General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M.

D 25
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS

CHAPTE THREE
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS

In this chapter we use the open sets and closed sets to finding the position of a point with
respect to a set and also to defining the some important concepts such as limit points, adherent points
and derived sets, closure and interior, exterior and boundary (frontier) of sets in topological spaces and
some other concept in the advance topology which takes a wide area in the new researches in
topological spaces.

Definition (3.1):
Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and let A be a subset of X. A point x ∈ X is called a limit point (or
cluster point, or accumulation point) of A, if every nbhd of x contains a point of A other than x.
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Definition (3.2):
The set of all limit points of a set A in a topological space (X, τ ) is called derived set of A, and shall
be denoted by DX(A) [or simply; D(A)].
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Remarks:
1- A point x ∈ X is a limit point of A, if every nbhd of x meets A different from x.

2- A point x ∈ X is limit point (or cluster point, or accumulation point) of A if for each nbhd Nx of
x , Nx I (A-{x}) ≠ ∅ (Check it?).

3- A point x ∈ X is a limit point of A if for each nbhd Nx of x , (Nx -{x}) I A ≠ ∅ (Check it?).

4- A point x ∈ X is not a limit point of A if there exists a nbhd Nx of x such that Nx I A = ∅ or

Nx I A ={x}. (Check it?).

5- If p ∈ D(A), then p is a limit point of A

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Proposition (3.3):
Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and let A be a subset of X. Then a point x ∈ X is a limit point of A if
and only if for each open subset G of X such that x ∈ G, (G-{x}) I A ≠ ∅ .

Proof:
It follows from Definition (3.1) and Theorem (2.12). [It must you write in detail].
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Corollary (3.4):
Let β be a base for the topology τ on X and let A be a subset of X. Then a point x∈ X is a limit point
of A if and only if for each B ∈ β such that x ∈ B, (B-{x}) I A ≠ ∅ .

Proof:
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 26
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
(→) Let a point x∈ X be a limit point of A, and let B be any member of β such that x∈ B. Since β is
a basis for (X, τ ), then B is an open subset of X such that x ∈ B.
Since x is a limit point of A, then by Proposition (3.3), we have (B-{x}) I A ≠ ∅ .
(←) Suppose that A is a subset of X and x ∈ X, and let β be a base for the topology τ on X such that
for each B ∈ β such that x ∈ B, (B-{x}) I A ≠ ∅ .
Let G be any open subset of X such that x ∈ G, then there exists a member B of β such that x ∈ B ⊆ G,
and then by hypothesis, we have (B-{x}) I A ≠ ∅ . Since B-{x} ⊆ G-{x}, therefore, (G-{x}) I A ≠ ∅ .
Hence by Proposition (3.3), we have x is a limit point of A.
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Q\\ Can we replace the base in Corollary (3.4) by the local base at x? Prove your answer?
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Example(1):
Let X={a,b,c} and let τ ={ ∅ , X, {a},{a,b}, {a,c}}. Then find the limit points of :
i- A={a}, ii- B={b,c}, iii- C={a,c} [i.e. find D(A), D(B) and D(C)].

Solution (i):
a ∈ X and since a ∈ G={a} and G={a}is an open subset of X, such that (G-{a}) I A=
({a}-{a}) I A= ∅ I A= ∅ . So by above remark, we have the point a is not a limit point of A.
For, b ∈ X. Let G be any open subset of X which contains b, the G={a,b} or G=X, then in each cases
(G-{b}) I A={a} ≠ ∅ , so b is a limit point of A.
Similarly, we can show c is also a limit point of A, hence D(A)={b,c}.
Solution (ii):
a ∈ X and since a ∈ G={a} and G={a}is an open subset of X, such that(G-{a}) I B=
({a}-{a}) I B= ∅ I B= ∅ . So by above remark, we have the point a is not a limit point of B.
For, b ∈ X. since G={a,b} is an open subset of X which contains b, but (G-{b}) I B= {a} I B = ∅ , so
b is not a limit point of B.
Similarly, we can show c also it is not a limit point of B, hence D(B) = ∅ .
Solution: (iii):
a ∈ X and since a ∈ G={a} and G={a}is an open subset of X, such that (G-{a}) I C=
({a}-{a}) I C= ∅ I C= ∅ . So by above remark, we have the point a is not a limit point of A.
For, b ∈ X. Let G be any open subset of X which contains b, the G={a,b} or G=X, then in each cases
(G-{b}) I C={a} ≠ ∅ , so b is a limit point of C.
Similarly, we can show c is also a limit point of C, hence D(C)={b,c}.

Then, it is easy to see that D(D(A))=D(D(B))=D(D(C))= ∅ .

