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 Define Specific gravity.

The ratio of the mass of a solid or liquid to the mass of an equal volume of distilled
water at 4°C (39°F) or of a gas to an equal volume of air or hydrogen under prescribed
conditions of temperature and pressure. Also called {
   
.

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Ñoseph Aspdin, an English mason who patented the product in 1824, named it
portland cement because it produced a concrete that resembled the color of the natural
limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland, an island in the English Channel.


# $   % % ! "

Each country has its own standard for portland cement, so there is no universal
international standard. The United States uses the specification prepared by the American
Society for Testing and Materials-ASTM C-150 Standard Specification for Portland
Cement. There are a few other countries that also have adopted this as their standard,
however, there are countless other specifications. Unfortunately, they do not use the same
criteria for measuring properties and defining physical characteristics so they are virtually
"non-translatable." The European Cement Association located in Brussels, Belgium,
publishes a book titled "Cement Standards of the World."

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Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that,
along with water and portland cement, are an essential ingredient in concrete.

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 Aggregates must be resistant to breakdown and disintegration from weathering
(wetting/drying) or else they may break apart and cause premature pavement distress.

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Aggregates must be relatively clean when used in HMA. Vegetation, soft particles, clay
lumps, excess dust and vegetable matter may affect performance by quickly degrading,
which causes a loss of structural support and/or prevents binder-aggregate bonding.

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pefers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of aggregate particles in the
mid-size range. The curve is flat in the mid-size range. These mixes can be prone to
segregation during placement.

* What Sources of Natural Aggregate

Igneous - formed by cooling of molten rock matter either above or below the earth¶s
surface; phase separation occurs during cooling, and crystals form in either a crystalline
or glassymatrix; size of the grains is dependent on the rate of cooling.
Sedimentary - formed by consolidation of deposits of the products of weathering and
erosion of existing rocks
0 What are the Important Aggregate Characteristics?
 Strength
 Elastic modulus
 Toughness
 Hardness
 Size
 Size distribution
 Shape
 Texture
 Porosity
 Pore structure
 Composition
+,#- &% 
Bulking is the increase in total volume of moist fine aggregate over the same mass
dry.

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The ultimate compressive strength and rate of strength development of concrete is

strongly influenced by the chemical reactivity of the portland cement. Varying hydration
rates of the different cement compounds can help explain how the relative proportions of
these compounds affect the rate of strength gain. For instance, the C2S reacts slowly and
contributes to long-term strength gain. C3S, on the other hand, has a much faster
hydration rate, and contributes to higher early-strength gain. Thus, cement with a higher
proportion of C3S ± as is the case with most of today¶s cements ± will tend to have a
higher early strength, and allow for early form removal or post-tensioning.

Œ    .

Hydraulic cements set and harden, not by drying, but through a chemical reaction
between the cement grains and water. During this process (called hydration), the calcium
silicates from the portland cement form calcium hydroxide and a gel-like calcium silicate
hydrate (C-S-H). The rate of this reaction is dependent on many factors including the
type and proportion of portland cement components (C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF), the
fineness and particle size distribution of the cement grains, and the placing and curing
conditions of the concrete. Understanding the hydration process and the creation of C-S-
H are critical for understanding the engineering properties of concrete: setting, strength
gain, and durability.

 %% ,/ !   "

Although the terms cement and concrete often are used interchangeably, cement is
actually an ingredient of concrete. Concrete is basically a mixture of aggregates and
paste. The aggregates are sand and gravel or crushed stone; the paste is water and
portland cement. Concrete gets stronger as it gets older. Portland cement is not a brand
name, but the generic term for the type of cement used in virtually all concrete, just as
stainless is a type of steel and sterling a type of silver. Cement comprises from 10 to 15
percent of the concrete mix, by volume. Through a process called hydration, the cement
and water harden and bind the aggregates into a rocklike mass. This hardening process
continues for years meaning that concrete gets stronger as it gets older. So, there is no
such thing as a cement sidewalk, or a cement mixer; the proper terms are concrete
sidewalk and concrete mixer.

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Admixtures are chemicals added to concrete in small quantities for a specific

function (for example water-reducing, set-retarding, or set-accelerating). These chemicals
affect the hydration and/or are adsorbed by the cement particles. Certain combinations of
chemicals and cement properties may adversely affect the setting behavior and be
deemed incompatible. Examining the chemistry of the hydration reactions and the
components of the cement can give clues to the source of the incompatibility.

D 1   "

Air-entrained concrete contains billions of microscopic air cells per cubic foot.
These air pockets relieve internal pressure on the concrete by providing tiny chambers for
water to expand into when it freezes. Air-entrained concrete is produced through the use
of air-entraining portland cement, or by the introduction of air-entraining agents, under
careful engineering supervision as the concrete is mixed on the job. The amount of
entrained air is usually between 4 percent and 7 percent of the volume of the concrete,
but may be varied as required by special conditions.


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 Write a detailed note on the Five Functions of admixtures.

Different types of chemical admixtures.Admixtures are classed according to function.

