CFD ANALYSIS ON PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF 2TR SPLIT AIR

CONDITIONING CONDENSER BY VARYING DIFFERENT REFRIGERANTS AND

CONDENSER TUBE MATERIALS
ABSTRACT
Human Air Conditioning system is designed for the treatment of indoor air, in order to control certain
psychometric properties which are required for human comfort. Most of the domestic Air conditioners
having components like Air filter, Humidifier, Dehumidifier, Condenser, Compressor, Blower, Fan and
Expansion device etc. Changing one of the components in design or material will leads to alter the
coefficient of performance (COP) of Air Conditioning system. Condenser is the heat exchanging device,
which rejects heat from the refrigerant to the surroundings. In this project, ANSYS CFD tool simulations
will be carried out to investigate the performance of 2TR Split A/C system condenser by varying the
various Refrigerants and Condenser tube materials. Finally, Theoretical and simulated results will be
compared for validation. The purpose of this analysis is to give a better understanding of the A/C
condenser behavior under different Refrigerants and Condenser materials to improve the performance of
A/C system.

REFRIGERANTS AND CONDENSER MATERIALS

Refrigerants:
 R134a
 R22
 R404a

Condenser Materials
 Copper
 Brass
 Aluminum
 Stainless steel
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
REFRIGERANT

A refrigerant is a substance or mixture, usually a fluid, used in a heat pump and refrigeration
cycle. In most cycles it undergoes phase transitions from a liquid to a gas and back again.
Many working fluids have been used for such purposes. Fluorocarbons,
especially chlorofluorocarbons, became commonplace in the 20th century, but they are being
phased out because of their ozone depletion effects. Other common refrigerants used in various
applications are ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and non-halogenated hydrocarbons such as propane.[1]

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES

The ideal working fluid or often called refrigerant would have

favorable thermodynamic properties, be noncorrosive to mechanical components, and be safe,
including freedom from toxicity and flammability. It would not cause ozone depletion or climate
change. Since different fluids have the desired traits in different degree, choice is a matter
of trade-offs.

The desired thermodynamic properties are a boiling point somewhat below the target
temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively high
density in gaseous form, and a high critical temperature. Since boiling point and gas density are
affected by pressure, refrigerants may be made more suitable for a particular application by
appropriate choice of operating pressures.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

The inert nature of many haloalkanes, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)

and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC), particularly CFC-11 and CFC-12, made them preferred
choices among refrigerants for many years because of their non-flammability and non-toxicity.
However, their stability in the atmosphere and their corresponding global warming
potential and ozone depletion potential raised concerns about their usage. This led to their
replacement with HFCs and PFCs, especially HFC-134a, which are not-ozone depleting, and
have lesser global warming potentials. However, these refrigerants still have global warming
potentials thousands of times greater than CO2. Therefore, they are now being replaced in
markets where leaks are likely, by using a fourth generation of refrigerants, most
prominently HFO-1234yf, which have global warming potentials much closer to that of CO2.

In order from the highest to the lowest potential of ozone depletion are:
Bromochlorofluorocarbon, CFC then HCFC.

New refrigerants were developed in the early 21st century that are safer for the environment, but
their application has been held up due to concerns over toxicity and flammability.[2]

Compared to halogenated refrigerants, hydrocarbons like isobutane (R-600a) and propane (R-
290) offer several advantages: low cost and widely available, zero ozone depletion potential and
very low global warming potential. They also have good energy efficiency, but are flammable
and can form an explosive mixture with air if a leak occurs. Despite the flammability, they are
increasingly used in domestic refrigerators. EU and US regulations set maximum charges of 57
or 150 grams of refrigerant, keeping the concentration in a standard kitchen below 20% of
the lower explosive limit. The LEL can be exceeded inside the appliance, so no potential ignition
sources can be present. Switches must be placed outside the refrigerated compartment or
replaced by sealed versions, and only spark-free fans can be used. In 2010, about one-third of all
household refrigerators and freezers manufactured globally used isobutane or an
isobutane/propane blend, and this was expected to increase to 75% by 2020.[3]

HISTORY

Early mechanical refrigeration systems employed sulfur dioxide, methyl chloride and ammonia.
Being toxic, sulfur dioxide and methyl chloride rapidly disappeared from the market with the
introduction of CFCs. Occasionally, one may encounter older machines with methyl
formate, chloromethane, or dichloromethane (called carrene in the trade).

Chlorofluorocarbons were little used for refrigeration until better synthesis methods, developed
in the 1950s, reduced their cost. Their domination of the market was called into question in the
1980s by concerns about depletion of the ozone layer.

Following legislative regulations on ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), substances used as substitute refrigerants such
as perfluorocarbons (FCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have also come under criticism. They
are currently subject to prohibition discussions on account of their harmful effect on the climate.
In 1997, FCs and HFCs were included in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on
Climate Change. In 2006, the EU adopted a Regulation on fluorinated greenhouse gases, which
makes stipulations regarding the use of FCs and HFCs with the intention of reducing their
emissions. The provisions do not affect climate-neutral refrigerants.

USES

Refrigerants such as ammonia (R717), carbon dioxide and non-halogenated hydrocarbons do not
deplete the ozone layer and have no (ammonia) or only a low (carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons)
global warming potential.[citation needed] They are used in air-conditioning systems for buildings, in
sport and leisure facilities, in the chemical/pharmaceutical industry, in the automotive industry
and above all in the food industry (production, storage, marine shipping, retailing). In these
settings their toxicity is less a concern than in home equipment.

Emissions from automobile air conditioning are a growing concern because of their impact on
climate change.[citation needed] From 2011 on, the European Union will phase out refrigerants with
a global warming potential (GWP) of more than 150 in automotive air conditioning (GWP = 100
year warming potential of one kilogram of a gas relative to one kilogram of CO2).[citation
needed]
This will ban potent greenhouse gases such as the refrigerant HFC-134a (also known as R-
134a in North America) —which has a GWP of 1410—to promote safe and energy-efficient
refrigerants.

One of the most promising alternatives is CO2 (R-744). Carbon dioxide is non-flammable, non-
ozone depleting, has a global warming potential of 1. R-744 can be used as a working fluid in
climate control systems for cars, residential air conditioning, hot water pumps, commercial
refrigeration, and vending machines.[citation needed] R12 is compatible with mineral oil, while R134a
is compatible with synthetic oil that contains esters.[citation needed] GM announced that it would start
using "hydrofluoroolefin", HFO-1234yf, in all of its brands by 2013.[4] Dimethyl ether (DME) is
also gaining popularity as a refrigerant,[5] but like propane, it is also dangerously flammable.

Some refrigerants are seeing rising use as recreational drugs, leading to an extremely dangerous
phenomenon known as inhalant abuse.[6]
DISPOSAL

Main article: Refrigerant reclamation

Under Section 608 of the United States' Clean Air Act it is illegal to knowingly release
refrigerants into the atmosphere.[7] SNAP approved hydrocarbon substitutes (isobutane and
propane: R600a, R441a and R290), ammonia and CO2 are exempt from the venting
prohibition.[8]

When refrigerants are removed they should be recycled to clean out any contaminants and return
them to a usable condition. Refrigerants should never be mixed together outside of facilities
licensed to do so for the purpose of producing blends. Some refrigerants must be managed as
hazardous waste even if recycled, and special precautions are required for their transport,
depending on the legislation of the country's government.