Q\\ In the above example, fined the derived set of all other subsets of X?
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Remarks:
1- Note that D(A)={b,c}, however, neither c nor b belong to A.

2- The set of all closed subsets of X is denoted by τ C ={ ∅ ,X,{b,c},{c},{b}}, then note that the
derived set of each subsets of X is closed.
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 27
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS

3- Also, note that D(D(A))=D(D(B))=D(D(C))= ∅ which is a closed subset of X.

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Now, It is natural to one ask the following question:

Q\\ Let (X, ℑ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ X.
1- Is D(A) closed subset of X in general?
2- Is D(D(A)) closed subset of X always?
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Proposition (3.5):
Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ X. If x ∈ X is a limit point of A, then x is also it is a limit
point of A-{x}.
Proof: [It is very simple].
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Definition (3.6):
A point x in a topological spaces (X, τ ) is called a Condensation point (or a point of condensation)
of a set A ⊆ X, if for every open set G containing x , contains uncountable many points of A.
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Example (2):
Consider the usual topological space (R, ℑU ) and let A=(0,1), then a point x=0 is a condensation point
of A. Let G be any open subset of (R, ℑU ) such that 0 ∈ G, then by definition of ℑU , there exists an
ε > 0 such that (- ε , ε ) ⊆ G. Since ε > 0 , (0, ε ) =(- ε , ε ) I A ⊆ G I A which is uncountable set. Thus
G I A is an uncountable set, therefore, 0 is a condensation point of A.
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Remarks:
1- In any topological space, every condensation point a set is a limit point the set, but not
conversely. (Check it??)
2- In Example (2); 0 is a condensation point of Irr, but it is not a condensation point of Q.
3- From here and up, we writ only X for a topological space in place (X, τ ), and any where we
needed we automatically write (X, τ ).
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Definition (3.7):
Let A be a subset of a topological space X and x ∈ X, then x is called an adherent point (or contact
point) of A, if every nbhd of x contains a point of A.
The set of all adherent points of A is called Adherent of A and shall be denoted by Ad(A) or (Adh(A)).
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Example (3):
in part i of Example (1), we have each of a, b, c is an adherent point of A={a}.
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Remarks:
1- If x is a limit point of A, then it is an adherent point of A.
2- If x is a condensation point of A, then it is an adherent point of A.
3- In any topological space X, A ⊆ Ad(A).
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Q\\ Is the converse of either parts of the above remark true?
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General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 28
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
Definition (3.8):
Let A be a subset of a topological space X, then a point x∈ A is called an isolated point of A, if x is not
a limit point of A.
That is, a point x ∈ A is called an isolated point of A, if there exist an open set G such that G I A={x}.
The set of all isolated points of a set A shall be denoted by I(A).
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In Example (1), a is an isolated point of A={a}, and b ad c both are isolated points of B. Also it
is easy to see that a is an isolated point of C but neither b nor c is isolated point of C.
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Remarks:
1- A point x in a topological space X is either a limit point of A or an isolated point of A.
2- If x is an adherent point of a set A, then we have one of the following cases:
I- Every nbhd of x contains a point of A different from x.
II- There is a nbhd of x which contains no point of A other than x
3- We say that A is a disjoint union of B and C, if A=B U C and B I C= ∅ .
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Theorem (3.9):
A subset A of a topological space X is closed if and only if D(A) ⊆ A.

Proof:
(→) let A be a closed subset of X, and let x be any element of D(A). Then x∈ X and every nbhd of x
contains a point of A different from x. now, since x ∈ X and X=A U AC, then either x ∈ A or x ∈ AC. If
x ∈ A, then there is nothing to prove.
If x ∈ AC, Since A is closed, so AC is an open subset of X which is containing x, then AC I A ≠ ∅
(Why?) which is impossible.
(←) Let A be a subset of a topological space X such that D(A) ⊆ A, then AC ⊆ (D(A))C. To show A is
closed, we assume that x is any point of AC, then x ∈ / D(A) [why??], and hence x is not a limit point of
A, then there exists an open set G contains x such that either G I A={x}or G I A= ∅ .
If G I A={x}, then x ∈ A which is impossible. So G I A= ∅ , therefore, G ⊆ AC [why?]. This means
that AC is a nbhd of x and since x is taken arbitrarily in AC, so AC is a nbhd of each of its point, hence
by Proposition (2.12) AC is an open subset of X. Thus A is closed.
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Theorem (3.10):
Every closed subset of a topological space X is the disjoint union of its set of all isolated points and its
set of all limit points.
[in other words; if A is a closed subset of a topological space X, then A=I(A) U D(A) and
I(A) I (D(A) I A)= ∅ ].

