Unit II

2.1 Training and Development

2.2 Assessing Training Needs
2.3 Management Development
2.4 Organizational Development
2.5 Review Questions

INTRODUCTION

Definitions of Training

“Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for
doing a particular job” (Flip, 1967)

“Training is the process of transmitting and receiving information related to

problem solving” (Halloron, 1979)

“Training is to help to meet the company objectives by providing

opportunities for employees at all organizational levels to acquire the requisite
knowledge, skills and attitudes” (Board, 1982)

Concept of Training

Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for
doing a particular job. It is an organized procedure by which people learn knowledge
and skill for a definite purpose. The purpose of training is basically to bridge the gap
between job requirements and present competence of an employee. Training is aimed
in improving the behavior and performance of a person. It is a never ending or

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continuous process. Training is closely related with education and development, but
needs to be differentiated from these terms.

Training and Education

Training should be distinguished from education. “Training is any process by

which the aptitudes, skills and abilities of employees to perform specific jobs are
increased. On the other hand, education is the process of increasing the general
knowledge and understanding of employees.” Thus education is wider in scope and
more general in purpose than training. Training is job-oriented or occupational having
an immediate utilitarian objective and the major burden of training falls upon the
employers. Training is vocational whereas education is general and the major burden
of education falls on the government. Education is person-oriented while training job-
oriented. Training is essentially practical. Consulting of knowledge skills required, to
perform specific concepts aimed at stimulating analytical and creative facilities of the
individual.

Training and Development

Employee training is distinct from management development. Training is a

short-term process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which non-
managerial personnel learn technical knowledge and skills for a definite purpose. It
refers to instructions in technical and mechanical operations like operation of a
machine. It is designed primarily of non-managers. It is for a short duration and for a
specific job-related purpose. On the other hand, development is a long-term
educational process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which
managerial personnel learn conceptual and theoretical educational concepts and it is
designed for managers. It involves broader education and its purpose is long-term
development. In the words of Campbell, “Training courses are typically designed for
a short-term, stated set purpose, such as the operation of some piece(s) of machinery
while development involves a broader education for long-term purposes.”

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 Training involves helping an individual learn how to perform his present job
satisfactorily. Development involves preparing the individual for a future job and
growth of the individual in all respects, development complements training because
human resources can exert their full potential only when the learning process goes
for beyond simple routine.

Importance of Training

Training is the corner stone of sound management, for it makes employees

more effective and productive. It is actively and intimately connected with all the
personnel or management activities. It is an integral part of the whole management
programme with all its many activities functionally interrelated. Training is a
practical and vital necessity because it enables employees to develop and rise within
the organization thereby increasing their earning power and job security.

2.2 ASSESSING TRAINING NEEDS

A training need is the gap between the knowledge, skills and the knowledge
skills, attitudes, already possessed by the trainee.

There are major areas, in which employees display such gaps,

1.When their performance in their present position does not match up to the
required standards.
2.When the requirement of the job changes due to the changing circumstances
gaps in the new jobs.

Objectives of Training

a) To imbibe in the culture of the organization into principle and practices.

b) To believe his knowledge, skills and his contributions to productivity.
c) To help a company to fulfill its future personnel needs.
d) To motivate and develop a source of enjoyment in work through better

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 knowledge and skills.
e) To assist managers to function more effectively.

Evaluation of Training

Evaluation means the assessment of value or worth. It is the act of judging

whether or not the activity to be evaluated is worthwhile in terms of some criterion of
value in the light of the information available.

Evaluation can be viewed as a method of measuring change in knowledge,

skills, attitude, job performance, costs and the quality of training facilities.

Evaluation of training can be a four-old attempt:

1.Evaluation of reaction
2.Evaluation of learning
3.Evaluation of behavior
4.Evaluation of results
The methodology of evaluation consists of setting up a control group and an
experimental group and follows a four-tier system.

1.By the subordinate

2.By the superior
3.By the peers
TRADITIONAL AND MODERN APPROACH OF TRAINING AND
DEVLOPMENT
Traditional Approach – Most of the organizations before never used to believe
in training. They were holding the traditional view that managers are born and not
made. There were also some views that training is a very costly affair and not worth.
Organizations used to believe more in executive pinching. But now the scenario
seems to be changing.
The modern approach of training and development is that Indian Organizations
have realized the importance of corporate training. Training is now considered as

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more of retention tool than a cost. The training system in Indian Industry has been
changed to create a smarter workforce and yield the best results

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES

The principal objective of training and development division is to make sure
the availability of a skilled and willing workforce to an organization. In addition to
that, there are four other objectives: Individual, Organizational, Functional, and
Societal.

Individual Objectives – help employees in achieving their personal goals, which in

turn, enhances the individual contribution to an organization.

Organizational Objectives – assist the organization with its primary objective by

bringing individual effectiveness.

Functional Objectives – maintain the department’s contribution at a level suitable to

the organization’s needs.

Societal Objectives – ensure that an organization is ethically and socially responsible

to the needs and challenges of the society.

STAKEHOLDERS

The “stakeholders” in training and development are categorized into several

classes like,

 The sponsors of training and development are senior managers.

 The clients of training and development are business planners. Line
managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance.
 The participants are those who actually undergo the processes.
 The facilitators are Human Resource Management staff.

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  And the providers are specialists in the field. Each of these groups has
its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the
agendas and motivations of the others.

Typical Reasons for Employee Training and Development

Training and development can be initiated for a variety of reasons for an
employee or group of employees, e.g.,

 When a performance appraisal indicates performance improvement is

needed
 To "benchmark" the status of improvement so far in a performance
improvement effort
 As part of an overall professional development program
 As part of succession planning to help an employee be eligible for a
planned change in role in the organization
 To "pilot", or test, the operation of a new performance management
system
 To train about a specific topic

Typical Topics of Employee Training

1. Communications: The increasing diversity of today's workforce
brings a wide variety of languages and customs.
2. Computer skills: Computer skills are becoming a necessity for
conducting administrative and office tasks.
3. Customer service: Increased competition in today's global
marketplace makes it critical that employees understand and meet the
needs of customers.
4. Diversity: Diversity training usually includes explanation about how
people have different perspectives and views, and includes techniques
to value diversity

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 5. Ethics: Today's society has increasing expectations about corporate
social responsibility. Also, today's diverse workforce brings a wide
variety of values and morals to the workplace.
6. Human relations: The increased stresses of today's workplace can
include misunderstandings and conflict. Training can people to get
along in the workplace.
7. Quality initiatives: Initiatives such as Total Quality Management,
Quality Circles, benchmarking, etc., require basic training about
quality concepts, guidelines and standards for quality, etc.
8. Safety: Safety training is critical where working with heavy
equipment, hazardous chemicals, repetitive activities, etc., but can also
be useful with practical advice for avoiding assaults, etc.
9. Sexual harassment: Sexual harassment training usually includes
careful description of the organization's policies about sexual
harassment, especially about what are inappropriate behaviors.

