Research

JAMA Pediatrics | Original Investigation

Association Between Screen Time and Children’s

Performance on a Developmental Screening Test
Sheri Madigan, PhD; Dillon Browne, PhD; Nicole Racine, PhD; Camille Mori, BA; Suzanne Tough, PhD

Supplemental content
IMPORTANCE Excessive screen time is associated with delays in development; however, it is
unclear if greater screen time predicts lower performance scores on developmental screening
tests or if children with poor developmental performance receive added screen time as a way
to modulate challenging behavior.

OBJECTIVE To assess the directional association between screen time and child development
in a population of mothers and children.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This longitudinal cohort study used a 3-wave,
cross-lagged panel model in 2441 mothers and children in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, drawn
from the All Our Families study. Data were available when children were aged 24, 36, and 60
months. Data were collected between October 20, 2011, and October 6, 2016. Statistical
analyses were conducted from July 31 to November 15, 2018.

EXPOSURES Media.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES At age 24, 36, and 60 months, children’s screen-time
behavior (total hours per week) and developmental outcomes (Ages and Stages
Questionnaire, Third Edition) were assessed via maternal report.

RESULTS Of the 2441 children included in the analysis, 1169 (47.9%) were boys.
A random-intercepts, cross-lagged panel model revealed that higher levels of screen time at
24 and 36 months were significantly associated with poorer performance on developmental Author Affiliations: Department of
Psychology, University of Calgary,
screening tests at 36 months (β, −0.08; 95% CI, −0.13 to −0.02) and 60 months (β, −0.06; Calgary, Alberta, Canada (Madigan,
95% CI, −0.13 to −0.02), respectively. These within-person (time-varying) associations Racine, Mori); Department of
statistically controlled for between-person (stable) differences. Paediatrics, Alberta Children’s
Hospital Research Institute, Calgary,
Alberta, Canada (Madigan, Racine,
CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE The results of this study support the directional association Mori, Tough); Department of
between screen time and child development. Recommendations include encouraging family Psychology, University of Waterloo,
media plans, as well as managing screen time, to offset the potential consequences of excess Waterloo, Ontario, Canada (Browne).
use. Corresponding Author: Sheri
Madigan, PhD, Department of
Psychology, University of Calgary,
JAMA Pediatr. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.5056 2500 University Ave, Calgary, AB T2N
Published online January 28, 2019. 1N4, Canada (sheri.madigan
@ucalgary.ca).

B
y school entry, 1 in 4 children shows deficits and de- Digital media and screens are now ubiquitous in the lives of
lays in developmental outcomes such as language, children. Approximately 98% of US children aged 0 to 8 years live
communication, motor skills, and/or socioemotional in a home with an internet-connected device and, on average,
health.1,2 Thus, many children are beginning school inad- spend over 2 hours a day on screens.7 This amount exceeds the
equately prepared for learning and academic success. Gaps in recommended pediatric guideline that children spend no more
development tend to widen vs shrink over time without than 1 hour per day viewing high-quality programming.8,9 Al-
intervention,3 creating a burden on education and health though some benefits of high-quality and interactive screen time
systems in the form of greater government and public expen- have been identified,10-13 excessive screen time has been asso-
ditures for remediation and special education. 4,5 Conse- ciated with a number of deleterious physical, behavioral, and cog-
quently, there have been efforts to identify factors, including nitive outcomes.14-21 While it is possible that screen time inter-
children’s screen time,6 that may create or exacerbate dispari- feres with opportunities for learning and growth, it is also possible
ties in early child development. that children with delays receive more screen time to help modu-

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 Research Original Investigation Association Between Screen Time and Child Development

late challenging behaviors. For example, toddlers who struggle

with self-regulation have been shown to receive more screen time Key Points
than those without difficulties.22 However, most studies have
Question Is increased screen time associated with poor
used cross-sectional methods, limiting conclusions regarding the performance on children’s developmental screening tests?
directionality of associations.
Findings In this cohort study of early childhood development in
Greater clarity on the directionality of associations may be
2441 mothers and children, higher levels of screen time in children
informative for pediatricians and other health care practition-
aged 24 and 36 months were associated with poor performance
ers seeking to guide parents on developmentally appropriate on a screening measure assessing children’s achievement of
screen exposure as well as the potential consequences of ex- development milestones at 36 and 60 months, respectively.
cessive screen use. Using a 3-wave, random-intercepts, cross- The obverse association (ie, poor developmental performance
lagged panel model including 2441 children followed up at age to increased screen time) was not observed.
24, 36, and 60 months, we investigated whether higher screen Meaning Excessive screen time can impinge on children’s ability
time affects performance on developmental screening tests and to develop optimally; it is recommended that pediatricians and
whether children with lower scores on those tests received health care practitioners guide parents on appropriate amounts
more screen time. of screen exposure and discuss potential consequences
of excessive screen use.

