Temperature Control

in Die Casting

By David Schwam

NORTH AMERICAN DIE CASTING ASSOCIATION

Publication #414
Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the author(s),
nor the publisher, nor anyone else associate with this publication, shall be held liable for any loss,
damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. The material con-
tained herein is not intended to provide specific advice or recommendations for any specific situation.
Any opinions expressed by the author(s) are not necessarily those of NADCA.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used
only for the identification and explanation without intent to infringe nor endorse the product or corporation.

à 2008 by North American Die Casting Association, Wheeling, Illinois. All Rights Reserved.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, elec-
tronic or mechanical, including photocopying, micro-filming, and recording, or by any information stor-
age and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
THERMAL CONTROL IN DIE CASTING
Contents

1 Introduction .......................................................................................1
2 Definitions .........................................................................................3
3 Conceptual Design of the Thermal Control System ....................................5
4 Principles of Die Temperature Control .....................................................7

5 Design of Cooling Lines and Computer Simulation Tools ............................ 19

6 Use of High Thermal Conductivity Die Materials ....................................... 25
7 Components of the Thermal Control System ............................................ 29
7.1 Manifolds, Valves and Fluid Handling Components ............................. 29
7.2 Bubblers and Baffles ..................................................................... 30
7.3 Oil Die Control Systems ................................................................ 36
7.4 Heat Cartridges ............................................................................ 40
8 The Role of Water Spraying and Die Lubricants in Thermal Control .............. 43
9 Temperature Control During the Die Casting Operation .............................. 45
10 References ....................................................................................... 47

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page i

Page ii Thermal Control in Die Casting
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Some of the information included in this publication is based on recent research projects
at Case Western Reserve University sponsored by the North American Die Casting
Association, the US DoD Defense Logistics Agency and the US Department of Energy.
The financial support of these agencies is gratefully acknowledged.

The diligent work of graduate students Sebastian Birceanu, Sun Feng and Rich
Tomazin is referenced in this publication. Special thanks are due to St. Clair Die
Casting for the productive collaborations on die materials and thermal control research.
Many suppliers of hardware and software used in the design and fabrication of thermal
control systems are included. These contributions are gratefully acknowledged.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page iii

Page iv Thermal Control in Die Casting
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

This resource book is targeting practitioners in the die casting industry. The information
covers a description of thermal control in die casting, from design to components used
in fabrication and computer simulation tools. Used in conjunction with other NADCA
publications, such as the Heat Flow in the Die Casting Industry (E.A.Herman) and the
NADCA training workshops on Die Cooling System Engineering, it can provide die casting
practitioners the necessary background to understand the thermal control system.

The key role of the thermal control system in die casting is to maintain stable
thermal conditions necessary for cost effective fabrication of sound parts. It however
clearly affects other aspects of the process. An optimized thermal control system will
facilitate the shortest cycle time, thus maximizing productivity. It will do so without
inducing porosity in the castings, or compromising die life. Many die casters will attest
to instances when excessive water spraying or "flooding" had to be applied to remove
heat rapidly from a die. While this practice can reduce cycle time, it will invariably lead
to accelerated heat checking, reducing die life. An optimized thermal control system will
remove heat from the casting into internal water/oil cooling lines, with minimal thermal
cycling to the die. In addition to optimizing heat transfer into the internal cooling lines,
the designer can use bubblers, baffles and heat pipes to remove heat from local hot
spots. High thermal conductivity die materials can be used in a similar manner, to
remove and diffuse heat away from hot spots. When combined, these methods can
result in a fine tuned process that maximizes productivity and profi tability. Computer
simulations of the flow and solidifi cation are frequently used to verify the design of the
thermal system before machining the dies. This publication describes methods and
components available for the design and fabrication of thermal control systems.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 1

 Introduction

Page 2 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Chapter 2
DEFINITIONS

While this source book is not intended to cover principles of heat transfer, a few
definitions are included in alphabetical order for reference purposes. Numerous
textbooks on heat transfer, (1-3) and specific publications on heat transfer as it applies
to die casting (4) are available for readers interested in a more detailed description of
the fundamentals. A few definitions on aspects of die casting related to or impacted by
the thermal control system are also included.

Thermal conductivity, k - material property that describes the rate at which heat flows
o
within a body for a given temperature difference. Its units are W/m-K(Btu/hr.ft. F).

Specifc heat, c - material property that indicates the amount of energy a body stores
for each degree increase in temperature, per unit mass basis. Its units are J/kg-
K(Btu/lb-F).

Thermal diffusivity, - material property that describes the rate at which heat
diffuses through a body. It is a function of the body's thermal conductivity
and its specific heat. A high thermal conductivity will increase the body's
thermal diffusivity, as heat will be able to conduct across the body quickly.
Conversely, a high specific heat will lower the body's thermal diffusivity, since
heat is preferentially stored as internal energy within the body instead of being
2
conducted through it. Its units are m /s (ft 2 /s).

Convection heat-transfer coeficient, h-also designated as film coeficient. The

rate of heat Q transferred to the surrounding fluid is proportional to the object's
area A, and the difference between the object temperature T w and the fluid free-

stream temperature T.
Q = hA(T w - T) = hAñT
The constant of proportionality h is termed the convection heat-transfer coefficient.