REASONS FOR SUPERVISORS TO CONDUCT TRAINING AMONG

EMPLOYEES

These reasons includes,

 Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees

 Increased employee motivation
 Increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain
 Increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods
 Increased innovation in strategies and products
 Reduced employee turnover
 Enhanced company image, e.g., conducting ethics training (not a good reason
for ethics training!)
 Risk management, e.g., training about sexual harassment, diversity training

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BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF LEARNERS IN TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT

 To Learn, We Must Be Willing to Grow, to Experience

Learning often involves new skills, developing new behaviors. After many
years of classroom education, it's easy for us to take a course where all we must do is
attend each meeting, take notes and pass tests -- and call this learning. One can
complete a Masters in Business Administration (MBA), but unless they're willing to
actually apply new information, they'll most likely end up with an office full of
unreferenced textbooks and a head full of data, but little knowledge and wisdom. For
the learning process to succeed, the individual must be willing to take risks. Stick you
neck out, including by telling the instructor when you're confused or disappointed in
the course. Don't wait until the course is over when nothing can be done about it.

 Growth Involves the Entire Learner

If learning is to be more than collecting new information, then we must
involve ourselves completely in our learning experiences. Unfortunately, too many
development programs still operate from the assumption that the learner can
somehow separate personal development from professional development. So we end
up getting a great deal of information about finance and sales, but little help with
stress and time management. Then, after schooling, when we enter the hectic world of
management, we struggle to keep perspective and we're plagued with self doubts.
True learning involves looking at every aspect of our lives.

 Growth Requires Seeking Ongoing Feedback

Feedback is useful in more ways than telling us what we don't know.
Feedback also deepens and enriches what we do know. Research indicates that adults
learn new information and methods best when they a) actually apply the information
and methods, and b) exchange feedback around those experiences. However, we're
often reluctant to seek advice and impressions from others, particularly fellow
workers. We're sometimes reluctant to share feedback with others, as well. The
Giving and Receiving Feedback might be useful to us.

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The courage to overcome our reluctance and fears is often the first step toward
achieving true meaning in our lives and our jobs.

BASIC TERMS IN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Information
At its most basic form, a piece of information about something is a "unit of
awareness" about that thing. (A field of philosophy, epistemology, includes analysis
of what is really information and what isn't. This field might visit the question: "If a
tree falls in the forest, does it make a sound?") Some people think that this awareness
occurs only in the brain and, therefore, usually comes from some form of thought.
Other people also accept information as a form of realization from other forms of
inquiry, e.g., intuition.

Knowledge
Knowledge is gleaned by organizing information. Typically, information
evolves to knowledge by the learner's gaining context, perspective and scope about
the information.

Skills
Skills are applying knowledge in an effective and efficient manner to get
something done. One notices skills in an employee by their behaviors.

Task
A task is a typically defined as a unit of work, that is, a set of activities needed
to produce some result, e.g., vacuuming a carpet, writing a memo, sorting the mail,
etc. Complex positions in the organization may include a large number of tasks,
which are sometimes referred to as functions.

Job
A job is a collection of tasks and responsibilities that an employee is
responsible to conduct. Jobs have titles.

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Role
A role is the set of responsibilities or expected results associated with a job. A
job usually includes several roles.

Learning
Typically, learning is viewed as enhancing one's knowledge, understanding or
skills. Some people see learning as enhancement to one's knowledge, awareness and
skills. Some professionals view learning as enhancing one's capacity to perform.
Some view learning as a way of being that includes strong value on receiving
feedback and increasing understanding. It's important to note that learning is more
than collecting information -- more than collecting unreferenced books on a shelf.
Depending on the needs of the learner, knowledge is converted to skills, that is, the
learner knows how to apply the knowledge to get something done. Ideally, the skills
are applied to the most appropriate tasks and practices in the organization, thereby
producing performance -- results needed by the organization.

Continuous Learning
Learning need not be a linear event where a learner goes to a formal learning
program, gains areas of knowledge and skills about a process, and then the learning
ceases. If the learner can view life (including work) as a "learning program", then the
learner can continue to learn from almost everything in life.

Training
This term is often interpreted as the activity when an expert and learner work
together to effectively transfer information from the expert to the learner (to enhance
a learner's knowledge, attitudes or skills) so the learner can better perform a current
task or job.

Education
This term seems to be the most general of the key terms in employee training.
Some professionals view education as accomplishing a personal context and
understanding of the world, so that one's life and work are substantially enhanced,

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e.g., "Go get an education." Others view the term as the learning required to
accomplish a new task or job.

Development
This term is often viewed as a broad, ongoing multi-faceted set of activities
(training activities among them) to bring someone or an organization up to another
threshold of performance. This development often includes a wide variety of
methods, e.g., orienting about a role, training in a wide variety of areas, ongoing
training on the job, coaching, mentoring and forms of self-development. Some view
development as a life-long goal and experience.

Training and Development: Job Content and Responsibilities

We can impact training and development significantly through the
responsibilities in an employee’s current job.
 Expand the job to include new, higher level responsibilities.
 Reassign responsibilities that the employee does not like or that are routine.
 Provide more authority for the employee to self-manage and make decisions.
 Invite the employee to contribute to more important, department or company-
wide decisions and planning.
 Provide more access to important and desirable meetings.
 Provide more information by including the employee on specific mailing lists,
in company briefings, and in your confidence.
 Provide more opportunity to establish goals, priorities, and measurements.
 Assign reporting staff members to his or her leadership or supervision.
 Assign the employee to head up projects or teams.
 Enable the employee to spend more time with his or her boss.
 Provide the opportunity for the employee to cross-train in other roles and
responsibilities.

Formal Training and Development contains the following information,

 Enable the employee to attend an external seminar.
 Enable the employee to attend an internally offered training session.

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  Perform all of the activities listed before, during, and after a training session to
ensure that the learning is transferred to the employee’s job.
 Ask the employee to train other employees with the information learned at a
seminar or training session.
 Purchase business books for the employee. Sponsor a book club or offer the
time at a department meeting to discuss the information or present the
information learned to others.
 Offer commonly-needed training and information on an Intranet, an internal
company website.
 Pay for the employee to take online classes and identify low or no cost online
training.
 Provide a flexible schedule so the employee can take time to attend university,
college, or other formal educational sessions.
 Provide tuition assistance to encourage the employee's pursuit of additional
education.

TRENDS IN TRAINING
Six Critical Trends In Training that should be taken into serious account by HRM
professionals and organizations, to wit
1. Adopt a Performance Consulting Strategy
2. Measure Results to See Impact
3. Training Delivery Is Changing
4. Training Delivery Systems Are in Transformation
5. Your Customer Is the Individual Employee
6. Training is Delivered Just-in-time, as Needed
Items 1 and 2 are not new, IMO. Training and development programs are
supposed to be designed and implemented to correct and/or improve employee’s or
organization’s performance. And results there from should be measured against
projected or set training goals and objectives. The assessment at the end of the
program will not suffice. (Some organizations tend to use this to measure the
effectiveness of the training. This is very superficial, ineffective, and is based only on

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the impression of the training activity not its results.) Metrics should have been
defined even before the training plan is approved. Otherwise, it would be a waste of
resources to train people when there are no metrics in place to evaluate learning and
improvements results. Sarah is correct to observe that most training programs are out
of the shelf, catalogs, and have lost their effectiveness. They are no longer
performance related. In my book, these are what you call university or academic
approaches to human resource training and development.

Training and development programs, first and foremost, should address a discrepancy
between the current performance of the employee and to what is expected (based on
his detailed job description or KRA (Key Result Area) sheet. In cases of
advancement, the discrepancy is the difference between the current performance (that
is, the employee is meeting desired performance criteria and goals) compared against
the desired level of performance when new responsibilities are added or where
promotion to the next job level is expected. Again, here is why performance
evaluation and metrics are very important.

