MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Part I. Nature of Mathematics

What does mathematics have to do with nature or art?

A closer look at ancient fabric designs and the woody scales of pine cone also reveals

repeating patterns that can be analyzed in a mathematical way. Mathematics is the

science of patterns and relationships. Mathematics relies on both logic and creativity,

and it is pursued both for a variety of practical purposes and for its intrinsic interest.

“A great discovery solves a great problem

but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem.
Your problem may be modest;
but if it challenges your curiosity
and brings into play your inventive faculties,
and if you solve it by your own means,
you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.”
George Polya

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

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Chapter

1
MATHEMATICS
IN OUR WORLD
Objectives: At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:
1. Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life.
2. Express appreciation for mathematics as human endeavors.
3. Argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how is it
expressed, represented, and used.
4. Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world.

Lessons:
1.1 The Meaning of Mathematics
1.2 Mathematics as a Study of Patterns
1.3 Mathematics in Nature

Lesson 1.1 The Meaning of Mathematics

Mathematics may be viewed in different perspectives. In its wildest

significance, it is the development of all types of formal deductive
reasoning. Generally, it is said to be the science of calculation. Others view
it as a science of numbers and space and others say that it is a science of
measurement, quantity and magnitude. Locke said “Mathematics is a way
to settle in the mind of children a habit of reasoning.” It is a discipline
investigating “formal structures” (Bernays), it is the “science of orders”
(Russell), it is the “science of order in progression” (Hamilton). Mathematics

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

has been seen also as a logical construct that is based on a lot of axioms of
either set theory or number theory.

Traditionally, mathematics is presented deductively at school. And is

often perceived as well structured and problems are algorithmically
approached. Merriam dictionary defines mathematics as the science of
numbers and their operations, interrelations, combinations,
generalizations, and abstractions and of space configurations of their
structure, measurement, transformations and generalizations.

Mathematics is derived from the ancient word manthanein meaning

"to learn". The Greek root mathesis means "knowledge" or its other form
máthema meaning science, knowledge, or learning, and mathematikós or
mathemata means "fond of learning". These might have been the notion of
the early mathematicians and philosophers that is why they continue to
seek for knowledge and the truth. Mathematics could then be defined as a
desire for a particular kind of knowing. Knowing that is self-contained on
the individual or may be seen as an autonomous thinking (Schaaf, 1963).

Mathematics is described in so many ways that fits within the area

of human knowledge. Basically it is seen as a study of patterns and
relations. It is also a way of thinking. Mathematics is seen as an art which
is characterized by order and internal consistency. It is a language that
uses carefully defined terms and symbols. Thus, mathematics is a tool
(Reys, Lindquist, Lambdin, Smith and Suydam, 2004).

Mathematics has five basic characteristics’ namely: precision,

definition, reasoning, coherence, and purposefulness. They are not
independent of each other. It is precise in the sense that mathematical
statements are clear and unambiguous. It is clear what is known and what
is not known. Definitions abound in mathematics. It is the bedrock of
mathematical structure and the platform that supports reasoning.
Reasoning is the lifeblood of mathematics. It is the engine that drives
proving and problem solving. Its absence is the root cause of the learning
by rote approach. Concepts and skills are interwoven in mathematics. And
lastly, mathematics is goal-oriented, and for every concept or skill there is a
purpose for it.

Hardy (1941) states that the beauty of mathematics resides in the

fact that mathematics is all about, not just patterns, but patterns of ideas.
Devlin defines mathematics as the “science of patterns” and then more fully

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

as: “the science of order, patterns, structure, and logical relationships”

(Devlin, 2001, p. 73). Mathematics has also often been described as the
language of science. Since the mixture of symbols and words is so
powerfully descriptive and communicative perhaps the definition:
“mathematics is the language of the science of order, patterns, structure
and logical relationships” may be considered. Whatever form or way one
defines mathematics so long as it becomes meaningful to the user then it
would be a definition for that user.

