EE 1110 ESSENTIAL MATHEMATICS FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MODULE 1
SINUSOIDS AND THEIR PARAMETERS

The objectives of this module are to introduce the concept of real sinusoidal signals, to
show how they are related to uniform circular motion in the plane, and to define the
three independent parameters of amplitude, frequency, and phase.
Our discussion of sinusoidal signals and their parameters begins with the definitions
of the trigonometric functions sine and cosine.
Consider the right triangle OPQ shown in Figure 1.1, where side OQ has length
length x, side PQ has length y, and the hypotenuse has length A. Let θ be the angle at
vertex O. With respect to the angle θ, we say that the side OQ is the adjacent side, and
the side PQ is the opposite side.

A
y

θ
O Q
x

Figure 1.1. Right triangle OPQ.

 The trigonometric functions sine and cosine are functions whose argument is the
measure of an angle θ, measured in radians, and whose output is a real number. The
cosine of the θ, abbreviated cos θ, is given by
x
cos θ = (1.1a)
A
and the sine of θ, abbreviated sin θ is given by
y
sin θ = . (1.1b)
A
Suppose we take the triangle shown in Figure 1.1, and place it in a Cartesian coordi-
nate system, such that the vertex O is at the origin, as shown in Figure 1.2. The side OQ
lies along the x-axis, and thus the coordinates of point Q are (x, 0). The side PQ is a ver-
tical line seqment of length y, and the coordinates of point P are (x, y). In this case the
angle θ is the angle that the hypotenuse OP makes with the x-axis, and the point P lies on
a circle of radius A.

P
(x,y)

θ
O Q
(x,0)

Figure 1.2. Triangle OPQ in Cartesian coordinate system.

 In this framework we can generalize the definitions of the sine and cosine function
to include angles that can be both positive and negative, and outside of the range from 0
π
to . The angle θ is the rotation that the point P undergoes as it moves from the position
2
( A, 0) on the x-axis, to its position (x, y). This rotation can continue past 90 degrees; in
fact, it can continue all the way around the circle, even multiple times around the circle.
The rotation is a signed quantity: f the rotation is counter-clockwise, then the θ is posi-
tive, and if the rotation is clockwise it is negative.
The definitions of sine and cosine in this framework are the same as before:
x
cos θ = (1.2a)
A
and
y
sin θ = (1.2b)
A
but now x and y can be positive or negative, as long as the point (x, y) lies on the circle of
radius A. Note that x and y are always between + A and − A, and furthermore they satisfy
the Pythagorean relationship
x 2 + y2 = A2. (1.3)
This last equation leads to the well-known trigonometric identity
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 (1.4)
for any angle θ.
It is important to recognize the distinction between the rotation θ that a point P can
undergo on the circle, and the resulting angle that appears in the Cartesian coordinate sys-
tem. The rotation can be any real number, as the point P can go around and around the
circle indefinitely. However the angle is only unique up to an interval of length 2π, since
every additional rotation of 2π radians (one complete tour around the circle) has the point
P coming back around to where it started. In terms of the trigonometric functions, this
means that
cos θ = cos(θ + k2π) (1.5)
and
sin θ = sin(θ + k2π) (1.6)
for any integer k.
We now consider the motion of the point P that would be created if we let the rota-
tion angle θ be a function of time. Specifically, let θ(t) be a function that begins at 0, at
t = 0, and increases linearly with time:
 θ(t) = 2π ft (1.7)
This describes what is known as uniform circular motion in the plane, illustrated in Fig-
ure 1.3. The point P goes around and around the circle, at a rate of f complete cycles
every second. f is called the frequency of the uniform circular motion. A closely related
parameter of the motion is the time it takes to make one complete rotation around the cir-
cle; this is called the period T , and it is given by
1
T = . (1.8)
f
t and T have units of seconds; f has units of cycles per second. This unit of "cycles per
second" is also know as the hertz, in honor of the 19th-century Germany physicist Hein-
rich Hertz who confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves, and is abbreviated Hz.
(Note: in any sort of dimensional analysis, a "cycle" is actually dimensionless so 1 Hz
should be treated as 1 inverse second, or 1 s−1 .)