Items 3 to 6 are more accurate observations. With the introduction of internet,

intranet, and multi-media devices, training delivery and systems are indeed changing.
The HRM should be able to harness these new systems to achieve better results from
training. Plus, the emphasis on training employees who are expert on certain topics to
train others is indeed occurring. The trainers’ and HRM roles on this should focus on
developing good trainers out of this employees. In the first place, they are more
credible trainers when it comes to their areas of expertise. Training skills are thus
required to make them effective trainers.

It is good news that more and more trainers and HRM professionals are adopting
the JIT* (just in time) system in training. As I have mentioned earlier, if training
should have been initiated to address performance problems, then it follows that
training are perfect JIT intervention. Although, let me be clear here that not all
performance problems or discrepancies can be addressed through training.
Sometimes, the underlying causes for this are entirely insignificant to training such as

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improvement on the work process, machine problems, psychological issues like the
lack of motivation, etc. However, issues that needs to be addressed should be acted
upon immediately.

Training programs should focused more on behavioral modifications rather than skill
building, and should be geared towards adding value to the organization’s
competitiveness. Skill building is easier than behavioral modification. It takes time to
have employees who are highly motivated and are attuned to the positive corporate
culture that company is trying to foster. I am seeing more organizations that are
placing more importance on this in their agenda and are reaping positive results. Even
in hiring, attitude and values are given more premiums over skills and knowledge on
the premise that the latter can easily be acquired.

Creating Training Stickiness before the Employee Training Sessions

You can do the following in advance of the employee training session to increase the
likelihood that the training you do will actually transfer to the workplace.

 Make sure the need is a training and development opportunity. Do

thorough needs and skills analysis to determine the real need for employee
training and development. Make sure the opportunity you are pursuing or the
problem you are solving is a training issue.

If the employee is failing in some aspect of her job, determine whether you
have provided the employee with the time and tools needed to perform the job.
Does the employee clearly understand what is expected from her on the job?
Ask yourself whether the employee has the temperament and talent necessary
for her current position; consider whether the job is a good skill, ability, and
interest fit?

 Create a context for the employee training and development. Provide

information for the employee about why the new skills, skill enhancement, or
information is necessary. Make certain the employee understands the link

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 between the training and his job.

You can enhance the impact of the training even further if the employee sees
the link between the training and his ability to contribute to the
accomplishment of the organization's business plan and goals.

It's also important to provide rewards and recognition as a result of successful

completion and application of the training. (People like completion
certificates, for instance. One company I know lists employee names and
completed training sessions in the company newsletter.)

This contextual information will help create an attitude of motivation as the

employee attends the training. It will assist the employee to want to look for
relevant information to apply after the session

 Provide training and development that is really relevant to the skill you
want the employee to attain or the information he needs to expand his work
horizons. You may need to design an employee training session internally if
nothing from training providers exactly meets your needs. Or, seek out
providers who are willing to customize their offerings to match your specific
needs.
It is ineffective to ask an employee to attend a training session on general
communication when his immediate need is to learn how to provide feedback
in a way that minimizes defensive behavior. The employee will regard the
training session as mostly a waste of time or too basic; his complaints will
invalidate potential learning.

Whenever possible, connect the employee training to the employee's job and
work objectives. If you work in an organization that invests in a self-
development component in the appraisal process, make sure the connection to
the plan is clear.

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  Favor employee training and development that has measurable objectives
and specified outcomes that will transfer back to the job. Design or obtain
employee training that has clearly stated objectives with measurable
outcomes. Ascertain that the content leads the employee to attaining the skill
or information promised in the objectives.

With this information in hand, the employee knows exactly what he can
expect from the training session and is less likely to be disappointed. He will
also have ways to apply the training to the accomplishment of real workplace
objectives.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRAINING, DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION

After understanding what is training, it becomes necessary to understand a

distinction among training, development and education. Such distinction enables us
to acquire a better perspective about meaning of these terms.

Training provides the trainee with the knowledge and skills necessary to carry
out specific work tasks. Development covers not only activities or skills which
improve job performance, but also those activities which bring out growth of
personality. So development enables individuals to become not only good employees
but also better man also. Education programs contain theoretical and conceptual
material aimed at stimulating an individual’s analytical and critical facilities.

Training is a short-term process utilizing a systematic and organized

procedure by which non-managerial personnel learn technical knowledge and skills
for the definite purpose. Development is a long-term process utilizing a systematic
and organized procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual and
theoretical knowledge for general purpose. Education is a life-long process of
increasing the general knowledge and understanding of all people about the entire
subject or general environment.

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METHODS OF TRAINING

A wide range of training methods have been devised over the years by
organizations and training experts. Different training methods and programs are
suitable for different categories of employees in the organization. An organization
can not use all types of training methods for the reasons like cost involved and also
their relevance to organizational needs. Therefore an organization should select a
method or mix of methods to meet its training needs. The methods of training can be
broadly divided into three categories namely-

Methods of training for workers

Methods of training for supervisors

Methods of training for executives or managers

Among above categories of training, methods of training for executives or manager is

known as executive or management development. So it is considered a program for
development of officers for developing their mental abilities and qualities. Therefore
here only methods of training for workers and supervisors have been discussed.

METHODS OF TRAINING FOR WORKERS

In modern time, production is carries on with the help of complex advanced

technology and workers are directly concerned with the production machinery.
Hence there is an essential need for training to workers. More over in our country,
the level of literacy is very low in workers. Important methods for imparting training
to workers are as below.

1. On-the-job Training

2. Apprentice Training

3. Vestibule Training

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4. Internship Training

5. Other Methods

1. On-the-job Training

On-the-job training is probably the most common method of training and

majority of industrial training is the on-the-job training. As the name indicates, here
the trainee is placed directly on the job and asked to perform it. The burden and
responsibility of training lies with the immediate supervisor may be generally
departmental foreman or departmental head. This enables the trainee to get training
under the same working conditions and with the same processes, materials and
equipments that he will be using ultimately. Effective on-the-job training depends
upon qualified trainers.

Advantages:

1. It is very simple method, as there is no need for separate arrangement for training.

2. It is simple to operate also, as responsibility of training is to the immediate senior.

3. It is suitable to all most all the types of jobs at all the levels.

4. It provides more practical knowledge and involves learning in actual and true
environment.

5. It requires minimum possible time.

6. It is highly economy, because this method does not require any separate additional
facilities.

7. This method of training is more beneficial to employees, because during the

process of training the earning of the employees continues.

Disadvantages:

1. The experienced senior employees may lack expertise or inclination to train the
workers.

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2. The trainee gets practical and does not get theoretical knowledge of production
process.

3. This method of training is not suitable for training large number of workers.

4. This method of training is not suitable also when the requires training for very long
time.

5. The valuable time of supervisors is wasted while imparting training. So there is a

possibility of loss to the production from the point of view of quality and quantity.

6. If the supervisors not have interest in developing their subordinates, training

programs cannot be effective.

7. It is almost trial and error method. Hence it may lead to wastage of materials and
machinery by new employees. Break downs in machinery and duplication of work
are the most common errors.