Assignment 1.1

Divide the class into 9 groups. Each group draws a number which
are the chapters of Ian Stewart’s Nature’s Numbers. The group shows a
power point presentation about their topic or how they interpret the topic.

Activity 1.1b

After all of the groups have presented, each one will answer the
following creatively; either through a poem, a song, an art work or through
whatever skill one wishes to:
1. What new ideas about mathematics did you learn?
2. What is it about that have changed your thoughts about it?
3. What is it most useful about mathematics for humankind?

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Lesson 1.2 Mathematics as a Study of Patterns and Relationships

Mathematics is the science of patterns and relationships. Patterns

provide a sense of order. It allows one to make an educated guess. A lot of
disciplines are based on making hypothesis and hypotheses are often
based on patterns. Assumptions are also based on patterns, recurring
patterns. Thus, the understanding of patterns aids in the development of
mental skills needed in the transformation of ideas to information then to
knowledge.

As a theoretical discipline, mathematics explores the possible

relationships among abstractions without concern for whether those
abstractions have counterparts in the real world. Investigating the patterns
that one finds in numbers, shapes, and expressions would lead to making
mathematical discoveries. Patterns, relationships, and functions constitute
a unifying theme of mathematics. Patterns are an effective way to
demonstrate the relationship between variables. It provides opportunities to
model and to analyze situations. The opportunities to analyze, extend, and
create a variety of patterns and to use pattern-based thinking to
understand and represent mathematical and other real-world phenomena
are of a great essence in developing mathematical skills. It gives
opportunities for problem solving, making and verifying generalizations,
and building mathematical understanding and confidence.

The abstractions can be anything from strings of numbers or letters

to geometric figures to measurements to sets of equations. Inquiries such
as "Does the interval between prime numbers form a pattern?" “Is there an
expression for the change in the surface area of any regular solid as its
volume approaches zero?”; needs investigatory approaches of patterns.

In order to recognize patterns, one needs to have an understanding

of critical thinking and logical reasoning, important skills needed by
everyone. These are major components in problem solving and is involved
in data analysis.

A central line of investigation of patterns is identifying in each

sequence a small set of basic ideas and rules evident in them. One usually
looks at differences between succeeding items. The difference may be
arithmetical in nature but not always. At times one investigates the
movement of shapes, or the relation of the sequences of letters. Logical and

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

abstract reasoning are great tools in investigating these mathematical

patterns.

Patterns essentially provides a means of recognizing broader aspects

that can be shoved down in order to arrive at a specific answer to a
particular problem. The benefit of understanding patterns opens many
doors where there is knowledge that can be applied. The study of patterns
gives an opportunity for one to develop the sense of observation,
hypothesizing, experimenting, discovering and creating. Predicting and
estimating and thought-provoking activities of recognizing patterns
emphasizes the role and purpose of mathematics itself.

Common Patterns

A. LOGIC PATTERNS
Logic patterns are related to geometric patterns and number
patterns. It helps us classify objects or figures. One kind of logic patterns
deal with characteristics of various objects. Another kind deals with orders:
there is a sequence of objects and a pattern in the attributes the objects
possess. They are commonly part of aptitude tests. The development of
numeracy literacy and geometric literacy follows after one develops a sense
of patterns involving logic or reasoning through association or through
relation.

Example 1. In a polygon, a diagonal connects two vertices that are

not already connected by an edge.

How many diagonals can be drawn in a hexagon?

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Example 2. Look at the following pattern.

How many circles will be in the next figure in the pattern?

A. 40 B. 39 C. 36 D. 27

B. NUMBER PATTERNS

It is a list or set of numbers that follow a certain sequence or

pattern. As an arrangement of number, it illustrates a way that it follows a
particular property or pattern. When numbers are arranged in either
ascending or descending order, and have with it basic operations of
mathematics or a certain series of arithmetical operation like addition or
multiplication repeatedly done. An arithmetic sequence is made by adding
the same value each time. The value added is called the common
difference.

