still
pending on this project.
2016 Deepwater Wind, off the coast of Block Island, Rhode Island, completed construction and became the nation’s first
offshore wind farm.
2017 World wind energy capacity grew by 358% since 2008. China, Germany, and the United States are some of the largest
installers of wind capacity.

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 21
 Build an Anemometer

? Question

ƒ
ƒHow reliable is an anemometer for calculating wind speed? 0.5 cm
 Materials
Diagram 1
ƒ Pencil
ƒ1
ƒ Snow cone cups
ƒ5
ƒ Extra-long straws
ƒ2
ƒ
ƒMasking tape
ƒ
ƒHole punch
ƒ
ƒScissors
ƒ Straight pin
ƒ1
ƒ
ƒMarker
ƒ
ƒWatch or stopwatch
ƒ
ƒRuler

Procedure
1. Cut the end off one cup to make a hole large enough for the
pencil to fit in. Use the hole punch to make four holes in the top
of the cup: two holes opposite each other very near the rim and
two holes on opposite sides about a half-centimeter below the Diagram 2
first holes, as shown in Diagram 1.
2. Slide the straws through the holes in the cup, as shown in
Diagram 1.
3. Color one cup so that you can count the revolutions of the
anemometer.
4. Use the hole punch to make two opposite holes in the other cups REVOLUTIONS
MPH
about 1 centimeter from the rim. Slide one cup onto the end of PER 10 SEC.
each straw, making sure the cups face in the same direction. 2-4 1
Tape the cups to the straws.
5-7 2
5. Center the straws in the base cup. Slide the base cup over the pencil as shown in Diagram 2 and 8-9 3
push the pin through the middle of both straws and into the pencil eraser as far as you can to anchor 10-12 4
the apparatus. Lift the straws slightly away from the eraser on the pin so that the apparatus spins
13-15 5
easily. You might need to stretch the pin holes in the straws by pulling gently on the straws while
16-18 6
holding the pin in place.
19-21 7
6. Take your anemometer outside and measure the speed of the wind in several areas around the
22-23 8
school by counting the number of revolutions in 10 seconds and using the chart to determine miles
24-26 9
per hour (mph). Record the time at which each measurement is taken. Compare your results with
those of other students in the class. 27-29 10
30-32 11
33-35 12
 Conclusion 36-37 13
38-40 14
1. How did your data compare to that of your class?
41-43 15
2. How could you change the design of your anemometer to make it more reliable? 44-46 16
47-49 17
50-51 18
52-54 19
55-57 20

22 Exploring Wind Energy

 23
History of Harnessing the Wind’s Energy
Name__________________________________________ Date______________________
DATE EVENT HOW DID THIS EVENT COME TO BE? WHAT HAPPENED AS A RESULT?

www.NEED.org
1.800.875.5029
8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110
© 2017 The NEED Project
 Wind Can Do Work
? Question

ƒ
ƒWhat is the maximum load that can be lifted all of the way to the top of the windmill
shaft?

 Materials
ƒ
ƒ4-Blade Windmill Template ƒ Straight pins
ƒ2
ƒ Extra-long straw
ƒ1 ƒ
ƒBinder clip
ƒ Small straw
ƒ1 ƒ
ƒFan
ƒ
ƒMasking tape ƒ
ƒRuler
ƒ cm String or thread
ƒ50 ƒ
ƒHole punch
ƒ
ƒPaper clips ƒ
ƒMarker
ƒ
ƒLarge foam cup ƒ
ƒScissors

