JAMES CLAYTON LECTURE a The Theory of Plasticity: A Survey of Recent Achievements By Dr. William Prager, Mem.A.S.M.E.* After a brief historical introduction, recent achievements in the theory of plasticity ae surveyed with ‘emphasis on applications in mechanical enginesring. ‘Kinematic models are presented that indicate the complexities of mechanical behaviour in the plastic range. The fundamental theorems of limit analysis are discussed, and their application to ‘hvo- and three-dimensional problems is illustrated by examples, Shakedown analysis and limit design are defined, Problems involving large plastic deformations are discussed with special reference to metal forming processes. Applicat 8 of the theory of plasticity to impact testing and blast damage are reviewed. Recent changes in the theory of structural stability in the plastic range are ‘mentioned. Throughout the lecture, impending developments ofthe theory of plasticity are indicated. ‘The theory of plasticity is concerned with the analysis of stresses ‘and stains in the platic range of ductile materials, especially ‘metals, Applied to the design of machines and structures, it Fepresents @ necssbary extension of the theory of elasticity in hat it furnishes ‘more realistic estimates of load-carrying capacities. Applied to technological forming processes such a8 imuchining, pressing, extruding, rolling, and drawing, ic provides ‘the basis for improved control through better understanding of the sole of the relevant mechanical variables, ‘The foundations of he then of plac, were id about sighty years ago by Saint Venant (1870a)f, Lévy (1870), ‘Boussinesq (1872). The development of hydrostercodynamics or pPlasticodynamics, a5 the new field was called, was strongly Influenced by the already well-established theory of earth pres~ sure, 0 which Lévy (1869), Saint Venant (1870), and Boussinesq (IPP) wen hen ening compen. Teeny yield concn resca 1868), adopted by these authors, can be regarded as 2 cal case ofthe condition of which Coulomb (1773) had based hls theory of earch pressure nearly a century before, and the important concept of the limiting equilibrium of a continuum hod been established by Rankine's work on such equilibria ia, oose earth (Rankine 1857). Much of the theory of earth pres- sure, however, had been perfected before Cauchy's fundamental invettigations on elasticity (Cauchy 1827, 1828) hed clarified the specifications of stress and strain, and brought out the important rok ofthe stress-strain Flats in any branch of mechanics of ‘continua, In the theory of earth pressure the introduction, ‘Stress-strain relations ‘Was obviated by the restriction to the ‘consideration of limiting equilibria and the appeal to a heuristic ‘extremum principle implied jn Coulomb's work and more clearly formulated by Moseley (1833). Ie is forranate that the pioncers ‘ofthe theory of plasticity did not copy this unsatisfactory featare ‘ofthe theory of earth pressure but introduced instead a ow rule relating the stress to the velocity strain. Research in plasticity wwas thereby forced to pursue an independent course and, as a result of this, the theory of plasticity is now able to pay some (Of the debt of gratitude it owes to the theory of earth pressur the general theory of limit analyeis, developed during recent years as a subject in plasticity, has shed much needed light on. ‘the foundations of the theory of earth pressure ‘The MS, of th cae ma recived tthe Zon on oh ‘August 1984 For the reportofthemecing in London om Lath Jandy 1B at which th ene as delivered ce p9T + Professor o “Mechanics, Brown Gaiverity, Providence, Rhode Island, United State of Ameren. “fA alphabetical ist of references is given inthe Appendix, Instead of tracing the historical development of the theory of plasticity in this lecture, I shall attempt to survey i present Stand. Much of this survey will be concerned with’ reoent achievements, not only because research activity in this feld has increased tremendously during the last decade ot 30, but also because the trend of recent developments will best indicate facure problems. STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS ‘The attempt to incorporate the various mechanical properties of plastic solids in @ single mathematical model is not likely to bbe succcssful, but even ir such a model could be constructed, ‘would be far too complex to serve as the basis forthe treatment (of technological problems. Simpler models must be sed repre= senting only those properties that are essential to the considered problem, Furthermore, the need for mathematical simplicity fen, dictates, far-reaching idealization in the mathematical ‘description of the mechanical properties that are to be in- sorporatad in the model The obvious first step in the investigation of the mechanical behaviour ofa solid is the stady of ts