Patterns can be in the form of counting up or down and the missing

number is of the form of completing count up or down. Like 1, 5, 9, 13, 17,
....... whose first term is 1 and jumps 4 every time to get the other terms.

Some other types are created in which every successive term is

multiplied (dividing) by the same value each time. For example, 4, 16, 64,
...... is a number pattern in which 4 is the first number and we can
multiply 4 by 4 to get 16 and multiply 16 by 4 to get 64 and so on. This
number pattern is called a geometric number pattern. 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, .... is
again a geometric number pattern in which the fixed number is ½ which is
the multiplier.

There are other number patterns. There are patterns in which the
numbers are in the increasing form. In this pattern, the amount that is
added in the terms, changes every time in predictable manner. For

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

example, consider 4, 5, 7, 10, 14, 19, ..... In the above pattern, the pattern
starts with 4, add 1 and the amount which we can add increase by 1 every
time. Other types are of the nature of the well-known Fibonacci
sequence 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21,..... . The Fibonacci sequence is
a series of numbers where a number is found by adding up the two
numbers before it. Starting with 0 and 1, the sequence goes 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5,
8, 13, 21, 34, and so forth.

One of the most interesting Number Patterns is Pascal's

Triangle (named after Blaise Pascal, a famous French Mathematician and
Philosopher). To build the triangle, start with "1" at the top, then continue
placing numbers below it in a triangular pattern. Each number is the
numbers directly above it added together.

To recognize any sequence, we have to know how the terms of a

sequence are related. It may be that they are in arithmetic form or growing
pattern or geometric pattern. At times one need to recognize a property or
characteristic the number has.

Let us consider 1, 8, 27, 64,.... Here, we can find the next number as
follows: 8 is 23 , 27 is 33 and 64 is 43 . Thus, we write the sequence as 13, 23,
33, 43,... So, the next terms are 53 = 125 and 63 = 216.

Example 1: Find the next number in the pattern 45, 48, 51, 54, 57, ___

Solution:
Given pattern is 45, 48, 51, 54, 57, ___

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Here, the pattern is a repeated addition of 3, we get: 45, 48, 51, 54,
57, 60

In the problem, sixth term is 60 in this pattern which is the missing

term.

Example 2: Find out the missing number in the pattern 67, 74, 81, 88, __,
102

Solution:
Given pattern is 67, 74, 81, 88, __, 102
Here, the pattern is repeated addition of 7, we get 67, 74, 81, 88, __,
102

In the problem, fifth term is 95.

Therefore, the missing term in the above pattern is 95 for the
repeated addition of 7.

Example 3: What is the next number in the pattern 108, 102, 96, ___

Solution:
Given pattern is 108, 102, 96, ___
Here, the pattern is the subtraction of 6, we get 108, 102, 96, 90

In the problem, fourth term is missing and the next term of the given
pattern is 90.
Therefore, the next number in the above pattern is 90 for the
subtraction of 6.

C. GEOMETRIC PATTERN

A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern formed of sequences of

lines and curves to form geometric shapes and figures. A motif, pattern, or
design depicting abstract, nonrepresentational shapes such as lines,
circles, ellipses, triangles, rectangles, and polygons. We generally associate
geometric patterns with wall paper designs and tiling. They could also be
associated to number patterns and predict the next geometric shape that
would follow the sequence.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Example 1: Determine what shape, figure, or series of figure would

follow the sequence.

Example 2: Draw the missing figure in the sequence.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

NAME: _____________________________________________ SCORE: _______________

SCHEDULE: _________________________________________ DATE: ________________

Exercise 1.2A

Series of Numbers.