Procedure
1. Turn the cup upside down.
2. Cut the longer straw so that you have an 8 cm length. Share the other portion
with another student or group, or discard it. Tape this straw horizontally to the
bottom of the cup (which is now the top) so that there is an equal amount of
straw on both ends. Set this aside.
3. Prepare the windmill blades using the 4-Blade Windmill Template.
4. Measure 1.0 cm from the end of the small straw and make a mark. Insert a pin through the small
straw at this mark. This is the front of the straw.
5. Slide the small straw through the windmill blades until the back of the blades rest against the pin.
Gently slide each blade over the end of the straw. Secure the blades to the straw using tape.
6. Insert the small straw into the larger straw on the cup.
7. Tape the string to the end of the small straw. Tie the other end of the string to a paper clip. Make sure
you have 30 cm of string from the straw to the top of the paper clip.
8. On the very end of the small straw near where the string is attached, fasten a binder clip in place for
balance and to keep the string winding around the straw.
9. Slide the small straw forward to bring the binder clip next to the larger straw. Place a second straight
pin through the small straw at the other end of the larger straw. This will keep the blades away from
the cup while still allowing them to move and spin.
10. Place your windmill in front of the fan and observe. Record observations in your science
notebooks.
11. Investigate: Keep adding paper clips one at a time to determine the maximum load that
can be lifted all of the way to the top. Record your data.

 Conclusion
Draw a diagram of the system. Label the energy transformations that occurred in order for
work to take place.

 Extensions
ƒ
ƒHow could you change the design of your windmill to produce more work from the system?
ƒ
ƒWhat variables can you change in this investigation? Create a new investigation changing
one variable at a time.

24 Exploring Wind Energy

 Observing a Genecon
? Question

ƒ
ƒWhat is the difference between a motor and a generator?

 Observations
1. How does the speed with which the handle turns affect the light?

2. How does reversing the direction you turn the handle affect the light?

3. What happens when the Genecon is connected to a battery?

4. What happens when the Genecon is attached to the model turbine?

5. How does the speed of the fan affect the Genecon?

 Conclusion
1. Define generator and explain how a Genecon is a generator.

2. Define motor and explain how a Genecon is a motor.

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 25
 Measuring Electricity
Included in the kit are three tools to measure electricity—two multimeters and one voltmeter. The multimeter allows you to measure current,
resistance, and voltage, and displays the reading numerically. The voltmeter measures voltage only, but displays a visual reading as higher
electrical outputs illuminate more lights.
When using either meter it should be noted that some measurements will never “stay still” at a single repeatable value. This is the nature of
the variables being monitored in some circumstances. For example, if you were to measure the resistance between your two hands with
the ohmmeter setting on the multimeter (megohm range—millions of ohms), you would find that the values would continuously change.
How tightly you squeeze the metal probes and how “wet” or “dry” your skin is can have a sizable effect on the reading that you obtain. In this
situation you need a protocol or standardized method to allow you to record data.
We recommend that you discuss with your class the variability of measurement and let them come up with a standard for collecting data.
They may decide to go with the lowest reading, the highest reading, or the reading that appears most frequently in a certain time period.

Digital Multimeter Visual Voltmeter

(NOT USED)

Directions: Directions:
1. Switch the tab over to 5V.
DC VOLTAGE
2. Press down on the “GND” button. Insert one wire from
1. Connect RED lead to VΩmA jack and BLACK to COM.
the turbine into the hole on the bottom. Release the
2. Set ROTARY SWITCH to highest setting on DC VOLTAGE scale (1000). button to secure the wire in place.
3. Connect leads to the device to be tested using the alligator clips pro- 3. Repeat step two with the other wire on the “V+ Input”
vided. side.
4. Adjust ROTARY SWITCH to lower settings until a satisfactory reading is 4. Turn on the voltmeter.
obtained.
5. Place the turbine in front of the fan. The lights on the
5. With the wind turbine, usually the 20 DCV setting provides the best voltmeter will light indicating how much electricity is
reading. being generated.

DC CURRENT (must include a load in the circuit) NOTES:

1. Connect RED lead to VΩmA jack and BLACK to COM. • If the “Reverse Polarity” light flashes, switch the wires in the
2. Set ROTARY SWITCH to 10 ADC setting. “GND” and “V+ Input” locations.