2. Apprentice Training

Apprentice training is perhaps the oldest and the most commonly used method
of training when the proficiency in the job is the result of a relatively long training
period of 2 to 3 years for a person of supervisory ability and from 4 to 5 years for
others. In India, the terms and conditions of the apprenticeship are regulated by the
government under the Apprenticeship Act, 1961. This method is used to give
sufficient knowledge and skill of a craft, so that the trainee becomes proficient in his
trade. Usually an agreement is made between the employer and the apprentice
specifying terms and conditions of training for a definite time period. The trainee is
paid an allowance or a striped during the period of apprenticeship. The field for this
method of training is very wide like draughtsman, machinist, printer, die-sinker,
engraver, electrician etc. A major part of training time is spent on the job of
productive work. Each apprentice is given a program of assignments according to
pre-determined schedule which provides for effective training in trade skills. The
certificates are given after training and these certificates are widely accepted and
recognized.

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Advantages:

A skilled work-force is maintained and is facilitated in number of skills.

It is a simple method of providing training.

3. It develops close personal relation between the employer and apprentice, as the
duration of training is long.

4. The trainee takes interest in what is taught to him as he is hopeful of getting the
appointment at the end of training period.

5. This method of training is more suitable for those trades where long period of
training is essential.

6. The hiring cost is lower because of reduced labor turnover and lower production
costs.

Disadvantages:

1. There is no guarantee that the trainee will be employed after the training is over, as
it is not obligatory to give him permanent job.

2. Many large companies exploit trainees by paying the less and refusing them to
employ them when training period is over.

3. If after successful completion of training, the trainee joins other firms, it is a loss to
the training firm. So in such a case, apprentice training becomes much more
expensive.

3. Vestibule Training:

Vestibule training method attempts to duplicate on-the-job situations in a

company classroom. It is a class room training, which imparted with the help of the
equipments and machines which are identical with those in use in the place of work.
This method provides opportunity for the new employees to concentrate on the
working of the machine, rather on production. This type of training is commonly

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used for training personnel of clerical and semi-skilled grades. The duration of
training ranges from a few days to a few weeks. This method relates theory with
practice. Thus here efforts are made to keep the same work environment as in the
actual workshop or office.

Advantages:

1. Training is imparted through specialized officers. Hence all the specialized

training office can use his skills and time to the full advantages.

2. Training is imparted at a spate place. Hence there will be no disturbance to daily

activities at the place of actual job.

3. This method is more suitable to impart training to a large number of workers in a

short time period.

4. The difficulties and mistakes of workers can be avoided immediately.

5. This method of training leads to more effectiveness and success in training, as

actual job situations are created in the class room.

Disadvantages:

1. Vestibule training method is relatively expensive as it requires additional

investment for creating actual job situations.

2. The artificial training atmosphere may create the adjustment problems for the
trainees when they return to the actual place of job.

3. Time element is not give due importance under this method.

4. There is a possibility of dispute between the trainer and the supervisor of the
workshop regarding the efficiency and skills of the workers.

5. Since this method is time consuming, it can not keep pace with new developments
and improvements in the production process.

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4. Internship Training

Under this training method, theoretical education and practical training are
combined. It is a joint program of training in which technical institutions and
business houses co-operate and hence perfect stress can be given on theory as well as
practice. The learners are sent to actual industries when they are learning, so that
they can get the real practical knowledge. For this an agreement is made between
educational institutions and business units. Generally this method is used for training
skilled and technical personnel. E.g. such internship training is compulsory before
obtaining degree in medical and legal faculty.

Advantages:

1. Under this training method, both theoretical and practical knowledge are imparted
simultaneously.

2. Theoretical and practical training are provided at different places, so the resources
of an industrial unit are not wasted.

3. By making an agreement with educational institutions, industrial units can get right
type of employees according to their requirements.

4. Practical training is provided to trainees through different experts. Hence the

trainees can get proper solutions about their difficulties and problems.

5. Duration of this method of training method is long. So knowledge and skills of the
trainees increase.

Disadvantages:

1. If there is a lack of perfect co-operation between educations institutions and

business houses, this method fails.

2. This method fails also, when the approaches of theoretical and practical trainers are
contradictory.

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3. As the time duration of internship training is long, industries may not intend to
waste their time and resources.

4. Big distance between educational institutions and industrial units adds to

difficulties of trainees.

5. Other Methods

Over and above the methods of training for workers discussed above, some
other methods are also used like – conferences, case studies, project development,
role playing, lectures, night lectures, publications, video films, business games etc.
Though such other methods of training are used for training technical or managerial
personnel.

METHODS OF TRAINING FOR SUPERVISORS

Following methods of training are used for providing training to supervisors,

so that they can provide proper guidance, motivation and leadership to their
subordinates.

Conference Method

Role Playing Method

Business Games Method

Training within Industry

Conference Method

Under this method of training to supervisors, small group of supervisors are formed in
which various business problems are discussed. These discussions are organized by
eminent experts from the company or outside the company. The trainee supervisors
are given explanations about the matters and problems related to business, there after
their doubts are clarified and the discussion is carried on with them. Here prime
requirement for success of this method is that all the trainees must actively participate
in the discussion i.e. why it is recommended that the size of group of trainees should

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not be large and the trainees participating in the conference should have some
knowledge about the subjects and problems too be discussed in the conference.

Advantages:

1. It is an excellent method for development of conceptual knowledge.

2. Supervisors learn not from only the instructor but from also each other.

3. This method is not very expensive.

4. Supervisors can get benefits of knowledge of expert executives of the company as

well as outside experts.

5. The regular work of unit is not disturbed during the training.

6. Management comes to know what supervisors expect from them and supervisors
come to know the difficulties of management.

Disadvantages:

1. It is limited to a small group of 15 to 20 persons only.

2. This method does not success if trainees do not have deep knowledge and interest
about the business matters to be discussed in the conference.

3. There is possibility of wastage of time in irrelevant discussion, instead of main

problems.

4. If all the trainees are allowed to speak on a point, the progress is low.

Case Method

Case study method was originally developed to provide training to medical and law
students. At present time, it is widely used to provide training to supervisors,
executives and managers. In this method an actual or imaginary business situation is
described, in writing, in a comprehensive manner. Such cases are assigned to trainees
and they are asked to appraise and analyze the problem situation and suggest

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solutions. Every trainee presents his own solution. Therefore the trainees should
have knowledge about all the aspects in the subject area. By this method, analytical
skills and logical decision power can be developed among trainees.

Advantages:

1. It promotes analytical thinking and develops person’s problem solving power.

2. This method is less costly, as there is no need for separate classes or resources.

3. Many possible solutions can be obtained for a specific problem.

4. It encourages open mindedness and serves as a means of integrating the knowledge

obtained from different basic disciplines.

5. This method of training increases interest about various business matters among
trainees and as a result, morale and team spirit among trainees develop.

Disadvantages:

1. If the case presentation is defective, proper solutions may not be obtained from the
trainees.

2. If the trainees do not have knowledge about all aspects related to the case, the
solutions suggested by them may not be relevant.

3. If all the suggestions suggested by the trainees are good or better to solve the
problem, this method results into wastage of time, energy and money.

4. There is a possibility of arising the feeling of mutual enmity during debates and
discussion.

If due care is taken about developing the cases and trainees are provided enough
information about the related aspects, the case study method can give the best results.
That is why in present time, this method is widely used in professional schools of law
and business administration, in supervisory and executive training programs in
industry and in teaching management and other disciplines.