1. Find the missing term in the following sequence: 8, ___, 16, ___, 24, 28, 32.
2. What is the value of n in the following number sequence? 16, 21, n, 31, 36.
3. Find the next term in the sequence: 7, 15, 23, 31, ___.
4. Find the next term in the sequence: 31, 24, 17, 10, ___.
5. Find the next three terms in: -14, -10, -6, -2, ___, ___, ___.
6. Find the 35th term in the arithmetic sequence: 3, 9, 15, 21, …
7. Find the next two terms in the sequence: 5, 2, 8, 3, 11, 4, 14, 5, 17, 6, ___,
___
8. Find the next number: 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 9, 8, ___
9. What should come in place of the blank space in the following series?
3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, ___, 59.
10. What should come in place of the blank space in the following series?
16, 22, 28, 34, ___, 46.
11. What should come in place of the blank space in the following series?
2, 3, 6, 11, 18, 27, ___.
12. What should be come in place of x in the following series?
2, 2, 4, 12, 48, 240, x.
13. Identify the next number in the following series:
2, 8, 26, 62, 122, 212, ___
14. What is the next number in the pattern?
76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86, ___
15. What is the next number in the pattern?
4, 12, 36, 108, ___

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NAME: _____________________________________________ SCORE: _______________

SCHEDULE: _________________________________________ DATE: ________________

Exercise 1.2B

I. Identify the next shape in the series.

1.

a. b. c. d.

2.

a. b. c. d.

3.

a. b. c. d.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

II. Which of the figures can be used to continue the series given below?
1.

a. b. c. d. e.

2.

a. b. c. e.

III. Which of the figures, do you think best fits the series below?

a. b. c. d.

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Lesson 1.3 Mathematics in Nature

Euclid said that "The laws of nature are but the mathematical
thoughts of God." Galileo affirmed by stating that “Mathematics is the
language in which God has written the Universe.”

Mathematics is everywhere, it is seen anywhere in the universe. With

the development of a formal system of thought for recognizing, classifying,
and exploiting patterns; one could systematize and organize these ideas of
patterns. It would be here that we could discover great secrets of nature’s
patterns. They are not just there to be admired, they are vital clues to the
rules that governs the natural process.

Analyzing thoroughly, having the essentials of math as our basis, we

could further discover mathematics in our world and unravel the mystery
of the universe. The majority of our knowledge of mathematics and modern
science is strictly based and supported on our observations of our
environment. What was once seen as the randomness of nature is now
distinguished as the intricate applications of mathematics and illustrates
the complexities of our natural world. Here are a very few properties of
mathematics that are depicted in nature.

A. SHAPES
Geometry is the branch of mathematics that basically
describes shapes and establishes the relationships between them. Figures
with regular shapes are categorized as polygons. Polygons are fascinating,
especially when they are approximated in nature. When looking carefully,
one can see them all around us.

Spatial patterns can be represented by a fairly small collection of

fundamental geometrical shapes and relationships that have corresponding
symbolic representation. To make sense of the world, the human mind
relies heavily on its perception of shapes and patterns. The artifacts around
us (such as buildings, vehicles, toys, utensils and basic things we use in
life) and the familiar forms we see in nature (such as animals, leaves,
stones, flowers, and the moon and sun) can often be characterized in terms
of geometric form. Some of the ideas and terms of geometry have become
part of everyday language. Although real objects never perfectly match a
geometric figure, they more or less approximate them. The properties and
characteristics about geometric figures and relationships can be associated
to objects. For many purposes, it is sufficient to be familiar with points,

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lines, planes; triangles, rectangles, squares, circles, and ellipses;

rectangular solids and spheres; relationships of similarity and congruence;
relationships of convex, concave, intersecting, and tangent; angles between
lines or planes; parallel and perpendicular relationships between lines and
planes; forms of symmetry such as displacement, reflection, and rotation;
and the Pythagorean theorem.

