THEMATIC CONTRIBUTION

Medical Geology: an emerging speciality

Olle Selinus
Geological Survey of Sweden
Uppsala – Sweden
[email protected]

Background “At the end of the ten days he reaches a province called
Su-chau … Travelers passing this way do not venture
“Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly, to go among these mountains with any beast except those
should proceed thus … We must also consider the of country, because a poisonous herb grows here, which
qualities of the waters, for as they differ from one another makes beasts that feed on it lose their hoofs; but beasts
in taste and weight, so also do they differ much in their born in the country recognize this herb and avoid it.”
quality” (Hippocrates, 460 – 377 BC).
Marco Polo thus reported that he could only
The quotation from the works of Hippocrates, use local horses in the mountainous areas of China,
a Greek physician of the Classical Period, shows that and not his European horses. The imported horses
a belief that health and ‘place’ are causally related is died because they could not avoid these poisonous
of ancient origin. Knowledge of specific animal dis- plants. He also described the symptoms. He did not
eases also originated long ago. Even in Chinese
know that his reports were of geomedical origin.
medical texts of the third century BC relationships
However we now believe that the areas he described
are found. However most of such observations were
contain high natural contents of selenium and the
lost because they were not written down. As the sci-
symptoms of the sick animals show that they were
ence grew, many of the previously unknown rela-
affected by selenium poisoning.
tions of causes began to be understood and a new
Modern interest can be traced to the 19th cen-
scientific field emerged: Medical Geology. Under-
tury and the realization that tiny amounts of many
standing the role of rocks, soil and groundwater in
controlling the health of humans and animals re- inorganic elements are necessary for good health in
quires the collaboration of geochemists, mineralo- humans and other mammals yet may be injurious
gists and medical researchers. in excess. One of the first connections was that of
Medical Geology is defined as the science deal- environmental iodine and human goiter and cre-
ing with the relationship between natural geologi- tinism: environments remote from oceans have too
cal factors and health in man and animals, and un- little iodine in soil and water and, worse, goitrogenic
derstanding the influence of ordinary environmen- substances can exacerbate matters. In the first half
tal factors on the geographical distribution of such of the 20th century the link between fluoride in
health problems. Medical Geology is therefore a drinking water and dental caries protection was rec-
broad and complicated subject which requires in- ognized, leading to artificial fluoridation of water sup-
terdisciplinary contributions from different scien- plies in many areas. Selenium toxicity in horses was
tific fields if the problems are to be understood, described in the USA and Ireland and, subsequently,
mitigated or resolved. the link between low environmental selenium and
One of the oldest documentations of Medical cardiomyopathy in sheep has stimulated work on
Geology was provided by Marco Polo, who left the protective action of Se in human health: Se
Venice with his father and uncle in 1271 to travel to supplementation is now one of the most common
China. In 1275 they arrived to the summer residence forms of protective self-medication. The 19th cen-
of Kublai Khan. Marco Polo was then employed by tury tonic ‘Fowler’s Solution’ contained As and ex-
the emperor and worked as his emissary and was cessive ingestion caused skin lesions and cancer:
even for a time governor of a part of China. now we recognize Blackfoot disease in Taiwan and

TERRÆ, 1(1):8-15, 2004

TERRÆ, 1(1):8-15, 2004 SELINUS, O.