Methods retest reliability is high (0.94-0.95) as is interrater reliabilities

Study Design and Population between parents and professionals (0.94-0.95).31,33,34
Participants included mothers and children from the All Our
Families study, a large, prospective pregnancy cohort of 3388 Screen Time
mothers and children from Calgary, Alberta, Canada.23,24 In this Mothers indicated the range of time their child spent using par-
cohort, pregnant women were recruited between May 13, 2008, ticular electronic mediums on a typical weekday and weekend
and December 13, 2010, through local primary health care offices, day. Mothers reported on the following devices and/or mediums:
community advertising, and the local blood laboratory service. watch television programs; watch movies, videos, or stories on
Inclusion criteria for the study were (1) age 18 years or older, (2) a VCR or DVD player; use a computer, gaming system, or other
able to communicate in English, (3) gestational age less than 24 screen-based devices. A weighted weekly average of weekday
weeks, and (4) receiving local prenatal care. Mothers were and weekend screen time across mediums was calculated to yield
followed up at 34 to 36 weeks’ gestation and when their child was screen time use in hours/week.
aged 4, 12, 24, 36, and 60 months. The 24-, 36-, and 60-month
points were used in the present study when screen time variables Covariates
were collected. Demographics and study characteristics can be Child sex was coded as female (1) or male (0), and maternal and
found in Table 1, with further details reported elsewhere.23,24 All child age were recorded in years and months, respectively.
procedures were approved by the University of Calgary Conjoint When the child was 12 months, mothers indicated whether they
Health Research Ethics Board, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Moth- “look at or read children’s books to my child,” coded as not very
ers provided written informed consent; there was no financial often (1), sometimes (2), or often (3). When the child was 24
compensation. months, mothers indicated the amount of time that the child
engaged in physical activity on a typical weekday, ranging from
Measures none (1) to 7 hours or more (7), and completed the Center for
Developmental Screener Epidemiologic Depression Scale.35 When the child was 36
When the children were 24, 36, and 60 months, mothers com- months, maternal educational level was collected using a scale
pleted the Ages and Stages Questionnaire, Third Edition of 1 (some elementary or high school) to 6 (completed gradu-
(ASQ-3).25 The ASQ-3 is a widely used, parent-reported screen- ate school), income was reported in increments of $10 000 CAD
ing measure.26,27 The ASQ-3 identifies developmental progress (1, ≤10 000 CAD$; 11, ≥$100 000 CAD$), maternal positive in-
in 5 domains: communication, gross motor, fine motor, problem teractions were assessed using the National Longitudinal Sur-
solving, and personal-social. The questionnaire includes 30 items vey of Children and Youth Parenting Scales,36 and the num-
scored as yes, sometimes, or not yet on questions asking about ber of hours of sleep the child receives in a typical 24-hour
a child’s ability to perform a task. period was recorded. At 60 months, mothers responded to “Has
Consistent with previous research,28 a summed ASQ-3 your child been in nonparental childcare or daycare on a regu-
score across all domains was used (higher scores indicate bet- lar basis before this year?” as either no (0) or yes (1).
ter development). The concurrent validity of the ASQ-3 with
standardized testing of developmental (Bayley Scales of In- Statistical Analysis
fant Development29) and intellectual (Stanford-Binet Intelli- The longitudinal associations between child hours of screen time
gence Test–4th Edition30) skills have been demonstrated.31 The and developmental outcomes were examined using a random-
ASQ-3 has been recommended for pediatric screening and has intercepts, cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM), as defined by
good psychometric properties.32 The ASQ-3 has moderate to Hamaker and colleagues37 (Figure). Compared with the standard
high sensitivity (0.70-0.90) and specificity (0.76-0.91). Test- CLPMs, the RI-CLPM addresses problems associated with residual

