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Psychology Factsheets
www.curriculumpress.co.uk Number 55

Classical Conditioning
This Factsheet describes and evaluates classical
conditioning. 1. What is the difference between classical conditioning and
A. What is conditioning? operant conditioning?
y Conditioning means learning. Classical conditioning involves involuntary behaviours (e.g.,
salivation) whereas operant conditioning involves voluntary
y Conditioning is the focus of behaviourism (also behaviours. Classical conditioning concerns the association
known as the learning approach, behavioural analysis, and between stimuli and responses whereas operant conditioning
behavioural psychology). uses reinforcement. Factsheet 17 describes operant conditioning.
y Behaviourism proposes that we learn (are conditioned) in two
ways.
1. We learn by associating one thing with another thing (that
two things go together) - classical conditioning. B. What is classical conditioning?
2. We learn by the consequences of what we do (the effect of The nature (basic principles) of classical conditioning:
our behaviour) - operant conditioning. Classical conditioning occurs when we
y In this factsheet, we focus on classical conditioning. Text box 1 learn that two things happen together –
explains how this differs from operant conditioning. we associate them with each other. Pavlov
introduced the concept of classical
Exam hint: The examiners state that many students do not conditioning (see text box 2). Classical
know the difference between the two types of conditioning and conditioning links an existing, normally
so get them mixed-up in the exam. If the question asks for just reflex (involuntary) action with a new
classical conditioning or just operant conditioning, make sure stimulus. That is, we build an association between a neutral stimulus
that you are talking about the one asked for. Describing the and an existing unconditioned stimulus. Table 1 explains how
wrong one will not get any marks. classical conditioning works.

Table 1. The stages of classical conditioning

Stage Stimulus Response

1. Before conditioning Food = unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Dog salivates = unconditioned

response (UCR). This is the normal
expected response.

2. Before conditioning Bell = neutral stimulus (NS) Dog does not salivate = there is no
(it has no effect yet). conditioned response.

3. During conditioning Dog salivates = unconditioned response (UCR).

4. After conditioning Bell = conditioned stimulus (CS). Dog salivates = conditioned response (CR).

! Note that the bell is the neutral stimulus before conditioning but is the conditioned stimulus afterwards.

Exam Hint: Can you explain what the UCS, UCR, NS, CS and CR are?

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C. Key terms in classical conditioning

Order of presentation Extinction
The UCS (e.g., food) and CS (e.g., bell) are not always presented at If the CS (e.g., bell) is presented many times without the UCS (i.e.,
the same time. Variations of presentation (also called timing/ without the food), the CR (e.g., salivation) declines and eventually
contiguities) include: disappears over time. It is necessary to occasionally make the link
(a) Forward/delayed conditioning = The NS is presented before again between the NS and the UCS in order to maintain a response,
the UCS (but is still present when UCS presented) (e.g., bell is otherwise it will become extinct.
presented first and remains while food is presented). Spontaneous recovery
(b) Trace conditioning = The NS is presented before the UCS, but This is where a response which has been extinguished for a long
stops before the UCS is presented. time suddenly reappears.
(c) Simultaneous conditioning = The NS and UCS are presented Stimulus generalisation
simultaneously (as in table 1). If the stimulus is sufficiently alike to another new stimulus, the
(d) Backwards conditioning = The NS comes after the UCS. new one can trigger the CR. It is then said to be generalised. For
example, a bell of a lower tone than the original one used in
Exam Hint: Make sure that you can explain the key terms conditioning can cause the same response.
which are underlined. You will need to know them for the
exam.

D. Examples of classical conditioning in humans and 2. The work of Ivan Pavlov

non-human animals Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) is famous for explaining how association
(a) Phobias can arise from the pairing of a certain is established. Pavlov was a medical doctor who studied the
stimulus with a fear response (e.g., Watson and nervous system and digestion. He won the Nobel Prize for this
Rayner (1920) classically conditioned Little Albert in 1904. Pavlov used dogs in his research. By chance, he noticed
to have a phobia of rats). that the dogs salivated not just when food was present, but
also to other cues (e.g., hearing footsteps of person who normally
(b) Smelling a particular odour can bring back memories
brings the food). As salivation is not under the animal’s control,
of a person/place.
it is involuntary (see text box 1). Pavlov focused on how a
(c) Taste aversion is where the taste of a substance is stimulus (e.g., a bell) is associated with a bodily response (e.g.,
associated with an unpleasant experience, such salivating). He did an experiment on this in 1927 (see table 2).
as nausea (e.g., if you have been sick from a
particular food/drink, then you may feel sick again Table 2: The basics of Pavlov’s experiment.
just seeing or smelling that food/drink).
Dogs normally Pavlov He found that just the
(d) Olson and Fazio (2001) showed word-image pairs to their only salivate sounded a sound of metronome
participants. One part of the pair was the NS because it did not
. before eating. metronome at made the dogs salivate.
cause an emotional response. The other part did produce either the same time So, the dogs learnt (were
positive or negative emotional responses and so was a UCS. as feeding the conditioned) to link
The participants then unexpectedly had to rate how positively dogs. He did (associate) the sound of
they felt about the images or words. Those paired with a positive this a number the bell with “food is
UCS were rated more positively than those paired with a negative of times coming”.
item. This shows that the participants had been classically
conditioned.
(e) Classical conditioning is seen in the natural behaviour of animals,
such as in foraging, hunting and reproductive behaviour. Example Exam Question
E. Evaluating classical conditioning Describe the basic principles of classical or operant
y Classical conditioning does explain some behaviours (e.g., conditioning. Evaluate the role of classical conditioning in
phobias). human behaviour.
y It has practical applications, such as in behavioural therapies (e.g., In the first section of this question, it asks you to choose between
aversion therapy). either classical or operant conditioning. Be sure that you know
y It explains only behaviours which already exist (such as salivation), the difference! The basic principles are the main assumptions of
but it does not explain the appearance of entirely new behaviours. conditioning. This factsheet describes these for classical
y Learning also includes operant conditioning and observational conditioning. You should explain how conditioning works (as in
learning. table 1) and you should also be able to explain key terms, such
y Research into classical conditioning uses laboratory experiments. as extinction and spontaneous recovery. The second part of the
This enables good control of variables but the research is done in question asks you to discuss the strengths and limitations of
an artificial environment. just classical conditioning. Some of these are covered in section
y Animals are used to explore how we learn new behaviours. Animals E of this factsheet.
have the advantage of being less complex in behaviour and we
Acknowledgements: This Psychology Factsheet was researched and written by Amanda Albon.
can control their environment. However, it is less clear how much The Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU.
can we generalise what we learn from animals to humans. ISSN 1351-5136
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Worksheet: Classical Conditioning

Name
1. Describe what conditioning is.

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2. Explain what classical conditioning is.

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3. What is a difference between operant and classical conditioning?

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4. Who first explained classical conditioning?

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5. Complete the table:
Stage Stimulus Response
Before conditioning Food = Salivation = unconditioned response
Before conditioning Bell = No salivation = no response
During conditioning ____ plus ________ Salivation =
After conditioning Bell = _____ _________ =

6. Using the terms in this Factsheet, explain what has happened in the following example.
“Lucy has a phobia about balloons. When she was a toddler, a balloon popped in her face. As the phobia interfered with her life, she
sought therapy. Lucy was shown that a balloon popping is not harmful. Her fear decreased by being exposed to lots of balloons being
burst”.

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7. Much research into classical conditioning involves laboratory experiments. What is a possible problem with this?

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8. Give a strength and a weakness of using classical conditioning to explain learning.

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