Soldering sticking of cast metal to the die, often causing problems with the ejection of
the casting from the die. Occurs when the die is overheated, or in spots where
molten metal impinges onto the die at high velocity.

Washout Local removal of steel from the die. Encountered in hot spots, where a
jet of molten metal impinges onto the die. Often associated with local formation
and spalling of aluminum intermetallics.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 3

 Definitions

Page 4 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Chapter 3
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF THE THERMAL DESIGN SYSTEM

Some regard the die casting process as a heat exchanger that transfers the heat from
the molten metal to a cooling system. While this may oversimplify the complexity of
the process, it captures the essence of thermal control in die casting. An ideal thermal
control system will remove the heat from the casting in the shortest possible time
while producing parts of acceptable quality. This may sound easier than it is. Die
cast components often have complex geometries, thin and thick sections and large
surface to volume ratios. If the molten metal entering the cavity is too cold, it may cause
cold shuts and other filling defects. Conversely, if the temperature of the die surface
exceeds certain limits it can lead to soldering and washout of the inserts. It follows that
a key role of the thermal control system is to maintain the steady state temperature
distribution within a well-defined, narrow temperature range. If the die cast parts had
simple and uniform shapes, this task could have been easily handled by traditional,
straight cooling lines. However, when a part has heavy sections side by side with thin
sections, or holes that require cores, things complicate. It is no longer the overall
average temperature of the die that needs to be lowered, but the peak temperature of
a hot spot. To this end, the designer has to use bubblers or baffles that direct the flow
of cooling water or oil to the hot spot. Often times, access to these spots is limited
because of the confi guration of the insert. Other components such as ejector pins
compete for this access. The creativity of the designer and the tool maker is crucial in
coming up with the best solution. Additional means of removing heat from hot spots
include high thermal conductivity materials and heat pipes. Both are discussed in
more detail in this publication. Once metal is cut, it is expensive and time consuming to
make any further changes. There is very little tolerance for errors. A common practice
among advanced practitioners is to test the die design and thermal control by running
a flow and thermal computer simulation before fabricating the inserts. The simulation
will highlight potential trouble spots and allow modifications to be made early on, before
finalizing the design. It will readily identify hot spots in the casting or the die.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 5

 Conceptual Design of the Thermal Design System

Page 6 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Chapter 4
DIE TEMPERATURE CONTROL

Die temperature control can be defined as keeping a die at the desired set point
temperature for highest production volume of acceptable quality parts (5). Excessive
die temperature can cause soldering and/or sticking of the castings to the die. In turn,
this leads to washout, downtime and reduced productivity (6). A strong interdependence
exists between the die cooling system and the generation of die casting defects,
especially cold shuts and porosity, both of which are related to the solidification process
(7). It is not sensible to invest heavily in die casting equipment and carefully designed
dies if the temperature of these dies can not be accurately controlled.

Extensive research on the effect of softening on thermal fatigue behavior of die

steels has been conducted by Case Western Reserve University. The thermal fatigue
test equipment used in these investigations is shown in Figure 4.1. The results of these
studies show that in the absence of severe stress concentrators, the softening of the
steel is the most important factor in crack initiation. The thermal fatigue damage is
less severe when the thermal conditions promote lower temperature at the die surface.
Preventing excessive temperature excursions at the surface preserves the hardness
and hence the strength of the steel, extending die life. Similarly, elevated temperature
at the surface will induce deeper softening. Moreover, experimental data indicates
the existence of a temperature threshold, below which the thermal fatigue damage is
minimal, as illustrated in Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 (8).

Once the molten alloy is in the die cavity, the heat must be removed to allow
solidification and subsequent cooling to occur; the die acts essentially as a heat
exchanger. A number of heat flow paths are available for this transfer, as shown
in Figure 4.4 (9). Cooling lines are usually drilled holes arranged to form a circuit
necessitating a minimal numbers of inlets and outlets. This is to facilitate convenient
machining and quick setting-up for production runs. The circuit should ensure that the
cooling is in the correct areas and that other areas in the cavity are not detrimentally
affected. The drilled cooling line holes should be as smooth as possible and all stress
points should be avoided (10). The location of the waterline is a key controlling factor
of the heat flow. The complex shapes of many die-castings restrict the freedom die
designer has in placement of cooling-lines (9).

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 7

 Die Temperature Control

Figure 4.1: Thermal Fatigue Testing Equipment (8)

Page 8 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 Die Temperature Control

Figure 4.2: The Effect of Temperature on Crack Area (8)

- Different Immersion Times -

Figure 4.3: The Effect of Temperature on Crack Length (8)

- Different Immersion Times -

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 9

 Die Temperature Control

Figure 4.4: Heat Flow Paths in Die Casting Die (20)

4.1 Cooling of Die Inserts

In die casting applications, the highest temperature will occur in thin or overheated
sections where the material capacity to absorb and transfer the heat away from the
surface is very limited (8). Cores and slides are often surrounded by molten metal from
most sides, leaving only a thin section as a path for the heat to escape. Consequently,
cores and slides have to be oil or water-cooled whenever possible (17). Water is
commonly used as the cooling medium. Often, cooling water needs to access localized
areas including long cores which are often "hot spot" areas. Typical water passage
systems for these applications are termed "fountains", "cascades" or "bubblers", as
shown in Figure 4.5 (11). Bubblers are ideal for cooling die casting dies where drilled
waterlines through the insert are not possible due to interference with ejector pins, core
pins, pull-down inserts, etc. (12). The flow of water is directed locally behind a core or
die and its return is confined to an outer sleeve, the whole unit taking up little space and
being conveniently threaded for use in assembly (11).