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Role Playing Method

In this method, business problems are given dramatic form. Such business problems
and solutions are presented on a stage through drama-actions. Here two or more
trainees are assigned parts to play before the rest of the class. These parts do not
involve any memorization of lines or any rehearsals. The role-players are simply
informed of a situation and of the respective roles they have to play. Sometimes,
after the preliminary planning, the situation is acted out by the role-players. The
trainee who plays a role is asked to try certain approaches in dealing with the other
man to whom he is talking. His interview may be taped and he may have a chance to
listen to his own performance. Thus he can find his own strengths and weaknesses.
This method is very useful for training of human relations, leadership development,
grievance procedure, conducting a post appraisal interview, disciplining a
subordinate, sales making a representation to a customer.

Advantages:

1. This method emphasized on learning by doing.

2. This method is very useful for providing training to large number of trainees.

3. Knowledge can be obtained with entertainment.

4. Art of acting as well as speaking develops in the trainees.

5. The routine work of the unit is not disturbed.

6. Self-confidence of trainees develops through acting.

7. It brings about desired changes in behavior and attitudes.

Disadvantages:

1. Some individuals may become too involved in the “acting” and loose sight of the
purpose of exercise.

2. All the business matters and problems can not be given dramatic form.

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3. There is a possibility that the importance of entertainment increases at the cost of
knowledge in such dramas.

4. Sometimes too much time is wasted in rehearsals.

4. Business Games Method

A business or management game has been described as a dynamic training

exercise utilizing a model of business situation. Here the trainees are divided into
groups who represent the management of competing companies. They make decision
just like these are made in real-life situations. Decisions made by them are evaluated
and the likely implications of the decisions are fed back to the groups. The group
giving the most effective solution is declared winner. Here point to be noted is that a
definite period is determined for solving the puzzle, as also rules and regulations are
framed for that as for a game.

Advantages:

1. The trainee learns which key factors to observe in the actual on-the-job situation.

2. This method is simple and less expensive.

3. Each group tries to suggest the most effective solution, as the puzzle is given in the
form of a competition.

4. Trainees get knowledge with entrainment.

5. Healthy competition and decision making power get developed among the trainees.

Disadvantages:

1. In the heat of competition, learning atmosphere may be lost.

2. It is possible that the main object of training is pushed into background and the
game is treated merely a fun.

3. It is not possible to provide training for all the matters by this method.

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4. If the organizer of the business game is not efficient in the skills of developing
game for finding solution to business problems, this method does not succeed.

SUGGESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE TRAINING

Training programs are more likely to be effective when they incorporate the
following principles i.e. to say that following suggestions can be suggested in order to
make training program more effective.

The objectives of training should be clearly defined.

Training program should be chalked out after identifying the training needs or goals
and it should have relevance to the job requirements. The planning of training
program should be purposeful and precise.

An effective training program should be flexible.

An effective training program should prepare the trainees mentally before they are
imparted any job knowledge or skill.

The training should be based on definite principles.

Methods of training should be scientific.

Training program should be conducted by well qualified and experienced trainers.

Training program should emphasize on both theory and practical, so that it can help
to acquire both knowledge and its applications.

There should be sufficient backing for the selection and effective implementation of
training programs.

For effective training program, educative literature, tools like pictures, figures,
graphs, tables etc., video cassettes, etc. should be used in proper proportion, instead
of following only routine tools.

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There should be a provision for evaluation of training program. The success of
training program can be measured due to such evaluation and accordingly changes
can be effected.

An environment suitable to training should be created.

The trainees, who complete training successfully, should be given monetary or non-
monetary rewards in the form of motivation.

The trainer and trainee both should have positive approach towards training

2.3 EVALUATION OF TRAINING

Training evaluation is a continual and systematic process of assessing the value or

potential value of a training program, course, activity or event. Results of the
evaluation are used to guide decision-making around various components of
the training (e.g. instructional design, delivery, results) and its
overall continuation, modification, or elimination.

The process of examining a training program is called training evaluation. Training

evaluation checks whether training has had the desired effect. Training evaluation
ensures that whether candidates are able to implement their learning in their
respective workplaces, or to the regular work routines

Techniques of Evaluation

The various methods of training evaluation are:

 Observation
 Questionnaire
 Interview
 Self diaries
 Self recording of specific incidents

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Types of evaluation

Evaluating the Training (includes monitoring) addresses how one determines whether
the goals or objectives were met and what impact the training had on actual
performance on the job.

Generally there are four kinds of standard training evaluation:

1. Formative
2. Process
3. Outcome
4. Impact.

1. Formative evaluation provides ongoing feedback to the curriculum designers

and developers to ensure that what is being created really meets the needs of
the intended audience.
2. Process evaluation provides information about what occurs during training.
This includes giving and receiving verbal feedback.
3. Outcome evaluation determines whether or not the desired results (e.g., what
participants are doing) of applying new skills were Achieved in the short-
term.
4. Impact determines how the results of the training affect the strategic goal

Evaluation Methods

 Evaluation methods can be either qualitative (e.g., interviews, case studies,

focus groups) or quantitative (e.g., surveys, experiments)
 Training evaluation usually includes a combination of these methods and
reframes our thinking about evaluation in that measurements are aimed at
different levels of a system.

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Formative Evaluation

 Formative Evaluation may be defined as “any combination of measurements

obtained and judgments made before or during the implementation of
materials, methods, or programs to control, assure or improve the quality of
program performance or delivery.”
 It answers such questions as, “Are the goals and objectives suitable for the
intended audience?” “Are the methods and materials appropriate to the
event?” “Can the event be easily replicated?”
 Formative evaluation furnishes information for program developers and
implementers.
 It helps determine program planning and implementation activities in terms of
(1) target population, (2) program organization, and (3) program location and
timing.

It provides “short-loop” feedback about the quality and implementation of program

activities and thus becomes critical to establishing, stabilizing, and upgrading
programs.

Process Evaluation

 Process Evaluation answers the question, “What did you do?” It focuses on
procedures and actions being used to produce results.
 It monitors the quality of an event or project by various means. Traditionally,
working as an “onlooker,” the evaluator describes this process and measures
the results in oral and written reports.
 Process evaluation is the most common type of training evaluation. It takes
place during training delivery and at the end of the event.

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Outcome Evaluation

Outcome Evaluation answers the question, “What happened to the knowledge,

attitudes, and behaviors of the intended population?”

This project would produce both “outcomes” and “impacts.”

Outcome evaluation is a long-term undertaking.

Outcome evaluation answers the question, “What did the participants do?”

Because outcomes refer to changes in behavior, outcome evaluation data is intended

to measure what training participants were able to do at the end of training and what
they actually did back on the job as a result of the training.

Impact Evaluation takes even longer than outcome evaluation and you may never
know for sure that your project helped bring about the change.

Impacts occur through an accumulation of “outcomes.”

2.4 MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT

Many managers are promoted into managerial roles because they exhibited strong
performance as technicians. The shift from technical to strategic can be a difficult
one, however, and many new managers flounder. Too often organizations provide
no formal development program for its new managers—and no "refresher" training
for existing managers or high-potential employees.

An organization's managers are its direct link to employees—they have a strong

influential role and impact on performance and morale. The business environment is
changing at an ever-quickening pace requiring ongoing education. Managerial work
has become increasingly fast- paced, less structured and more reliant on strong
interpersonal and leadership skills than ever before.

In addition, with a shrinking labor pool, organizations need to take steps to identify

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strong leaders and provide the appropriate development opportunities for them.
Growing talent from within is becoming an increasingly prevalent staffing
alternative.

Problems with Management Development

Too often management development is informal and disjointed, rather than part of
a strategic training plan. Classes and training are offered or managers are
encouraged to take advantage of training opportunities, but the offerings are not
part of a formal program that is linked to organizational goals and long-range
objectives.