Various refrigerant reclamation methods are in use to recover refrigerants for reuse.[9]

REFRIGERANTS BY CLASS AND R-NUMBER

Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their manner of absorption or
extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated:[citation needed]

 Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase change (typically boiling), using
the refrigerant's latent heat.
 Class 2: These refrigerants cool by temperature change or 'sensible heat', the quantity of heat
being the specific heat capacity x the temperature change. They are air, calcium chloride
brine, sodium chloride brine, alcohol, and similar nonfreezing solutions. The purpose of
Class 2 refrigerants is to receive a reduction of temperature from Class 1 refrigerants and
convey this lower temperature to the area to be air-conditioned.
 Class 3: This group consists of solutions that contain absorbed vapors of liquefiable agents or
refrigerating media. These solutions function by nature of their ability to carry liquefiable
vapors, which produce a cooling effect by the absorption of their heat of solution. They can
also be classified into many categories.

The R-# numbering system was developed by DuPont corporation (which owns
the Freon trademark), and systematically identifies the molecular structure of refrigerants made
with a single halogenated hydrocarbon. The meaning of the codes is as follows:[citation needed]
 For saturated hydrocarbons, subtracting 90 from the concatenated numbers
of carbon, hydrogen and fluorine atoms, respectively gives the assigned R#.[10]
 If bromine is present, the number is followed by a capital B and then the number of bromine
atoms.
 Remaining bonds not accounted for are occupied by chlorine atoms.
 A suffix of a lower-case letter a, b, or c indicates increasingly unsymmetrical isomers.

For example, R-134a has 2 carbon atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms, and 4 fluorine atoms, an empirical
formula of tetrafluoroethane. The "a" suffix indicates that the isomer is unbalanced by one atom,
giving 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane. R-134 (without the "a" suffix) would have a molecular
structure of 1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoroethane—a compound not especially effective as a
refrigerant.[citation needed]

 The R-400 series is made up of zeotropic blends (those where the boiling point of constituent
compounds differs enough to lead to changes in relative concentration because of fractional
distillation) and the R-500 series is made up of so-called azeotropic blends. The rightmost
digit is assigned arbitrarily by ASHRAE, an industry standards organization.
 The R-700 series is made up of non-organic refrigerants, also designated by ASHRAE.

The same numbers are used with an R- prefix for generic refrigerants, with a "Propellant" prefix
(e.g., "Propellant 12") for the same chemical used as a propellant for an aerosol spray, and with
trade names for the compounds, such as "Freon 12". Recently, a practice of using abbreviations
HFC- for hydrofluorocarbons, CFC- for chlorofluorocarbons, and HCFC-
for hydrochlorofluorocarbons has arisen, because of the regulatory differences among these
groups.
Notable blends

R407C pressure-enthalpy diagram, isotherms between the two saturation lines

Below are some notable blended HFC mixtures. There exist many more (see list of refrigerants).
All R-400 (R-4xx) and R-500 (R-5xx) hydroflurocarbons are blends, as noted above.

 R-401A is a HCFC zeotropic blend of R-22, R-152a, and R-124. It is designed as a

replacement for R-12.[11]
 R-404A is a HFC "nearly azeotropic" blend of 52 wt.% R-143a, 44 wt.% R-125, and 4
wt.% R-134a. It is designed as a replacement of R-22 and R-502 CFC. Its boiling point at
normal pressure is -46.5 °C, its liquid density is 0.485 g/cm3.[12]
 R-406A is a zeotropic blend of 55 wt.% R-22, 4 wt.% R-600a, and 41 wt.% R-142b.
 R-407A is a HFC zeotropic blend of 20 wt.% R-32, 40 wt.% R-125, and 40 wt.% R-134a.[13]
 R-407C is a zeotropic hydrofluorocarbon blend of R-32, R-125, and R-134a. The R-32
serves to provide the heat capacity, R-125 decreases flammability, R-134a reduces
pressure.[14]
 R-408A is a zeotropic HCFC blend of R-22, R-125, and R-143a. It is a substitute for R-502.
Its boiling point is -44.4 °C.[15]
 R-409A is a zeotropic HCFC blend of R-22, R-124, and R-142b. Its boiling point is -35.3 °C.
Its critical temperature is 109.4 °C.[16]
 R-410A is a near-azeotropic blend of R-32 and R-125. The US Environmental Protection
Agency recognizes it as an acceptable substitute for R-22 in household and light commercial
air conditioning systems.[17] It appears to have gained widespread market acceptance under
several trade names.[citation needed]
 R-438A another HFC blended replacement for R-22, with five components: R-32, R-125/R-
134a, R-600, and R-601a, blended in respective ratios 8.5+.5,-1.5%; 45±1.5%; 44.2±1.5%;
1.7+.1,-.2%; 0.6+.1,-.2%. The mean molecular weight of this mix is 99, resulting in the
tradename ISCEON MO99 from manufacturer DuPont (a line of blended HFC products
developed initially by Rhodia, and sold to DuPont).[18][19]
 R-500 is an azeotropic blend of 73.8 wt.% R-12 and 26.2 wt.% of R-152a.
 R-502 is an azeotropic blend of R-22 and R-115.
 R-507 is a HFC zeotropic blend of R-143a and R-125.

Air as a refrigerant[edit]

Air has been used for residential,[20] automobile, and turbine-powered aircraft[21][22] air-
conditioning and/or cooling. Air is not more widely used as a general-purpose refrigerant
because there is no change of phase, and is therefore too inefficient to be practical in most
applications.[20] It has been suggested that with suitable compression and expansion technology,
air can be a practical (albeit not the most efficient) refrigerant, free of the possibility of
environmental contamination or damage,[20] and almost completely[23] harmless to plants and
animals.

However, an explosion could result from vapors or atomized refrigerant-type compressor

lubricating oils being compressed together with air, in a process similar to a diesel engine.

WATER AS A REFRIGERANT

Water—natural, non toxic, low cost, environmentally friendly, and widely available—is widely
used in water cooling, and if evaporated in the process may be called a "refrigerant". Water also
commonly serves as a heat transfer and storage material ,and in large systems it may actually fill
all of these roles.

The simplest and lowest cost open-cycle cooling systems, known as swamp coolers in the south-
west United States, do not even need power for a compressor, merely a blower fan, so humidified
cooled air is simply vented into the living space. Portable free-standing units can be obtained at
discount stores for less than $200. However, if these systems are improperly implemented the
drawbacks are multiple and severe.

The total cooling power of the unit is limited by the fact that neither coolant nor air can be
recirculated. If the cooling unit does not have a supply of fresh dry air and the waste air is not
effectively vented, stagnant humid air will make the space more uncomfortable than if it were
merely ventilated.

An additional limitation of such systems would be that if the air outside is already humid,
cooling power is severely limited. This is why such units are not found in areas of frequent and
high humidity, such as the south-east United States.
If the temperature outside is severely hot, above 110 °F (43 °C), the simple unit will not cool the
air sufficiently for comfort even if the dew point outside is very low. In these instances more-
complex systems such as two stage, indirect-direct or hybrid will be needed.

While all the drawbacks can be addressed in various ways, the complexity and initial cost of
these systems increases to the point that the installation cost comes into competition with
common refrigerant based direct cooling systems. At this price point, direct cooling systems are
often chosen even though the long term energy cost of evaporative systems may be lower.

REFRIGERANT:-

“ Refrigerant acts as a transportation medium to move heat absorbed in the evaporator to the
condenser where it is rejected ”.