epidemic As poisoning in Bangladesh, both from dusts and gases, there are direct links between
As contaminated drinking water. In the mid 20th geochemistry and health.
century Itai-itai disease in Japan was linked to Cd We need to understand the nature and magni-
pollution of food and water while methyl mercury tude of these geological sources for developing ap-
poisoning in Japan became notorious as Minamata proaches to assessing the risk posed by metals in the
disease. It was soon ascertained that microorgan- environment. It is very important to be able to dis-
isms and dissolved organic matter could change Hg tinguish between natural and anthropogenic con-
to the lipid-soluble methyl-Hg which concentrates tributions to metal loading. Table 1 shows the sig-
up the food chain. Fish mercury advisories are now nificant differences between different rock types and
prevalent in the USA. In the 1960s lead was recog- their content of heavy metals. Concentrations of
nized as more than an industrial poison and Pb in metals can range over orders of magnitude among
air, water and dust was shown to injure young chil- different types of rocks. For example the concen-
dren, especially their nervous systems. Advanced trations of elements such as nickel and chromium
countries soon banned the use of Pb in paints, cans are much higher in basalts than in granites whereas
and petrol. In the 20th century many map studies the reverse is true for lead. These types of bedrock
were published (medical geography) linking disease are also easily weathered and the elements will be
distribution to rock or soil type. mobilized into the environment. In sediments the
heavy metals tend to be concentrated in the frac-
tions with the finest grain size and the highest con-
Effects of geology tent of organic matter. Black shales, for example,
tend to be enriched in these elements.
Our planet Earth is the ultimate source of all
Volcanism and related activities are the principal
metals. Metals are ubiquitous in the lithosphere
processes which bring metals to the surface from
where they are inhomogenously distributed and
deep in the earth. As an example, the volcano Pina-
occur in different chemical forms. Ore deposits are
tubo ejected about 10 billion tonnes of magma and
thus merely natural concentrations which are com-
20 million tonnes of SO2 over just two days in June
mercially exploitable. While such anomalous accu-
1991 and the resulting aerosols influenced the glo-
mulations are the focus of mineral exploration the
bal climate for three years. This event alone intro-
background concentrations of metals which occur
duced two million tonnes of zinc, one million
in common rocks, sediments and soils are of greater
tonnes of copper and 5,500 tonnes of cadmium to
significance to the total metal loading in the envi-
the surface environment. In addition to this, 100,000
ronment. All known elements are present at some
tonnes of lead, 30,000 tons of nickel, 550,000 tonnes
level of concentration throughout the natural envi-
of chromium and 800 tonnes of mercury. Volcanic
ronment, in humans, animals, vegetables and min-
eruptions redistribute those elements which under
erals, and their beneficial and harmful effects have
certain conditions are regarded as harmful, such as
been present since evolution began.
arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, mercury, lead, radon
Geology may appear far removed from human
and uranium, plus the remaining 72 elements, many
health. However, rocks are the fundamental build-
ing blocks of the planet surface and different rock
mineral assemblages contain the 92 naturally oc-
curring chemical elements found on Earth. Many
elements are essential to plant, animal and human
health in small doses. Most of these elements are
taken into the human body via food and water in
the diet and in the air we breathe. Through physi-
cal and chemical weathering processes, rocks break
down to form the soils on which the crops and ani-
mals that constitute the food supply are raised.
Drinking water travels through rocks and soils as
part of the hydrological cycle and much of the dust
and some of the gases contained in the atmosphere
are of geological origin. Hence, through the food Figure 1 – Volcanic eruption at Krafla, Iceland 1980.
chain and through the inhalation of atmospheric Photo Olle Selinus

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SELINUS, O. TERRÆ, 1(1):8-15, 2004

Table 1 – Average abundance of selected elements in bedrock (all values in ppm)

Element Earth's crust Ultrabasic Basalt Granite Shale Limestone

As 1.8 1 2 1.5 15 2.5
Cd 0.2 – 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1
Co 25 150 50 1 20 4
Cr 100 2,000 200 4 100 10
Cu 55 10 100 10 50 15
Pb 12.5 0.1 15 20 20 8
Se 0.05 – 0.05 0.05 0.6 0.08
U 2.7 0.001 0.6 4.8 4 2
W 1.5 0.5 1 2 2 0.5
Zn 70 50 100 40 100 25