It is not uncommon to encounter resistance from managers when providing

management development opportunities. They may be hesitant to admit to areas of
weakness—or an implication that they need additional training—and may rise many
barriers to participation, most commonly "lack of time." Resistance to change and
fear of failure are
natural. By positioning management development as a prerequisite to growth
within the organization you can provide an incentive for participation while at the
same time developing somewhat of a self-selection process for identifying
employees interested in advancement within the organization.

Another problem, common to any training initiative, is the difficulty in measuring the
impact and effectiveness of your management development activities. To be effective,
clear and specific objectives should be identified and tied to the selection and
implementation of training and development activities. Follow up measurement
should be designed to directly evaluate the impact of these activities on meeting the
stated objectives. When establishing objectives consider specifically how you will
measure whether the objectives have been met. Build evaluation into the training
process.

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Management Development Encompass

Managers need a broad variety of skills—leadership and supervisory,

communication, general business, organizational and technology. They need a solid
understanding of the industry in which they operate and the structure and functions
of the organization. They need to be familiar and comfortable with finance,
marketing and operations—regardless of their particular area of expertise. And they
need to clearly understand the organization's culture, philosophies, policies and
procedures.

Training and development should be both general and organization specific.

Understanding how to prepare a budget is a first step, but without knowledge of how
the budgeting process works within your organization that information is not very
useful. Clearly identifying the unique industry and organizational issues that
managers need to understand can help you tie practice to theory.

Training and development opportunities are available through a wide variety of

resources: university courses, seminars, professional associations, CD-ROM, on-line
courses, company provided training, informal training (mentoring/ job shadowing),
project assignments, involvement in committees and task forces, case studies.
Experience is often the best teacher. Provide managers with ample opportunities to
apply what they learn in training events or to learn through involvement in projects
and assignments.

Establishing a Management Development Training Program

There are a number of steps to take in the establishment of a management

development training program.

a. Assess where you are currently. Do you have a formalized training

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 program for new managers? Do you have a program designed to develop
your existing managerial staff? Conduct an audit of managers to determine
how they are currently receiving information and training, how they would
evaluate their existing training options and what additional training needs
they have.
b. Analyze your workforce and project your management needs into the future.
Succession planning is an important part of management development and a
key to ensuring strong leadership. What are the gaps between current
management skills and future needs? What are the areas of potential weakness
or vulnerability

c. Determine existing skill level through standardized testing instruments,

questionnaires (ask managers to identify their own information gaps and
needs), peer and supervisor evaluation, or even vendor and customer
evaluation. Compare the existing skills of your workforce to your future
managerial needs. Identify the gaps to pinpoint specific high priority training
needs.
d. Align management development training with your organization's strategic
plan. The key is not to just do something—it's to match the needs of the
organization to the interests and skills of each manager and then to select the
appropriate training and development tools to meet those needs. Develop
categories of training needs, clearly identifying both general and specific
topics within each. For instance, you may determine that providing effective
feedback is a critical need. You may determine that managers need general
information on techniques for giving and receiving feedback. In addition, you
might include specific training on your organization's performance evaluation
process.
e. Develop individual development plans for key employees and managers
based on their existing skill level and interests and your organizational needs.
f. Identify training opportunities based on the categories and topics you
developed. These may include university courses, public seminars,

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 conferences, mentoring programs, in-house training, customized training
applications, computer-based training, etc. Review each opportunity to
ensure that it meets your organizational needs and objectives.
g. Recognize that employees and managers also have some responsibility for
their own training and development. Involve them in the process. To the
extent you can tie objectives to employee interests as well as company needs.

h. Evaluate each activity. Establish quantifiable objectives whenever possible.

Use the annual appraisal process as one checkpoint—but remember it is
only one means of measuring effectiveness. Each training and development
opportunity should meet specific objectives that can be measured and
evaluated.
i. Work with local universities, technical colleges and other sources of
training to familiarize yourself with their offerings and to work together to
help strengthen those offerings to meet your organization's needs.
j. Be honest with employees about their future with the company and need
for development. Provide feedback for positive change to occur.
k. Finally, recognize that management development is an ongoing process,
not a one-time or annual event. Your management development plan
should be reviewed regularly and changed as necessary to accommodate
industry and organizational changes.

Management development is all those activities and programme when recognized and
controlled have substantial influence in changing the capacity of the individual to
perform his assignment better and in going so all likely to increase his potential for
future assignments.

Thus, management development is a combination of various training programme,

though some kind of training is necessary, it is the overall development of the
competency of managerial personal in the light of the present requirement as well as
the future requirement.

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Development an activity designed to improve the performance of existing managers
and to provide for a planned growth of managers to meet future organizational
requirements is management development.

Management development is based on following on assumptions.

✦ Management development is a continuous process. It is not one shot

programme but continues though out the career of a manager.
✦ Management development is any kind of learning, is based on the assumption
that there, always existing a gape between an individual’s performance and his
potential for the performance.
✦ Management development seldom takes place in completely peaceful and
relaxed atmosphere.
✦ Management development requires clear setting of goals.

✦ Management development required conducive environment.

Benefits of Management Development Program

✦ Programs provide a better understanding of the overall working of the

organization and the operations involved inside the organization.
✦ Exposure to all the important activities and operations of the business.

✦ First hand experience of the functioning of the organization, from the very top
to the bottom of the management ladder.

✦ Become more effective and efficient managers and leaders.

✦ Those in the program are recognized as potential candidates for top positions in

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 the future.

✦ Able to understand the routine work and communication within the organization

✦ Broad exposure: Project rotations provide valuable networking opportunities,

including division, plant and corporate contacts

✦ In-class learning in addition to on-the-job experience while promoting

leadership skill development and professional growth.

✦ Provides valuable experience in many facets of business.

✦ Since most Management Development Programs spend short stints in many

different areas, these programs provide a good amount of diversity and variety
for its trainees.
✦ Often results in placement in a preferred area or field.

✦ Provides the transferable skills, knowledge, and entrepreneurial mindset for

various other careers/opportunities

✦ Considered one of, if not the, fastest track to management for entry-level
positions after college.

2.4 ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT (OD)

Organisation Development is a growing field of Human Resource Management. It has

its foundations in a number of behavioral and social sciences. OD practitioners are
unashamedly humanistic in their approach to change management and delivering
sustainable organizational performance.

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“Organisation Development (OD) is both the field of applied behavioural science
focused on understanding and managing organisational change to increase an
organisation’s effectiveness and viability and a field of scientific study and enquiry”

Very often organizations invest heavily in transformational change programmes or

organisational development interventions that fail to deliver performance in a
sustainable way. Organisation Development believes that every part of an
organisation is integral to a system that relies on and impacts other elements of the
internal and external environment in which the organisation operates.

OD helps organizations deliver sustainable performance improvement through

people. Those who practice OD usually have a strong humanistic and democratic
approach to organizational change. People and collaboration are key features of any
OD intervention.

To deliver a sustainable environment for performance there are a number of

organisational development and design elements that may be relevant to delivering
the performance outcomes required. The OD practitioner will get involved in any
number of intervention including; organization diagnostic, evaluation, strategic
thinking, culture change, change management, coaching, mentoring, leadership
development, team building, organizational design, evaluation, performance
management, talent management, HR processes, learning and development, sales
effectiveness, and customer services as part of a holistic OD intervention.