HISTORY OF REFRIGERANTS:-
Natural refrigerants:-
1) Ice blocks
2) Using nocturnal cooling
3) Use of evaporation
Artificial refrigerants :-

1) In 1835, Jakob Perkins use ethyl ether as the refrigerant ( b.p= 30’c). (if air mixed forms an
explosive gas).
2) In 1874, Raowl Piolet designs the first sulphur dioxide based system. (forms H2SO4 when
gets moisture).
3) In 1885, Fraunz Windhausen builds the first to use co2 in Germany. (high operating pressure
).
4)In 1920, iso-butane based domestic refrigerator ( highly flammable), General Electric first
introduce “Kelvinator “ refrigerator.

5) In 1930, Introduction of CFCs .

CLASSIFICATION OF REFRIGERANTS

Based on Working Principle

REFRIGERANTS

PRIMARY REFRIGERANTS
1) Used directly as working fluids.
2) Undergo phase change.
Eg, R134a, R404a
SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS
1) Liquids that are used to transport energy.
2) Not undergo any phase change.

Eg. Water , brines.

REFRIGERANT SELECTION CRITERIA:-

i. Thermodynamic and Thermo-physical properties

ii. Environmental and safety properties, and

iii. Economics
SYNTHETIC REFRIGERANTS

CFCs:

• Combination of CARBON+CHLORINE+FLUORINE.

• Also commonly know as FREONS.

• High ODP=1 and high GWP.

• CHLORINE has an excellent anti-wear characteristic.

• As ODP & GWP is high so it got banned.

• Few examples are:

R-11

R-12

R-13 and many more.

HCFCs:

• Combination of HYDROGEN+CHLORINE+FLUORINE+CARBON.

• Low CHLORINE content than CFCs.

• It has ODP=0.05 & LESS but not zero.

• Low GWP value than CFCs.

• NON-FLAMMABLE & environment acceptable.

• Few examples are:

R-123 ODP=0.02

BP= -28’C

Critical Temperature=183.68’C

R-22 ODP=0.05

BP= -40.81’C

Critical Temperature=96.15’C
HFCs:
• Combination of HYDROGEN+FLUORINE+CARBON.
• NON-FLAMMABLE, RECYCLABLE, LOW TOXICITY.
• Minimum EMISSION and maximize ENERGY-EFFICIENT.
• Its ODP=0 and LOW GWP.
• Require POE oil for the lubrication purpose.
• Few examples are:
R-410A ODP=0
BP= -48.5’C
Critical Temperature=72.8’C
R-134A ODP=0
BP= -26.06’C

Critical Temperature=101.08’C
COLOR CODES OF REFRIGERANTS
• Easy recognize gas cylinder
• Different refrigerant has different color coding
• Few examples are given below:
R-22 – LIGHT GREEN
R-134A – LIGHT SKY BLUE
R-404A – ORANGE

• The name label of the gases are given on the cylinder.

PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANTS
Thermodynamic properties

•Boiling point: - It should have low boiling point.

•Freezing point: - It should have low freezing point.

•Evaporative pressure: - It should be above atmospheric pressure.

•Condensing pressure: - It should have low condensing pressure.

•Latent heat of vaporization: - It should have high latent heat of vaporization.

•Critical pressure and temperature: - It should be above the condensing pressure and temperature.

•Thermal conductivity: - It should have high thermal conductivity.

•Co-efficient of performance :- COP has direct effect on running cost of refrigeration cycle so higher

the COP lower will be the running cost.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

•Toxicity :- It should be non toxic. It should not be harmful for humans.

•Corrosiveness: - It should not be corrosive and should not have any effect on materials used in

Equipments.

•Flammability: - It should be inert and should not catch fire when subjected to high temperature.

•Miscibility with oil :- It should not react with lubrication oil.

•Chemical stability & inertness :- It should be chemically stable for operating ranges of temperature.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
•Specific volume :- It should be low in vapour state.
•Viscosity :- It should have low viscosity.
•Leakage Detection :- It should have less tendency to leak & if it leaking it should have a
pungent smell so that the leakage can be detected easily.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

The suitable and alternate working fluids for refrigeration systems, heat pumps and air
conditioners have gained considerable attention due to growing environmental awareness. The unsafe
fluids are banned in response to the environmental issues discussed in Chapter 1 and new
environment friendly alternatives are being developed. New approaches are being developed in
design, maintenance and servicing of refrigeration equipments.

As per Montreal Protocol, HCFC22, the generally accepted and most suitable refrigerant
for air conditioners must be phased out by 2030 by developed countries and by 2040 by developing
countries because of its Ozone Depleting Potential (UNEP 2000). Even if the control measures of the
Montreal Protocol are implemented by all nations, the atmospheric abundance of chlorine will at least
double during the next few decades (Kurylo 2003). To return the ozone layer to its natural state will
require very strong measures, including a complete phase out of all fully halogenated CFCs, halons,
carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform, as well as careful use of HCFC substitutes. There are
concerns that continuous use of HCFC22 will lead to increased levels of stratospheric chlorine and to
more significant ozone depletion (Cavallini 1995). Due to contribution of HCFC22 to the ozone
depletion, substitutes for HCFC22 have been developed (Hughes 1994). The phasing out of ozone
depleting refrigerants has led to the quest for
eco-friendly alternative refrigerants. Refrigerant mixtures have been introduced to achieve
acceptable properties reasonably well matched to those of the fluids to be replaced.

The demand for air conditioners increases day by day as the technological revolution based
on information technology and globalization impact upon the societies and people (Paul Spoonley
2001). In the modern world, refrigerators and air conditioners installed in homes, business and
industry are the leading users of electric energy. As the fossil fuel reserves are getting depleted at a
fast rate, it is an urgent need to improve the energy efficiency of vapour compression system as it is
 most widely used in majority of modern cooling equipments. Preliminary survey revealed that one of
the methods to improve the efficiency of these systems is to provide internal heat exchanger for the
full use of evaporator, higher cooling capacity and better dehumidification (Meyer and Wood 2001).

With the above objectives in mind a detailed literature survey has been carried out to
assess the ongoing research in the area of alternate refrigerants and the possibility of adopting
internal heat exchanger in small capacity window air conditioners.

• REVIEWS ON ALTERNATE REFRIGERNTS

The environmental problems by CFCs and HCFCs have been encouraging engineers
and researchers to develop new alternate refrigerants with highly efficient machines (Kurylo
1993). Earlier investigators like Hwang et al (1997) have reported that there are no pure
alternative refrigerant for HCFC22. Tashtough et al (2002), Jansen and Engels (1995) and
Joseph Sekhar et al (2003) have studied the aspects of new alternate refrigerants to domestic
refrigeration systems. Similar studies have been reported on R22 replacement by Green (1995)
and Hwang et al (1995) in the earlier stage.
During the process of selecting potential alternate refrigerant mixtures to replace R22, certain
screening approaches have been followed. In such an attempt Vineyard et al (1989), applied criteria
like toxicity, instability, ozone depletion potential, flammability, boiling point and commercial
availability to more than 200 pure compounds that would make up the components of zeotropic
mixtures.