Proof: [H.W]
Let A be a closed subset of a topological space X. Clearly from the definition of I(A) and D(A), we
have I(A) I D(A)= ∅ . Now since A is closed subset of X, then by Theorem (3.9), we have
D(A) ⊆ A and from definition, we have also I(A) ⊆ A, then I(A) U D(A) ⊆ A. Now, let x ∈ A, then x is
a limit point of A or it is not a limit point of A, then x ∈ D(A) I A or x ∈ I(A), then A ⊆ I(A) U D(A).
Hence A=I(A) U D(A).
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Theorem (3.11):
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 29
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
Let A and B be two subsets of a topological space X, then
1- D( ∅ )= ∅ and D(X)=X.
2- If A ⊆ B, then D(A) ⊆ D(B).
3- D(A I B) ⊆ D(A) I D(B).
4- D(A U B)=D(A) U D(B).

Proof:
We prove only part 3, and we left the others to students as a simple exercises
Let x ∈ D(A I B), and let Nx be any nbhd of x, then (Nx-{x}) I (A I B) ≠ ∅ ----------------------(1)
hence ((Nx-{x}) I A) I ((Nx-{x}) I B) ≠ ∅ , therefore, ((Nx-{x}) I A) ≠ ∅ and ((Nx-{x}) I B) ≠ ∅ ,
[since if any one of them is empty, then (1) is empty). Thus x ∈ D(A) I D(B).
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Q\\ Can replace D in the above theorem by Ad? Prove you answer.
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Definition (3.12):
Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and A ⊆ B. The intersection of all τ -closed supersets of A is called
the closure of A and is denoted by A (or Cl (A))
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Remark:
When confusion is possible as to what space the closure is to be taken in or taken with respect to, we
shall write ClX(A), or Clτ (A) ).
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Theorem (3.13):
Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then Cl(A) is a smallest closed subset of X containing A.

Proof: [Exercise, see it is follows directly from (3.12)].

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Theorem (3.14):
For any subset A of a topological space X, we have Cl(A)=A U D(A).

Proof:
We have to show (A U D(A) ) is a smallest closed subset of X contains A. It is clear that
A ⊆ (A U D(A) ) . Now, we try to show (A U D(A) ) is closed set. Let x ∈ (A U D( A ) ) [be any], then
C

x∉A and x∉D(A), this by Theorem (3.3) means that there exists an open set G such that x ∈ G and
G I A= ∅ , and hence G ⊆ AC. Now, to show the G ⊆ (D(A))C, we have to show G I D(A)= ∅ .
On contrary suppose that G I D(A) ≠ ∅ , this implies there exists a point y ∈ G I D(A), then y ∈ G and
y ∈ D(A), and hence y is a limit point of A. Since G is open set and y ∈ G, then by Theorem (3.3), we
have (G-{y}) I A ≠ ∅ , this implies that G I A ≠ ∅ which is impossible. Therefore, G ⊆ (D(A))C. Thus
G ⊆ AC I (D(A))C= (A U D( A ) ) , this means that (A U D( A ) ) is a nbhd of x, and since x is taken
C C

arbitrarily in (A U D( A ) ) , so (A U D( A ) ) is a nbhd of each of its points, and hence (A U D( A ) ) is

C C C

an open set [How?], hen (A U D(A) ) is a closed subset of X contains A. so by Theorem (3.13)
ClA ⊆ (A U D(A) ) .
Finally, let H be any closed subset of X such that A ⊆ H, then by Theorem (3.11) we have
D(A) ⊆ D(H). Since H is given a closed subset of X, then by Theorem (3.9), we have D(H) ⊆ H. Thus
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 30
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
we have D(H) ⊆ H. Hence (A U D(A) ) ⊆ H, this means that (A U D(A) ) is a smallest closed subset of
X contains A, so by Theorem (3.13) Cl(A)= (A U D(A) ) .
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Note that in fact in the final assertion of the above theorem we used the uniqueness of smallest
element.
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Corollary (3.15):
Cl(A)=Ad(A), for any subset of a topological space X.