Page 10 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 Die Temperature Control

Brass plug baffles, as shown in Figure 4.5, provide another water passage system
for these applications. They are available in both straight and spiral styles, constructed
entirely of high quality brass with blades brazed to the plugs for long, dependable
service. They provide a high pressure seal through a deliberate difference of taper
between the plug and the tapped hole. The function of the baffle is to split the drilled
waterline into two equal channels. As the heating or cooling medium enters, the baffle
diverts the flow to travel up to and over the end of the baffle and down the other side.
Spiral baffles improve cooling balance by creating turbulent action in the channel,
reducing laminar or straight-layered flow patterns and providing efficient coolant
movement. Clearance must be provided between the end of the baffle and the end of
the drilled channel to provide adequate flow (12).

A device known as a heat pipe has is available for cooling of very small cores.
This is not so effective as a water circuit but does give some assistance to cooling.
A sealed passage or inserted tube inside the core contains liquid under vacuum. The
liquid vaporizes at the hot, impression end of the core and, after being condensed by
a cooling system at the other end, recirculates via a capillary wick at high frequency
circles (10).

(a) Bubblers

(b) Baffl es

Figure 4.5: Illustrations of Bubblers and Baffles (11)

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 11

 Die Temperature Control

4.2 Heat Transfer in Die Cooling System

4.2.1 Heat Transfer through Boundary Layer
When a fluid flows over a surface, a stagnant film adheres to the surface and acts as a
heat insulator. Experiments have shown the actual existence of such a film. In the study
of heat transfer it may be visualized as a barrier to the flow of heat. Heat is presumed to
be conducted through this film, and its thickness has been found to be dependent upon
its viscosity and density and upon the velocity of fluid stream (13). Under steady state
condition, the boundary layer heat transfer coefficient h is:
h = k / (4-4)
where k is the thermal conductivity of the liquid in the boundary layer and is the
boundary layer thickness. The boundary layer thickness varies approximately as
the square root of the shear velocity of the liquid outside the boundary layer (14).
The circulation of fluids through channels in dies varies greatly in heat transfer
characteristics. Velocity, volume, and turbulence are important factors in the rate of heat
transfer. It is desirable to introduce devices that increase the turbulence in the cooling
channels, to increase the heat transfer rate. An increase in velocity of a stream also
improves the heat transfer rate (5).

4.4.2 Brief Review of the Heat Transfer of Forced Convection

The transfer of heat to or from a fluid flowing over a surface of a hotter or colder body
is known as convection. When circulation is induced by mechanical means, such
as a pump or fan, convection is termed forced convection. If the size and shape of
the stream are expressed in terms of the diameter, the heat transfer coefficient of
convention may be stated in equation form as (13):
h = f(D, V, , , c p , k) (4-5)
where h is the heat transfer coefficient of convection; D is the diameter of fluid stream;
V is the velocity; is viscosity; is density; c p is the specific heat at constant pressure;

k is thermal conductivity. By the method of dimensional analysis, for most practical

applications, the equation form is well expressed by the equation:

hD = C oDVp oc pd
b
p
-- ---- ---- (4-6)
kvk

The three fractions within the brackets are known as follows: hD/k is Nusselt number
(Nu), DV/v is Reynolds number (Re), and c p /k is Prandtl number (Pr). It has been
concluded that a fair correlation for the heating and cooling of various fluids in turbulent
flow in horizontal circular tubes is shown by the equation:
0.8
Nu = 0.023Re Pr 0.4 (4-7)
This equation applies where the Reynolds number is within the range of 10,000 to
120,000, the Prandtl number is between 0.7 and 120.

Page 12 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 Die Temperature Control

Equation (3-7) can also be used to predict heat transfer for turbulent flow in
noncircular smooth ducts, provided that the tube diameter D is replaced by equivalent
diameter D eq defi ned as:

------------------------------
D eq = 4x(cross - sectional area for flow) (4-8)
wetted perimeter

4.2.3 Heat Transfer through a Vapor Blanket

For an upward flow of a liquid in a vertical channel with heated walls, when the heat
flux from the heating surfaces is increased above a certain value, the convective heat
transfer is not strong enough to prevent the wall temperature from rising above the
saturation temperature of the coolant. The elevated wall temperature superheats the
liquid in contact with the wall and activates the nucleation sites, generating bubbles
to producing incipience of boiling (13). The heat transfer mechanism of a vapor-liquid
mixture in which the critical heat flux has been exceeded can be classified as partial or
stable film boiling. The difference between the two lies in the magnitude of the surface
temperature (16). The repetitive vapor blanketing occurs within the cooling line (18).
An insulating vapor film covers the surface through which the heat must pass. The
heat transfer coefficient is orders of magnitude lower than in the corresponding region
before the critical heat flux was exceeded, due mainly to the lower thermal conductivity
of the vapor (19). This implies that the thin, continuous, vapor sublayer governs the
heat transfer process. The film boiling model indicates a special forced convection-
induced change, where an increased coolant velocity and subcooling lead to a sudden
decrease in the vapor film thickness. It can be seen that the predicted increase in
heat flux, as caused by the increased coolant velocity and a sudden decrease in the
predicted vapor film thickness, is present in the experimental data for film boiling (20).
Of critical importance is the velocity of the interface between the vapor and fluid, then
the velocity would then be determined by the critical Reynolds number for the system
under consideration. Unfortunately, the values of this quantity available in the literature
show very wide variations so it is difficult to predict the velocity in these circumstances
and experimental measurements are lacking (21).