of which have still undetermined biological effects. Previous risk assessments have focused on radon
It is also important to realize that there are on an emanating from the domestic use of water as an ad-
average 60 subaerial volcanoes erupting on the surfa- ditional source of radon in indoor air. Recent stud-
ce of the earth at any given time (Fig. 1), releasing ies suggest that the intake of radon-rich water should
metals to the environment. Submarine volcanism is be considered a risk as such, especially for critical
even more significant than that at continental mar- groups such as infants.
gins and it has been conservatively estimated that
there are at least 3,000 vent fields on the mid ocean
ridges. One interesting fact is that about 50% of the
Elements are both necessary and toxic
deposition of SO2 is natural deposition mainly from Paracelsus (1493-1541) defined the basic law of
volcanoes, and only 50% is from human sources. toxicology. “All substances are poisons; there is none
Also, radon is a consequence of geological which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates
activity. Important parts of the bedrock have elevated a poison and a remedy.” This relation between the
uranium contents including for example alum shales dose and effect for any substance is shown by the
and certain granites and pegmatites. Radon derived curve starting at zero (dashed line) in Figure 2.
from natural radioactive sources is acknowledged Increase of the amount/concentration (on the
as a public health hazard problem. The number of horizontal axis) causes increasing negative biological
radon-related cases of lung cancer is increasingly effects (on the vertical axis), which may lead to
qualifying radon to be the major radiation problem inhibition of biological functions, eventually to
with respect to health in several countries. More re- death. Evidently, decreasing concentrations of non-
cently, focus has been put on radon in domestic essential elements/substances are beneficial. The
water as a potential radiation protection problem. situation for essential elements is different. Negative
The radon content of water also has a direct link to biological effects increase both for increasing and
local geological conditions. Many types of rock have decreasing concentrations, illustrated by the
elevated uranium contents. These include for ex- continuous curve in the form of a trough in Figure
ample alum shales, certain granites, and pegmatites. 2. That may lead to inhibition of life functions in
The number of radon-related cases of lung cancer both cases. Thus, too much or too little are equally
is increasing and qualifying radon to be the major harmful.
radiation problem with respect to health in several All elements are present in nature itself. Most
countries. Some current building practices, such as of them are essential. But which are those elements
the use of light concrete made from uranium-rich essential for humans and animals? Major elements
alum shale, and a reduction in building air circula- essential for human and animal life are for example
tion  (justified from energy conservation aspects) calcium, chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus, potas-
have in many cases aggravated the problem. sium, sodium and sulfur.

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TERRÆ, 1(1):8-15, 2004 SELINUS, O.

Essential trace elements in low concentrations

for human and animal life are for example chromi- Negative effects Negative effects

um, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron, manga-

nese, molybdenum, selenium and zinc. However,
Death Death

elements with probably no recognized biological

role are called non-essential elements, often with
harmful properties, e.g., cadmium, arsenic, mercury
and lead.
Several elements are frequently involved in en-
Deficiency Poisoning

vironmental toxicity problems, for example arsenic,

boron, chromium, copper, fluorine, molybdenum,
nickel and zinc. Although it is not possible to quan-
tify the hazards and deleterious effects associated
Normal

with the trace elements in common use, some ele-

ments clearly present a more serious problem than
0.1 1.0 10

others, for example lead, mercury and cadmium

Concentration

which are in a class by themselves and have received Figure 2 – Dose-effect curve showing the relationship
attention from scientists. between concentrations and biological effects of
It is necessary to determine how much “contam- essential (red line) and of non-essential (green
line) elements
ination” merely reflects the preexisting natural back-
ground level. This question of natural background
levels has important economic implications. soils). Trace element deficiencies in crops and
Human activities of all kinds have led to metals being animals are therefore commonplace over large areas
redistributed from sites where they are fairly harm- of the world and mineral supplementation programs
less to places where they affect humans and animals are widely practiced in agriculture. Trace element
in a negative way. This is especially serious since deficiencies generally lead to poor crop and animal
acid rain and associated acidification accelerates this growth, poor yields, and to reproductive disorders
process so as to make some heavy metals, e.g. mer- in animals. These problems often have the greatest
cury, easily accessible and thus absorbed in the impact on poor populations who can least afford
nutritional chain and essential trace elements, such mineral interventions for their animals.
as selenium, become unavailable to living organ- The presence of toxic elements in soil or rocks,
isms. The 92 naturally occurring elements are not whether due to natural geochemistry or human ac-
distributed evenly across the surface of the earth and tivities, including pollution, usually influences hu-
problems can arise when element abundances are man health, indirectly ingested via food or drink-
too low (deficiency) or too high (toxicity). The ing water (Fig. 3). Although many places in the
inability of the environment to provide the correct world rely solely on locally produced food, food
mineral balance can lead to serious health problems. consumption in modern industrialized societies is
The links between environment and health are much more diverse, including food produced in dif-
particularly important for subsistence populations ferent geographical areas. Drinking water, however,
who are heavily dependent on the local environ- is usually obtained locally and therefore strongly re-
ment for their food supply. Approximately 25 of the lated to local geochemistry. Problems of excess in-
naturally occurring elements are known to be es- take from drinking water have been encountered for
sential to plant and animal life in trace amounts, several inorganic compounds, including fluoride in
these include, Ca, Mg, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn, P, N, S, Se, Africa and India, arsenic in certain areas of Argen-
I and Mo. On the other hand, an over-abundance tina, Chile, and Taiwan; selenium in seleniferous ar-
of these elements can cause toxicity problems. Some eas in the U.S., Venezuela, and China; and nitrate
elements such as As, Cd, Pb, Hg and Al have no/ in agricultural areas with heavy use of fertilizers.
limited biological function and are generally toxic Heavy metals are not the only elements that are
to humans (Table 2). addressed by the subject of Medical Geology. Clas-
Most elements are known as trace elements sic internationally recognized examples of diseases
because their natural abundances on Earth are related to geological factors are goiter (which is due
generally very low (mg/kg concentrations in most to iodine deficiency), and those diseases caused by