Proof: [H.W]
x ∈ Ad(A)
⇔ every nbhd Nx of x intersects A {by definition of Ad(A)}.
⇔ every nbhd Nx of x, Nx I A={x} or Nx I A contains more than x.
⇔ x ∈ A or every nbhd Nx of x intersects A at point other than x .
⇔ x ∈ A or x is a limit point of A {by definition of limit points}.
⇔ x ∈ A or x ∈ D(A) {by definition of D(A)}.
⇔ x ∈ (A U D(A) ) {by definition of union of sets}.
⇔ x ∈ Cl(A) {by Theorem (3.14)}.
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Note that in view of the above corollary we can answer and some more to the questions that we
have raised directly after Theorem (3.11), in the following theorem

Theorem (3.16):
Let A and B be any two subsets of a topological space X, the following statements are true:
1- Cl( ∅ )= ∅ and Cl(X)=X.
2- A ⊆ Cl(A)
3- A is closed if and only if A=Cl(A).
4- Cl(Cl(A))=Cl(A).
5- If A ⊆ B, then Cl(A) ⊆ Cl(B).
6- Cl(A U B)=Cl(A) U Cl(B).
7- Cl(A I B) ⊆ Cl(A) I Cl(B)

Proof:
We prove part (1), (2) and (5) and we left the others to the Reader (Students).
1- By Theorem (3.14) and Theorem (3.11), we have Cl( ∅ )= ∅ U D( ∅ )=D( ∅ )= ∅ and
Cl(X)=X U D(X)=X.
2- Followed from Theorem (3.13).
3- [H.W]
(→) Let A be closed, then by Theorem (3.9), we have D(A) ⊆ A, so A U D(A) ⊆ A, then by
. Theorem (3.14), Cl(A) ⊆ A, and from part (2), we have A ⊆ Cl(A). Therefore, A=Cl(A).
(←) Let A=Cl(A), then by Theorem (3.14), we have A=A U D(A), therefore, D(A) ⊆ A, so by
Theorem (3.9) A is closed.
4- Since Cl(A) is a closed subset of X, then by Part (3), Cl(Cl(A))=Cl(A).
5- [Exercise].
6- [H.W]
x ∈ Cl(A U B)
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 31
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
⇔ x ∈ Ad(A U B) {By Corollary (3.15)}.
⇔ Every nbhd Nx of x intersects A U B {By definition of Adherent set}
⇔ For every nbhd Nx of x, Nx I (A U B) ≠ ∅ [but since Nx I (A U B)=(Nx I A) U (Nx I B)]
⇔ For every nbhd Nx of x, (Nx I A) U (Nx I B) ≠ ∅ .
⇔ For every nbhd Nx of x, (Nx I A) ≠ ∅ or (Nx I B) ≠ ∅ . {Since F U H= ∅ iff H= ∅ &F= ∅ }
⇔ x ∈ Ad(A) or x ∈ Ad(B) {By definition of Adherent set}.
⇔ x ∈ Cl(A) or x ∈ Cl(B) {By Corollary (3.15)}.
⇔ x ∈ Cl(A) U Cl(B) .
Cl(A) U Cl(B)=(A U B) U D(A U B)=(A U B) U (D(A) U D(B)) {By Theorem (3.11)}
= ( A U D(A)) U (B U D(B))= Cl(A) U Cl(B) {By Theorem (3.11)}.
7- [H.W]
x ∈ Cl(A I B)
⇒ x ∈ Ad(A I B) {By Corollary (3.15)}.
⇒ Every nbhd Nx of x intersects A I B {By definition of Adherent set}
⇒ For every nbhd Nx of x, Nx I (A I B) ≠ ∅ [but since Nx I (A I B)=(Nx I A) I (Nx I B)]
⇒ For every nbhd Nx of x, (Nx I A) I (Nx I B) ≠ ∅ .
⇒ For every nbhd Nx of x, (Nx I A) ≠ ∅ & (Nx I B) ≠ ∅ . {Since F I H ≠ ∅ → H= ∅ &F= ∅ }
⇒ x ∈ Ad(A) and x ∈ Ad(B) {By definition of Adherent set}.
⇒ x ∈ Cl(A) and x ∈ Cl(B) {By Corollary (3.15)}.
⇒ x ∈ Cl(A) I Cl(B) .
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Q\\ Can we replace the inclusion in Part (6) by equality? Absolutely No, we can’t replace inclusion by
equality, so you must {Give an Example}.
[Hint: See for some subsets of the usual topological space (R, ℑU )].
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Definition (3.17):
A point x in a topological space (X, τ ) is called an interior point of a set A ⊆ X, if A is a nbhd of x.
That is; A point x in a topological space (X,τ ) is called an interior point of a set A ⊆ X, if there exists
an open subset G of x such that x ∈ G ⊆ A.
The set of all interior points of a set A is called the interior of A and shall be denote by Int(A)
(or A o ).
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Remarks:
1- When confusion is possible as to what space the interior is to be taken in or taken with respect
to, we shall write IntX(A), or Intτ (A) ).
2- Since every interior point of A is contained in A,S so that Int(A) ⊆ A
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Theorem (3.18):
Let X be any topological space, Let A and B ⊆ X, then
1- Int(A)= U {G; G is open and G ⊆ A}. (i.e., A= U G )
G is open
and
G⊆A

2- Int(A) is an open set.