3. Connect leads to the device to be tested using the alligator clips pro- • The voltmeter’s lowest reading is 0.25 volts. If you do not see
vided. any lights, connect the turbine to the multimeter for smaller
Note: The reading indicates DC AMPS; a reading of 0.25 amps equals 250 readings.
mA (milliamps).
YOUR MULTIMETER MIGHT BE SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE ONE
SHOWN. BEFORE USING THE MULTIMETER, READ THE OPERATOR’S
INSTRUCTION MANUAL INCLUDED IN THE BOX FOR SAFETY INFORMATION
AND COMPLETE OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS.
26 Exploring Wind Energy
 Basic Measurement Values in Electronics
SYMBOL VALUE METER UNIT

V Voltage (the force) Voltmeter volt

I Current (the flow) Ammeter ampere

R Resistance (the anti-flow) Ohmmeter Ohm

1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

1 coulomb = 6.24 x 1018 electrons (about a triple axle dump truck full of sand where one grain of sand is one electron)

Prefixes for Units

ƒƒ Smaller
(m)illi x 1/1 000 or 0.001

(µ) micro x 1/1 000 000 or 0.000 001

(n)ano x1/100 000 000 or 0.000 000 001

(p)ico x 1/1 000 000 000 000 or 0.000 000 000 001

ƒƒ Bigger
(k)ilo x 1,000

(M)ega x 1,000,000

(G)iga x 1,000,000,000

Formulas for Measuring Electricity

V=IxR The formula pie works for any three
variable equation. Put your finger on
I = V/R the variable you want to solve for and
the operation you need is revealed.
R = V/I

ƒƒ Series Resistance (Resistance is additive)

RT= R1 + R2 + R3… +Rn

ƒƒ Parallel Resistance (Resistance is reciprocal)

1/RT= 1/R1 + 1/R2+ 1/R3… +1/Rn

Note: ALWAYS convert the values you are working with to the “BASE unit.” For example, don’t plug kiloohms (kΩ) into the
equation—convert the value to ohms first.

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 27
 1. Exploring Blade Pitch
? Question

ƒ
ƒHow does the blade’s pitch (angle) affect the turbine’s electrical output?

 Hypothesis
Make a hypothesis to address the question using the following format: If (manipulated variable) then (responding variable) because ...

Independent Variable: Blade Pitch

Dependent Variable: Electrical Output
Controlled Variables:

 Materials
ƒ
ƒPoster board ƒ
ƒProtractor
ƒ
ƒDowels ƒ
ƒTurbine testing station (turbine tower,
ƒ
ƒScissors multimeter, fan)
ƒ
ƒMasking tape ƒ
ƒBenchmark Blade Template
ƒ
ƒHub

Procedure
1. Using the benchmark blade template, make three blades out of poster board.
Space them evenly around the hub.
2. Slip the protractor around the dowel. Set the blades to a pitch of 90 degrees.
3. Put your hub on the turbine tower and observe the results. Record the data.
4. Set your blades to a new pitch and test again. This is your second trial. Record your
data.
5. Repeat Step 4 at least once more to try to find the optimum pitch for the greatest
electrical output.

 Data Table
PITCH ELECTRICAL OUTPUT (VOLTAGE)

TRIAL 1 90 DEGREES

TRIAL 2

TRIAL 3

 Graph Data
The manipulated variable is written on the X axis (horizontal) and the responding variable is written on the Y axis (vertical).

 Conclusion
Do you accept or reject your hypothesis? Use results from your data table to support your reasoning and explain which blade pitch you will
proceed with for your next investigations and why.
Note: The pitch you found to be optimal for the greatest electrical output will now be a controlled variable. In future explorations you will continue
to use this pitch as you investigate.

28 Exploring Wind Energy

 2. Exploring Number of Blades
? Question

ƒ
ƒHow do the number of blades on a turbine affect electrical output?

 Hypothesis
Make a hypothesis to address the question using the following format: If (manipulated variable) then (responding variable) because ...

Independent Variable: Number of Blades

Dependent Variable: Electrical Output
Controlled Variables:

 Materials
ƒ
ƒBenchmark blades ƒ
ƒMasking tape
ƒ
ƒPoster board ƒ
ƒHub
ƒ
ƒDowels ƒ
ƒTurbine testing station
ƒ
ƒScissors ƒ
ƒProtractor
Procedure
1. Decide how many blades you will be testing and make enough blades for the maximum number you will be testing.
2. In the data table, put down the greatest electrical output from the blade pitch investigation of the three benchmark blades.
3. Put the number of blades you want to test into the hub. They should have the same pitch as in the previous investigation.
4. Put your hub onto the turbine tower and test the number of blades. Record the results as trial 1.
5. Repeat steps 3-4 at least two more times to try to find the optimum number of blades for the greatest electrical output.