Studies have been reported in the literature on alternatives to R22. Various alternatives
have been proposed and tested in an effort to comply with the Montreal Protocol. Among a number of
refrigerants assessed as potential replacements for HCFC22, the most promising alternative
refrigerants that emerged were R410A and R407C. Among these two, R410A is a near azeotropic
mixture with a gliding temperature difference of less than 0.2 oC. Its vapour pressure is roughly 50%
higher than that of HCFC22 and hence the capacity increases significantly. The better vapour
compression system performance of R410A is attributed to high evaporation heat transfer coefficients
and compressor efficiency and low system pressure drop (Devotta et al 2001). Due to high pressure,
compressors need to be redesigned completely and also the heat exchangers need to be optimized to
accommodate lower volumetric flow rates associated with the use of R410A (Dongsoo et al 2000).
Studies conducted by Chin and Spatz (1999) also reveal that R410A seems to be the leading long
term candidate for the new residential and light commercial equipment. They also noted that the
performance of R410A is higher than R22 when the ambient temperature is lower than 35 oC. Due to
the compressor efficiency degradation, the performance of R410A is inferior to that of R22 at higher
ambient temperatures.

On the other hand, R407C is a non azeotropic refrigerant mixture whose gliding
temperature difference is roughly 6oC (Dongsoo et al 2000). Its
vapour pressure is similar to that of R22 and hence it is expected that R407C may be used in existing
equipment without having major changes. At present it seems that R410A can be adopted in new
systems while R407C are used in the existing systems. HFC407C is a close match to HCFC22 in
existing equipment with respect to energy efficiency and other performance parameters such as
compressor discharge temperature and pressure. Studies by Aprea et al (2004) show that the
performance of HFC407C is superior to blends like HFC507 and HFC417A. Heat transfer behavior
of R407C has been described by Bivens et al (1994).

The performances of some new refrigerant mixtures like R32/125/152a, R125/290,

R32/125/290 have been theoretically and experimentally investigated by Yang Zhao et al (1999)
under varying working conditions and they can be suitable replacements for R22. The evaporator
temperature range considered is -35 to 10oC and condenser temperature range from 30° to 60 oC.
The performances of the R32/125/152a mixtures are close to that of R22 under all range of
operating conditions.
Devotta et al 2001 assessed the suitability of some selected fluids as alternatives to R22 for
air conditioners, using NIST CYCLE_D thermodynamic analysis. The refrigerants studied are R134a,
HC290, R407C, R410A and three blends of R32, R134a and R125. Evaporator and condenser
temperatures were fixed as 7.2 oC and 55 oC respectively, neglecting the pressure drops. Pressure
ratio of R407C is higher than R22 for the range of evaporator temperatures due to higher discharge
pressure. They also have reported that discharge temperature of R407C is considerably lower than
R22. Specific compressor displacement of R407C is same as that of R22. Hence it may be possible to
retrofit R22 compressors with R407C. Table 2.1 shows the summary of derived thermodynamic data
of the refrigerants studied by
 Experimental comparison between R22 and R407C has been done by Aprea et al
2003, to evaluate the compressor performance in a purpose built rig using semi-hermetic
compressor. COP as a function of outlet water temperature at the condenser shows that the
overall energetic performance of R22 is always better than that of R407C. The difference is in
the range 8% - 14%. This study also shows that R407C has smaller actual volumetric efficiency
due to smaller mass flow rate and lower isentropic compressor efficiency than that pertaining to
R22.
Experimental analysis has been carried out by Devotta et al 2005 on 1.5 TR window air
conditioner retrofitted with R407C shows a lower COP compared to R22 (Figure 2.2) under various
operating conditions. Lower COP is due to the reduced cooling capacity and increased power
consumption with R407C. They have also found that the pressure drop reduces both in evaporator
and condenser when the working fluid is R407C (Figure 2.3). The decrease in pressure drop may be
attributed to the lower R407C mass flow rate (Navarro et al 2005).

largely overlooked, may be provided by hydrocarbons, which offers the possibility of a cheap, readily
available and environmentally acceptable alternatives to CFCs and CFC substitutes. The absence of
chlorine results in zero ozone depletion potential. The global warming potentials are also very low.
Major hydrocarbons under consideration are propane, isobutene, n-butane, perfluorocyclobutane,
cyclopropane and propylene. Among these refrigerants, R290 is considered as a replacement for R22
and R502. These natural refrigerants are environmentally friendly, non toxic, chemically stable,
compatible with many materials and miscible with mineral oils. Besides this the zeotropic refrigerant
mixtures of hydrocarbon refrigerants have potentials to enhance the performance and efficiency of a
system due to their temperature gliding effect (Chang et al 2000). The only major problem is the
flammability of hydrocarbon refrigerants.Experimental study on the performance of
hydrocarbon

refrigerants, namely propane and LPG mix as a suitable replacement for the widely used
refrigerant R22 in refrigeration and heat pump applications conducted by Purkayastha et al 1998
revealed that the hydrocarbon refrigerants performed better than R22 but with a small loss of
condenser capacity. The mass flow rate and compressor discharge temperature have been found
 to be significantly lower than R22.

Chang et al 2000 also have experimentally investigated the performance of a heat

pump system using hydro carbon refrigerants. Propane, isobutane, butane and propylene, the
single component hydro carbons and Propane / isobutane and propane / butane are the binary
mixtures. The cooling and heating capacities of R 290 are found slightly smaller than those of
R22 with slightly higher COP than that of R22. The capacity and COP of R1270 are slightly
greater than R22, which is a good indication for R1270 to be the possible alternative for
conditioning and heat pump applications. When
zeotropic mixtures of R290 / R600a and R290 / R600 are used, the cooling and heating capacities
increase almost linearly with respect to mass fraction of R290. COPs of the mixtures are found to be
higher than linearly interpolated values based on those of pure components. COP of hydro carbon
mixtures for the cooling condition is higher than that of R22 for a wide range of composition of
mixtures. Propane and mixtures as alternate refrigerant has also been reported by various
investigators like Treadwell (1994), Halozen et al (1994), Richardson and Butterworth (1995), Kim et
al (1994) and Richardson and Ritter (1996). Lee et al 2002, Alok and Agarwal (1998), Ritter (1996),
Lee and Su (2002) and Horst and Florian (1997) also have reported studies on HC.

The major set back reported with HCs is the flammability. James and Missenden (1992)
claimed that in case of the household refrigerators, the possibility of explosion by flammability can
be negligible because half the amount of HCs can be charged compared to general CFC. Also, some
simple safety devices such as a ventilation system and a leak detector can be installed to overcome
the flammability problem in large sized air conditioning systems. Extensive studies on flammability
of hydrocarbons have been conducted by Richard and Shanland (1992). Studies on the use of
hydrocarbon in refrigeration system have also been done by various investigators including Chen et
al (1994), Colbourne (2000) and Jung (1996).

A. REVIEWS ON INTERNAL HEAT EXCHANGER

As vapour compression cycle is widely used in modern cooling equipment, the energy
efficiency improvement of this cycle draws more attention. Most residential and mobile air
conditioning and refrigeration systems are direct expansion units and have protection against
liquid slugging in the compressor by utilizing about 60%-90% of the evaporator capacity for
cooling and the remaining for superheating the refrigerant. This superheating
portion of the evaporator provides only little contribution to the total cooling capability. This practice
also results in excessive evaporator volume.