Both shape and measurement (magnitude) or scale can have

important consequences for the performance of systems. For example,
triangular connections maximize rigidity, smooth surfaces minimize
turbulence, and a spherical container minimizes surface area for any given
mass or volume. Changing the size of objects while keeping the same shape
can have profound effects owing to the geometry of scaling: Area varies as
the square of linear dimensions, and volume varies as the cube. On the
other hand, some particularly interesting kinds of patterns known as
fractals look very similar to one another when observed at any scale
whatever—and some natural phenomena (such as the shapes of clouds,
mountains, and coastlines) seem to be like that.

Some Common Shapes Visible in Nature:

Sphere. A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object

in three-dimensional space, such as the shape of a
round ball. The shape of the Earth is very close to that
of an oblate spheroid, a sphere flattened along the axis
from pole to pole such that there is a bulge around the
equator.

Hexagons. Hexagon is a six-sided closed-polygons, 2-

dimensional. For a beehive, close packing is important
to maximize the use of space. Hexagons fit most closely
together without any gaps; so hexagonal wax cells are
what bees create to store their eggs and larvae.

Cones. A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape

that tapers smoothly from a flat, usually circular base to
a point called the apex or vertex. Volcanoes form cones,
the steepness and height of which depends on the
runniness (viscosity) of the lava. Fast, runny lava forms
flatter cones; thick, viscous lava forms steep-sided
cones.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Parallel lines. In mathematics, parallel lines stretch to

infinity, neither converging nor diverging. The parallel
dunes in the Australian desert aren't perfect - the
physical world rarely is.

B. SYMMETRY
Symmetry is a type of invariance: a property that something does
not change under a set of transformations. It is a mapping of the object
onto itself which preserves the structure. Symmetry in everyday language
refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance.
Although these two meanings of "symmetry" can sometimes be told apart,
they are related. Plainly, symmetry is when a figure has two sides that are
mirror images of one another. It would then be possible to draw a line
through a picture of the object and along either side the image would look
exactly the same. This line would be called a line of symmetry.

There are Two Kinds of Symmetry.

One is bilateral symmetry in which an object has two sides that are
mirror images of each other. The human body would be an excellent
example of a living being that has bilateral symmetry.
The other kind of symmetry is radial symmetry. This is where there
is a center point and numerous lines of symmetry could be drawn. The
most obvious geometric example would be a circle.

C. PATTERNS
Though every living and non-living thing of the world may seem to
follow a pattern of its own, looking deeply into the geometry and
mechanism of the pattern formation can lead you to broadly classify them
into merely two categories:
 Self-organized patterns/ Inherent organization
 Invoked organization

Self-Organized patterns
A self-organizing pattern, follows a simple set of rules, and they use
only local information to determine how a particular subunit evolves. They
are represented by successive patterns. This pattern can be represented as
successive horizontal rows; the 'successor' pattern is just under its
predecessor. When the basic rule just defined is applied to that row (the

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

active row) and then to subsequent rows, a complex pattern develops.

Thus, self-organization is a process in which pattern at the global level of a
system emerges solely from numerous interactions among the lower level
components of the system. Moreover, the rules specifying interactions
among the system’s components are executed using only local information,
without reference to the global pattern. In other words, the pattern is an
emergent property of the system, rather than a property imposed on the
system by an external influence.

Therefore, if rules are to be useful for understanding the patterns in

life, such as the stripes on a zebra's coat, there must be a specific rule. The
zebra's coat alternates in contrasting areas of light and dark pigmentation.
Hence the patterns of the zebra's coat reflect the early interaction of
chemicals as they diffused through the embryonic skin.