 Data Table
NUMBER OF BLADES ELECTRICAL OUTPUT (VOLTAGE)

BENCHMARK 3 BLADES

TRIAL 1

TRIAL 2

TRIAL 3

 Graph Data
The manipulated variable is written on the X axis (horizontal) and the responding variable is written on the Y axis (vertical).

 Conclusion
Do you accept or reject your hypothesis? Use results from your data table to support your reasoning and explain how many blades are ideal
for a turbine.
Note: The number of blades with the greatest electrical output should become the benchmark blades for your next investigation.

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 29
 3. Exploring Surface Area
? Question

ƒ
ƒHow does the surface area of a turbine blade affect electrical output?

 Hypothesis
Make a hypothesis to address the question using the following format: If (manipulated variable) then (responding variable) because ...

Independent Variable: ___________________________________

Dependent Variable: ____________________________________
Controlled Variables:

b1
 Materials  Formula
ƒ
ƒBenchmark blades ƒ
ƒHub
ƒ
ƒPoster board ƒ
ƒTurbine testing station Area of a trapezoid = ½(b1 + b2) h
h
ƒ
ƒDowels ƒ
ƒProtractor
ƒ
ƒScissors ƒ
ƒRuler
ƒ
ƒMasking tape b2

Procedure
1. Calculate the surface area of the benchmark blade. In the data table, record the surface area and the greatest electrical output from
your previous investigation of the benchmark blades. The formula for finding the area of a trapezoid is one half the sum of both bases,
multiplied by the height or, a=1/2 (b1 + b2) h.
2. Keep the same shape as the benchmark blade, but change the length and/or width. This will change the surface area of the blade.
3. Make your new blades. You should have the same number of blades that you found had the best results in your previous investigation.
4. Find the surface area for each of your new blades.
5. Put your blades into the hub and onto the turbine tower. Test for electrical output and record data.
6. Repeat steps 2-5 at least two more times to try to find the optimum surface area for the greatest electrical output.
 Data Table
SURFACE AREA ELECTRICAL OUTPUT (VOLTAGE)
BENCHMARK
TRIAL 1
TRIAL 2
TRIAL 3

 Graph Data
The manipulated variable is written on the X axis (horizontal) and the responding variable is written on the Y axis (vertical).

 Conclusion
Do you accept or reject your hypothesis? Use results from your data table to support your reasoning and explain how surface area affects
the electrical output. Why do you think this is?
Note: The blades with the surface area that achieved the greatest electrical output should become the optimum blades for your next investigation.

30 Exploring Wind Energy

 4. Exploring Mass
? Question

ƒ
ƒHow does adding mass to the blades affect the turbine’s electrical output?

 Hypothesis
Make a hypothesis to address the question using the following format: If (manipulated variable) then (responding variable) because ...

Independent Variable: ___________________________________

Dependent Variable: ____________________________________
Controlled Variables:

 Materials
Blade
ƒ
ƒOptimum blades from previous investigation
ƒ
ƒPennies (or other mass) 1c 1c
ƒ
ƒMasking tape
ƒ
ƒTurbine testing station 1c 1c
ƒ
ƒProtractor Pennies

1c 1c

Procedure
1. In the data table, record your results from your previous investigation on the row with zero grams. 1c 1c Tape
2. Tape one penny near the base of each blade, an equal distance from the center of the hub.
3. Test and record the electrical output. Repeat, adding another penny. If adding mass increases the
output, add more pennies one at a time until you determine the ideal mass for the greatest electri-
cal output. Dowel
4. Distribute the pennies on the blades at different distances from the hub until you determine the
optimal distribution of mass for the greatest electrical output.

 Data Table
ADDITIONAL MASS ELECTRICAL OUTPUT (VOLTAGE)

OPTIMUM 0 GRAMS

TRIAL 1

TRIAL 2

TRIAL 3

 Graph Data
The manipulated variable is written on the X axis (horizontal) and the responding variable is written on the Y axis (vertical).