There are five distinct classes of chemical admixtures: air-entraining, water-reducing,
retarding, accelerating, and plasticizers (superplasticizers). All other varieties of
admixtures fall into the specialty category whose functions include corrosion
inhibition, shrinkage reduction, alkali-silica reactivity reduction, workability
enhancement, bonding, damp proofing, and coloring. Air-entraining admixtures,
which are used to purposely place microscopic air bubbles into the concrete, are
discussed more fully in "Air-Entrained Concrete."

1# &!0# usually reduce the required water content for a concrete
mixture by about 5 to 10 percent. Consequently, concrete containing a water-reducing
admixture needs less water to reach a required slump than untreated concrete. The
treated concrete can have a lower water-cement ratio. This usually indicates that a
higher strength concrete can be produced without increasing the amount of cement.
pecent advancements in admixture technology have led to the development of mid-
range water reducers. These admixtures reduce water content by at least 8 percent and
tend to be more stable over a wider range of temperatures. Mid-range water reducers
provide more consistent setting times than standard water reducers.

 & !0#, which slow the setting rate of concrete, are used to
counteract the accelerating effect of hot weather on concrete setting. High
temperatures often cause an increased rate of hardening which makes placing and
finishing difficult. petarders keep concrete workable during placement and delay the
initial set of concrete. Most retarders also function as water reducers and may entrain
some air in concrete.

 &!0# increase the rate of early strength development, reduce the
time required for proper curing and protection, and speed up the start of finishing
operations. Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties
of concrete in cold weather.
Placing concrete with #2 #2, also known as
plasticizers or high-range water reducers (HpWp), reduce water content by 12 to 30
percent and can be added to concrete with a low-to-normal slump and water-cement
 ratio to make high-slump flowing concrete. Flowing concrete is a highly fluid but
workable concrete that can be placed with little or no vibration or compaction. The
effect of superplasticizers lasts only 30 to 60 minutes, depending on the brand and
dosage rate, and is followed by a rapid loss in workability. As a result of the slump
loss, superplasticizers are usually added to concrete at the jobsite.

 1 , &!0# fall into the specialty admixture category and are
used to slow corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. Corrosion inhibitors can be
used as a defensive strategy for concrete structures, such as marine facilities, highway
bridges, and parking garages, that will be exposed to high concentrations of chloride.
Other specialty admixtures include shrinkage-reducing admixtures and alkali-silica
reactivity inhibitors. The shrinkage reducers are used to control drying shrinkage and
minimize cracking, while ASp inhibitors control durability problems associated with
alkali-silica reactivity.

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Materials that contain appropriate amounts of calcium compounds, silica, alumina

and iron oxide are crushed and screened and placed in a rotating cement kiln. Ingredients
used in this process are typically materials such as limestone, marl, shale, iron ore, clay,
and fly ash. The kiln resembles a large horizontal pipe with a diameter of 10 to 15 feet (3
to 4.1 meters) and a length of 300 feet (90 meters) or more. One end is raised slightly.
The raw mix is placed in the high end and as the kiln rotates the materials move slowly
toward the lower end. Flame jets are at the lower end and all the materials in the kiln are
heated to high temperatures that range between 2700 and 3000 Fahrenheit (1480 and
1650 Celsius). This high heat drives off, or calcines, the chemically combined water and
carbon dioxide from the raw materials and forms new compounds (tricalcium silicate,
dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium aluminoferrite). For each ton of
material that goes into the feed end of the kiln, two thirds of a ton the comes out the
discharge end, called clinker. This clinker is in the form of marble sized pellets. The
clinker is very finely ground to produce portland cement. A small amount of gypsum is
added during the grinding process to control the cement's set or rate of hardening.
 %% % ! "

Though all portland cement is basically the same, eight types of cement are manufactured
to meet different physical and chemical requirements for specific applications:

Type I is a general purpose portland cement suitable for most uses.

Type II is used for structures in water or soil containing moderate amounts of sulfate, or
when heat build-up is a concern.

Type III cement provides high strength at an early state, usually in a week or less.

Type IV moderates heat generated by hydration that is used for massive concrete
structures such as dams.

Type V cement resists chemical attack by soil and water high in sulfates.

Types IA, IIA and IIIA are cements used to make air-entrained concrete. They have the
same properties as types I, II, and III, except that they have small quantities of air-
entrained materials combined with them.

White portland cement is made from raw materials containing little or no iron or
manganese, the substances that give conventional cement its gray color.

If you have a question that was not answered in this section, please email us and we will
be happy to answer it!

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Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that,
along with water and portland cement, are an essential ingredient in concrete. For a good
concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed
chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of
concrete. Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete,
are divided into two distinct categories-fine and coarse. Fine aggregates generally consist
of natural sand or crushed stone with most particles passing through a 3/8-inch (9.5-mm)
sieve. Coarse aggregates are any particles greater than 0.19 inch (4.75 mm), but generally
range between 3/8 and 1.5 inches (9.5 mm to 37.5 mm) in diameter. Gravels constitute
the majority of coarse aggregate used in concrete with crushed stone making up most of
the remainder. Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit, river, lake,
or seabed. Crushed aggregate is produced by crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or
large-size gravel. pecycled concrete is a viable source of aggregate and has been
satisfactorily used in granular subbases, soil-cement, and in new concrete. Aggregate
processing consists of crushing, screening, and washing the aggregate to obtain proper
cleanliness and gradation. If necessary, a benefaction process such as jigging or heavy
media separation can be used to upgrade the quality.