3- Int(A) is the largest open set contained in A.
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 32
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
4- A is open if and only if A=int(A).
5- Int(Int(A))=Int(A).
6- If A ⊆ B, then Int(A) ⊆ Int(B).
7- Int(A I B)=Int(A) I Int(B).
8- Int(A) U Int(B) ⊆ Int (A U B).
9- X-Int(A)=Cl(X-A) and X-Cl(A)=Int (X-A) [i.e., (Int ( A ) ) = Cl( A C ) and (Cl( A ) ) = Int ( A C ) ].
C C

10- Int(A)=A-D(X-A).

Proof:
We prove only part (1), (2) and (9), and then we left the others to Reader (Students).
1) x ∈Int(A)
⇔ x is an interior point of A {by definition of interior points and interior of a set}.
⇔ A is a nbhd of x {by definition of interior points}.
⇔ There exists an open set G such that x ∈ G ⊆ A {by definition of interior points}.
⇔ x ∈ U {G; G is open and G ⊆ A} {by definition of generalized union}.
Hence Int(A)= U {G; G is open and G ⊆ A}.
2) Since the arbitrary union of open sets also open set, so by Part (1) Int(A) is open.
3) [H.W]
Clearly, we have Int(A) ⊆ A and by Part (2) Int(A) is open, so Int(A) is an open set contained in A.
To show Int(A) is largest? Let G be any open set such that Int(A) ⊆ G ⊆ A, since G is open and for
each y ∈ G, then y ∈ G ⊆ A, so y ∈ Int(A) {by def. of Interior point}, this implies that G ⊆ Int(A).
Thus G=Int(A), and hence this means that Int(A) is the largest open set contained inA.
4) [Exercise].
5) [Exercise].
6) [Exercise].
7) [Exercise].
8) [Exercise].
9) To show X-Int(A)=Cl(X-A) .
x ∈ X-Int(A)
⇔ x∈ / Int(A) {by def. of complement of sets}
⇔ For each open subset G of X which contains x, G ⊆/ A {by def. of interior points}
⇔ For each open subset G of X which contains x, G I (X-A) ≠ ∅ {since C ⊆ D ⇔ C I DC= ∅ }
⇔ x ∈ Ad(X-A) {by def. of Adherent point}.
⇔ x ∈ Cl(X-A). {by Corollary (3.15)}
The other assertion is H.W,
To show Cl(A)=X-Int(A).
Cl(A) = Cl(X-(X-A)) {since X-(X-A)=A and by using part (5) of Theorem (3.15)}
= X-Int(X-A) {by first assertion of part (8), i.e., by X-Int(A)=Cl(X-A)}.
Hence X-Cl(A)=Int(X-A) {since A=B ⇔ X-A=X-B (i.e., A=B ⇔ AC=BC)}
10) [Exercise]
A-D(X-A)=X-(X-(A-D(X-A))=X-( (A I (D(X-A))C)C)=X-((X-A)U(D(X-A))=X-C(X-A)=Int(A).
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Definition (3.19):
Let A be a subset of a topological space X. A point x ∈ X is said to be exterior point of A, if it is an
interior point of the complement of A.
That is; a point x is an exterior point of A if and only if it is an interior point of AC=X-A.
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 33
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
Or a point x is an exterior point of A if and only if there exists an open set G such that x ∈ G ⊆ X-A=AC
The set of all exterior point of a set A is called the exterior of A and shall be denoted by ext(A)
(or A e ).
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Remarks:
1- When confusion is possible as to what space the exterior is to be taken in or taken with respect
to, we shall write extX(A), A eX , or extτ (A) , A eτ ).
2- Since every interior point of A is contained in A,S so that ext(A) ⊆ AC=X-A.
3- Appoint x is an exterior point of A if and only if there exists an open set such that x ∈ G and
G I A= ∅ .
4- A I ext(A)= ∅ .
5- ext(A)=Int(X-A) {by def. of exterior}.
=X-Cl(A) {by part 8 of Theorem (3.18)}.
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It is easy to prove the following theorem by using the properties of Interior set.