 Conclusion
Do you accept or reject your hypothesis? Use results from your data table to support your reasoning and explain how mass and mass
distribution affect the electrical output. Why do you think this is?
Note: The blades with the mass that achieved the greatest electrical output should become the optimum blades or be considered for any further
investigations, such as gear ratios and aerodynamics.
© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 31
 Blade Aerodynamics Graphic Organizer

? Questions

ƒ
ƒHow do drag, lift, and torque influence the efficiency of a wind turbine?
ƒ
ƒWhy do turbine blades move in the wind?

Define apparent wind:

DRAG

LIFT

TORQUE

32 Exploring Wind Energy

 Blade Aerodynamics

? Question

ƒ
ƒHow do drag, lift, and torque influence the efficiency of a wind turbine?

 Observations
How does the shape of the blade in this demonstration differ from your original benchmark blades?

How many airfoil blades provide the optimal electrical output? Compare this to your findings from the previous explorations, and explain
any similarity or difference.

How is blade pitch affected when using an airfoil blade? Compare to your findings from previous explorations, and explain any similarity or
difference.

Describe how mass and surface area may be affected when using airfoil blades. Is there a shape of blade that works best? Cite evidence from
previous investigations in your answer.

 Conclusion
1. Would you choose to use an airfoil shape if designing the optimum blade for efficiency? Why or why not?

2. Describe what your plan might look like if you were to design the optimum blades for an actual wind turbine to be placed at your school.

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 33
 Designing Optimum Blades
! Challenge

The engineers at Wind for Tomorrow Turbine Co. want help to optimize their turbine blades for higher energy output. They are accepting
bids from companies to design blades that more effectively convert kinetic energy than their current blade design.

! Explore

Using data from your previous investigations and data from other groups, explore ideas for the best blade design.

Make a Plan
In your science notebook, sketch your design, list the materials you will need, and detail the steps you will take to make the blades. Construct
blades that will give you the greatest electrical output.

 Data
Test and record the electrical output from your new blades. Compare your data to the benchmark blades in Blade Investigation #1 and your
optimum blades in Blade Investigation #4.

 Data Table
BLADES ELECTRICAL OUTPUT (VOLTAGE)

INVESTIGATION #4 OPTIMUM BLADES

AIRFOIL TEST BLADES

1ST DESIGN

2ND DESIGN

 Analysis
How did the output of your new blades compare to the output of the airfoil blades and the optimum blades from the #4 investigation? In
your science notebook, explain why your blade design is more or less effective than the comparison blades.

New Plan
Using your data from the data table above, draw and describe specific changes you will make to your blade design to increase its electrical
output and why you will make these changes.

 Redesign
Using your changes, alter the design of your blades, test, and record your data.

 Analysis
How did the outcome of your re-designed blades compare to the output of the airfoil blades, the optimum blades, and your first design?
Explain your results.

 Report
Write a report to the Wind for Tomorrow Turbine Co. detailing your best blade design. Use data to explain why the company should or should
not go with your design.

34 Exploring Wind Energy

 Investigating Gear Ratios
? Question

ƒ
ƒHow do different gear ratios within the gear box affect the electrical output of a turbine?

 Hypothesis
Make a hypothesis to address the question using the following format: If (manipulated variable) then (responding variable) because ...

Independent Variable: ____________________________________

Dependent Variable: ____________________________________
Controlled Variables:

 Materials
ƒ
ƒMultimeter
ƒ
ƒFan
ƒ
ƒTurbine
ƒ
ƒGears
ƒ
ƒOptimum blades (from the previous investigation or investigation #4)
ƒ
ƒWatch with second hand
ƒ
ƒProtractor

Procedure
1. In the table below, record your results from the previous investigation where you used the turbine with the standard gear ratio of 64:8
(64=tooth gear and 8=tooth gear).
2. Configure a new gear ratio (for example 32:8) with the turbine, making sure that you minimize all other variables (keep everything else
the same). You have the option of three gear ratios (64:8, 32:8 or 16:8 – additional adjustment is required for 16:8 gear ratio).
3. Turn the fan on and record the voltage output every 20 seconds for one minute. Record your results below and find the average.
4. Test different gear ratios to compare their effect on voltage output.