Once processed, the aggregates are handled and stored in a way that minimizes
segregation and degradation and prevents contamination. Aggregates strongly influence
concrete's freshly mixed and hardened properties, mixture proportions, and economy.
Consequently, selection of aggregates is an important process. Although some variation
in aggregate properties is expected, characteristics that are considered when selecting
aggregate include:

× grading
× durability
× particle shape and surface texture
× abrasion and skid resistance
× unit weights and voids
× absorption and surface moisture

Grading refers to the determination of the particle-size distribution for aggregate.

Grading limits and maximum aggregate size are specified because grading and size affect
the amount of aggregate used as well as cement and water requirements, workability,
pumpability, and durability of concrete. In general, if the water-cement ratio is chosen
correctly, a wide range in grading can be used without a major effect on strength. When
gap-graded aggregate are specified, certain particle sizes of aggregate are omitted from
the size continuum. Gap-graded aggregate are used to obtain uniform textures in exposed
aggregate concrete. Close control of mix proportions is necessary to avoid segregation.

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Particle shape and surface texture influence the properties of freshly mixed
concrete more than the properties of hardened concrete. pough-textured, angular, and
elongated particles require more water to produce workable concrete than smooth,
rounded compact aggregate. Consequently, the cement content must also be increased to
maintain the water-cement ratio. Generally, flat and elongated particles are avoided or are
limited to about 15 percent by weight of the total aggregate. Unit-weight measures the
volume that graded aggregate and the voids between them will occupy in concrete. The
void content between particles affects the amount of cement paste required for the mix.
Angular aggregate increase the void content. Larger sizes of well-graded aggregate and
improved grading decrease the void content. Absorption and surface moisture of
aggregate are measured when selecting aggregate because the internal structure of
aggregate is made up of solid material and voids that may or may not contain water. The
amount of water in the concrete mixture must be adjusted to include the moisture
conditions of the aggregate. Abrasion and skid resistance of an aggregate are essential
when the aggregate is to be used in concrete constantly subject to abrasion as in heavy-
duty floors or pavements. Different minerals in the aggregate wear and polish at different
rates. Harder aggregate can be selected in highly abrasive conditions to minimize wear.

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Bricklayer Ñoseph Aspdin of Leeds, England first made portland cement early in
the 19th century by burning powdered limestone and clay in his kitchen stove. By this
crude method he laid the foundation for an industry which annually processes literally
mountains of limestone, clay, cement rock, and other materials into a powder so fine it
will pass through a sieve capable of holding water. Cement is so fine that one pound of
cement contains 150 billion grains.
 Pile of portland cementPortland cement, the basic ingredient of concrete, is a
closely controlled chemical combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and small
amounts of other ingredients to which gypsum is added in the final grinding process to
regulate the setting time of the concrete. Lime and silica make up about 85% of the mass.
Common among the materials used in its manufacture are limestone, shells, and chalk or
marl combined with shale, clay, slate or blast furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore.

Each step in manufacture of portland cement is checked by frequent chemical and

physical tests in plant laboratories. The finished product is also analyzed and tested to
ensure that it complies with all specifications.

Two Manufacturing Processes

Two different processes, "dry" and "wet," are used in the manufacture of portland
cement.

Primary crushing at quarryWhen rock is the principal raw material, the first step
after quarrying in both processes is the primary crushing. Mountains of rock are fed
through crushers capable of handling pieces as large as an oil drum. The first crushing
reduces the rock to a maximum size of about 6 inches. The rock then goes to secondary
crushers or hammer mills for reduction to about 3 inches or smaller.

In the wet process, the raw materials, properly proportioned, are then ground with
water, thoroughly mixed and fed into the kiln in the form of a "slurry" (containing
enough water to make it fluid). In the dry process, raw materials are ground, mixed, and
fed to the kiln in a dry state. In other respects, the two processes are essentially alike.

Cement kilnsThe raw material is heated to about 2,700 degrees F in huge

cylindrical steel rotary kilns lined with special firebrick. Kilns are frequently as much as
12 feet in diameter - large enough to accommodate an automobile and longer in many
instances than the height of a 40-story building. Kilns are mounted with the axis inclined
slightly from the horizontal. The finely ground raw material or the slurry is fed into the
higher end. At the lower end is a roaring blast of flame, produced by precisely controlled
burning of powdered coal, oil or gas under forced draft.

ClinkerAs the material moves through the kiln, certain elements are driven off in
the form of gases. The remaining elements unite to form a new substance with new
physical and chemical characteristics. The new substance, called clinker, is formed in
pieces about the size of marbles.