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 Association Between Screen Time and Child Development Original Investigation Research

and these factors were permitted to covary. The covariance

Table 1. Sample Demographics and Study Characteristics
among the between-person factors reflects the association be-
Characteristic Value tween screen time and development that is constant (not dy-
Maternal race/ethnicity, No. (%) namic) over time. The covariance also isolates the contribution
White 2636 (77.8) of any between-person and/or time-invariant confounders that
Black/African North American 50 (1.5) are associated with both screen time and the ASQ-3 (eg, child sex,
Indigenous 32 (0.1) living in a lower socioeconomic status home across all waves of
Asian 293 (8.6) the study) from the within-person component of the model, in
Latin American 79 (2.3) which direction of associations are considered. The within-person
Mixed/other 263 (7.8) component comprises 3 types of estimates: (1) autoregressions
Missing 35 (1.0) (ie, lags) capture the within-person, rank-order stability in con-
Marital status, No. (%) structs over time; (2) within-time covariances capture the
Single 45 (1.3) strength and direction of associations between screen time and
Single with partner 125 (3.7) ASQ-3 within persons at 1 time point; and (3) the cross-lags cap-
Married 2777 (82.0) ture the longitudinal and directional associations between screen
Common law 388 (11.5) time and the ASQ-3 within persons (Figure). After fitting the stan-
Divorced 9 (0.3)
dard RI-CLPM, covariates (measured at the between-person level)
were treated as predictors of the stability factors in an exclusively
Separated 9 (0.3)
between-person model.
Missing 35 (1.0)
Maternal educational level at T1, No. (%)
Missing Data
Some elementary school or high school 119 (3.5)
The subsample used in the present study (n = 2441) completed
Graduated high school 248 (7.3)
questionnaires for at least 1 point at either 24, 36, or 60 months.
Some college or university 479 (14.1)
Attrition rates and a comparison of demographic characteristics
Graduated college or university 1980 (58.4)
for families that remained vs dropped out of the study are pro-
Some graduate school 90 (2.7)
vided in the eTable in the Supplement. To estimate the effects
Completed graduate school 439 (13.0) of missing data, models were run with full information maximum
Missing 33 (1.0) likelihood estimation.39 Analyses were run with participants with
Household income at T1, No. (%), $ complete data at 36 months, and participants with complete data
≤39 999 298 (8.8) at 60 months. Results were substantively similar across these
40 000-79 999 717 (21.2) model iterations. Findings were considered significant at the
≥80 000 2236 (66.0) P < .05, 2-tailed level. All analyses were conducted in Mplus,
Missing 137 (4.0) version 7.0.40 Statistical analyses were conducted from July 31
Child sex to November 15, 2018.
Male 1622 (47.9)
Female 1467 (43.3)
Missing 299 (8.8)
Results
Maternal age, y at T1, mean (SD) 30.60 (4.55)
Weekly screen time at 24 mo, mean (SD) 17.09 (11.99) Descriptive Statistics
Weekly screen time at 36 mo, mean (SD) 24.99 (12.97) Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. Children were
Weekly screen time at 60 mo, mean (SD) 10.85 (5.33)
viewing screens a mean (SD) of 17.09 (11.99) (median, 15) hours
per week at 24 months, 24.99 (12.97) (median, 23) hours per
ASQ-3 total score at 24 mo, mean (SD) 51.25 (6.50)
week at 36 months, and 10.85 (5.33) (median, 10.5) hours per
ASQ-3 total score at 36 mo, mean (SD) 52.67 (6.38)
week at 60 months.
ASQ-3 total score at 60 mo, mean (SD) 54.93 (5.52)

Abbreviations: ASQ-3, Ages and Stages Questionnaire, Third Edition;