Invoked Organization
Not all patterns that occur in nature arise through self-organization.
A weaver bird uses its own body as a template as it builds the
hemispherical egg chamber of the nest. A spider when creating a web
follows a genetically determined recipe in relation to its sticky orb and the
various radii and spirals it creates. A similar invoked organization is that of
the honeycomb made by bees. In these cases, the structures are built
something of an architect that oversees and imposes order and pattern.
There are no sub units that interact with one another to generate a pattern.
Each of the animals acts like a stonemason or laborer, measuring, fitting,
and moving pieces into place.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

This is an example of a social insect

architecture. The wasp nests, an example of
invoked organization in nature.
More than this biological system existing
on the patterns created in nature, there is a
great mathematics embedded in it aside from the
plain geometric figure. The geometry of the
patterns could also be linked to mathematical
numbers directly or indirectly. The series of
numbers seem to have been forced to them. The
Fibonacci numbers or sequence and the Golden
ratio are but the basic example of them.
Leonardo Fibonacci began the study of this sequence by posing the
following problem in his book, Liber Abaci: “How many pairs of rabbits
will be produced in a year, beginning with a single pair, if in every
month each pair bears a new pair which becomes productive from the
second month on?”
This problem gives rise to the sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ... in
which any term after the first two can be found by summing the two
previous terms. In functional notation we could write f(n) = f (n - 1) + f (n -
2) using f(0) = 1 and f(1) = 1. Interestingly, the ratio between two
consecutive terms of this series tends to the number 1.61803399. It is a
number commonly encountered when taking ratios of distances in simple
geometric figures such as pentagons, decagons and dodecagons. It is
denoted by PHI, and is called the divine proportion, golden mean, or golden
section.
Surprisingly, the Fibonacci numbers are found to occur in a wide
variety of unexpected situations. Indeed, their occurrence is very common
in nature including images of flowers and of fruits and vegetables. There
are many examples of biological growth involving the Fibonacci numbers
such as branch in trees, the reproduction of bees, the pattern of petals in
many flowers and plants. They also form the number of leaves and seed
grains of many plants. A unique and beautiful spiral pattern is observed in
mature sunflowers which also display Fibonacci numbers. In particular, it
is seen that the sunflower has F(10) = 55 spirals in one direction and F(11)
= 89 spirals in the other direction representing fairly large Fibonacci
numbers. The scale patterns on pineapples and pine cones provide
excellent examples of Fibonacci numbers. The scales of pineapples are,
indeed, hexagonal in shape.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Another geometrical figure that is commonly associated with Phi is

the Golden Rectangle. This particular rectangle has sides A and B that are
in proportion to the Golden Ratio. It has been said that the Golden
Rectangle is the most pleasing rectangle to the eye. If we take the isosceles
triangle that has the two base angles of 72 degrees and we bisect one of the
base angles, we should see that we get another Golden triangle that is
similar to the first. If we continue in this fashion, we should get a set of
Whirling Triangles.

Out of these Whirling Triangles, we are

able to draw a logarithmic spiral that will
converge at the intersection of the two blue
lines, (see figure).

A logarithmic spiral that is a commonly

observed pattern in nature.

A pine cone (leftmost figure) exhibits the

pattern of spirals of both directions – 13 clockwise and 8 counterclockwise
(13 and 8 are consecutive terms of the Fibonacci Series). The seed of the
cone flower (middle figure) follows a logarithmic spiral pattern. The shell of
a snail (rightmost figure) is also in the shape of spiral.

The world around us seems to make up of several distinct patterns,

evolving various complex steps of formation. However, looking more deeply
we see many similarities and resemblances. The numerous models
explained above have no experimental proof and may not be correct, but
they definitely show linkages between patterns formed under highly
contrasting natural conditions e.g. (a zebra coat and sand dunes) and also
show that the mechanisms between the formations of these patterns need
not necessarily be complex

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

The Golden Ratio

Mathematics deals with harmony. Harmony is the balance and order

within a system. It is beauty, a quality that is present in a thing or person
that gives intense pleasure or deep satisfaction to the mind. The pleasure
maybe arising from sensory manifestations (as shape, colour, sound, etc.),
a meaningful design or pattern, or something else (as a personality in
which high spiritual qualities are manifest). The attraction that one has is
dependent on the ratio one sees. The ratio is of high degree of proportional.
Leonardo da Vinci's drawings of the human body emphasized its
proportion. The ratio of the following distances is of the Golden Ratio: (foot
to navel):(navel to head).
The word golden section was known to the Greek mathematicians as
‘division of a line in mean and extreme ratio’ that appeared in the
celebrated quotation of Johann Kepler (1571–1630): “Geometry has two
great treasures: one is the theorem of Pythagoras; the other, the division of
a line in extreme and mean ratio. The first we may name as a measure of
gold, the second we may name as a precious jewel.”