Theorem (3.20):
Let A and B be two subsets of a topological space X, then
1- ext( ∅ )=X and ext(X)= ∅ .
2- ext(A)= U {G; G is open in X and G I A= ∅ }
= U {G; G is open in X and G ⊆ AC}
3- ext(A) is open.
4- ext(A) is the largest open set contained in AC.
5- ext(A) is the largest open set which no meet A. that is; [ext(A) is the largest open subset of X
which has an empty intersection with A].
6- ext(A)=ext(ext(A))C.
7- Int(A)=ext(AC)= (Cl(A C ) ) .
C

8- Int(A) ⊆ ext(ext(A).
9- ext(A U B)=ext(A) I ext(B).
10- ext(A) U ext(B) ⊆ ext(A I B).

Proof:
They are very simple and similar to Theorem (3.18), so we are left their proofs as a simple exercise.
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Definition (3.21):
Let X be topological space and A ⊆ X. A point x ∈ X is called a frontier point (or boundary point) of
A. if every nbhd Nx of x, meets both A and AC.
The set of all boundary points of A is called boundary of A and is denoted by Bd(A).
---------------------------------------
Remark:
When confusion is possible as to what space the closure is to be taken in or taken with respect to, we
shall write IntX(A), or Intτ (A) ).
---------------------------------------
Theorem (3.22):
Let A be a subset of a topological space X, then x ∈ Bd(A) if and only if x is neither the interior nor
exterior point of A. That is; Bd(A)=[Int(A) U ext(A)]C.
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 34
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS

Proof:
Let x ∈ Bd(A)
⇔ Every nbhd Nx of x intersects both A and AC {by def. of boundary point}
⇔ For every nbhd Nx of x , Nx ⊆/ A and Nx ⊆/ AC {by A I B= ∅ ⇔ A ⊆ B} [How?]
⇔ x is neither interior nor exterior point of A.
Hence Bd(A)=[int(A) U ext(A)]C.
---------------------------------------
Corollary (3.23):
Bd(A) is closed subset of X, for every subset A.

Proof: [follows from Theorem (3.22) [How?]].

---------------------------------------
Corollary (3.24):
1- Bd(A)=Cl(A)-Int(A).
2- Bd(A)=Cl(A) I Cl(X-A). [i.e., Bd(A)=Cl(A) I Cl(AC)].

Proof:
1) Bd(A) =[Int(A) U ext(A)]C =(Int(A))C I (ext(A))C= (Int(A))C I (Int(AC))C=(Int(A))C I (Cl(A)) =
Cl(A)-Int(A). {you must only write the reasons}
2) Bd(A) =ClA-Int(A)= Cl(A) I Cl(X-A). {you must write the reasons}
---------------------------------------
Theorem (3.25):
Let A be any subset of a topological space X. Then {Int(A), ext(A), Bd(A)} form a partition of X.

Proof: [Exercise]
[Hint: show that Int(A), ext(A) and Bd(A) are pair-wise disjoint (i.e., the intersection of any two of
them is empty), and then show that their unions is the whole space X{i.e., X=Int(A) U
ext(A) U Bd(A)}].
---------------------------------------
Definition (3.26):
Let A and B be subsets of a topological space X, then
1- A is said to be dense in B if B ⊆ Cl(A).
2- A is said to be dense in X(or every where dense) if Cl(A)=X.
3- A is said to be co-dense if ext(A)= ∅ .
4- A is said to be nowhere dense (or non-dense), if Int(Cl(A))= ∅ . [i.e., (A ) o = ∅ ].
5- A is said to be dense in itself, if A ⊆ D(A).
6- A is said to be perfect set, if A is both closed and dense in itself.
---------------------------------------
Example (4):
Consider the usual topological space (R, ℑU ), then
1- A subset A=(0,1) is dense in B=(0,1], since B=(0,1] ⊆ [0,1]=ClA.
2- The set A=Irr is a dense set in R, since Cl(Irr)=R. [see exercise 4 below] .
3- The set A=Q is co-dense, since ext(A)=Int(X-Q)=Int(Irr)= ∅ [How??]
4- The set A=N is nowhere dense set, since IntCl(A)= IntCl(N)=Int(N)= ∅ .
5- Any open interval in R is dense in itself set.
6- Any Closed interval in R is Perfect set.
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 35
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
---------------------------------------
Definition (3.27):
Let A be subset of a topological space X, then
I- A is called regular open, if A=Int(Cl(A)).
II- A is called semi-open, if A ⊆ Cl(Int(A)).
III- A is called pre-open, if A ⊆ Int(Cl(A)).
IV- A is called α -open (or α -set), if A ⊆ int(Cl(Int(A))).
V- A is called β -open, if A ⊆ Cl(Int(Cl(B))).
---------------------------------------
Remarks:
1- A subset A of X is called regular closed (respectively; semi-closed, pre-closed, α -closed, β -
closed), if AC is regular open (respectively; semi-open, pre-open, α -open, β -open).
2- Ever regular open is open.
3- The open subsets of any topological space, is semi-open, pre-open, α -open, and β -open.
---------------------------------------
Example (5): in Example (4),
1- A=[0,1) is semi-open but not open.
2- A= (0, 1)-{1/n; n ∈ Z+} is both pre-open and α -open but not open.