Random-Intercepts, Cross-Lagged Panel Model
T1, time of first measure, <24 weeks’ gestation.
The standard RI-CLPM was estimated (Figure), and fit indices
revealed that the model was a good fit to the observed data
confounding by statistically isolating the variance in repeated out- (χ 21 = 0.60; P = .44; root mean square error of approximation
come measures that is stable (ie, between-person and time-in- [RMSEA] = 0.00; 95% CI, 0.00-0.05; Tucker-Lewis Index [TLI]
variant) vs dynamic (ie, within-person and time-varying). Simu- = 1.00; standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = 0.003).
lation studies have indicated that this approach reduces bias in In the between-person part of the model, there were statistically
directional estimates of association and more closely approxi- significant variances (ie, random intercepts) for both poor per-
mates causal inference.38 formance on the developmental screener (σ2 = 14.57; 95% CI,
Analyses took place in 2 steps. First, the standard RI-CLPM 0.87-18.28) and screen time (σ2 = 17.15; 95% CI, 11.58-22.70),
was estimated; then, the contribution of covariates was exam- revealing important individual differences in the person-level
ined. In the RI-CLPM, between-person (stable) factors were ex- means of both outcomes. That is, some children have higher lev-
tracted from the repeated-measures of screen time and the ASQ-3, els of screen time and child developmental outcomes, on aver-

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 Research Original Investigation Association Between Screen Time and Child Development

Figure. Random-Intercepts, Cross-Lagged Panel Model Illustrating Within-Person Association

Between Developmental Outcomes (Ages and Stages Questionnaire, Third Edition [ASQ-3])
and Screen Time (Hours per Week) from Ages 24 to 60 Months, Controlling for Between-Person Differences

ASQ-3
(Stable)

1.00a 1.00a 1.00a

0.47 0.46
ASQ-3 (0.39 to 0.55) ASQ-3 (0.36 to 0.57) ASQ-3
24 mo 36 mo 60 mo
–0.08 –0.06
(–0.13 to –0.02) (–0.13 to –0.02)
–0.18 –0.03 –0.03 –0.09
(–0.35 to –0.01) (–0.10 to 0.03) (–0.09 to 0.03) (–0.24 to 0.06)
–0.01 –0.13
(–0.07 to 0.05) (–0.28 to 0.02)
Standardized estimates (95% CIs) are
Screens Screens Screens
24 mo 36 mo 60 mo presented. Solid lines represent
0.48 0.44
(0.43 to 0.53) (0.37 to 0.50) estimates where 95% CIs do not
include zero. The central, blue-tinted
part of the model connected by black
1.00a 1.00a 1.00a solid and dashed lines is the
within-person (dynamic) part,
and the outer, tan-tinted part of the
model connected by gray lines is the
between-person (stable) component.
Screens
a
(Stable) Pathways constrained to 1.00
to isolate between-person factor
(n = 2441).

age, than other children. In addition, a statistically significant and

Table 2. Between-Person Predictors of Average Screen Time
negative covariance between the between-person components and Developmental Milestones
suggests that children with higher levels of screen time exhibit
Standardized Estimate (β), 95% (CI)
poorer performance on developmental screening tests, on aver-
age, and across all study waves. Predictor Developmental Outcomes Screen Time

In the time-variant component of the model, statistically Child age 0.04 (−0.01 to 0.09) −0.02 (−0.07 to 0.03)

significant autocorrelations for every estimated lag indicate sub- Maternal age 0.00 (−0.06 to 0.07) 0.03 (−0.03 to 0.09)
stantial within-person stability in constructs over time. As de- Female child 0.23 (0.18 to 0.27)a −0.06 (−0.11 to −0.02)a
tailed in the Figure, after accounting for this within-person sta- Income 0.11 (0.06 to 0.16)a −0.10 (−0.15 to −0.04)a
bility, there were significant and negative cross-lags linking screen Educational level 0.03 (−0.02 to 0.08) −0.19 (−0.25 to −0.14)a
time exposure at 24 months with lower scores on developmen- Physical activity 0.07 (0.01 to 0.12) a
−0.01 (−0.07 to 0.04)
tal screening tests at 36 months (β, −0.08; 95% CI, −0.13 to −0.02), Maternal positivity 0.13 (0.08 to 0.18)a −0.03 (−0.08 to 0.02)
and also with screen time exposure at 36 months associated with Reading to child 0.12 (0.06 to 0.18)a −0.08 (−0.13 to −0.02)a
lower scores on developmental screening tests at 60 months a
Maternal depression −0.06 (−0.11 to −0.01) 0.08 (0.03 to 0.13)a
(β, −0.06; 95% CI, −0.13 to −0.02). The obverse direction of lower a
Sleep (h/night) 0.11 (0.06 to 0.16) −0.14 (−0.19 to −0.10)a
scores on developmental screening tests being associated with
Child in care 0.02 (−0.03 to 0.06) −0.03 (−0.09 to 0.00)
higher levels of later screen time was not observed. Also, within-
R2 0.15 (0.12 to 0.19)a 0.12 (0.08 to 0.15)a
time covariances were not significant. Taken together, these find-
ings suggest that higher levels of screen exposure relative to a a
Estimates in which 95% CIs do not include 0.
child’s average level of screen time were associated with signifi-
cantly poorer performance on developmental screening tests at covariance matrix among all covariates yielded a model that
the next study wave relative to a child’s average level of devel- fit moderately well on fit indexes, with the exception of the TLI
opmental milestones but not vice versa. (χ 253 = 521.04; P < .001; RMSEA = 0.06; 95% CI, 0.05-0.06;
TLI = 0.78; SRMR = 0.067). As detailed in Table 2, higher person-
Between-Person Predictors of Average Screen Time level means on the ASQ-3 were observed for girls and when moth-
and Developmental Outcomes ers reported lower maternal depression and higher household
Covariates were treated as predictors in a multivariate regression, income, maternal positivity, levels of child physical activity, child
whereby the between-person factors were regressed onto all vari- exposure to reading, and hours of sleep per day. These predic-
ables simultaneously. The forced entry of all of these covariates tors accounted for 15% of the variance. Lower person-level means
resulted in a poorer-fitting model, although the permission of a of screen time were observed for girls and when mothers reported