To provide higher cooling capacity, liquid overfeeding operation (LOF) used in larger
systems, has been suggested to small air conditioning systems in recent years. This is achieved by
using a heat exchanger referred as internal heat exchanger. Internal heat exchanger patents date back
to the 1970s. Since then many forms and variants have been investigated (Meyer et al 2001)

Internal heat exchangers may have positive or negative influences on the plant overall
efficiency, depending on the working fluids and the operating conditions. According to Navarro et al
2005, the main benefits of liquid line/suction line heat exchanger (internal heat exchanger) are:
increasing refrigerating effect at the evaporator, sub cooling liquid refrigerant ensuring liquid phase
entrance to the expansion device and minimizing the risk of liquid refrigerant presence at the
compressor inlet. The possible disadvantages are: increasing suction specific volume at the
compressor entrance, decreasing the refrigerant mass flow rate which is delivered by the compressor,
increasing compressor discharge temperature, increasing pressure drops at the suction and liquid lines
and becoming a possible lubricant trap.

Boewe et al (1999) and Boewe et al (2001) have analyzed the influence of IHE when using
R744 as working fluid in automotive air conditioning systems, where the presence of the IHE has a
great influence on the energy efficiency.

Mei et al (1994) designed and tested a new liquid overfeeding mobile air conditioning
system that can use the evaporator 100% effectively. An accumulator heat exchanger (IHE) has been
included in the study and the much subcooled liquid enters the expansion device. In the evaporator,
the
liquid is not fully evaporated and remaining liquid is evaporated in the accumulator heat exchanger
by heat transferred from the condenser liquid. The compressor suction line will always have saturated
or nearly saturated vapour and therefore a high mass flow rate. The compressor discharge
temperature will decrease and thus the compressor power consumption per unit mass flow rate will
also decrease. In the mean time, the whole evaporator is used and the system’s cooling capacity is
increased. It is estimated that this concept can improve the overall efficiency of mobile air
conditioning system by 15% to 20%. At 2020 rpm, the mass flow rate of LOF is about 29% higher
than for operation with no LOF feature. The refrigerant side heat transfer coefficient is a function of
the mass flow rate and hence a higher mass flow rate means a higher heat transfer coefficient. At 880
rpm LOF has shown 7.6% improvement in cooling capacity and at 2020 rpm 35%. Power
consumption has been lowest with LOF (the lower compressor discharge temperature of the LOF
reduces the power consumption). Discharge pressure is at the highest for LOF. However the
compressor high – low pressure ratios for the LOF are the lowest. Because of the LOF system’s
higher cooling capacity, coupled with lower compressor power consumption, COPs of LOF operation
are higher.

A two TR(EER 10) off the shelf window air conditioner was modified and tested by Mei et
al,1996, with and without liquid overfeeding (LOF) feature. A recuperative accumulator heat
exchanger has been added and the system charged with an additional 15% of R22 for additional
piping. Original components have not been replaced. LOF operation is reported to improve the
system cooling capacity and COP. At 28oF, LOF improves the cooling capacity by 14% and COP by
10%. As ambient temperature increases, the improvement decreases. At 43oF, the COP of the LOF
becomes equal to, or less than, that of the baseline unit. LOF has a lower compressor pressure ratio,
lower compressor discharge temperature, higher refrigerant
mass flow rate, slightly higher power consumption and slightly higher suction pressure.

Bivens et al 1997 has tested heat pumps and water chillers with accumulators (IHE).
Commercial split type heat pump of capacity 8.8 kW with scroll compressor, fin and tube heat
exchangers, suction line accumulator and thermostatic expansion valve have been used and the
capacity of R407C is found to be increased by 0.98% - 1.09% and COP by 0.94% - 0.97%,
compared to R22. Further, a water chiller of capacity 528 kW with screw compressor, water
inside tube shell and tube condenser and evaporator was tested. The weight percentages of
components (R23/R125/R134a) have been fixed as 30/10/60. During this test, the capacity with
the mixture (R407C) is found to be reduced by 36% compared to operation with R22 due to a
reduced mixture heat transfer coefficient in the evaporator. Power required was increased by
14% due to reduced mixture heat transfer coefficient in both the evaporator and condenser
(causing lower refrigerant evaporator temperature and pressure and higher condenser pressure).
The combined effect was a reduction in COP of 44%.

The effects of suction/liquid heat exchanger COP of cycle have been discussed by Aprea et
al 1999, from a thermodynamic point of view. A simple criterion for evaluating the suitability of
using a suction /liquid heat exchanger is presented and discussed. The criterion has been positively
checked for several working fluids such as CFCs, HCFCs and other substitutes. When a 15 oC
heating of the refrigerant in the suction / liquid heat exchanger takes place, it was found that there is
rise of 2% in COP for R502 and 3% decrease for R32. The application of the criterion to R502 and
R22 together with their most credited substitutes has been presented. Graphical approach made by
them shows that the thermodynamic advantage of adopting a suction line heat exchanger is more for
R22 than R407C.
Dongsoo et al 2000 have tested 14 refrigerant mixtures composed of R32, R125, R152a,
R290 and R1270 in a breadboard heat pump in an attempt to find a substitute for R22 used in
residential air conditioners. The capacity of heat pump was 3.5kW and heat transfer fluid has been
water both in evaporator and condenser. Suction line heat exchanger (E Stick) of 530mm long,
12.8mm inner diameter and 22.8mm outer diameter have been in this study. It has been reported that
R407C has 0.8% more COP than R22 without suction line heat exchanger (Figure 2.4). Also the
capacity of R407C is 8% more than that of R22 without suction line heat exchanger (SLHX). Table
2.2 shows the reference numbers of refrigerants for Figure 2.4. For most of the refrigerants tested,
COP increases with the addition of suction line heat exchanger (Figure 2.5), showing a maximum of
3.9% for the mixture containing large quantities of R125. This is due to the large specific heat of
R125. For R22, the COP and capacity have been found to increase by 2% and 0.8% respectively. For
R407C, COP increases by1.5% whereas the capacity decreases by 1.2%. In the application of
alternate refrigerants, the lifetime and reliability of the system as well as the stability of the
refrigerant and lubricant should be considered. These characteristics can be examined indirectly by
measuring the dome and discharge temperatures. The dome temperatures measured during this study
for R22 and R407C are found to be 50oC and 45oC respectively, without suction line heat exchanger.
The compressor discharge temperatures with R22 and R407C have been found to be 116oC and 91oC
respectively. With the addition of SLHX, compressor discharge and dome temperatures increase by a
range of 4.5oC – 8.6oC. Still these temperatures are lower than those with R22 without the use of
SLHX. Therefore it can be said that even though SLHX is added, there seems to be no problem in the
system with the mixtures tested in the study.

A new dimensionless group has been identified by Klein et al (2000) to correlate the
performance impacts attributable to liquid-suction heat exchangers. Also it extends the previous
analyses to include new refrigerants. The analysis includes the study of impact of pressure drops
through the liquid

– suction heat exchanger on the system performance. Refrigerants R507A, R404A, R600, R290,
R134a, R407C, R410A, R12, R22, R32 and R717 are the refrigerants investigated. This study
specifically considers the effects of pressure drops and it presents general relations for estimating the
effect of liquid – suction heat exchangers for any refrigerant. The beneficial effects of a liquid suction
heat exchanger are offset by the refrigerant pressure drops that occur in the heat exchanger. A
potential increase in the capacity is possible by sub cooling the liquid refrigerant before expansion.
Neglecting the reduction in refrigerant mass flow rate, liquid suction heat exchangers lead to
performance improvement for any refrigerant. They have reported that liquid suction heat exchangers
increase the temperature and reduce the pressure of the refrigerant entering the compressor causing a
decrease in the refrigerant density and compressor volumetric efficiency. The potential performance
advantage of a liquid suction heat exchanger is reduced due to pressure losses in the heat exchanger.
They also report that the cooling of the condensate that occurs on the high pressure side serves to
increase the refrigeration capacity and reduce the likelihood of liquid refrigerant flashing prior to
reaching the expansion device. On the low pressure side, the liquid –suction heat exchanger increases
the temperature of the vapour entering the compressor and reduces the refrigerant pressure, both of
which increases the specific volume of the refrigerant and thereby decreases the mass flow rate and
capacity.