11
SELINUS, O. TERRÆ, 1(1):8-15, 2004

excess or deficiency of certain elements such as fluo- lowered the water table in many rocks. As the water
rine or selenium. Cardiovascular mortality and table has fallen the arsenic bearing sulfide rocks
morbidity in relation to water hardness which is dried out (one of a couple of existing theories), oxy-
controlled by its geological settings is also one po- gen penetrated the rocks oxidizing the sulfur min-
tential subject of research. erals. This has freed the arsenic to be dissolved in
the groundwater and washed into the wells. Today
Wide spread arsenic poisoning more than 700 wells supply water that contains more
than 10 mg of arsenic/l, the maximum limit set by
When the first water bubbled from wells sunk WHO. Average arsenic levels are between 20 and
deep into the soils of West Bengal in India a genera- 70 times the WHO maximum with individual wells
tion ago, locals called it the devils water. Historically up to 200 times the limit. Arsenic in groundwater
the villagers have used surface water but with new above the WHO maximum permissible limit has
tube wells tapping water from more than 150 meters been found in 6 districts in West Bengal with a popu-
below ground they can now grow three or four crops. lation of 30 million.
But those talking about devils water soon changed International incidents of arsenic contamination
their minds as the water irrigated rice crops all year in groundwater and the consequent state of health
round and brought new prosperity to their villages. of people have also been widely reported from other
However the water contained high levels of places (Fig. 4). The arsenic contamination incident
arsenic and for hundreds of thousand of villagers in the well-water of Taiwan (1961-1985) caused an
the improved harvest has proved bitter. More than illness called black foot disease. The population of
400 villages have been affected across West Bengal the endemic area was about 100,000. Similar prob-
and the world’s largest arsenic poisoning so far has lems were reported from Antofagasta in Chile where
left more than 600,000 people disfigured and fac- almost 100,000 people out of a total population of
ing an early death. the city of 130,000 were drinking water with elevated
Studies beneath the villages have revealed a se- arsenic content for 12 years between 1959 and 1979.
ries of layers of sedimentary rocks containing Chronic arsenic poisoning is also reported in some
arsenic, mostly in seams of iron pyrite which parts of the Lagunera Region, Mexico. The arsenic
contaminated many wells. Overpumping has also concentration in groundwater was 0.41 mg/l.

Table 2 – Diseases at state of deficiency respectively toxicity caused by the same element

Element Deficiency Toxicity

Iron Anaemia Haemochromatosis
Copper Anaemia Chronic copper poisoning
“Sway back” Wilson-, Bedlington-disease
Dwarf growth Metallic fever
Zinc Retarded development of gonads Diarrhoea
Akrodermatitis entero-pathica
Cobalt Anaemia Heart failure
“White liver disease” Polycythaemia
Dysfunction of gonads
Magnesium Convulsions Ataxia
Malformations of the skeleton
Urolithiasis
Chromium Disturbances in the Kidney damage
glucose metabolism (Nephritis)
Liver nechrosis “Alkali disease”
Selenium Muscular dystrophy “Blind staggers”
(“White muscle disease”)

12
TERRÆ, 1(1):8-15, 2004 SELINUS, O.

Trace
elements
in ar Air
bor
ne
dus
t
Leaching Pol , volc
Trace luti an
on ic a
elements ctivi
Water ty
in rocks Pollution

g
hin
c
Wea Humans
th erin
g Lea Crops,
Soil Food,
Animals
Figure 3 – Pathways through which trace elements enter the body