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 13

 Die Temperature Control

4.2.4 Heat Transfer of a Bayonet Tube

The bayonet tube has a similar configuration with the bubbler/core, therefore the
theoretical and experimental studies on the bayonet tube are helpful to understand
heat transfer of a bubbler system in a core. The bayonet tube is a refluent heat
exchanger commonly used in operations where the medium to be heated or cooled
is either too large to be treated or is readily accessible from one side only. It consists
of two concentric tubes, one end of the inner tube reaching close to the sealed end of
the outer tube. The fluid entering through the open end of the inner tube is therefore
constrained to return along the annulus between the two tubes (22). For a case when
the fluid (air) enters the central tube and returns through the annulus while hot gas is
flowing on the outside, the temperature distribution of the tube wall and fluid without
radiation heat transfer is shown in Figure 1.6 (23,24). In another study, results have
been obtained using three different fluids: namely, air (Pr=0.7), water (Pr=2.61), and
ethylene glycol (Pr=40.36). Figure 1.8 shows a Nusselt number comparison for air,
water, and ethylene glycol at different mass fl ow rates. The heat transfer rate is clearly
dependent on flow rate and shows a marked improvement with an increase in Reynolds
number. Furthermore, the shape of the curve changes as Reynolds number increases.
For ethylene glycol and water, the curve exhibits an inflexion point in the lower range of
the transitional regime (22). It should be noted that the heat transferred from the bottom
of the outer tube is negligible in the research of bayonet tube heat exchanger.

G: Hot Gas Flowing on the Outside

L: Length of Bayonet Tube
Tl,in : Inlet Coolant Temperature [K]
Tl,out : Outlet Coolant Temperature [K]
Tl' : Temperature in the Inner Tube [K]
Tl" : Temperature in the Annulus [K]
Tg : Temperature of Hot Gas Flowing on the Outside [K]

Figure 4.6: Temperature Distribution in a Bayonet Exchanger (23)

Page 14 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 Die Temperature Control

Figure 4.7: Effect of Reynolds Number on Nusselt Number for Bayonet Tube (21)

Figure 4.8: Jet Flow Impinging on a Flat Surface (Schematically) (24)

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 15

 Die Temperature Control

4.2.5 Heat Transfer between an Impinging Jet Flow and an Object

For forced convection heat transfer, a simplified form representing the heat transfer
coefficient is usually used:
Nu = f(Re, Pr, generic shape) (4-9)
where the functional relation is a power law, Nu is the Nusselt number, Re is the
Reynolds number, and Pr is the coolant Prandtl number. In the case of a jet impinging
on a surface (see Figure 4.9) the heat transfer coefficient, h, also depends on other
parameters: normalized jet nozzle-to-plane spacing L/D; jet inclination angle, j;

displacement of the stagnation point from the geometric center of the jet on the
impingement surface, E; normalized distance from the stagnation point to a point
considered on the impingement surface, r/D; jet Renolds number Re j ; and the jet

velocity at the exit plane of the nozzle. Considering water as coolant, a correlation
equation was proposed for the local Nusselt number in the form:
1/3 0.7 m
Nu = 1.122AñPr ñRe ñexp[ -(B + Ccosÿ)(r/D) ] (4-10)
where D is the diameter of the jet nozzle, and r and ÿ are cylindrical coordinates for
correlation of contours of constant Nu. For two-dimensional problems, r is the distance
from the stagnation point on the cooled surface, whilst ÿ is determined according to:
0, along
s , along thethe
sideside of surface
of surface with
with j < /2
ÿ=
j > /2
The coefficients of the relationship, A, B, C are determined by j and L/D (25).

4.3 Flow Pattern in a Bayonet Tube.

See Figure 4.9a and 4.9b as the reference to the structure of the tip of a bayonet. A
vortex exists at the tip of the bayonet tube (26). The flow field of the fluid at the tip of a
bayonet tube is dependent on the geometry parameters as following:
(1) Relative height: h/D;
(2) Ratio of section area: m (m=Fw/Fn, where Fw is the annulus section area and
Fn is the inner section area of inner tube);
(3) Configuration factor: b/a.
The generation of the big scale vortex depends on the value of m (27). When m has a
higher value (e.g. smaller I.D. of inner tube), the eject flow of fluid impinges the bottom
of the outer tube with a high velocity. There is a small-scaled vortex area exiting at the
stagnant point under the tip of inner tube, see Figure 4.9. While m has a lower value
(e.g. bigger I.D. of inner tube), when h/D is higher than a certain value, it is found that
a big scaled vortex will form. Sometimes the vortex rotates faster, sometimes slower.
When the vortex rotates faster, the scale of the vortex becomes larger. In engineering
application, it is recommended to select the bayonet tube with a relatively higher value
of m (26).