behaviour in simple tension ‘or compression. An elastic solid under uniaxial stress is modelled bby.a spring, as shown in Fig. 1a, in which the force P and the displacement of its point of application A represent the stress tnd the strain of the elastic solid. Corresponding models for plastic solids are shown in Fig. 1é-e; the squares in these figures Indicate blocks that experience solid friedon as they slide along. their supports, Fig. 1b and ¢ represent solids that do not deform unless the stress reaches @ critical intensity.,"The rigid, perfectly plastic solid of Fig. 1b flows plastically under constant stress, whereas the rigid, work-hardening solid of Fig. Te requires an increase in the stress intensity if plastic low isto continue. Because they neglect all elastic deformations, these models are likely to be suitable only for the treatment of problems in which the elastic Strains are insignificant when compared to the plastie strains. ‘When elastic strains have to be taken into account, a spring must be used in series with the friction block as in the elastic, per- featly plastic model of Fig. 1d or the clastic, work-hardening ‘model of Fig. Te. Fig. 2 shows the stress-strain diagrams of these models, In. Fig, 2 for instance, the ine OABCDEF indicates the behaviour under foading in tension (OAB) folloseed by unloading (BC) and loading in compression (CDEF). If the specimen is cycled between the stresses represented by the ordinates of B and the loop BDFG is obtained. Similar loops are indicated in the other diagrams of Fig. 2-a JAMES CLAYTON LECTURE For the rigid, work-hardening solid of Fig. 26, the tensile strain ¢ taises the yield limit i tension from the original value 29 fo oyece and lowers the yield limit in compression from the ‘tiginal value op {0 uy-nce. ‘The decrease of the yield limit in Compression, produced by the workshardening in tension is | +,» . : win Wr Aap dad é Fig. 1. Dynamic Models of Mechanical Behaviour Under Uni- ‘axial Stress (a) Elastic, (6) Rigid, Perfectly Plastic, (© Rigid, Work-hardening, (@) Elastic, Perfectly Plastic, (e) Elastic, ‘Work: hardening Material, Fig. 2. Stress-Strain Diagrams and Hysteresis Loops for Uni- xal Stress, (The five cases correspond to those in Fig. 1) ‘known as the Bauschinger effect. For the solid considered here, work-hardening and Bauschinger effect counterbalance each ‘other in such a manner that the gup between the yield limits in fenson and. compremion independent of sh pemanent ‘Jenkins (1922) pointed out that more realistic stress-strain diagrams may be obtained by straining in parallel models of the ‘considered type that are given suitable initial stresses and yield limits, More elaborate models using cams were described by Lees (1922). In all these models, plastic strain is simulated by slip under solid friction. ‘There are, however, fundamental Glifferences between these phenomena as Drucker (1954) has Emphesized, and it is unlikely that satisfactory models using Solid friction can be constructed for plastic flow under combined Stresses. We shall therefore abandon dynamic models that {epresent stresses by forces and use instead kinemstic models that represent stresses by displacements. Nao, WORKHARDENNG Fig. 3, Kinematic Model of Mechanicat Behaviour Under ‘Uniaxial Stress Fig. 3 shows a kinematic model of a rigid, perfectly plastic solid"under uniaxial stress. The slotted plate A slides freely ‘between frictionless guides B. The pin C sliding without Bedion in the slot imparts a motion to the plate A only when it ‘engages with one of the other end of the slot. The plate A, the gulls: B, and the pin C, each carry a vertical Index, and these Eilioes atc originally aligned. The displacement of the pin index with respect to the plate index represents the stress 0, and the Usplacement of the plate index with respect to the guide index Sepresents te strain, the total free displacement of the pin in the slot representing twice the yield stress op “The same device is readily adapted to the rigid, work-harden ing solid or the elasti, perfectly plastic solid. The manner in ‘hich stress and strain are represented in each case is indicated Jn'Fle. 3. ‘The adaptation of the model to the elastic, work- FRardening solid, while possible, is less straightforward and will not be discussed here. ‘Before proceeding to the consideration of more complex states of stress, Jet us note the stress-strain relations for the rigid, perfectly plastic solid under uniaxial sires. The strain ¢ can Ghange only when the stress o is at the yield limit in tension or ‘compression, and the strain rate é then has the same sign as the stress: sent © “Phe stress-strain relations for even the most primitive of our plasce solids thus are far more complex than Hooke’s law for the te ws which simply species nroporsoaltybeeneen "Typical features of