Similar incidents were also reported in Argentina In 2000 a new “IGCP” project was also estab-
in 1955. Many other minor incidents are also lished by Unesco (a 5 year project); “IGCP#454
reported from many parts of the world. Medical Geology”. This project was integrated in
the Working Group on Medical Geology. IGCP is a
Present activities co-operative enterprise of Unesco (United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
Because of the importance of geological factors and IUGS (International Union of Geological Sci-
on health and the general lack of appreciation in un- ences) to facilitate geological co-operation across
derstanding the importance of geology in such rela- international borders, as geological processes and
tionships, Cogeoenvironment (Commission on structures normally cut across such boundaries. The
Geological Sciences for Environmental Planning) de- program’s major aim was to bring together scien-
cided in 1996 to establish an International Working tists from East and West and to encourage the in-
Group on Medical Geology with the primary aim of volvement of developing countries. The Interna-
increasing awareness of this issue among scientists, tional Geological Correlation Programme is carried
medical specialists, and the general public. The work- out through individual projects. Their number is
ing group had more than 300 members from more not defined but is controlled by the available finan-
than 50 countries throughout the world in 2002. cial resources and by scientific peer review of project

Figure 4 – Examples of arsenic contamination

13
SELINUS, O. TERRÆ, 1(1):8-15, 2004

proposals and of annual reports of progress. The health as illustrated with examples of arsenic
established lifetime of an IGCP project is usually poisoning from contaminated water in the Bengal
five years. Delta (India and Bangladesh) and Taiwan, as well
The primary aim of the new IGCP project is to from coal combustion in southwest China. Studies
bring together, at the global scale, scientists work- associated with lung cancer risk in an occupational
ing in this field in developing countries with their cohort of chromate production workers are de-
colleagues in other parts of the world, stressing the scribed. An overview of clinical aspects of toxic
importance of geoscientific factors that affect the metal exposures including discussions of essential-
health of humans and animals. The project has the ity and clinical manifestations are presented. The
potential to build in capacity, involving transfer of courses are intended for geologists, ecologists,
training as well as mutual exchange of information chemists, biologists, occupational and environmen-
and experience. The developing world will provide tal scientists, medical professionals, toxicologists,
considerable case study and research potential. For epidemiologists, pathologists and any other health,
their part, the developed countries will offer their environmental and geosciences professional with
advanced techniques and research skills with appro- interest on the effect of toxic metal ion species on
priate transfer of medical knowledge and method- environmental and human health. An important
ology. This initiative provides, for the first time, the aim of the courses are to provide the opportunity
opportunity for leading scientists from developing for forming contacts and networks between profes-
countries to come together in a truly international sionals working in different areas of the field.
and interdisciplinary way (involving geoscientists, Short Course Leaders are Dr. José A. Centeno,
physicians and veterinarians) to identify and tackle Chief, Biophysical Toxicology Division, United
real problems of geoenvironment and health. States Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Wash-
A series of short courses on metals, health and ington DC and Dr. Robert B. Finkelman, Coal
the environment are also carried out all around the Quality Coordinator, Research Scientist, United
world. The Scope and Purpose of the courses are as States Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA and Dr.
follows: Metal ions occur naturally in rocks, soils, Olle Selinus, Geological Survey of Sweden.
gases, and waters in both harmless and harmful It has also been decided to publish a new book
forms and concentrations. Natural concentrations “Medical Geology” to be published in 2003 with
can be extraordinarily high and have caused serious about 60 distinguished authors (physicians and geo-
health problems. Metals are important to environ- scientists) involved from all over the world. The
mental health and to the study of human diseases audience of the book will be junior to senior un-
(pathology) because of their potential toxic effects dergraduates and educated decision-makers. The
on one or more organs. Exposure to toxic metal ions main objective is to emphasize the importance of
may occur via three principle routes: percutaneous geology in health and disease in humans and ani-
absorption, ingestion, or inhalation. Dermal toxic- mals. The book will contain 4 sections. Section 1 is
ity results from local tissue responses through di- meant to be a general background for geoscientists,
rect contact of the metal with skin, or alternatively, physicians and vets and are very important for all
may represent a manifestation of systemic toxicity readers in order to be able to fully understand the
following ingestion or inhalation. Allergic contact rest of the book. Section 2 will cover Medical Geol-
dermatitis induced by nickel is an example of a lo- ogy, the effects of our natural environment (geol-
cal tissue response. The adverse cutaneous reactions ogy) on health. There is also a chapter on anthro-
resulting from chronic ingestion or inhalation of pogenic sources in this section because it sometimes
arsenical compounds exemplify systemic toxicity. A is impossible to discriminate between natural and
variety of toxic pathology responses in human tis- anthropogenic sources. Section 3 will cover epide-
sues and organs (i.e., skin, liver, heart, kidney) as- miology and Section 4 covers the techniques and
sociated with both acute and chronic exposure to tools our different sciences use and which could be
metals are described. The aim of the courses is to used by each other. There will also be an appendix
provide examples where both deficiencies of trace with tables on guideline values, reference values etc.
elements as well as toxic exposures of metals may Several examples of Medical Geology will be
be involved in physiological changes and the de- presented such as the Keshan disease, Kashin Beck
velopment of human diseases. We discuss the im- disease in China (selenium deficiency), arsenic
pacts of metal ions and trace elements on human poisoning in Bangladesh and Bengal, diabetes,