Example (6): A subset A= R-N is an open subset of a topological space (R, τ coc ) which is not regular
open (since Int(Cl(A)=Int(R)=R ≠ R-N.
---------------------------------------
Theorem (3.28):
A subset F a topological space X is locally closed if and only if there exists an open set G such that
F=G I Cl(F).
Proof:
It is very simple.
---------------------------------------
Definition (3.29):
A topological space X is called separable space, if X contains a countable dense subset. That is;
A topological space X is called separable space, if there exists a countable subset A of X such that
Cl(A)=X.
---------------------------------------
Remark:
1- The topological space (R, ℑU ) is separable space, because it contains the countable set Q which
is dense in R.
2- For known some results on those concepts which are given in this chapter, see the exercises
below.
---------------------------------------
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 36
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
PROBLRMS:

1- Find each of D(A), I(A), Ad(A), Cl(A)= A , int(A)= A o , B(A)= ∂A and ext(A)= A e .

I- X={a,b,c,d,e} and τ ={ ∅ , X, {b}, {d,e}, {b,d,e}, {a,c,d,e}}, and

i- A={b,c,d}, ii- A={a}, iii- A={b}.

II- X={a,b,c,d,e} and τ dis on X, and

i- A={b,c,d}, ii- A={a}, iii- A={b}.

2- Let X be any set. Then find each of D(A), I(A), Ad(A), Cl(A)= A , int(A)= A o , B(A)= ∂A and
ext(A)= A e of each subsets of X for (i) (X, τ dis ) and (ii) (X, τ ind ).

3- Let τ and σ be two topologies on a set X such that τ is coarser than σ . If A is any subset of X,
then show that every σ -limit point of A is a τ -limit point of A. Also, construct a space in
which a τ -limit point of A is not σ -limit point of A.

4- Consider that the set of all real number R, then find each of D(A), I(A), Ad(A), Cl(A)= A ,
int(A)= A o , B(A)= ∂A and ext(A)= A e for (I) (R, ℑU ), (II) (R,SL) and (III) (R, τ L ) and (Iv)
(R, τ cof ).
a- A=(0,1), b- A=[0,1), c- A=(0,1], d- A=[0,1]
e- N the set of all natural number, f- Q the set of all rational number,
1 1
g- Irr the set of all irrational number, h- A={ ; n ∈ N − {0} }, i- A={ − ; n ∈ N − {0} },
n n
j- A={2n+1/n; n ∈ N-{0}}, k- A={p; p is a prime number} and
m- A={x; x=0 or x ∈ Q+ and x2 < 0}, q- A={2, 3/2, 4/3, 5/4,…}.

5- Consider the topology τ on N which consists of ∅ and all subsets of N of the form
An={n.n+1,n+2,…}, then
I- find D(A), I(A), Ad(A), Cl(A)= A , int(A)= A o , B(A)= ∂A and ext(A)= A e of
A={3,12,28,35}
II- Find those subsets G of N such that D(G)=N, or Cl(A)=N.
III- D{0}

6- Let X be any set with a co-finite topology. Then show that D(A) is closed subset of X for each
subset A of X.

7- Give examples to show that: I-D(A) not closed always, II- D(A I B) ≠ D(A) I D(B).

8- [This definition and question is very important]

Definition: [(Kuratowski Closure Operator) or (Kuratowski Closure Axioms)]

Let (X, τ ) be a topological space. A closure operator on X is a function c:P(X) → P(X)
satisfying the following conditions (they are known as Kuratowski axioms):
[C1]: c( ∅ )= ∅ .
[C2]: A ⊆ c(A).
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 37
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
[C3]: c(A U B)=c(A) U c(B).
[C4]: c(c(A))=c(A).
Where A and B are any tow subsets of X, and P(X)={K; K ⊆ X} is the power set of A.