One classic definition of organization development comes from Richard Backyard’s

1969 Organization Development: Strategies and Models:

Organization Development is an effort (1) planned, (2) organization-wide, and (3)

managed from the top, to (4) increase organization effectiveness and health through
(5) planned interventions in the organizations "processes,” using behavioral-science
knowledge.

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Other definitions from leaders in Organization Development Network:

"OD is a field directed at interventions in the processes of human systems (formal and
informal groups, organizations, communities, and societies) in order to increase their
effectiveness and health using a variety of disciplines, principally applied behavioral
sciences. OD requires practitioners to be conscious about the values guiding their
practice and focuses on achieving its resultsthroughpeople."
"Organization Development is a body of knowledge and practice that enhances
organizational performance and individual development, by increasing alignment
among the various systems within the overall system. OD interventions are inclusive
methodologies and approaches to strategic planning, organization design, leadership
development, change management, performance management, coaching, diversity,
team building, and work/life balance."

Organization development (OD) is a deliberately planned, organization-wide effort

to increase an organization's effectiveness and/or efficiency and/or to enable the
organization to achieve its strategic goals. OD theorists and practitioners define it in
various ways. Its multiplicity of definition reflects the complexity of the discipline
and is responsible for its lack of understanding.

Organization development is an ongoing, systematic process of implementing

effective organizational change. OD is known as both a field of science focused on
understanding and managing organizational change and as a field of scientific study
and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, and
theories of motivation, learning, and personality. Although behavioral science has
provided the basic foundation for the study and practice of OD, Organization
development is a growing field that is responsive to many new approaches.

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Core Values

The humanistic values of OD as follows:

1. Providing opportunities for people to function as human beings rather than as

resources in the productive process.
2. Providing opportunities for each organization member, as well as for the
organization itself, to develop to his full potential.
3. Seeking to increase the effectiveness of the organization in terms of all of its
goals.
4. Attempting to create an environment in which it is possible to find exciting
and challenging work.
5. Providing opportunities for people in organizations to influence the way in
which they relate to work, the organization, and the environment.
6. Treating each human being as a person with a complex set of needs, all of
which are important in his work and in his life

Objective of OD

The objective of OD is:

1. To increase the level of inter-personal trust among employees.

2. To increase employees' level of satisfaction and commitment.
3. To confront problems instead of neglecting them.
4. To effectively manage conflict.
5. To increase cooperation and collaboration among the employees.
6. To increase the organization's problem solving.
7. To put in place processes that will help improve the ongoing operation of the
organization on a continuous basis.

As objectives of organizational development are framed keeping in view specific

situations, they vary from one situation to another. In other words, these programs are

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tailored to meet the requirements of a particular situation. But broadly speaking, all
organizational development programs try to achieve the following objectives:

1. Making individuals in the organization aware of the vision of the organization.

Organizational development helps in making employees align with the vision
of the organization.
2. Encouraging employees to solve problems instead of avoiding them.
3. Strengthening inter-personnel trust, cooperation, and communication for the
successful achievement of organizational goals.
4. Encouraging every individual to participate in the process of planning, thus
making them feel responsible for the implementation of the plan.
5. Creating a work atmosphere in which employees are encouraged to work and
participate enthusiastically.
6. Replacing formal lines of authority with personal knowledge and skill.
7. Creating an environment of trust so that employees willingly accept change.

According to organizational development thinking, organization development

provides managers with a vehicle for introducing change systematically by applying a
broad selection of management techniques. This, in turn, leads to greater personal,
group, and organizational effectiveness.

Change agent

A change agent in the sense used here is not a technical expert skilled in such
functional areas as accounting, production, or finance. The change agent is a
behavioral scientist who knows how to get people in an organization involved in
solving their own problems. A change agent's main strength is a comprehensive
knowledge of human behavior, supported by a number of intervention techniques
.The change agent can be either external or internal to the organization. An internal
change agent is usually a staff person who has expertise in the behavioral sciences
and in the intervention technology of OD.

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Sponsoring organization

The initiative for OD programs often comes from an organization that has a problem
or anticipates facing a problem. This means that top management or someone
authorized by top management is aware that a problem exists and has decided to seek
help in solving it. There is a direct analogy here to the practice of psychotherapy: The
client or patient must actively seek help in finding a solution to his problems. This
indicates a willingness on the part of the client organization to accept help and assures
the organization that management is actively concerned.[7]

Applied behavioral science

One of the outstanding characteristics of OD that distinguishes it from most other

improvement programs is that it is based on a "helping relationship." Some believe
that the change agent is not a physician to the organization's ills; that s/he does not
examine the "patient," make a diagnosis, and write a prescription. Nor does she try to
teach organizational members a new inventory of knowledge which they then transfer
to the job situation. Using theory and methods drawn from such behavioral sciences
as industrial/organizational psychology, industrial sociology, communication, cultural
anthropology, administrative theory, organizational behavior, economics, and
political science, the change agent's main function is to help the organization define
and solve its own problems. The basic method used is known as action research. This
approach, which is described in detail later, consists of a preliminary diagnosis,
collecting data, feedback of the data to the client, data exploration by the client group,
action planning based on the data, and taking action.

Systems context

The holistic and futuristic view of organization

OD deals with a total system — the organization as a whole, including its relevant
environment — or with a subsystem or systems — departments or work groups — in
the context of the total system. Parts of systems — for example, individuals, cliques,

94
structures, norms, values, and products — are not considered in isolation; the
principle of interdependency — that change in one part of a system affects the other
parts — is fully recognized. Thus, OD interventions focus on the total culture and
cultural processes of organizations. The focus is also on groups, since the relevant
behavior of individuals in organizations and groups is generally a product of the
influences of groups rather than of personalities.

Improved organizational performance

The objective of OD is to improve the organization's capacity to handle its internal

and external functioning and relationships. This would include such things as
improved interpersonal and group processes, more effective communication,
enhanced ability to cope with organizational problems of all kinds, more effective
decision processes, more appropriate leadership style, improved skill in dealing with
destructive conflict, and higher levels of trust and cooperation among organizational
members. These objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic view of
the nature of man — that man in a supportive environment is capable of achieving
higher levels of development and accomplishment. Essential to organization
development and effectiveness is the scientific method — inquiry, a rigorous search
for causes, experimental testing of hypotheses, and review of results.

Self-managing work groups allows the members of a work team to manage, control,
and monitor all facets of their work, from recruiting, hiring, and new employees to
deciding when to take rest breaks. An early analysis of the first-self-managing work
groups yielded the following behavioral characteristics (Hackman, 1986):

 Employees assume personal responsibility and accountability for outcomes of

their work.
 Employees monitor their own performance and seek feedback on how well
they are accomplishing their goals.

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  Employees manage their performance and take corrective action when
necessary to improve their and the performance of other group members.
 Employees seek guidance, assistance, and resources from the organization
when they do not have what they need to do the job.
 Employees help members of their work group and employees in other groups
to improve job performance and raise productivity for the organization as a
whole.

Organizational self-renewal

The ultimate aim of OD practitioners is to "work themselves out of a job" by leaving

the client organization with a set of tools, behaviors, attitudes, and an action plan with
which to monitor its own state of health and to take corrective steps toward its own
renewal and development. This is consistent with the systems concept of feedback as
a regulatory and corrective mechanism.