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 Association Between Screen Time and Child Development Original Investigation Research

lower maternal depression and higher levels of income, educa- and contextual factors, including family income, maternal de-
tion, child exposure to reading, and hours of sleep per night. pression, child sleep, the child being read to regularly, and the
These predictors accounted for 12% of the variance. When child being female. Taken together, these findings suggest that
these variables were included, the standardized covariance many factors may influence a child’s propensity for excessive
(correlation) of the between-person stability factors was σ = −0.13 screen time. It is possible, however, that not all children are
(95% CI, −0.19 to −0.08), suggesting the existence of a stable equally and putatively influenced by screen time. Factors may
association between screen time and the ASQ-3 that is not ac- exist that buffer the negative effects of screen time on child de-
counted for by these predictors. velopment. Future longitudinal research examining the differ-
ential susceptibility48 of children to screen time exposure, as well
as risk and protective factors,49 will be necessary to identify when
and for whom screen time is particularly problematic for child
Discussion development.
Screen time is common in the lives of modern families. Moreover, Several practice implications and recommendations emerge
it is on the rise as technology becomes increasingly integrated from this study. First, practitioners should emphasize that screen
across all domains of life. The consequences of excessive screen time should be used in moderation and that one of the most ef-
time have garnered considerable attention in research, health, fective methods for enhancing child development is through
and public debate over the past decade.7,41,42 But what comes high-quality caregiver-child interactions without the distraction
first: delays in development or excessive screen time viewing? of screens.44 Second, pediatricians and health care profession-
One of the novelties of the current longitudinal, 3-wave study is als are encouraged to develop personalized media plans with
that it can address this question using repeated measures. Re- families or direct families to resources to develop media plans50
sults suggest that screen time is likely the initial factor: greater to ensure that screen time is not excessive or interfering with
screen time at 24 months was associated with poorer perfor- face-to-face interactions or family time. Media plans can be
mance on developmental screening tests at 36 months, and simi- customized to help meet each family’s needs. The plans provide
larly, greater screen time at 36 months was associated with lower guidance on setting and enforcing rules and boundaries regard-
scores on developmental screening tests at 60 months. The ob- ing media use based on child age, how to devise screen-free zones
verse association was not observed. and device curfews in the home, and how to balance and allo-
On average, children aged 24, 36, and 60 months in our cate time for online and offline activities to ensure that physi-
study were watching approximately 17, 25, and 11 hours of tele- cal activity and family interactions are prioritized.
vision per week, which amounts to approximately 2.4, 3.6, and
1.6 hours of screen time per day, respectively. The amount of Limitations
screen time in this sample is consistent with a recent report7 Longitudinal research designs are necessary for drawing con-
that suggests that children across the United States are watch- clusions regarding directionality and patterning of associa-
ing, on average, 2 hours and 19 minutes of programming per tions over time and across development. However, one of the
day. Although the reduction in screen time at 60 months would most significant hurdles in longitudinal research involving
not affect cross-lag analyses as they pertain to rank-order sta- screens is that technology development is rapidly evolving and
bility vs mean change, this reduction is noteworthy. It may be outpacing research.51 In our large, prospective cohort moni-
a reflection of the children in our cohort commencing pri- toring children between the ages of 24 and 60 months, data
mary school, as well as before- and after-school care, which were collected between October 20, 2011, and October 6, 2016.
begins at age 5 years, resulting in less time at home and a natu- It is possible that screen time behaviors may have shifted over
ral reduction in screen time. this time period owing to advances in technologies. Another
Child development unfolds rapidly in the first 5 years of potential limitation is that the first assessment of study vari-
life. The present study examined developmental outcomes dur- ables was at 24 months. It may be beneficial in future re-
ing a critical period of growth and maturation, revealing that search to include an additional lag of data at 12 or 18 months
screen time can impinge on children’s ability to develop op- to add further support to the pattern of results observed herein.
timally. When young children are observing screens, they may The addition of an earlier lag of data may be especially perti-
be missing important opportunities to practice and master in- nent given recent reports suggesting that screen time in in-
terpersonal, motor, and communication skills. For example, fancy is on the rise.7,17
when children are observing screens without an interactive or A third limitation is the unidimensional focus on screen time.
physical component, they are more sedentary and, there- Future research should disaggregate the effect of media content
fore, not practicing gross motor skills, such as walking and run- quality (eg, online streaming of videos vs educational apps) on
ning, which in turn may delay development in this area. Screens children’s development. One further limitation is that the assess-
can also disrupt interactions with caregivers43-45 by limiting ment of screen time and child development was taken from ma-
opportunities for verbal and nonverbal social exchanges, which ternal reports. The advantage of collecting maternal reports via
are essential for fostering optimal growth and development.46 questionnaire measures in large samples of participants is that
Consistent with theoretical models articulating the multiple it reduces research burden on other family members and, accord-
influences on development in a multilevel ecologic system,47 we ingly, can minimize attrition. However, within-informant ap-
observed that both screen time and performance on developmen- proaches introduce the potential for common-method variance
tal screening tests were associated with a variety of person-level bias. The interobserver reliabilities between parents and profes-