 Data Table
20 SECONDS 40 SECONDS 60 SECONDS AVERAGE
STANDARD GEAR,
BEST RESULTS
GEAR RATIO 1

GEAR RATIO 2

GEAR RATIO 3

 Conclusion
1. Were the different gear ratios giving you consistent results? Why or why not?
2. What did you notice about the different gear ratios?
3. What did you notice about rotations per minute?

© 2017 The NEED Project 8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110 1.800.875.5029 www.NEED.org 35
 Calculating Wind Power
? Question

ƒ
ƒHow do you calculate wind power?

 Materials
ƒ
ƒFan
ƒ
ƒWind gauge
ƒ
ƒTurbine with benchmark blades
ƒ
ƒMeter stick

 Formula
Power = ½ ρAV3
where ρ = air density (ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 at standard ambient temperature and pressure); A = swept area (A = πr2 ; π = 3.1416); V = velocity

Watts = ½ (kg/m3) x (m2) x (m/s)3

Procedure
1. Measure the radius of the turbine blade assembly and calculate the area swept by the blades.
(A = πr2)

2. Use the wind gauge to measure the wind velocity at a distance of 1 meter from the fan on low and high speeds. Convert the measure-
ments from miles per hour to meters per second (m/s).
(1 mile = 1609.344 meters)

Wind Velocity at Low Speed - 1 meter: ____________ mph = ____________m/s

Wind Velocity at High Speed - 1 meter: ____________ mph = ____________m/s

3. Use the formula above to calculate the power of the wind in watts at both fan speeds.
Wind Power at Low Speed - 1 meter: ____________W

Wind Power at High Speed - 1 meter: ____________W

4. Vary the distance from the fan and calculate the power on low and high speeds.
Wind Power at ___________m (distance A) on Low Speed: ___________W

Wind Power at ___________m (distance A) on High Speed: ___________W

Wind Power at ___________m (distance B) on Low Speed: ___________W

Wind Power at ___________m (distance B) on High Speed: ___________W

 Conclusion
1. Compare the power at different distances from the fan and on different fan speeds.
2. Explain the relationships between the different variables and the power produced.

36 Exploring Wind Energy

 Role Group: _______________________

© 2017 The NEED Project

QUESTION 1 QUESTION 2 QUESTION 3

ESSENTIAL DETAILS ESSENTIAL DETAILS ESSENTIAL DETAILS

8408 Kao Circle, Manassas, VA 20110

1.800.875.5029
www.NEED.org
What is important to understand about this?