(a) (b)
A x C y B A

x z
x 0

F x E y D B x D y C
The golden ratio (or the golden number or the golden section) is
defined by dividing a line segment AB = a by the point C, as shown in
Figure 1, into two unequal parts x and y such that (y < x) in such a way
that the ratio of the larger part x to the smaller part y is equal to that of the
total length x + y = a to the larger segment x,
that is,
𝐴𝐶 𝑥 𝐴𝐵 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑦
= = = =1+
𝐵𝐶 𝑦 𝐴𝐶 𝑥 𝑥

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

The Golden Ratio is a product of early Greek mathematics, which

saw the development of the related concepts of ratio and proportion. If p
𝑝
and q are any two natural numbers or positive integers, represents the
𝑞
ratio of p to q. A ratio is the quotient of two numbers or quantities. When
𝑝 𝑟
two ratios are equated, one obtains a proportion. Thus, = represents a
𝑞 𝑠
𝑝 𝑟
proportion. Proportions of the type = are known as continuous
𝑞 𝑠
𝑝 𝑞
proportions. One particular type of continuous proportion, = (𝑝+𝑞)
, was
𝑞
very special to the ancient Greeks, who named it the Golden Proportion.
The Golden Proportion is the simplest of continuous proportions because it
has only two unknowns and uses the most basic arithmetic operation,
addition.
It follows from the Golden Proportion that:
𝑞 (𝑝 + 𝑞)
=
𝑝 𝑞
Simplifying the right fraction:
𝑞 𝑝
= +1
𝑝 𝑞
𝑞
Multiplying both sides of the equation by :
𝑝
𝑞 2 𝑞
( ) = +1
𝑝 𝑝

𝑞
The ratio derived from the Golden Proportion was called the
𝑝
(1±√5)
Golden Ratio by the ancient Greeks, and its exact value is obtained
2
𝑞
by solving 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0 for x, the Golden Ratio being represented by x.
𝑝
The Golden Ratio became the standard of perfection in Greek art and
architecture. This tradition was continued by the Romans and carried on
into the Middle Ages, where the Golden Ratio is represented in the
architecture of the great cathedrals. The great artists and architects of the
Renaissance inherited this cultural legacy and passed it on to their heirs in
the Modern Age.
The description of this proportion as Golden and Divine is fitting
perhaps because it is seen by many to open the door to a deeper
understanding of beauty and spirituality in life. That's an incredible role
for a single number to play, but then again this one number has played an
incredible role in human history and in the universe at large.
It is a mathematical fact that the ratio of a Fibonacci number to the
number that precedes it in the sequence approaches the Golden Ratio at
the limit of the sequence. It is also a mathematical fact that any Fibonacci

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

number can be represented by a general formula, known as Binet's

Formula that incorporates the Golden Ratio. Letting F(n) represent the nth
number of the Fibonacci sequence,
𝑛 𝑛
1 1 + √5 1 − √5
𝐹(𝑛) = (( ) −( ) )
√5 2 2
The Fibonacci Sequence can be derived from Pascal's Triangle by
adding numbers in Pascal's Triangle diagonally. The diagonal sequence of
numbers on the upper right represents the first nine terms of the Fibonacci
sequence (excluding the initial zero). They are seen to be the sums of
numbers in Pascal's Triangle connected by diagonal lines.

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