Despite these developments and achievements, there had been no documented

mathematical process, model or design procedure that can describe the sizing of accumulators
(internal heat exchangers) with respect to their relevant operating systems. Also there had been
no evidence of any equations that accurately and sufficiently describe the heat exchange process
taking place within the heat exchanger accumulator. Heat exchanger accumulator design seemed
to be an experimental trial and error procedure with each design improving with experience
gained.

In these circumstances, the heat exchange process that takes place within the heat
exchanger accumulator (internal heat exchanger) has been studied by Meyer and Wood 2001 and
they have developed a mathematical model of a heat exchanger accumulator. This model has been
used to develop a universal design procedure to size the heat exchanger according to the operating
system into which it has to be installed. The model predicted that for a 10oC increase in evaporator
temperature and condenser temperature will cause a 3% (23 mm) increase in the required coil length
while 10oC decrease in each caused a 2% (17 mm) decrease in the required coil length. The
experimental facility established by them comprised a compressor with a cooling capacity of 3780W
and 0.83kg of R22 charge. Experiments were
conducted at an evaporator temperature of 7oC and condenser temperature of 50oC. The experimental
results show that the LOF operation increases 0.4% of the condensing pressure. On the other hand,
increase in exit temperature has been noted to be very small. 2.1% increase in evaporator pressure
indicates a reduction in the work required. It reduces the pressure ratio also by 1.7% resulting in less
work and longer compressor life. Better compressor isentropic efficiency is due to the reduced
pressure ratio. An increase of 4% in the mass flow rate is attributed to the higher evaporator
temperature, lower pressure ratio and increase in compressor isentropic efficiency.
 CHAPTER 4
RESOURCES SOLID WORKS
Solid works
Solid works is mechanical design automation software that takes advantage of the familiar microsoft
windows graphical user interface. It is an easy-to-learn tool which makes it possible for mechanical
designers to quickly sketch ideas, experiment with features and dimensions, and produce models and
detailed drawings.
A solid works model consists of parts, assemblies, and drawings.
 Typically, we begin with a sketch, create a base feature, and then add more features to
the model. (one can also begin with an imported surface or solid geometry).

 We are free to refine our design by adding, changing, or reordering features.

 Associatively between parts, assemblies, and drawings assures that changes made to one
view are automatically made to all other views.

 We can generate drawings or assemblies at any time in the design process.

 The solid works software lets us customize functionality to suit our needs.

4.1 introduction to solid works

Solid works mechanical design automation software is a feature-based, parametric solid modeling design
tm
tool which advantage of the easy to learn windows graphical user interface. We can create fully
associate 3-d solid models with or without while utilizing automatic or user defined relations to capture
design intent.
Parameters refer to constraints whose values determine the shape or geometry of the model or assembly.
Parameters can be either numeric parameters, such as line lengths or circle diameters, or geometric
parameters, such as tangent, parallel, concentric, horizontal or vertical, etc.
Numeric parameters can be associated with each other through the use of relations, which allow them to
capture design intent.
Design intent is how the creator of the part wants it to respond to changes and updates. For example, you
would want the hole at the top of a beverage can to stay at the top surface, regardless of the height or size
of the can. Solid works allows you to specify that the hole is a feature on the top surface, and will then
honor your design intent no matter what the height you later gave to the can. Several factors contribute to
how we capture design intent are automatic relations, equations, added relations and dimensioning.
Features refer to the building blocks of the part. They are the shapes and operations that construct the part.
Shape-based features typically begin with a 2d or 3d sketch of shapes such as bosses, holes, slots, etc.
This shape is then extruded or cut to add or remove material from the part. Operation-based features are
not sketch-based, and include features such as fillets, chamfers, shells, applying draft to the faces of a
part, etc.
Several ways a part can be build like
Layer-cake approach: the layer-cake approach builds the part one piece at a time, adding each layer, or
feature, onto the previous one.
Potter’s wheel approach: the potter’s wheel approach builds the part as a single revolved feature. As a
single sketch representing the cross section includes all the information and dimensions necessary to make
the part as one feature.
Manufacturing approach: the manufacturing approach to modeling mimics the way the part would be
manufactured. For example, if the stepped shaft was turned a lathe, we would start with a piece of bar
stock and remove material using a series of cuts.
In an assembly, the analogue to sketch relations is mates. Just as sketch relations define conditions such as
tangency, parallelism, and concentricity with respect to sketch geometry, assembly mates define
equivalent relations with respect to the individual parts or components, allowing the easy construction of
assemblies. Solid works also includes additional advanced mating features such as gear and cam follower
mates, which allow modeled gear assemblies to accurately reproduce the rotational movement of an actual
gear train.
Finally, drawings can be created either from parts or assemblies. Views are automatically generated from
the solid model, and notes, dimensions and tolerances can then be easily added to the drawing as needed.
The drawing module includes most paper sizes and standards.
A solid works model consists of parts, assemblies, and drawings.
(i) part: individual components are drawn in the form of part drawings.
(ii) assembly: the individual parts are assembled in this region.
(iii) drawings: this contains detailed information of the assembly.
4.2 history of solid works
Solid works corporation was founded in december 1993 by massachusetts institute of technology graduate
jon hirschtick; hirschtick used $1 million he had made while a member of the mit blackjack teamto set up
the company. Initially based in waltham, massachusetts, usa, hirschtick recruited a team of engineers with
the goal of building 3d cad software that was easy-to-use, affordable, and available on the windows
desktop. Operating later from concord, massachusetts, solid works released its first product solid works
95, in 1995. In 1997 dassault, best known for its catia cad software, acquired solid works for $310 million
in stock.
Solid works currently markets several versions of the solid works cad software in addition to edrawings, a
collaboration tool, and draft sight, a 2d cad product.
Solid works was headed by john mceleney from 2001 to july 2007 and jeff ray from 2007 to january
2011. The current ceo is bertrand sicot.
4.3 solid works versions
Name/version Version history
Value
Release d

Solid works 95 44 1995

Solid works 96 243 1996
Solid works 97 629 1997
Solid works 98 817 1997
Solid works 98plus 1008 1998
Solid works 99 1137 1998
Solid works 2000 1500 1999
Solid works 2001 1750 2000
Solid works 2001plus 1950 2001
Solid works 2003 `2200 2002
Solid works 2004 2500 2003
Solid works 2005 2800 2004
Solid works 2006 3100 2005
Solid works 2007 3400 2006
Solid works 2008 3800 July1, 2007
Solid works 2009 4100 January 28, 2008
Solid works 2010 4400 December9, 2009
 Solid works 2011 4700 June17, 2010
Solid works 2012 5000 September, 2011
Solid works 2013 6000 September, 2012
Solid works 2014 7000 October7, 2013
Solid works 2015
Solid works 2016