Page 16 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 Die Temperature Control

Figure 4.9: Flow Field and Structure of the Tip of Bayonet Tube (26)

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 17

 Die Temperature Control

Page 18 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Chapter 5
DESIGN AND COMPUTER SIMULATION TOOLS

Traditional design of the cooling lines is an iterative process that targets a balance
between the heat input from the molten metal and the heat extracted by the coolant. At
the end of this process, the designer will have a schematic of the die, with the required
water or oil line sizes and routing. The heat input is determined mainly by the weight
and the total surface of the casting, the cycle time and the alloy cast. This heat must
be extracted by locating appropriate cooling lines in proximity to the cavity. It is common
practice to divide the casting into segments, and calculate the heat balance individually,
for each segment. The length of the cooling line is determined based on heat transfer
calculations. In general, cooling lines located closer to the surface of the cavity are
more effective in removing heat. However, the industry has adopted thumb rules
relative to the depth of the cooling lines, that provide a safeguard from catastrophic
cracking of the die. These thumb rules suggest a minimum distance of 0.75" between
the water cooling lines and the surface of the cavity. This distance can be reduced
to 0.5" in the case of oil lines. According to these thumb rules, drilling cooling lines
closer to the surface increases the risk of gross cracking i.e. catastrophic cracking due
to excessive thermal stresses. The financial liabilities associated with cracking a die
are significant. Consequently, designers have been taking a conservative approach
by following these well proven guidelines. However, anecdotal evidence suggests
that cooling lines can be drilled closer to the surface. Considering modern advances
in steel quality and heat treat specifications, this option should be explored, especially
when the die develops hot spots that result in soldering and downtime. Yet another
reason to experiment with more efficient internal cooling is the potential for shorter cycle
time. The end result of shorter cycle time is a more profitable die casting operation.
The North American Die Casting Association has been sponsoring research projects
that examine feasibility of more aggressive internal cooling. One of these projects was
initiated at Case Western Reserve University in collaboration with St. Clair Die Casting
with NADCA/DLA sponsorship. A four cavity die with four rectangular castings, about
1.5 pounds each was selected for this study. The parts have a larger weight to volume
ratio than typical die castings, making them ideal for this study. The approach taken
in this project was to bring the cooling lines closer to the surface while monitoring the
decrease in cycle time and the potential change in die life. The configuration of the
experimental cover and ejector dies are illustrated in Figure 5.1 and 5.2 respectively.
The current process variables are outlined in Figure 5.3. A close-up detail showing the
location of the cooling lines relative to the casting is shown in Figure 5.4.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 19

 Design and Computer Simulation Tools

Figure 5.1: Cover die

Page 20 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Design and Computer Simulation Tools

Figure 5.2: Ejector die

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 21

 Design and Computer Simulation Tools

Figure 5.3: Current processing variables

Figure 5.4: Section through the die

Page 22 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 Design and Computer Simulation Tools

A detailed flow and solidification computer simulation was conducted to determine the
effect of the changes in the cooling line configuration. The use of computer simulations
in the design of thermal systems has become very common. The simulation does not
replace the initial design process described at the beginning of this section. Rather, it is
used to verify the design of the gating and cooling system. In regard to the cooling line
size and location, the computer simulation will indicate any hot spots in the die or areas
where the molten metal becomes too cold to fill the mold. In such cases, the cooling
line design is modified and the simulation is repeated until a satisfactory temperature
distribution is obtained. This procedure is also effective in preventing shrinkage porosity
associated with undesirable hot spots in the casting. An attractive feature of the
solidification simulation is the "virtual thermocouple". This feature allows plotting of the
solidification at a particular node in the model, corresponding to a point of interest in the
casting. Figure 5.5 illustrates such a cooling curve for the St. Clair casting.

Figure 5.5: Cooling curve for the St. Clair casting.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 23

 Design and Computer Simulation Tools

Page 24 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Chapter 6
USE OF HIGH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DIE MATERIALS

While a range of materials can be used in making dies and molds, as illustrated in table
6.1, tool steels are by far the predominant material of choice for die casting inserts.
In most cases tool steels provide the best combination of die life and trouble free
performance at an affordable price. Further enhancement of die life is often possible by
applying surface treatments such as carbo-nitriding and other coatings. Other materials
are commercially available with potential for superior performance in die casting tooling.
Three groups of alloys are attractive in particular: copper, nickel and refractory alloys.

Nickel based alloys are used extensively in demanding aerospace applications such
as turbine blades and vanes. They posses unmatched thermal shock and fatigue
resistance far exceeding that of tool steels. However, at very high temperatures, these
alloys tend to dissolve in molten aluminum. Any die component made of a nickel based
alloy that comes in direct contact with molten aluminum has to kept below 1,050-
1,100oF or else it may dissolve.

