1.

Graphic Method: According the Graphical Method, take a suitable scale for the values of
x and y i.e., for arguments and entries values, and plot the different points on the Graph for
these values of x and y. Draw the Curve passes through the different plotted points and find
a point on the curve corresponding to argument x and obtain the corresponding entry value
y. This method is not reliable most of the cases.
2. Method Of Curve Fitting: This method can be used only in those cases in which the form
of the function in known. This method is not exact and becomes more complicated when
the number of observations is sufficiently large. The only merit of this method lies in the
fact that it gives closer approximation than the graphical method.
3. Use The Calculus Of Finite Differences The study of finite differences for the purpose of
interpolation can be divided into three parts.
a) The technique of interpolation with equal intervals.
b) The technique of interpolation with unequal intervals.
c) The technique of central differences.
These methods are less approximate than the others and do not assume the form of the function
to be known. On using the method of calculus of finite difference, the calculations remain
simple even if some additional observations are included in the given data.
4.2. NEWTON’S GREGORY FORMULA FOR FORWARD INTERPOLATION
Let y = f (x) be a given function of x which takes the value f(a), f(a + h), f(a + 2h)... f(a + nh)
for (n + 1) equally spaced values a, a+h, a + 2h,... a+ nh of the independent variable x. Assume
that f(x) be a polynomial of nth degree, given by
f(x) = A0 + A1 (x – a) + A2 (x – a)(x – a – h) + A3 (x – a)(x – a – h) (x – a – 2h) +...An(x–
a)...(x−a−(n−1)h)....................................................................................................................(1)
Where A0, A1, A2, ... An are to be determined. Now to find the values of A0, A1, A2, ... An,
put x = a, a + h, a + 2h,... a + nh in equation (1) successively.
Therefore for x = a, f(a)=A0 .................................................................................................(2)
for 𝑥 = 𝑎 + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 (𝑎 + ℎ– 𝑎)
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝐴0 + ℎ𝐴1 𝑥
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) = ℎ𝐴1 [from (2)]
∆𝑓(𝑎)
 𝐴1 =
ℎ
For 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 2ℎ
𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) = 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 (2ℎ) + 𝐴2 (2ℎ)ℎ
∆𝑓(𝑎)
= 𝑓(𝑎) + 2ℎ { } + 2ℎ2 𝐴2
ℎ
 2ℎ2 𝐴2 = 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) – 2𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝛥2 𝑓(𝑎)
 ∆2 𝑓(𝑎)
𝐴2 =
2! ℎ2
∆3 𝑓(𝑎)
Similarly, 𝐴3 =
3! ℎ3
𝐴𝑛 ∆𝑛 𝑓(𝑎)
=
𝑛! ℎ𝑛
Put the values of 𝐴0 , 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 ... 𝐴𝑛 , in the equation (1), we get
 ∆𝑓(𝑎) ∆2 𝑓(𝑎) ∆𝑛 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥– 𝑎) + (𝑥 – 𝑎)(𝑥 – 𝑎 – ℎ) + ⋯ + (𝑥– 𝑎). . (𝑥– 𝑎 – 𝑛 − 1ℎ)
ℎ 2! ℎ2 𝑛! ℎ𝑛
𝑥−𝑎
Again, put 𝑥 = 𝑎 + ℎ𝑢 ⇒ u = , we have
ℎ

∆𝑓(𝑎) (ℎ𝑢)(ℎ𝑢 − ℎ) 2 (ℎ𝑢)(ℎ𝑢 − ℎ)(ℎ𝑢 − 2ℎ) … (ℎ𝑢 − 𝑛 − 1ℎ)

𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ𝑢) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑢 + ∆ 𝑓(𝑎) + ⋯
ℎ 2! ℎ2 𝑛! ℎ𝑛
𝑢(𝑢−1) 2 𝑢(𝑢−1)(𝑢−2)..(𝑢−𝑛+1) 𝑛
⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ𝑢) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑢𝛥𝑓(𝑎) + ∆ 𝑓(𝑎) + ⋯ + ∆ 𝑓(𝑎)
2! 𝑛!

which is required formula for forward interpolation.