Understanding organizations

Weisbord presents a six-box model for understanding organization:

1. Purposes: The organization members are clear about the organization's

mission and purpose and goal agreements, whether people support the
organization' purpose.
2. Structure: How is the organization's work divided up? The question is whether
there is an adequate fit between the purpose and the internal structure.
3. Relationship: Between individuals, between units or departments that perform
different tasks, and between the people and requirements of their jobs.
4. Rewards: The consultant should diagnose the similarities between what the
organization formally rewarded or punished members for.
5. Leadership: Is to watch for blips among the other boxes and maintain balance
among them.

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 6. Helpful mechanism: Is a helpful organization that must attend to in order to
survive which as planning, control, budgeting, and other information systems
that help organization member accomplish.[

Modern development

In recent years, serious questioning has emerged about the relevance of OD to

managing change in modern organizations. The need for "reinventing" the field has
become a topic that even some of its "founding fathers" are discussing critically.[

With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun to examine
organization development from an emotion-based standpoint. For example, deKlerk
(2007) writes about how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. Due to
downsizing, outsourcing, mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of
privacy, harassment, and abuses of power, many employees experience the emotions
of aggression, anxiety, apprehension, cynicism, and fear, which can lead to
performance decreases. deKlerk (2007) suggests that in order to heal the trauma and
increase performance, O.D. practitioners must acknowledge the existence of the
trauma, provide a safe place for employees to discuss their feelings, symbolize the
trauma and put it into perspective, and then allow for and deal with the emotional
responses. One method of achieving this is by having employees draw pictures of
what they feel about the situation, and then having them explain their drawings with
each other. Drawing pictures is beneficial because it allows employees to express
emotions they normally would not be able to put into words. Also, drawings often
prompt active participation in the activity, as everyone is required to draw a picture
and then discuss its meaning.

The use of new technologies combined with globalization has also shifted the field of
organization development. Roland Sullivan (2005) defined Organization
Development with participants at the 1st Organization Development Conference for
Asia in Dubai-2005 as "Organization Development is a transformative leap to a

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desired vision where strategies and systems align, in the light of local culture with an
innovative and authentic leadership style using the support of high tech tools.

Action research

Wendell L French and Cecil Bell defined organization development (OD) at one point
as "organization improvement through action research". If one idea can be said to
summarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it was
conceptualized by Kurt Lewin and later elaborated and expanded on by other
behavioral scientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly, with
effective, permanent social change, Lewis believed that the motivation to change was
strongly related to action: If people are active in decisions affecting them, they are
more likely to adopt new ways. "Rational social management", he said, "proceeds in a
spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-
finding about the result of action".

Figure 1: Systems Model of Action-Research Process

Lewin's description of the process of change involves three steps:[

"Unfreezing": Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group

becomes aware of a need to change.

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"Changing": The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are explored and
tested.

"Refreezing": Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforcing, adopted.

Figure 1 summarizes the steps and processes involved in planned change through
action research. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle
begins with a series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent
working together. The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary
diagnosis, data gathering, feedback of results, and joint action planning. In the
language of systems theory, this is the input phase, in which the client system
becomes aware of problems as yet unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to
effect changes, and shares with the consultant the process of problem diagnosis.

The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stage
includes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps in the form of role analysis)
and to planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. As
shown in Figure 1, feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and
would have the effect of altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of
the client system into better alignment with change objectives. Included in this stage
is action-planning activity carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the
client system. Following the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are
carried out on the job as part of the transformation stage.

The third stage of action research is the output, or results, phase. This stage includes
actual changes in behavior (if any) resulting from corrective action steps taken
following the second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that
progress can be determined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be
made. Minor adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via
Feedback Loop B. Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project
to the first, or planning, stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research
model shown in Figure 1 closely follows Levin’s repetitive cycle of planning, action,

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and measuring results. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model of
change. As indicated in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or
problem awareness. The action stage is a period of changing that is, trying out new
forms of behavior in an effort to understand and cope with the system's problems.
(There is inevitable overlap between the stages, since the boundaries are not clear-cut
and cannot be in a continuous process). The results stage is a period of refreezing, in
which new behaviors are tried out on the job and, if successful and reinforcing,
become a part of the system's repertoire of problem-solving behavior.

Action research is problem centered, client centered, and action oriented. It involves
the client system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding, and problem-
solving process. Data are not simply returned in the form of a written report but
instead are fed back in open joint sessions, and the client and the change agent
collaborate in identifying and ranking specific problems, in devising methods for
finding their real causes, and in developing plans for coping with them realistically
and practically. Scientific method in the form of data gathering, forming hypotheses,
testing hypotheses, and measuring results, although not pursued as rigorously as in
the laboratory, is nevertheless an integral part of the process. Action research also sets
in motion a long-range, cyclical, self-correcting mechanism for maintaining and
enhancing the effectiveness of the client's system by leaving the system with practical
and useful tools for self-analysis and self-renewal.

OD interventions

"Interventions" are principal learning processes in the "action" stage of organization

development. Interventions are structured activities used individually or in
combination by the members of a client system to improve their social or task
performance. They may be introduced by a change agent as part of an improvement
program, or they may be used by the client following a program to check on the state
of the organization's health, or to effect necessary changes in its own behavior.
"Structured activities" mean such diverse procedures as experiential exercises,
questionnaires, attitude surveys, interviews, relevant group discussions, and even

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lunchtime meetings between the change agent and a member of the client
organization. Every action that influences an organization's improvement program in
a change agent-client system relationship can be said to be an intervention.

There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. Several
assumptions about the nature and functioning of organizations are made in the choice
of a particular strategy. Beckhard lists six such assumptions:

1. The basic building blocks of an organization are groups (teams). Therefore,

the basic units of change are groups, not individuals.
2. An always relevant change goal is the reduction of inappropriate competition
between parts of the organization and the development of a more collaborative
condition.
3. Decision making in a healthy organization is located where the information
sources are, rather than in a particular role or level of hierarchy.
4. Organizations, subunits of organizations, and individuals continuously
manage their affairs against goals. Controls are interim measurements, not the
basis of managerial strategy.
5. One goal of a healthy organization is to develop generally open
communication, mutual trust, and confidence between and across levels.
6. People support what they help create. People affected by a change must be
allowed active participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and
conduct of the change. Interventions range from those designed to improve the
effectiveness of individuals through those designed to deal with teams and
groups, intergroup relations, and the total organization. There are
interventions that focus on task issues (what people do), and those that focus
on process issues (how people go about doing it). Finally, interventions may
be roughly classified according to which change mechanism they tend to
emphasize: for example, feedback, awareness of changing cultural norms,
interaction and communication, conflict, and education through either new
knowledge or skill practice.

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One of the most difficult tasks confronting the change agent is to help create in the
client system a safe climate for learning and change. In a favorable climate, human
learning builds on itself and continues indefinitely during man's lifetime. Out of new
behavior, new dilemmas and problems emerge as the spiral continues upward to new
levels. In an unfavorable climate, in contrast, learning is far less certain, and in an
atmosphere of psychological threat, it often stops altogether. Unfreezing old ways can
be inhibited in organizations because the climate makes employees feel that it is
inappropriate to reveal true feelings, even though such revelations could be
constructive. In an inhibited atmosphere, therefore, necessary feedback is not
available. Also, trying out new ways may be viewed as risky because it violates
established norms. Such an organization may also be constrained because of the law
of systems: If one part changes, other parts will become involved.

2.5 Review Questions

1. Explain the different methods of training
2. Explain the ways through which Training Needs could be accessed
3. Discuss Evaluating Training Development
4. Define :
1) Management Development
2) Organizational development

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