Thermal
Product Hardness Thermal Charpy V-Notch Yield Tensile Expansion
Conductivity Impact Strength Strength Strength Coefficient
(HRC) BTU/ft*hr*F Ft*lb ksi ksi 10-6 / F
420 Stainless 50 10 5-10 200 250 6.1
H-13 Tool Steel 45-50 15 8-14 200 250 7.1
Moldmax HH 40 60 4 155 185 9.7
Moldmax XL 30 35-40 10-15 100 110 9.3
Moldmax LH 30 75 12 140 170 9.7
P-20 Tool Steel 30 17 20-25 120 140 7.1
Protherm 20 145 50 90 115 9.8
Alloy 940 16 120 30 65 96 9.7
Alloy 18 B90 35 N/A 30 95 9.0
Alloy 22 35 23 2 55 100 9.0
Tooling Grade
Aluminum B88 90-95 30 75-78 75-80 12.9
ToughMet 3 32 22 N/A 110 120 9.1
Table 6.1: Common materials in die and mold making

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 25

 Use of High Thermal Conductivity Die Materials

Copper-based alloys are attractive because of their high thermal conductivity. As

indicated in Table 6.1, the thermal conductivity of Alloy 940 is eight fold higher than H13.
This allows rapid heat transfer from the molten metal. However, just like nickel based
alloys, copper-based alloys are also susceptible to dissolving in molten aluminum when
overheated above 1,050-1,100oF. This type of damage is illustrated in Figure 6.2 that
shows the corners of 2"x2"x7" thermal fatigue samples after 15,000 immersion cycles in
molten 380 aluminum alloy.

Figure 6.1: Dissolution of copper alloys in molten aluminum

Tungsten alloys, in particular Anviloy 1150 have been used in difficult die casting
applications to remove heat from hot spots or replace steel cores that heat check
prematurely. The key properties of Anviloy 1150 are outlined in Table 6.2.

The biscuit is often time the last part in the casting to solidify, because of the large
volume to surface ratio. Water cooled copper-beryllium plunger tips are used to extract
heat faster from the biscuit. High thermal conductivity shot blocks can also be made
out of high thermal conductivity alloys to extract the heat from the biscuit. In a recent
study conducted at Case Western Reserve University, shot blocks were made of various
high thermal conductivity alloys and installed in the 350 Ton Ube squeeze casting
machine. The cooling curve in the center of the biscuit was recorded with an embedded
thermocouple. The experimental set-up is shown in Figure 6.3.

The time required to cool the biscuit below ejection temperature was substantially
shorter for the Anviloy 1150 and copper-beryllium shot blocks. As demonstrated by this
experiment, Anviloy 1150(tungsten-base) and copper based alloys can shorten cycle
time by 50-100% when substituted for H13 steel.

Page 26 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 Use of High Thermal Conductivity Die Materials

Property Anviloy® 1150 H-13 Tool Steel TZM

Room Temperature
Ultimate Tensile (psi) 140000 233000 139000
MPa 965 1610 958
0.2% Offset Yield (psi) 125000 192000 125000
MPa 862 1320 862
Elongation (in 2") % 3 13.1 10
Hardness HRC 34 45 n.a.
Mod. of Elasticity psi x 106 49 30.5 47.1
GPa 338 210 325
Thermal Conductivity Btu/hr.ft.oF 74 19.3 81
W/mK 128 34.3 140
lb/in3 0.623 0.280 0.367
g/cm3 17.25 7.76 10.16
Elevated Temp. Tensile
UTS @ 1000 F (537 C) (psi) 113000 142000 > 135000
MPa 779 979 > 930
UTS @ 1200 F (648 C) (psi) 105000 85000 > 130000
MPa 724 586 > 900
UTS @ 1500 F (815 C) (psi) 75000 20500 > 87000
MPa 517 141 > 600
Coef. Of Thermal Exp. (CTE)
68 750 F (20 - 400 C) ppm/oF 2.52 6.8. 3.3
ppm/oC 4.54 12.2 5.94
68 - 1450 F (20 - 788 C) ppm/oF 2.92 7.5 3.4
ppm/oC 5.26 13.5 6.12

Table 6.2: Comparison of Anviloyç 1150 Properties with other tool materials
(http://www.cmwinc.com/Anvfrmabt.htm)

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 27

 Use of High Thermal Conductivity Die Materials

Figure 6.2: Experimental set-up for measuring cycle time

Figure 6.3

Page 28 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Chapter 7
COMPONENTS OF THE THERMAL CONTROL SYSTEM

7.1 Water and oil manifolds, valves

and other fluid handling components
A number of companies offer standard, off the shelf components for cooling systems.
DME (http://www.dme.net/wwwdme/cooling.asp) advertises these under Mold
Components as a complete line of all the thermal components a mold could need.
Baffles; water junctions, manifolds and connectors; insulators; and a range of other
solutions for managing thermal performance.
ñBaffles
ñCascade water junctions
ñCoolant bridges Jiffy-Tite and Jiffy-Matic
ñWater and fluid connectors
ñHeat pipes and heat transfer compounds
ñHigh temperature insulator sheets
ñPlugs
ñBubbler tubes
ñWater manifolds and accessories

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 29

 Components of the Thermal Control System

7.2 Bubblers and baffles

Progressive offers a range of such components for die cooling (http://www.procomps.
com/content/products/dct/products/Heat_Xfer/DCT_heatxfer_main.htm)

Page 30 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Components of the Thermal Control System

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 31

 Components of the Thermal Control System

Page 32 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Components of the Thermal Control System

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 33

 Components of the Thermal Control System

Page 34 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 Components of the Thermal Control System