37
 a
b c
Glossary
absorb to take in or hold
aerodynamics the study of the motion of air and its interactions with solid objects
air density mass per unit volume of Earth’s atmosphere
airfoil the shape of a blade or wing from a side or cross-sectional view
albedo the fraction of solar radiation reflected from the Earth back into space; average reflectivity of the Earth’s surface
anemometer instrument used for measuring wind speed
anion an atom that has gained electrons to become a negatively charged ion
atom the most basic unit of matter
baseload minimum power a utility must provide to consumers
Bernoulli’s Principle the pressure in a fluid is reduced as the flow speed increases
Betz Limit the maximum amount of kinetic energy of the wind that can be converted into mechanical or motion energy
turning the rotor on a turbine, defined by German physicist Albert Betz
blade individual moving component of a turbine that is responsible for transferring energy
cation an atom that has lost electrons to become a positively charged ion
Coriolis Effect the deflection of moving objects due to the rotation of the Earth
current flow of electric charge through a conductor; measured in amperes or amps
cyclone winds that rotate rapidly inward to areas of lower atmospheric pressure, often associated with severe weather
doldrums an area of calm where the trade winds converge near the Equator
drag a mechanical force that acts on a solid object interacting with a fluid, typically slowing down a moving item or
system
efficiency the ratio of energy delivered by a machine to the energy supplied for its operation; often refers to reducing
energy consumption by using technologically advanced equipment without affecting the service provided
electric grid network of power stations, power lines, and transformers used to deliver electricity from generation to
consumers
electricity a form of energy created by the movement of electrons
electromagnetism the interaction of forces occurring between electrically charged particles that can create an electric field or
magnetic field
electron very tiny, negatively charged subatomic particle that moves around the nucleus of the atom
element most pure form of all matter; all matter is made of elements or combinations of elements
energy level area where electrons can be found; describes the probable amount of energy in the atom
front a term used when discussing weather describing the boundary lines between masses of air with different
densities; often associated with changes in wind speed
gear box device used in wind turbines to convert the slow rotation of the blades and rotor to a faster rotation in order to
produce electricity
gear ratio relationship between large and small gears in a generator
generator a device that produces electricity by converting motion energy into electrical energy with spinning coils of wire
and magnets
generation refers to the creation of electric power by a generator
jet stream a narrow current of air that rapidly moves through the atmosphere and creating boundaries at areas with
differences in temperature; caused by Earth’s rotation and solar radiation
katabatic wind a wind that carries high-density cooler air from higher elevations to lower elevations down a slope, often called a
mountain wind or fall wind
land breeze a wind that blows from land toward the ocean in the evening, caused by different cooling rates of water and land
surfaces
lift a force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow; allows objects to fly; opposes drag
38 Exploring Wind Energy
 load a device or system that draws or uses electricity
magnet material with pairs of non-cancelling, spinning electrons that line up to form a magnetic field; magnetic materials
are attracted to each other
magnetic field the area of force surrounding a magnet
megawatt standard unit of measurement for bulk electricity in power plants; 1 megawatt (MW) = 1 million watts
nacelle the housing where all of the generating components are found within a turbine
neutron subatomic particle with no electric charge, found in the nucleus of the atom
Newton’s Laws of laws that govern the motion of all items when a force is applied
Motion
nonrenewable sources of energy with limited supply due to their inability to be renewed or produced in a short amount of time
energy sources
nucleus the center of an atom, composed of protons and neutrons and houses the majority of the atom’s mass
peak demand a period where many cutomers want electricity at the same time; often takes place during the day; utilities need to
generate additional power to balance loads
pitch the angle of the blade on a turbine, can be adjusted to reduce drag
polar easterlies dry, cold winds that begin in the east and flow in a westerly direction away from the poles
prevailing westerlies winds that blow from west to east and occur in temperate zones of the Earth
proton subatomic particle with a positive electric charge, found in the nucleus of an atom
radiant energy energy that travels in electromagnetic waves like light or x-rays
reflect to cast or bend back from a surface, experienced by radiant energy, thermal energy, and sound energy
renewable energy sources of energy with a more constant supply because they are replenished in a short amount of time
sources
rotor hub structure connecting the blades of the turbine to the generator shaft
sea breeze a wind that blows from the ocean to land during the day, caused by different cooling rates of water and land
surfaces
secondary energy often called an energy carrier, secondary energy sources requires another source, like coal, to be converted for
source creation; electricity and hydrogen are examples
siting the process of choosing a location for a wind turbine or farm
smart grid computer-based remote control and automated system for electricity delivery that includes two-way interaction
between the generation facilities, utilities, and consumers
specific heat amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one Celsius degree
stable an electron configuration when the outer-most energy level of an atom is full
thermal energy internal energy within substances, movement or vibration of molecules
torque the tendency of a force to rotate an object about its axis or pivot, a twist
tower structural support of the turbine
trade wind warm, steady easterly breeze flowing towards the Equator in tropical latitudes
transformer a device that changes the voltage of electricity
transmission the movement or transfer of electricity via power lines
transmission line power lines that carry electricity at higher voltages long distances
tunnel effect when air becomes compressed in narrow spaces and its speed increases
turbine a machine of blades that converts kinetic energy of a moving fluid to mechanical power
turbulence an irregular motion within a moving fluid
valley wind a wind that blows up the slope of a mountain allowing cooler air to sweep into the valley
voltage a measure of the pressure (or potential difference) under which electricity flows through a circuit
watt unit of measurement of electric power
wind moving air created by uneven heating of Earth’s surface
wind shear a change in wind speed and/or direction along a straight line or within a short distance
wind turbine a system that converts motion energy from the wind into electrical energy
wind vane an instrument used to show the direction of the wind

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