P (t)
y(t)

θ (t)

x(t)
t=0

Figure 1.3. Uniform circular motion.

If we take the x- or y-coordinate of the time-varying point P on the circle of radius

A, then we arrive at what is called a sinusoidally time-varying function, or simply a
sinusoid. In defining a sinusoid it is best to pick either the x-coordinate (given by the
cosine) or the y-coordinate (given by the sine) or just stick with that throughout. In this
module, and in all the lessons to come, we will use only the cosine function. Thus, the
sinusoid s(t) which is the x-coordinate of the point P(t) undergoing uniform circular
motion, is given by
s(t) = A cos(2π ft) (1.9)
An example of such a sinusoid is given in Figure 1.4. Note the following features:
• The maximum, or positive-going peak, of the sinusoid is + A.
• The minimum, or negative-going valley, of the sinusoid is − A.
• The maximum occurs at the time origin t = 0, and every T seconds before and
after, i.e., for t = kT for all integers k.

T
A

s(t)

−A

t (seconds)

Figure 1.4. Sinuoid with amplitude A and period T .

The parameter A is called the amplitude of the sinusoid. The parameter f is called
frequency of the sinusoid, in Hz. There is another way to characterize the frequency,
through the variable ω = 2π f , which has units of "radians per second". The period of the
sinusoid is the time for one full cycle, and it is given by T = 1/ f .
If the sinusoid s(t) represents a physical variable in some model and has units (e.g.
meters, newtons, volts, etc.) then the amplitude A has those same units.
A and f are two of the three independent parameters the characterize a sinusoid.
The third parameter comes from generalizing the definition of uniform circular motion to
allow θ(t) to start at any angle φ at time t = 0. In other words, let
θ(t) = 2π ft + φ (1.10)
See Figure 1.5. In this case the resulting sinusoid is given by
s(t) = A cos(2π ft + φ) (1.11)
φ is called the phase angle, or simply the phase, of the sinusoid s(t). An example of a
sinusoid that has a nonzero value of φ is given in Figure 1.6.

t=0

θ (t)

P(t)

Figure 1.5. Uniform circular motion with nonzero phase.

The inclusion of a phase term shifts the sinusoid to the left or right, relative to the
one shown previously in Figure 1.4 with the peak at the time origin. To determine the
phase of a sinusoid from inspection of the graph like the one in Figure 1.4, first identify
the time of the peak, or maximum, closest to t = 0, and call this time τ (τ can be either
positive or negative). The time-shifted sinusoid can be written
s(t) = A cos(2π f (t − τ)) (1.12a)
 = A cos(2π ft − 2π f τ) (1.12b)
and by comparing (1.12b) with (1.11) it must be that
φ = − 2π f τ (1.13a)
or
−2πτ
φ = . (1.13b)
T
This last equation makes clear that the phase is the fraction of one complete cycle (multi-
plied by 2π radians in a cycle) that the time shift τ represents. Note that a shift to the
right in the graph of s(t) represents a time delay, and that a shift to the left represents a
time advance.

A T

s(t)
τ

−A

t (seconds)

Figure 1.6. Sinusoid with nonzero phase.

The amplitude A and the frequency f are two parameters of a sinusoid do not
depend on the choice of a time origin. By this it is meant that, if the time axis undergoes
a shift or we re-define the point in time that is to be represented by the value t = 0, the
amplitude and the frequency of the sinusoid remain unchanged. The phase, on the other
hand, does depend on the choice of the time origin. It is the value of the angle θ in the
uniform circular motion model, at t = 0, and in the derivation above where φ is related to
the time shift τ, τ itself is defined relative to the time origin. Now, in later courses where
you will be using this material, you will find that the choice of the time origin is some-
what arbitrary. Often, the point of reference in time is the peak of some other sinusoid at
the same frequency f , under consideration in a given problem. When this is done, one
often speaks of the relative phase between two sinusoids.
The specific skill that you are asked to master in this module is to know how to
determine the amplitude A, frequency f , and phase φ of a sinusoid s(t) given a graph of
s(t). The technique is as follows:
1. The amplitude A is the maximum value that s(t) takes on, i.e., the value of s(t) at
its peak. If s(t) has physical units, then A has those same units.
2. The period T is the length of time between two successive peaks in s(t), in sec-
onds. The frequency f , in Hz, is then given by the equation f = 1/T .
3. The phase φ is determined by first identifying the time τ for the peak closest to the
time origin. φ is then found by either one of the two expressions φ = − 2π f τ or
φ = (−2πτ)/T . φ has units of radians.