plastic behaviour under combined stressesTHE THEORY OF PLASTICITY: A SURVEY OF RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS are exhibited by a member subjected to combined direct force ‘and bending moment, To avoid lengthy though elementary algebra, let us consider a sandwich type of beam consisting of ‘wo flanges of unie cross-sectional area joined by a layer that ‘aries only shear but no direct stresses (Fig. 4a). The height of the beam measured from centre flange to centre flange will be assumed to equal to units of length. This choice of the height ff the beam and the crost-sectional area ofthe flanges eliminates tunefsential coefficients and thus facilitates the algebraic work. ‘To simplify this work still further, we shall treat the flanges a8 infinitely thin, that i, neglect the variations of stress or serain ‘over the thickness of the flange. of Fig. 4. Sandwich Beam with Rigid, Perfectly Plastic Flanges ‘Under Combined Axial Force and Bending Moment Assume first that the flanges are made of a rigid, perfoctly plastic materia. ‘The state of stress at a cross-section of the beam Be specified by she stresses oy and in the lower and upper flanges, respectively. Similarly, the state of strain at the con ‘sidered cross-section is specified by the extensions «) and « Since the stress in a flange depends only on the straining of this flange but not on the straining ofthe other flange, the kinematical device of Fig. 3 can be generalized as follows. A square rigid ‘rame F (Fig. 44) is mounted so that it can perform any translation in its plane. A peefectly smooth pin P, free to move inside the ‘fame, imparts & motion tothe frame only when pushes against 4 side or engages with a comer of the frame. Originally, frame and pin are centred at the origin O of the ey, , planes as the frame is displaced by the moving pin, the vector from O to the centre Gof the frame has the components «and ey and the vector from C to the centre Pof the pin has the components 07 and ay, Indeed, if frame and pin are in the positions shown in Fig. 4, the lower flange is at the yield limit in tension, but the upper flange is not at the yield limit. If now, the pin is moved Sty upwards and to the right, the force exerted by the smooth pin on the frame will be directed along the contact normal and, Since the frame isnot free to rotate, it will undergo a translation in the direction of this normal. In the course of this translation the abscissa of the centre C of the frame increases, but the fdinats remains the same, corresponding to the fact that the change of stress represented by the motion of the pin produces, yielding only in the lower flange. AAs is readily seen from Fig. 4c, the axial force Nand the bending moment ‘M of the considered sandwich bearn are given, by N M= oo @ ‘Similarly, Fig. 4d shows that the unit extension end the ‘curvature « of the centre-line are given by ca Korte) we i@n-a) + orton +o Equations (2) and (3) establish the fact that the depende and eon N and Af may be obtained by referring the posit of frame and pin to the oblique axes indicated in Fig. 4b. A more ‘convenient arrangement is shown in Fig. 4e. ‘The same device cin be used to represent the mechanical behaviour when the flanges of the considered sandivich beam are made of a rigid work-bardening, or an clastic, perfectly plastic material. In the first case, the generalized stresses and Strains are represented by the vectors OP and OC (Fig. 54), which have the components N; M and os on respectively. In ‘the second case, the generalized stresses are represented by the components NV end ‘M of the vector GP and the generalized Strain by the components He and Zi of the vector OP (Fig. 50). "These kinematical models reveal the amazing complexity of ‘the mechanical behaviour of even so simple a plastic contingum, ag the considered sandivich beam. First, there is the dependence ‘of the final plastic deformation on the history of leading. Con- sider, for instance, a rigid, work-hardening beam subjected to Fig. 5. Kinemetic Models of Mechanical Behaviour of Sandwich ‘Beams with (a) Rigid, Work-hardening or ®) Elastic, Per- fectly Plastic Flanges the alternative modes of loading represented by the paths O12 and O12 in Fig. 62, Ifthe pin is moved along the fist path the ‘Hehthand comer of the frame moves from Ay to | and then to ‘Ay and the ceatre describes the path OC,C. If, on the other hhind, the pin follows the path O12, the right-hand comer of the flame moves from Ay to A’ and the centre from O to © ‘The final plastic deformations represented by the points C and C’ differ therefore, though the final states of stress represented bby the point 2 are the same, ’As this example shows, the dependence of the final pl deformation on. the history of loading corresponds ‘to. the dependence of the slip between frame and pin on the path of