SMARTFLOW (http://www.smartflow-usa.com/), who supplies primarily the injection

molding industry, offers a number of components that have found use in die casting
thermal control systems.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 35

 Components of the Thermal Control System

7.3 Water and Oil Temperature Control Systems

These are close loop systems designed for die casting applications. They maintain a
steady temperature around a set point. Oil die heaters are available up to 600oF. They
can be used to heat the dies as well as cool them, depending on the needs. Generally,
oil is not as efficient a heat transfer medium as water, thus resulting in longer cycle
time. However, using an oil die heater to regulate the die temperature around a higher
set point minimizes the thermal excursion of the die and extends die life. A numbers of
suppliers provide water and oil temperature control systems:

Page 36 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 Components of the Thermal Control System

QPC (http://www.qpcsystems.com/)

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 37

 Components of the Thermal Control System

Page 38 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 Components of the Thermal Control System

Mokon (http://www.mokon.com/)

Mokon offers continuous high flow/high temperature control up to 600èF for large flow
and higher heating capacity applications. Systems are available in 40 or 60 gpm and
single or dual zone confi gurations.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 39

 Components of the Thermal Control System

Page 40 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Components of the Thermal Control System

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 41

 Components of the Thermal Control System

Page 42 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Chapter 8
THE ROLE OF WATER SPRAYING AND
DIE LUBRICANTS IN THERMAL CONTROL
Among other roles, the die lubricant spray is often used as a complementary method
of removing heat from the surface of the die. As pointed out in previous sections, by
and large it is preferable to rely primarily on the internal cooling lines to extract most of
the heat. However, some details in the die may not be easily accessible with cooling
lines. This is the often case with long and thin cores. In those cases, modern spraying
technology allows very effective removal of heat. Research suggests water spray can
remove between 20% and 60% of the heat released by an aluminum casting per cycle,
depending on the temperature and the spray intensity (28,29). In fact, in small dies, or
dies used to produce small or thin walled castings, die spray can overcool the surface
unless carefully applied. A key aspect of the spraying operation is a clear separation
between the water and lubricant spray. Allowing a lubricant mix to be used for cooling
purposes is wasteful and expensive. Nozzle spraying systems can apply a consistent,
well-controlled volume of water spray onto the required parts of the die before spraying
the die lubricant. Two things occur during die lubricant spraying:

ñThe die surface cools down.

ñ A lubricant film is deposited on the surface on the die surface in the following
sequence:
1. Evaporation of the water from the emulsion.
2. Break-down of the lubricant emulsion allowing separation of the active
3. Deposition of the active lubricant solid components onto the die surface.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 43

 The Role of Water Spraying & Die Lubricants in Thermal Control

The lubricant film can only be produced effectively after the die surface is cooled
down to wetting temperature. The temperature at which the lubricant droplets make
contact with the die surface is called the "Leidenfrost" or the wetting temperature. It
depends on many factors such as droplet size, droplet velocity, spray temperature and
o
surface roughness. If the temperature of the die is too high, above 1,100 F, a layer
of steam will build up on the surface and the droplets will not be able to wet the die.
o o
This steam layer begins to form between 700 F and 1,100 F. The film thickness of
the lubricant at the surface will be determined by the lubricant formulation and spray
conditions. Care must be taken not to wash away deposited lubricant by excessive
spray pressure once it has been deposited. Besides the desirable cooling effect of the
water, the die lubricant spray can play additional roles:
ñThe die lubricant film can insulate the die surface resulting in smaller thermal
gradients and longer die life.
ñ Too aggressive lubricant spraying can cause too low a die surface temperature
resulting in high thermal gradients (as high as 2,250 èF/inch ) causing high
compressive stress during filling and reducing die life.
ñ Lubricant sprayed on while the die surface is still at high temperature will cause
high thermal gradients (as high as 4,050 èF/inch) resulting in high thermal tensile
stress and premature die failure.

Page 44 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Chapter 9
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
DURING THE DIE CASTING OPERATION
A robust die casting process that maximizes yield and efficiency needs to be tightly
controlled. Even slight deviations from the desired operating conditions can lead to
rejects and reduced yield. The controls need to address all the variables of the process,
with temperature being a key parameter. In this context, the need for tight temperature
control begins with the molten metal. Small holding furnaces are harder to keep close
to the set point, especially if fresh molten metal from the melter is frequently added.
Underpowered holding furnaces tend to take longer times to bring cold metal back to
the set point. If the molten metal is significantly below set point it will cause cold shuts
in the castings.

Best practices require the dies to be preheated with a die heater before the process
is started. This will extend die life since the hot metal will not subject the die surface to
a large temperature change. This practice will also limit the number of castings made
to bring the process to steady state. These castings have to be scraped, since they
invariably have cold shuts. The use of oil die heaters is an effective way to preheat the
dies and maintain the process within tight temperature limits. This method also extends
die life. However, in some instances it may require longer cycle times. The choice
between oil and water cooling depends on multiple factors, not the least being the
profitability of the operation, including the longer tooling life.