This formula is useful for interpolating the values of f(x) near the starting of the set of values
given. h is called interval of differencing while Δ is forward difference operator. This is
applicable for equally spaced argument only.
Example 1. The following table gives the distance in nautical miles of the visible horizon for
the given heights in feet above the earth’s surface.

x 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

y 10.63 13.03 15.04 16.81 18.42 19.9 21.27

Use Newton’s forward formula to find y when x = 218 ft.

Sol. Let us form the difference table:

x y ∆ ∆2 ∆3 ∆4 ∆5 ∆6
100 10,63
2,4
150 13,03 -0,39
2,01 0,15
200 15,04 -0,24 -0,07
1,77 0,08 0,02
250 16,81 -0,16 -0,05 0,02
1,61 0,03 0,04
300 18,42 -0,13 -0,01
1,48 0,02
350 19,9 -0,11
1,37
400 21,27

Here, ℎ = 50, 𝑎 = 100 = 𝑥0

𝑥−𝑥 218−100 118
u = ℎ 0 50 = 50 = 2.36
Now, applying Newton’s forward difference formula.
𝑢(𝑢 − 1) 2 𝑢(𝑢 − 1)(𝑢 − 2) 3
𝑓(218) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑢𝛥𝑓(𝑎) + ∆ 𝑓(𝑎) + ∆ 𝑓(𝑎) + ⋯
2! 3!
𝑢(𝑢 − 1)(𝑢 − 2). . (𝑢 − 5) 6
+ ∆ 𝑓(𝑎)
6!
 2.36(1.36) 2.36(1.36)(0.36)
= 10.63 + 2.36 × 2.40 + × (−0.39) + × (0.15)
2! 3!
2.36(1.36)(0.36)(−0.64) 2.36(1.36)(0.36)(−0.64)(−1.64)
+ × (−0.07) +
4! 5!
2.36(1.36)(0.36)(−0.64)(−1.64)(−2.64)
× (0.02) + × (0.02)
5!
= 15.69928 (𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥. )

4.3. NEWTON’S GREGORY FORMULA FOR BACKWARD INTERPOLATION

Let y = f(x) be a function of x which takes the values f(a), f(a + h), f(a + 2h), ..... f(a+ nh) for (n
+ 1) equally spaced values a, a + h, ........., a + nh of the independent variable x. Let us assume
f(x) be a nth degree polynomial given by

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 (𝑥 − 𝑎 − 𝑛ℎ) + 𝐴2 (𝑥 − 𝑎 − 𝑛ℎ)(𝑥 − 𝑎 − 𝑛 − 1ℎ) … 𝐴𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎 − ℎ𝑛)(𝑥 − 𝑎 − 𝑛 − 1ℎ) … (𝑥– 𝑎– ℎ)....(1)

Where A0, A1, A2, ....An are to be determined

Put 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ, 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1ℎ, . . . 𝑎 in (1) respectively.
Put 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) = 𝐴0 ...(2)
Put 𝑥 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 – 1)ℎ, then
𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1ℎ) = 𝐴0 − ℎ𝐴1 = 𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) − ℎ𝐴1 (from 2)
∇𝑓(𝑎+𝑛ℎ)
⇒ 𝐴1 = ...(3)
ℎ
Put 𝑥 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 – 2)ℎ, then
𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑛 − 2ℎ) = 𝐴0 − 2ℎ𝐴1 + (−2ℎ)(−ℎ)𝐴2
⇒ 2ℎ2 𝐴2 = 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛 − 2ℎ)– 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) + 2𝛻𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) = 𝛻𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ)
∇2 𝑓(𝑎+𝑛ℎ)
𝐴2 = ...(4)
2!ℎ2
∇𝑛 𝑓(𝑎+𝑛ℎ)
Proceeding in similar way, 𝐴𝑛 = ...(5)
𝑛!ℎ𝑛
Substituting the vaues in (1), we get
∇𝑓(𝑎+𝑛ℎ) ∇𝑛 𝑓(𝑎+𝑛ℎ)
[𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) + (𝑥 − 𝑎 − 𝑛ℎ)
ℎ
+ ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑎 − 𝑛ℎ)(𝑥 − 𝑎 − 𝑛 − 1ℎ) … (𝑥 − 𝑎 − ℎ)
𝑛!ℎ𝑛
] ...(6)
Put 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ + 𝑢ℎ, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 – 𝑎 – 𝑛ℎ = 𝑢ℎ
and 𝑥 – 𝑎 – (𝑛 – 1)ℎ = (𝑢 + 1)ℎ
𝑥 – 𝑎 – ℎ = (𝑢 + 𝑛 − 1)ℎ
Equation (6) becomes
𝑢(𝑢 + 1) 2 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) + 𝑢𝛻𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) + ∇ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) + ⋯ + 𝑢ℎ(𝑢 + 1)ℎ … (𝑢 + 𝑛 − 1ℎ)∇𝑛
2! 𝑛! ℎ𝑛
Or
𝑢(𝑢 + 1) 2 𝑢(𝑢 + 1)(𝑢 + 𝑛 − 1ℎ) 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ + 𝑢ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) + 𝑢𝛻𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) + ∇ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ) + ⋯ + ∇ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛ℎ)
2! 𝑛!
Which in required Newton’s Gregory formular for backward interpolation. This formula is
used when we want to interpolate the value near the end of the table.