There will be occasion to use different units of time and frequency than the second and
the Hz. The following units are commonly used:
1 millisecond = 1 ms = 10−3 second
1 microsecond = 1 µs = 10−6 second
1 nanosecond = 1 ns = 10−9 second
1 kilohertz = 1 kHz = 103 Hz
1 megahertz = 1 MHz = 106 Hz
1 gigahertz = 1 GHz = 109 Hz

There is a natural pairing between these units. Typically, if time is measured in ms, then
frequency is measured in KHz. If time is measured in µs, then frequency is measured in
MHz. Finally, if time is measured in ns, then frequency is measured in GHz.
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Problem P1.1. Shown below is a graph of the sinuoidal signal s(t). Determine the
amplitude A, frequency f , and phase φ.

EE 1110 PROBLEM P1.1

6
5
4
3
2
s(t) (volts)

1
0
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
t (seconds)

Solution. The maximum value that s(t) takes on is 5, and the units are volts. Therefore
1
A = 5 volts. The period T between two successive peaks is 0.5 seconds. f = , there-
T
fore f = 2 Hz. The time delay from the origin to the nearest peak is τ = 0. 1s. Using
−2πτ −2π ⋅ 0. 1
φ= , we have that φ = = 0. 4π.
T 0. 5

A = 5 volts

f = 2 Hz

φ = - 0.4 π
 Problem P1.2. Shown below is a graph of the sinuoidal signal s(t). Determine the
amplitude A, frequency f , and phase φ.

EE 1110 PROBLEM P1.2

2

1.5

0.5
s(t) (amps)

−0.5

−1

−1.5

−2
−0.5 −0.45 −0.4 −0.35 −0.3 −0.25 −0.2 −0.15 −0.1 −0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
t (ms)

Solution. The maximum value that s(t) takes on is 1, and the units are amps. Therefore
1
A = 1 amp. The period T between two successive peaks is 0.2 ms. f = , therefore
T
f = 5 kHz. The time delay from the origin to the nearest peak is τ = − 0. 05 ms. Using
−2πτ −2π ⋅ (−0. 05) π
φ= , we have that φ = = .
T 0. 2 2

A = 1 amp

f = 5 kHz

π
φ=
2
 Problem P1.3. Shown below is a graph of the sinuoidal signal s(t). Determine the
amplitude A, frequency f , and phase φ.

EE 1110 PROBLEM P1.3

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
s(t) (watts)

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
−0.25 −0.2 −0.15 −0.1 −0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
t (µs)

Solution.

A = 0.8 watts

f = 10MHz

φ = π (or −π)
 Problem P1.4. Shown below is a graph of the sinuoidal signal s(t). Determine the
amplitude A, frequency f , and phase φ.

EE 1110 PROBLEM P1.4

14
12
10
8
6
4
s(t) (meters)

2
0
−2
−4
−6
−8
−10
−12
−14
−2 −1.8 −1.6 −1.4 −1.2 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
t (s)

Solution.

A = 10 meters

f = 1 Hz

φ = 0. 2π
 Problem P1.5. Shown below is a graph of the sinuoidal signal s(t). Determine the
amplitude A, frequency f , and phase φ.

EE 1110 PROBLEM P1.5

0.15

0.1

0.05
s(t) (newtons)

−0.05

−0.1

−0.15

−0.05 −0.04 −0.03 −0.02 −0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
t (s)
 Problem P1.6. Shown below is a graph of the sinuoidal signal s(t). Determine the
amplitude A, frequency f , and phase φ.

EE 1110 PROBLEM P1.6

5

1
s(t) (volts)

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
−1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
t (ns)