14
TERRÆ, 1(1):8-15, 2004 SELINUS, O.

cardio-vascular diseases, radon, geophagia (the trace element imbalance in the moose (Alces alces
deliberate eating of soil), the mysterious moose L.): effect of anthropogenic activity. Ambio,
disease in Sweden etc. Also examples of iodine, fluo- 23:315-317.
rine and other elements will be mentioned. Galgan, V. and Frank, A. 1995. Survey of bioavailable
selenium in Sweden with the moose (Alces alces
Future L.) as monitoring animal. Sci. Total Environ.,
172(1):37-45.
Medical Geology is therefore an emerging Haglund, B., Ryckenberg, K., Selinus, O., Dahlqvist,
discipline and a science which will grow rapidly. G. 1996. Evidence of a relationship between child-
Several geological surveys are integrating Medical hood-onset type 1 diabetes and low groundwater
Geology in their work and Medical Geology is now concentration of Zinc. Diabetes Care, 19(8), Au-
taught in some university courses for medical gust 1996.
students. In the future it will be important to
International Working Group on Medical Geology an
improve communication amongst the various
IGCP#454 Medical Geology. <http://
disciplines concerned with diseases caused by
www.medicalgeology.org>
geological factors which influence the well being
of humans and animals. It will also be important to Jianan, T. 1988. The atlas of endemic diseases and their
develop information material for the use of schools, environments in the People’s. Republic of China: Sci-
public and private organizations interested in ence press. 194 p.
Medical Geology problems to show the impact of Kabata-Pendias, A. and Pendias, H. 1992. Trace elements
geologic factors on the well being of humans and in soils and plants. Boca Raton: CRC press. 365 p.
animals, as well as arranging joint technical meetings Låg, J. (ed.) 1990. Geomedicine. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
to address issues of mutual concern amongst
Merian, E. (ed.) 1991. Metals and their compounds in the
geoscientists and other disciplines concerned with
environment: occurrence, analysis and biological
Medical Geology. Geological surveys, universities
relevance. Weinheim: VCH. 1438 p.
and geological and medical societies should take a
more active role in providing useful information Mertz, W. (ed.) 1987. Trace elements in human and animal
on geologic conditions in medical geology and nutrition. San Diego/London: Academic Press Inc.
encourage the development of local working groups Selinus, O. 1989. Heavy metals and health - results
of multi-disciplinary Medical Geology experts. It of the biogeochemical mapping programme of
would also be useful to encourage research in the Sweden. EUG V, Strasbourg.
area of producing more effective methodologies for Selinus, O., Frank, A., Galgan, V. 1996. Biogeochem-
the study of geological factors in environmental istry and metal biology: an integrated Swedish
medicine and formulate recommendations for approach for metal related health effects. In:
mitigation of effects of natural and man-induced Appleton, D., Fuge, R., McCall, J. (eds.) Environ-
hazardous geochemical conditions. Medical mental Geochemistry and Health in developing coun-
Geology is thus an interdisciplinary science which tries. London: Geological Society of London. p.
will be heard of increasingly in the future. 81-89. (GSL Special Publications, SP 113).
Smedley, P.L., Kinniburgh, D.G. 2002. A review of
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