4.4 solid works 3-d mechanical design applications

Solid works standard
Solid works professional
Solid works premium: provides a suite of product development tools mechanical design, design
verification, data management, and communication tools. Solid works premium includes all of the
capabilities of solid works professional as well as routing and analysis tools, including solid works
routing, solid works simulation, and solid works motion.
Solid works education edition: provides the same design functionality but is configured and packaged
for engineering and industrial design students.
4.5 design validation tools
(i) solid works simulation is a design validation tool that shows engineers how their designs will behave
as physical objects.
(ii) solid works motion is a virtual prototyping tool that provides motion simulation capabilities to
ensure designs function properly.
(iii) solid works flow simulation is a tool that tests internal and external fluid-flow simulation and
thermal analysis so designers can conduct tests on virtual prototypes.
(iv)solid works simulation premium is a finite element analysis (fea) design validation tool that can
handle some multi physics simulations as well as nonlinear materials.
4.6 production data management tools
(i) solid works workgroup pdm is a pdm tool that allows solid works users operating in teams of 10
members or less to work on designs concurrently. With solid works pdm workgroup, designers can
search, revise, and vault cad data while maintaining an accurate design history.
(ii) solid works enterprise pdm is a pdm tool that allows solid works users operating in teams at various
separate facilities to work on designs concurrently. With solid works enterprise pdm, designers can
search, revise, and vault cad data while maintaining an accurate design history.
Enterprise pdm maintains an audit trail, is compatible with a variety of cae packages (auto desk, siemens,
ptc, catia, etc.) To maintain interfile relations, and will manage the revisions of any document saved in the
vault.
Enterprise pdm also uses a workflow diagram to automatically notify team members when a project
moves from one stage to the next, as well as tracking comments. Enterprise pdm is capable of interfacing
with various mrp/erp systems and can be used online to interface with customers and the supply chain.

4.7 design communication and collaboration tools

Edrawings professional :an e-mail-enabled communication tool for reviewing 2d and 3d product design
data across the extended product development team. Edrawings generates accurate representations of dwg
gateway is a free data translation tool that enables any autocad software user to open and edit any dwg
file, regardless of the version of autocad it was made in.
Mobile edrawings
(i) solid works viewer: is a free plug-in for viewing solid works parts, assemblies, and drawings.
'3dvia composer', now known as 'solid works composer', is a technical communications software that
allows 3d views of models to be integrated into documents such as work instructions, internal or external
manuals, marketing materials, or web applications.
The 3d views can be updated automatically when the design updates, reducing the workload of the
employee creating the technical document, as editing for changes is not as severe.

4.8 cad productivity tools

(i) solid works toolbox is a library of parts that uses "smart part" technology to automatically select
fasteners and assemble them in the desired sequence.
(ii) solid works utilities is software that lets designers find differences between two versions of the same
part, or locate, modify, and suppress features within a model.
(iii) feature works is feature recognition software that lets designers make changes to static geometric
data, increasing the value of translated files. With feature works, designers can preserve or introduce new
design intent when bringing 3d models created in other software into the solid works environment.
4.9 solid works interface

Figure4.1: solid works interface

4.10 feature bar

Figure4.2: feature bar

Some of the features are:
A) extrude feature

once the sketch is completed, it can be extruded to create the first feature . This feature
can be a base, boss or cut feature.
B) revolve feature

the revolve options enables us to create a feature from an axis symmetric sketch and an axis.
This feature can be a base, boss or cut feature..the axis can be centerline, line, liner edge, axis or
temporary axis.
C) swept feature

sweep creates feature from two sketches such as a sweep section and sweep path. The
section is moved along the path, creating the feature.
D) loft feature

loft creates a feature by making transitions between profiles. A loft can be a base,
boss, cut, or surface. This feature can be a base, boss or cut feature.
E) boundary feature

boundary tools produces very high quality, accurate features useful for creating
complex shapes for markets focused on consumer product design, medical, aerospace, and molds.
F) fillet feature

fillet/round creates a rounded internal or external face on the part. You can fillet all edges of a face,
selected sets of faces, selected edges, or edge loops.
G) pattern feature

patterns are the best method for creating multiple instances of one feature or more features. Some
of types of patterns are linear, circular, mirror, table driven, sketch driven, curve driven and fill driven.

4.11 feature manager design tree

Figure4.3: feature manager design tree

The feature manager design tree on the left side of the solid works window provides an outline view of
the active part, assembly, or drawing.
This makes it easy to see how the model or assembly was constructed or to examine the various sheets
and views in a drawing.
4.12 property manager in feature manager design tree

the property manager is a means to set properties and other options for many solid works commands.
The property manager appears on the property manager tab

in the panel to the left of the graphics area. It opens when you select entities or commands defined in
the property manager.

DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
 INTRODUCTION TO FEA

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz
method of numerical analysis and minimization of variation calculus to obtain approximate
solutions to vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R.
W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Top established a broader definition of numerical analysis.
The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of complex structures". By the early 70's,
FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers generally owned by the aeronautics,
automotive, defense, and nuclear industries. Since the rapid decline in the cost of computers and
the phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA has been developed to an incredible
precision. Present day supercomputers are now able to produce accurate results for all kinds of
parameters.

FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for
specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A company is
able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's specifications prior to
manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify
the product or structure for a new service condition.In case of structural failure, FEA may be
used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new condition.

A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for minimization
or maximization:

 Mass, volume, temperature

 Strain energy, stress strain
 Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration
 Synthetic (User defined)

There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system. Some examples are
shown:

 Point, pressure, thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads

 Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis
 Enforced displacements
 Heat flux and convection
 Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads

Each FEA program may come with an element library, or one is constructed over time. Some
sample elements are:

 Rod elements
 Beam elements
 Plate/Shell/Composite elements
 Shear panel
 Solid elements
 Spring elements
 Mass elements
 Rigid elements
 Viscous damping elements

Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials within the
structure such as:

 Isotropic, identical throughout

 Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees
 General anisotropic, different throughout

Types of Engineering Analysis

Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple
parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models consist of
stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in the material then vary with the
amount of deformation as in.
 Vibrational analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and impact.
Each of these incidences may act on the natural vibrational frequency of the material which, in
turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure.

Fatigueanalysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing the
effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where crack
propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the damage tolerance
of the material.

Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the material or
structure. This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer. Steady-state transfer refers to
constant thermo properties in the material that yield linear heat diffusion.

Results of Finite Element Analysis

FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by showing
problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical stresses within.
This method of product design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing costs which would
accrue if each sample was actually built and tested.

In practice, a finite element analysis usually consists of three principal steps:

1. Preprocessing: The user constructs a model of the part to be analyzed in which the geometry is
divided into a number of discrete sub regions, or elements," connected at discrete points called
nodes." Certain of these nodes will have fixed displacements, and others will have prescribed
loads. These models can be extremely time consuming to prepare, and commercial codes vie
with one another to have the most user-friendly graphical “preprocessor" to assist in this rather
tedious chore. Some of these preprocessors can overlay a mesh on a preexisting CAD file, so that
finite element analysis can be done conveniently as part of the computerized drafting-and-design
process.
2. Analysis: The dataset prepared by the preprocessor is used as input to the finite element code
itself, which constructs and solves a system of linear or nonlinear algebraic equations where u
and f are the displacements and externally applied forces at the nodal points. One of FEA's
 principal advantages is that many problem types can be addressed with the same code, merely by
specifying the appropriate element types from the library.
3. Post processing: In the earlier days of finite element analysis, the user would pore through
reams of numbers generated by the code, listing displacements and stresses at discrete positions
within the model. It is easy to miss important trends and hot spots this way, and modern codes
use graphical displays to assist in visualizing the results. A typical post processor display
overlays colored contours representing stress levels on the model, showing a full field picture
similar to that of photo elastic or moiré experimental results.