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 Research Original Investigation Association Between Screen Time and Child Development

sionals on the ASQ-3 are high.31 Thus, the ASQ-3 is likely an ef- student academic performance over the past decade,52 which
fective assessment method for screening for developmental de- parallels the period in which technology use and screen time
lays. In future research, collecting maternal and paternal assess- have rapidly increased.53,54 Excessive screen time has been as-
ments of early child outcomes could reduce the potential for sociated with various negative outcomes, including cognitive
reporter bias. To corroborate the present findings using a multi- delays and poorer academic performance.55,56 To our knowledge,
informant approach, future research could also use tracking apps the present study is the first to provide evidence of a directional
on devices to objectively monitor screen time behavior. association between screen time and poor performance on
development screening tests among very young children.
As technology use is entrenched in the modern-day lives of
individuals, understanding the directional association between
Conclusions screen time and its correlates, and taking family-based steps to
One-quarter of children are not developmentally ready for school engage with technology in positive ways may be fundamental
entry.1,2 Although educational curriculums and programs have to ensuring developmental success of children growing up in a
continued to progress, no improvements have been seen in digital age.

ARTICLE INFORMATION 2. Browne DT, Wade M, Prime H, Jenkins JM. 12. Sweetser P, Johnson DM, Ozdowska A, Wyeth P.
Accepted for Publication: November 25, 2018. School readiness amongst urban Canadian families: Active versus passive screen time for young children.
risk profiles and family mediation. J Educ Psychol. Aust J Early Child. 2012;37(4):94-98.
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Concept and design: Madigan, Browne, Racine, 4. Browne DT, Rokeach A, Wiener J, Hoch JS, between child and adolescent television viewing
Tough. Meunier JC, Thurston S. Examining the family-level and adult health: a longitudinal birth cohort study.
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Statistical analysis: Madigan, Browne, Racine. of investing in disadvantaged children. Science. study [published online December 13, 2017]. Child
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Foundation, Alberta Innovates Health Solutions, 7. Common Sense Media. The Common Sense 17. Christakis DA, Ramirez JSB, Ferguson SM,
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