(*) Let X be any set and c:P(X) → P(X) be a kuratowski Closure operator. Then show that there exists
a unique topology τ on X such that c(A) coincides with the τ - closure of A for all A ⊆ X.
[Hint: define ℘ = {F ⊆ X; c(F) = F} and put τ to be the collection of complement of members of℘,
then use Theorem (2.8) and [C1] – [C4] to show τ is a topology on X which satisfies the requirement
of the question]

9- [This definition and question is very important]

Definition: [Interior Operator]

Let (X, τ ) be a topological space. Then the interior operator on X is a function i:P(X) → P(X)
satisfying the following conditions (they are known as interior axioms):
[I1]: i(X)=X.
[I2]: i(A) ⊆ A.
[I3]: i(A I B)=i(A) I i(B).
[I4]: i(i(A))=i(A).
Where A and B are any tow subsets of X, and P(X)={K; K ⊆ X} is the power set of A.

(**) Let X be any set and i:P(X) → P(X) be a interior operator. Then show that there exists a unique
topology τ on X such that i(A) coincides with the τ - interior of A for all A ⊆ X.
[Hint: Put τ = {G ⊆ X; i(G ) = G} , and then use [I1] – [I2] to show that τ is a topology on X which
satisfies the requirement of the question]

10- [This definition and question is very important]

Definition: [exterior Operator]

Let (X, τ ) be a topological space. Then the interior operator on X is a function i:P(X) → P(X)
satisfying the following conditions (they are known as exterior axioms):
[E1]: e(X)= ∅ and e( ∅ )=X.
[E2]: e(A) ⊆ AC.
[E3]: e(A)=e((e(A))C).
[E4]: e(A U B)=e(A) I e(B).
Where A and B are any tow subsets of X, and P(X)={K; K ⊆ X} is the power set of A.

(**) Let X be any set and e:P(X) → P(X) be a exterior operator. Then show that there exists a unique
topology τ on X such that e(A) coincides with the τ - exterior of A for all A ⊆ X.
[Hint: Put τ = {G ⊆ X; e(G C ) = G} , and then use [E1] – [E2] to show that τ is a topology on X
which satisfies the requirement of the question]

11- Consider the usual topological space (R, ℑU ), and let Abe any bounded subset of A, then show
that sup(A) ∈ Cl(A).
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 38
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS
12- Let ℑ and τ be two topologies on a non-empty set X such that ℑ is finer than τ , and let A
be any subset of X. Then show that each of the following statements:
I- Clℑ (A ) ⊆ Clτ (A) . II- Intτ (A ) ⊆ Int ℑ (A) . [*******]

13- Use Part (8) and (9) of Theorem (3.18), to show that Cl(A)=A U D(A).

14- Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then prove or disprove each of the following:
i- Int(A)=X-(Cl(X-A)).
ii- Cl(A)=X-(Int(X-A)) .
iii- Cl(A)=Int(A) U Bd(A).
iv- Cl(A)=A U Bd(A).
v- Int(A)=A-Bd(A).
vi- Bd(Int(A)) ⊆ Bd(A).
vii- Bd(Cl(A)) ⊆ Bd(A).
viii- Bd(A U B) ⊆ Bd(A) U Bd(B).
ix- Bd(A I B) ⊆ Bd(A) I Bd(B).
x- If A is open, then Bd(A)=Cl(A)-A.
xi- If A is closed, then Bd(A)=A-Int(A).
xii- A is both closed and open (i.e., A is clopen) if and only if Bd(A)= ∅ .
xiii- A is open if and only if A I Bd(A)= ∅
xiv- A is open if and only if Bd(A) ⊆ X-A.
xv- A is closed if and only if Bd(A) ⊆ A.

15- Show that every nowhere dense subset of any topological space X is co-dense.

16- A subset A of a topological space X is co-dense if and only if X-A is dense in X.

17- A subset A of a topological space X is perfect is and only if A=D(A).

18- A subset B of a topological space X is pre-open if and only if A=G I D, for some open set G
and a dense set D in X.

19- The intersection of any two regular open sets is a regular open set, i.e., show that
Int(Cl(A I B))=Int(Cl(A)) I Int(Cl(B)).

20- Let S be the collection of all semi-open subsets of a topological space X. Then show that S
form a supra topology on X.

21- Let P be the collection of all pre-open subsets of a topological space X. Then show that P form
a supra topology on X.

22- Let τ α be the collection of all α -open subsets of a topological space (X, τ ). Then show that
τ α form a topology on X. [3 marks of monthly examination]

23- Let A be any subset of a topological space X. Then show that each of the following are
equivalent:
General Topology Chapter Three Lec. Dr. Halgwrd M. D 39
APPLICTIONS OF OPEN SETS AND CLOSED SETS

a- A is locally closed.
b- A is an open subset of Cl(A).
c- For each x∈ A, there exists an open subset G of x in X such that A I G is
closed in U.
24- Let X be a topological space and let { A λ ; λ ∈ Λ }. Is Cl U A λ = U ClAλ ?
λ∈Λ λ∈Λ