6.1 INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS

ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite Element
Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small pieces (of
user-designated size) called elements. The software implements equations that govern the
behaviour of these elements and solves them all; creating a comprehensive explanation of how
the system acts as a whole. These results then can be presented in tabulated or graphical forms.
This type of analysis is typically used for the design and optimization of a system far too
complex to analyze by hand. Systems that may fit into this category are too complex due to their
geometry, scale, or governing equations.
ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical Engineering Department at
many colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and Electrical Engineering, as well as the Physics
and Chemistry departments.
ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of products or processes in a
virtual environment. This type of product development is termed virtual prototyping.

With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various scenarios to optimize the product
long before the manufacturing is started. This enables a reduction in the level of risk, and in the
cost of ineffective designs. The multifaceted nature of ANSYS also provides a means to ensure
that users are able to see the effect of a design on the whole behavior of the product, be it
electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.
6.2 Generic Steps to Solving any Problem in ANSYS
Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define (1) your solution domain, (2) the
physical model, (3) boundary conditions and (4) the physical properties. You then solve the
problem and present the results. In numerical methods, the main difference is an extra step called
mesh generation. This is the step that divides the complex model into small elements that
become solvable in an otherwise too complex situation. Below describes the processes in
terminology slightly more attune to the software.
Build Geometry
Construct a two or three dimensional representation of the object to be modeled and tested using
the work plane co-ordinate system within ANSYS.
Define Material Properties
Now that the part exists, define a library of the necessary materials that compose the object (or
project) being modeled. This includes thermal and mechanical properties.

Generate Mesh
At this point ANSYS understands the makeup of the part. Now define how the modeled system
should be broken down into finite pieces.
Apply Loads
Once the system is fully designed, the last task is to burden the system with constraints, such as
physical loadings or boundary conditions.
Obtain Solution
This is actually a step, because ANSYS needs to understand within what state (steady state,
transient… etc.) the problem must be solved.
Present the Results
After the solution has been obtained, there are many ways to present ANSYS’ results, choose
from many options such as tables, graphs, and contour plots.

6.3 SPECIFIC CAPABILITIES OF ANSYS

STRUCTURAL
Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element method as it
implies bridges and buildings, naval, aeronautical, and mechanical structures such as ship hulls,
aircraft bodies, and machine housings, as well as mechanical components such as pistons,
machine parts, and tools.

Static Analysis - Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading conditions.
ANSYS can compute both linear and nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities can include
plasticity, stress stiffening, large deflection, large strain, hyper elasticity, contact surfaces, and
creep.

Transient DynamicAnalysis - Used to determine the response of a structure to arbitrarily time-

varying loads. All nonlinearities mentioned under Static Analysis above are allowed.

Buckling Analysis - Used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling mode
shape. Both linear (Eigen value) buckling and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible.

In addition to the above analysis types, several special-purpose features are available such as
Fracture mechanics, Composite material analysis, Fatigue, and both p-Method and Beam
analyses.
 THERMAL

ANSYS is capable of both steady state and transient analysis of any solid with thermal boundary
conditions to help establish initial conditions. A steady-state analysis also can be the last step of
a transient thermal analysis; performed after all transient effects have diminished. ANSYS can be
used to determine temperatures, thermal gradients, heat flow rates, and heat fluxes in an object
that are caused by thermal loads that do not vary over time. Such loads include the following:

 Convection
 Radiation
 Heat flow rates
 Heat fluxes (heat flow per unit area)
 Heat generation rates (heat flow per unit volume)
 Constant temperature boundaries

A steady-state thermal analysis may be either linear, with constant material properties; or
nonlinear, with material properties that depend on temperature. The thermal properties of most
material vary with temperature. This temperature dependency being appreciable, the analysis
becomes nonlinear. Radiation boundary conditions also make the analysis nonlinear. Transient
calculations are time dependent and ANSYS can both solve distributions as well as create video
for time incremental displays of models.

MODEL ANALYSIS

A model analysis is typically used to determine the vibration characteristics (natural frequencies
and mode shapes) of a structure or a machine component while it is being designed. It can also
serve as a starting point for another, more detailed, dynamic analysis, such as a harmonic
response or full transient dynamic analysis.

Model analyses, while being one of the most basic dynamic analysis types available in ANSYS,
can also be more computationally time consuming than a typical static analysis. A reduced
solver, utilizing automatically or manually selected master degrees of freedom is used to
drastically reduce the problem size and solution time.
HARMONIC ANALYSIS

Used extensively by companies who produce rotating machinery, ANSYS Harmonic analysis is
used to predict the sustained dynamic behavior of structures to consistent cyclic loading. A
harmonic analysis can be used to verify whether or not a machine design will successfully
overcome resonance, fatigue, and other harmful effects of forced vibrations.

333 °F
50 BTU/lb

Calculate Properties
R134a
Molar Weight: 102.03
Triple Point Temperature: -154 °F
Normal Boiling Point: -14.9 °F
Gas Phase Dipole at NBP: 2.06 debye
Acentric Factor: 0.327
Critical Temperature: 214 °F
Critical Pressure: 589 psi
Critical Density: 32 lb/ft³
Gas Constant: 8.31 J/mol-K
Volume: -1570000 ft³/lb
Quality: Subcooled Liquid
Surface Tension: 1560 lb/ft
R134a Fugacity: 0 psi

R22
Molar Weight: 86.468
Triple Point Temperature: -251 °F
Normal Boiling Point: -41.5 °F
Gas Phase Dipole at NBP: 1.46 debye
Acentric Factor: 0.221
Critical Temperature: 205 °F
Critical Pressure: 724 psi
Critical Density: 32.7 lb/ft³
Gas Constant: 8.31 J/mol-K
Volume: -1850000 ft³/lb
Quality: Subcooled Liquid
Surface Tension: 1190 lb/ft Thermal Expansion: Undefined
R22 Fugacity: 0 psi

R404a
333 °F
50 BTU/lb
Calculate Properties
Molar Weight: 97.604
Components:
R125: 0.44
R143a: 0.52
R134a: 0.04
Critical Temperature: 162 °F
Critical Pressure: 541 psi
Critical Density: 30.4 lb/ftł
Gas Constant: 8.31 J/mol-K
Volume: -1640000 ftł/lb
R125 Fugacity: 0 psi
R143a Fugacity: 0 psi
R134a Fugacity: 0 psi

Property Value Unit

Medium : Tetrafluorethane

state of aggregation : gas

Pressure : 1 [ bar ]

Temperature : 59.85 [ Celsius ]

Density : 3.735815 [ kg / m3 ]

Specific Enthalpy : 455.165 [ kJ / kg ]

Specific Entropy : 1.998595 [ kJ / kg K ]

Specific isobar heat capacity :

0.9049645 [ kJ / kg K ]
cp

Specific isochor heat capacity :

0.817554 [ kJ / kg K ]
cv

Isobar coefficient of thermal expansion : 3.1518 [ 10-3 (1 / K) ]

Heat conductance 16.36875 [ 10-3 (W / m * K) ]

Dynamic viscosity : 13.35415 [ 10-6 (Pa s) ]

 Kinematic viscosity : 3.5767 [ 10-6 m2 / s]

Thermal diffusivity : 48.4565 [ 10-7 m2 / s]

Prandtl-Number : 0.738

Coefficient of compressibility Z : 0.98697

speed of sound : 170.961 [m/s]