In most facilities, the die casting operation is time controlled. This means the process
follows a rigid time sequence i.e. cycle, that repeats itself regardless of intentional or
unintentional variations in the process. For instance, if ejection of a part is delayed
and the dies cool down, the subsequent cycle will disregard the lower temperature,
and often produce a defective part. The merits of a "temperature" rather than "time"
control process have been highlighted in the die casting literature. The temperature
measurements can be done inside the die, by using thermocouples. Alternatively, the
outlet temperature of the cooling water can be used to monitor and control the cycle.
These methods not only help reducing scrap, but also optimize the casting rate and
reduce variations in the casting dimensions. Nevertheless, they are not widely practiced
due to the difficulty in installation of the additional controllers, repeatability, durability and
slow response time.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 45

 Temperature Control During the Die Casting Operation

Page 46 Thermal Control in Die Casting

Chapter 10
REFERENCES

(1) Yunus A.C., Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw Hill, 2006

(2) Incropera F.P.and DeWitt D.P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer John Willey
& Sons, 2002.

(3) Mills,F.A, Heat and Mass Transfer, CRC Press 1995.

(4) Herman E.A. Heat Flow in the Die Casting Industry, NADCA 2004.

(5) ASM Handbook, Vol. 15: Casting, ASM International, 1992, p. 293.

(6) Sfantsikopoulos, M. M.; Tsoukalas, V.D.; Klein F.; Mertz, A. "Study of Die Cooling-
Casting Defects Interdependence in Pressure Diecasting," AFS Transactions,
Vol.103 (1996), pp.749-752.

(7) Truelove, R.L. "Die Casting Temperature Control: A New Science," Die Casting
Engineer, Vol. 26, No.1 (1982), pp. 28-31.

(8) Birceanu, S. Master Thesis, Case Western Reserve University (2002).

(9) Street A. The Die Casting Book, Portcullis Press Ltd., 1977, pp. 311-312.

(10) Kaye, A.; Street A. Die Casting Metallurgy, Butterworth Scientifi c, 1982, p256.

(11) DME Technical Catalog.

(12) Brown, A.I.; Marco, S.M. Introduction to Heat Transfer, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., 1958, pp. 125-133.

(13) Haupin, W. "Understanding Boundary Layers," Light Metals 1997, 126th TMS
Annual Meeting (1997).

(14) Tong, L.S.; Tang, Y.S. Boiling Heat Transfer and Two-Phase Flow, Second Edition,
Taylor & Francis Ltd., 1997, pp. 245.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 47

 References

(15) Tong, L.S.; Tang, Y.S. Boiling Heat Transfer and Two-Phase Flow, Second Edition,
Taylor & Francis Ltd., 1997, pp. 274.

(16) Collier, J.G. Convective Boiling and Condensation, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill
International Book Company, 1981, p.139.

(17) Smith, W.E. "Design and fabrication of quality die cast dies," Tool Materials for
Molds and Dies: Application and Performance, CSM Press, Colorado School of
Mines, 1987, pp.249-262

(18) Flynn, E.W.; Berger, C.M. "Corrosion fatigue: an anatomy of die-cast die insert
failure," Modern Casting, March (2001), pp.46-49.

(19) Okkonen, T. "Film Boiling on a Vertical High-Temperature Surface: Focusing on Melt

Jet-Water Interactions," Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 189 (1999), pp. 273-297.

(20) Fletcher, A.J.; Griffi ths, W.D. "Heat Transfer during Vapour Blanket Stage of
Quench," Materials Science and Technology, Vol.9 (1993), pp. 958-962.

(21) Minhas H.; Lock G.S.H. "Estimating the Infl uence of Prandtl Number on Heat
Transfer in A Bayonet Tube," Int. Comm. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 23, No. 7 (1996),
pp1011-1017.

(22) Li, C.H. "Analytical Solution of the Heat Transfer Equation for a Bayonet Tube Heat
Exchanger".

(23) Levenspiel, O. Engineering Flow and Heat Exchange, Revised Edition, Plenum
Press, 1984, pp. 272-274.

(24) Li, X. "Study of the Jet-Flow Rate of Cooling in Maching; Part 1 Theoretical
analysis," Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 62 (1996), pp. 149-156.

(25) Zhang, Y.M.; Zhang H.Q. "Experimental Investigation of Flow Characteristics about
Tip Heat Transfer in Bayonet Tube," Huagong Jixie, Vol. 12, No. 2 (1988), pp. 96-
102.

(26) Okudaira, Y. "Study on the Turning of Inner Pipe Flow into Outer Annulus Flow in a
Concentric Double Pipe (Flow Visualization and Head Loss)," Transactions of the
Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers, Series B, Vol. 63, No 609 (1997), pp.1547-
1553.

(27) Burmeister, L. C. Convective Heat Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1983, p. 498.

Page 48 Thermal Control in Die Casting

 References

(28) Altan,T et.al. "A Preliminary Investigation on the Cooling and Lubrication of Die
Casting Dies by Spraying", Proceedings of NADCA International Congress, Detroit
1991,p.355-361.

(29) Lee I.S. et.al. "Cooling Effect of Lubricant Sprays in Die Casting", Proceedings of
NADCA International Congress, Detroit 1991, pp.329-334.

Thermal Control in Die Casting Page 49

 References

Page 50 Thermal Control in Die Casting

NORTH AMERICAN DIE CASTING ASSOCIATION
241 Holbrook Drive
Wheeling, IL 60090
tel: 847.279.0001 fax: 847.279.0002
[email protected]
www.diecasting.org