Example 1. The table below gives the value of tan x for 0.10 ≤ x ≤ 0.30

x : 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3

tan x : 0,1003 0,1511 0,2027 0,2553 0,3093

Find (a) tan 0.50 (b) tan 0.26 (c) tan 0.40
Sol. First of all we construct the difference table:
x Tan x 𝛻 ∇2 ∇3 ∇4
0,1 0,1003
 x Tan x 𝛻 ∇2 ∇3 ∇4
0,0508
0,15 0,1511 0,0008
0,0516 0,0002
0,2 0,2027 0,001 0,0002
0,0526 0,0004
0,25 0,2553 0,0014
0,054
0,3 0,3093

(a) Here, h = 0.05, a = 0.30, x = 0.50

0.50−0.30
u= =4
0.05

𝑢 ( 𝑢 + 1) 𝑢(𝑢 + 1)(𝑢 + 2)
tan(0.50) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑢𝛻𝑓(𝑎) + ∇2 𝑓(𝑎) + ∇3 𝑓(𝑎)
2! 3!
𝑢(𝑢 + 1)(𝑢 + 2)(𝑢 + 3)
+ ∇4 𝑓(𝑎)
4!
4×5 4×5×6 4×5×7
= 0.3093 + 4 × 0.0540 + × 0.0014 + × 0.0004 + × 0.0002
2 6 24

= 0.5543
(b) Here, h = 0.05, a = 0.30, x = 0.26
0.26−0.30
u= = −0.8
0.05

𝑢 ( 𝑢 + 1) 𝑢(𝑢 + 1)(𝑢 + 2)
tan(0.26) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑢𝛻𝑓(𝑎) + ∇2 𝑓(𝑎) + ∇3 𝑓(𝑎)
2! 3!
𝑢(𝑢 + 1)(𝑢 + 2)(𝑢 + 3)
+ ∇4 𝑓(𝑎)
4!
(−0.8)(0.2) (−0.8) (0.2) (1.2) ( 0.8) (0.2) (1.2) (2.2)
= 0.3093 + −0.8 × 0.0540 + × 0.0014 + × 0.0004 + × 0.0002
2 6 24

= 0.2662
(b) Here, h = 0.05, a = 0.30, x = 0.4
0.4−0.30
u= =2
0.05

𝑢 ( 𝑢 + 1) 𝑢(𝑢 + 1)(𝑢 + 2)
tan(0.4) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑢𝛻𝑓(𝑎) + ∇2 𝑓(𝑎) + ∇3 𝑓(𝑎)
2! 3!
𝑢(𝑢 + 1)(𝑢 + 2)(𝑢 + 3)
+ ∇4 𝑓(𝑎)
4!
2×3 2×3×4 2×3×4×5
= 0.3093 + 2 × 0.0540 + × 0.0014 + × 0.0004 + × 0.0002
2 6 24

= 0.4241